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The International Conference on Islam, Economic , Banking, Social Science, communication and Education ( IEBBSSCE2- 2015 )

Millennium Hotel Sirih, Jakarta, Indonesia 29-30th May 2015

TITLE: Jigsaw Writing in the ESL Classroom: A Case Study By

Dr Noor HanimRahmat (patanim@gmail.com) patanim@gmail.com

University Technology Mara PasirGudang Campus, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

The benefits of cooperative learning goes beyond learning the contents of the lessons,

students gain a new way of learning in groups. Teachers teaching writing in the ESL

classrooms will agree that teaching the writing process is not an easy task. ESL learners

struggling with the learning of the language are faced with and added difficulty of having to

write essays in the ESL classroom. According to Elola (2010), collaborative writing can bring

many benefits to learners in the ESL classroom. This study is based on the theories of

Scaffolding and Cooperative learning. It introduces yet another interesting teaching method

to make ESL writing a fun and interactive classroom activity. Qualitative data

analyzedrevealed interesting implications for future teaching ESL writing.

INTRODUCTION

Tracing the Development of Teaching Writing

Figure 1-Development of Teaching Writing (Noor HanimRahmat, 2008)

Figure 1 above shows the development of teaching writing over the years. Initially in

the in the 1960’s,writers were encouraged to be creative in their writing. The focus of

teaching writing during that time was the finished product of the writing. The next stage is

the cognitive orientation stage (1970’s) where researchers began looking at what writers

actually did when they wrote. The third stage is social Orientation Stage 1980’s where writers

began to consider the social context of their writing. Here the focus is writing for a purpose.

The Written

Text

The Writer

The Writer

and the Society

The Writing Teacher

Writing Acitivites

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After 1990’s and 2000’s researcher (and writing teachers) took a turn in the focus.

From social context, the focus in writing class have changed to the audience-the reader

expectation. Following that, the focus ESL writing classroom was on corrective feedback-self

feedback, peer feedback and also teacher feedback. Lately, many studies have been done to

improve he teaching of writing in the ESLclassroom.

According to the theory of principled eclecticism Larsen-Freeman (2000), teachers

should consider the different trends and ideas that have occurred historically and then choose

what fit the needs of their classroom setting. Over the years the focus of the writing

classroom has undergone a variety of changes. At one point in time, writing classroom focus

on the teaching of writing was on (a) the written text, (b) the writer, (c) the writer and social

context, (d) the writer and audience, (e) the writing teacher and (f) lately, the focus is on

improving writing activities.

Research Questions

The focus in an Action Research is usually on one question, followed by sub-questions to

support the bigger focus: Hence the main research question in this study is :

1. What do the learners think of jigsaw writing?

a. What do the learners think of the Planning stage in Jigsaw Writing

b. What do the learners think of the Action stage in Jigsaw Writing?

c. What do the learners think of the Monitoring stage in Jigsaw Writing?

d. What do the learners think of the Reflection Stage in Jigsaw Writing?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Theoretical Framework

Figure 1-Theoretical framework of the Study; JIGSAW WRITING

Figure 1 above reveals the theoretical framework of the study. Jigsaw Writing. Jigsaw

writing is a form of collaborative writing. Each member of the group works on his/her part.

The decision to break the essay into parts is done from the mind map at the initial stage and

this kind map acts as the scaffold towards the forming of the whole essay. The end product of

the work is a combination of the works of the members in the group. Through cooperative

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learning, the group members learn to divide their tasks. The completed essay is actually the

effort from group writing. Students work individually to form their own paragraph. The ideas

are then combined –each paragraph is arranged and joined physically in a long “scroll” to

make it a complete essay.

Jigsaw Writing

The jigsaw technique is a method of organizing classroom activity that makes

students dependent on each other to succeed. It breaks classes into groups and breaks

assignments into pieces that the group assembles to complete the (jigsaw) puzzle. The idea of

jigsaw activities is not competition among learners in the classroom, rather cooperating with

one another to complete assigned tasks.

Cooperative Learning

Group Writing

The process of writing in a group can benefit learners in many ways. According to

Mulligan and Garofalo (2011), group writing encourages peer interaction as well as raise

learners’ awareness of important organizational and syntactical elements that they otherwise

might not notice on their own.In addition to that, Felder and Brent (2009) reported that

learners learnt more by doing things rather than learn passively.

Scaffolding

Scaffolding is a concept introduced by Vygotsky (McLeod, 2010). Scaffolding is best

achieved when the support is matched to the needs of the learner.

Combining Ideas

The study by Elola and Oskoz (2010) revealed when working in groups, the primary

focus of learners would be the content and organization. Learners work together to add on to

one another’s existing ideas, and the combined effort can help develop a creative piece of

work.

Scroll Writing

A scroll is a large roll of parchment, papyrus, paper, or another flexible writing

material which is used to store and display printed information. (WiseGeek, 2014). In this

writing class, students used sections of the mah-jong paper (a large piece of paper) to write

their assigned paragraphs. When everyone has completed their paragraphs, the sectios are

joined together this forming a long essay in teh form os a scroll.

Past Research

Past research has revealed benefits of cooperative learning, and especially

collaborative writing. The research by Elola and Oskoz (2010) looked at the differences

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between writing individually and writing collaboratively. Their study revealed that when

learners work collaboratively, they focus more on content and organization. The research also

concluded that peer interaction is useful to encourage learning to take place.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This action research is an exploratory study of the use of Jigsaw Writing (often called

“The Scroll Essay” by students) in the ESL classroom. The framework is shown in Figure 2.

This Action Research is carried out based on the four basic action research cycle-Plan,

Action, Monitor and Reflection.

Figure 2- Research Framework

PLANNING

Planning of the lesson is done. Students are given the essay title to work on. Each

group has about 4-6 students. Each group is responsible to complete an essay. With 5

students in the group, each student is responsible to write a paragraph. They end the Planning

by displaying their group’s mind map as a signal they are ready to proceed to the next stage.

ACTION

Each student in the group will write a paragraph- for a 5 paragraph essay-each person

writes one paragraph on a paper. After that, all the 5 paragraphs are combined (pasted into a

long scroll) and thus become a complete essay.

MONITORING

Monitoring stage is done when the “scroll” is pasted on the wall and the peers (and

the teacher) make comments on the essay done.

REFLECTION

Students reflect on the comments and made changes. Students reflect on their

favourite/least favourite stage of this “scroll” writing activity.

Respondents

30 Diploma in Business Studies students enrolled in an ESL Academic Writing class;

18 are female students and 12 are male students.

Planning

Action Monitoring

Reflection

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Instruments

The main instrument used in this research is the students’ journal.

Method of Data Analysis

After going through a cycle of Jigsaw Writing, the students wrote in their journals about what

they think of Jigsaw Writing. The entries are analyzed based on recurring patterns and the

patterns are thenanalyzed according to percentage and frequency.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The discussion of findings will be done to answer the main research question (What

do the learners think of jigsaw writing?),as well as the sub-questions following it.

a. What do the learners think of the Planning stage in Jigsaw Writing?

For the planning, stage, students were taught the Mind Map. Each group is required to

prepare a Mind Map for presentation.

Comments Frequency (%) Attract students 3% Share Ideas 11% More Information presented and saves time 2.4% 16.4% Table 3-Planning Stage

Figure 3-Planning Stage

Table and Figure 3 shows the response for Planning Stage. 3% of the students felt that

the planning activities attracted them towards the writing of the essay. Comments like

“ strongly suggest”, and “i think it is good and kind of a new way to attract students in

writing an essay”. 11% said that the planning stage activities allow them to share

ideas. Comments written were “I think the group sharing of mind map is good.

Student can share any ideas”, and “can share idea’” Only 2.4% of the students said

they could present more information and the activity saves their writing time.

0%

5%

10%

15%

Attract students Share Ideas More Information presentedand saves time

PLANNING STAGE

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b. What do the learners think of the Action stage in Jigsaw Writing?

Comments Frequency (%)

DIVIDING BY PARAGRAPH Saves time 4.9% Easier to write whole essay 8.6% Learn about planning 1.8% focussed 1.8% 17.1% PASTING PARTS Combination of different sources 1.8% Saves time 1.8% Increase cooperation 0.6% Improve comprehension 0.6% Not complicated 1.2% Understand the roles of paragraphs 0.6% fun 4.3% Complete different task together 7.5% 18.3%

GRAND TOTAL 35.4% Table 4-Action Stage

Figure 4-Action Stage

Table and Figure 4 reveals the comments made about the Action Stage.This

Action stage is divided into two stages-the first part is when the students were given

individual task of writing a paragraph on their own. The next stage is the part where

the students compiled the group members’ paragraphs and paste into an essay. It is

joined together using a tape and it looked like a long scroll. More comments were

made for the “pasting part” 18.3%) compared to the “dividing into paragraph”

(17.1%). Students felt that the “dividing into paragraph” part made it easier for them

to write the whole essay. They also felt that “pasting” and combining the paragraphs

allowed them to “complete different tasks together” (7.5%).

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

ACTION STAGE

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c. What do the learners think of the Monitoring stage in Jigsaw Writing?

Comments Frequency (%)

Learn from mistakes 11%

More information 4.9%

See friends present 1.8%

17.7%

Table 5-Monitoring Stage

Figure 5-Monitoring Stage

Table and Figure 5 shows the comments for Monitoring stage. 11% of the students

felt they learnt from the mistakes they or their friends made. At this stage, students

displayed their scrolls to be read and commented on by their friends (and teacher).

They said that this stage “is useful because we can know what the wrong and right

about the essay”. 4.9% felt that this stage enabled them to gain more information.

d. What do the learners think about the Reflection stage?

Comments Frequency (%)

LIKE MOST First sentence 1.8% Conclusion 4.3% Introduction 6.1% Pasting 0.6% Explanation 1.2% Mind Map 0.6% 14.6% HATE MOST Introduction 4.9% Conclusion 3.7% Content 7.3% 15.9%

GRAND TOTAL 30.5%

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

Learn from mistakes More information See friends present

MONITORING STAGE

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Table 6- Reflection Stage

Figure 6-Reflection Stage

Table and Figure 6 depict the comments made for the Reflection stage. This stage is divided

into 2 sections- the first section reveals what the students liked most and the second reveals

what they hated most about this jigsaw writing activities. 6.1% and 4.3% said they loved the

Introduction and Conclusion respectively. This is because these two paragraphs were not

done alone, they did it as a group. However, 7.3% said they hated “content” part. This means

the students were still struggling with what to write although they worked in groups.

CONCLUSION

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS Stage Frequency (%)

Planning 16.4%

Action 35.4%

Monitor 17.7%

Reflection 30.5%

Table 7-Summary for Comments on Jigsaw Writing

Figure 7- Summary for Comments on Jigsaw Writing

Table and Figure 7 summarize the comments made in the students’ journal about Jigsaw

Writing. Students were reported to have had more to comment on when it came to the

0.00%1.00%2.00%3.00%4.00%5.00%6.00%7.00%8.00%

REFLECTION STAGE

SUMMARY

Plan

Action

Monitor

Reflection

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Action(35.4%) and Reflection stage (30.5%). These two stages were the parts where students

participated actively individually and then as a group. Jigsaw writing is a writing activity that

makes writing lessons in the classroom active with students working alone at some times and

in groups at other times. Students were made to realize that writing is not a passive sit-down-

quietly activity-its a learning process!

PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

This has been a small, exploratory Action Research. It would be better if Jigsaw writing be

carried out to more students, mixed variety of courses and levels, age group as well as

gender.

REFERENCES

Andrews, A. and Caster,. (2008) Collaborative Writing: An Autoethnographic Study of Co-

Authorship. USC Upstate Undergraduate Research Journal.Vol1 , pp1-6

Elola,I. And Oskoz,A. (2010) Collaborative Writing: Fostering Foreign Language and

Writing Conventions Development. Vol 14(3), pp51-71, ISSN 1094-3501

Felder,R.M. and Brent,R. (2009) Cooperative Learning.

Larsen-Freeman,D. (2000).Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (2nd Edition)

Oxford: Oxford Univeristy Press.

McLeoad, S. (2012) Zone of Proximal Development. Developmental Psychology. Retrieved

form http://www.simply psychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html

Mulligan,C. And Garofalo,R. (2011) A Collaborative Writing Approach: Methodology and

Student Assessment. The Language Teacher. Feature Article. Vol 35(3) pp 5-10. Retrieved

from http://jalt-publications.org/t/l

Noor HanimRahmat (2008) Peer Review in the Writing Classroom: A Case Study of Written

and Oral Stances on Revision Behaviour among ESL Writers. Doctoral Thesis

Dissertation.UniversitiKebangsaan Malaysia. Retrieved from

http://malrep.uum.edu.my/rep/Record/uitm.eprints.4311

WAC Clearinghouse (2015) Why consider collaborative writing assignments? WAC

Clearinghouse. http: //wac.colostate.edu/intro/pop21.cfm

Whitehead, J. (1985) An Analysis of an Individual’s Educational Development: the basis for

personally oriented action research, in: Shipman, M. (ed.) Educational Research: principles,

policies and practices, Lewes, Falmer.

WIseGeek.(2014) What is a scroll? Retrieved from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-

scroll.htm

Emotional Intelligence In Managing Stress And General Anxiety At Workplace

Helvinder Kaur Balbir Singh*, Santibuana Abd Rahman

Universiti Kuala Lumpur Royal College Of Medicine Perak, 30450 Ipoh, Perak,

Malaysia, helvinderkaur@rcmp.unikl.edu.my

BACKGROUND: Emotional Intelligence (EI) has been a growing interest for Behavioral Sciences research recently. The importance of understanding emotions and intelligence is crucial in managing workplace stresses and anxiety in making workable solutions to complexity of problems. The workplace has become a highly stressed environment for many employees and therefore the needs of EI among these individual in facing work task challenge is equally important. In order to cope with such problems, employees need to possess skills and competencies such as Emotional Intelligence. OBJECTIVES: The main objectives of the studies are to examine the role of EI in managing stress at workplace, to examine the role of EI in managing anxiety at workplace and to examine relationship of EI with stress and anxiety. MATERIALS AND METHOD: The researchers examined the measurement of EI as a main predictor in managing stress and anxiety. A total of 100 staffs were selected using convenience random sampling technique for this study. Emotional Intelligence Scale, Job Stress Inventory and GAD-7 Anxiety test were the measurement tools used for this study. RESULTS: Results indicate that there was a significant relationship between EI and the variables of stress and anxiety. CONCLUSION: The apptitude to effectively deal with stress and anxiety in the workplace is crucial in order to create a free stress workplace and maintain psychological well-being. Key words: Emotional Intelligence, Anxiety, Workplace Stress INTRODUCTION A growing interest among the researchers in Behavioural Sciences has embark the interest of studying issues on Emotional Intelligence as a main tool in managing stress and general anxiety at workplace simply because had become a high stress environment in many organization. Importance of EI is assessed and recognized across various professions. Managing emotions in social atmosphere is crucial for success, interpersonal and career related domains. As for today, many organization are facing transformation, as for that reason the needs to realign structures and strategies in response to rapid changing and high demand of work environment. The concept of work by workers in handling their daily work has change the speeds of modern situations in creating a dramatic paradigm (Akinboye & Adeyemo, 2002).

Therefore it is vital to identify the suitable course of action to reduce workplace stress and anxiety using Emotional Intelligence as a key ingredient. EI is the ability to identify, understand and manage emotions in a positive way to minimize stress, achieve greater success at work, communicate effeciently, empathize with others and defuse conflicts and impacts your total interaction with others. Thus, using EI in manging stress and anxiety in workplace is essential and considered to be important in workforce in order to create abilities to improve ones worth at work as it requires certain level of commitment to develop skills and competencies through repeated practice and application. Ignoring this layer of workforce reality is perilous because when emotional intelligence is low, it brings a negative consequences to the organization’s overall. In conclusion , there is a need to develop Emotional Intelligence at workforce in order to consider the benefits of understanding and regulating emotions of employees for the workplace success and to certify better workplace dynamics and performance. Basic Attributes Of Emotional Intelligence such as: There are various definitions of EI, which are complementary all of them aim to understand the abilities and traits related to one’s own and others‟ emotions (Emmerling & Goleman, 2003). Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to identify and express emotions, understand emotions, assimilate emotions in thought, and regulate positive and negative emotions in oneself and others (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2002). Emotional Intelligence (EI) has basic components such as: Self Awareness: Involves recognize your own emotions and how they affect your thoughts and behavior, know your strengths and weaknesses, and have self-confidence. Evolving self awareness requires individual to turn into your true feelings. If an individual is able to evaluate emotions, means they are able to manage them. Major elements of self-awareness are:

i. Emotional Awareness: Ability to recognize emotions and effects. ii. Self- confidence: Sureness about capabilities and self-worth.

Self Regulation: Involves controlling or redirecting one’s disruptive emotions such as anger, anxiety or depression and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances. Certain individual have little control over emotions, therefore techniques such as recasting a situatin in a more positive manner could be beneficial. Self regulation involves:

i. Self control: managing disruptive feelings ii. Innovation: being open to new thoughts iii. Trustworthiness: manintaining sincerity and ethical principles iv. Conscientiousness: responsible for your own action v. Adaptability: susceptible of modification or adaptation

Interpersonal Skills: Involves being aware of, understanding, being grateful, cooperative and maintaining satisfying relationships. Adaptability: Involves in the capacity to cope with surrounding demands effectively and ability to adjust to emotions, thoughts and behavior to changing situations

General Mood And Motivation: Involves factors of optimism and happiness. Optimism refers to capacity or skills to look at bright side of life and position life to a positive attitude and happiness refers to quality or state of being or feelings of being satisfied and contentment and expressing it a positive manner. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AT WORKPLACE Numerous researches has been conducted in accordance to Emotional Intelligence, for instance in 1920 Thorndike, a theorist suggested that human have several types of intelligence, one form of this is, social intelligence, or the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls, and to act wisely in human relations. Goleman (2001) reported that emotional intelligence is positively related to job performance. EI allows an individual to think creatively in solving problems and serve as an important set of psychological abilities to life success. Several research suggests that people with high level of EI lead more effectively (Caruso et al. 2002; Barling et al. 2000; and Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005 as in Dimitriades, 2007); are efficient job performers (Abraham, 2000; Carmeli, 2003); engage in organizational citizenship behaviors (Carmeli, 2003); feel satisfied with their job (Carmeli, 2003) and committed both to their career and to their employing organization (Carmeli, 2003). In short, EI is strongly linked to work-attitude especially job satisfaction and job performance. In 1983, Howard Gardner proposed Frames of Mind-The Theory of multiple intelligences, The theory supports that the foundation for most of the model created on Emotional Intelligence were based on two types of intelligence namely Intrapersonal & Interpersonal Intelligence. He rate these intelligences were as significant as IQ test for an individual. STRESS AT WORKPLACE In the recent years, stress is recognized as a major challenge to workers. Stress can be brought about by pressures at work and can be a real problem to the organization and workers in performing their task. Stress in a job is commonly defined as the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the demands of the job exceed the capabilities, needs or resources of the worker. Studies show that employees who feel they have little empowerement over their work in one way or another report higher stress levels. NIOSH suggests that companies evaluate the scope of stress in the workplace by looking at absenteeism, illness and turnover rates and performance problems. From there, employee surveys and/or committees can help determine specific stressors and if they are concentrated in one specific department or are company-wide. it is also important to ask employees what strategies may provide remedies. (NIOSH, 1999). In 1992, the United Nations (Akinboye, et al, 2002) defined job stress as the twentieth century disease, with 70% of employees reporting high level of stress. Winfield (2000) indicates occupational stress among academic and general staff of universities is alarming and increasing.

ANXIETY AT WORKPLACE Wood (2008) highlights the importance and quality of job demands and the amount of control an employee has as important predictor of job anxiety. Wood (2008) further debates that support from management act as a instrument of the relationship between work and job anxiety and we similarly control for an index of perceived support. According to Srivastva (1985), anxiety is “employees” predisposition to emotional tension caused byhim generalizedby feelings of vague fear, insecurity and apprehension in respect to one several constituents of his job life. People’s life in existing civilization has happen to more diversely challenging, complex, unthinkingand dependent, is running by the clock. In growing need and aspirations, pressures of meeting deadline, high competition, increasing job responsibility, uncertainty of future and lack of social support in the workplace have created anxiety and madethe life majority of individuals miserable in modern society. He defines job anxiety as “a generalized feeling of vague fear and apprehensive mental state of an employee regarding various “job content factor” in relation to his frame of reference”. Allamand Koteshwar (2005) reported anxiety as a psychological certainty that the individual becomes anxious more frequently about the work to which an individual develops a deep concernand is psychologically identified. The new challenges have posed greater anxiety in job among employees working at different level among various types of organizations. In every organization and at every level of management and workers situated on average level of stress is to be found which mostly has an effect on employee’s satisfaction in their job. Employees have tendency towards high level of stress regarding time, working for longer hours which reduces employees urge for performing better (Rose, 2003). REVIEW OF LITERATURE Stress does not have the same momentum on every individual. Coping mechanism among individual varies. Some are able to bounce back to stressful situations and others vice versa. It is here, EI that comes to the rescue and guidance in responding accordingly to the different level of stressors. The EI competencies play an essential role to create the apptitude in an individual’s to better control the stress in workplace. The previous studies revealed that the EI individuals have strong emotions and attitude to overcome stressful events in a positive manner. The EI competencies generate the skill in individual to choose diverse way to deal stress without collapsing, to be positive to solve a problem, and feel that one can control the state of affairs (Slaski and Cartwright, 2002). The EI individuals able to the proper handle the negative feelings in a way to express it in a positive way, allowing people to interact and work together without resistance to meet their goals. This potential ease the individual to notice timely and redirect their unconstructive stressful or demanding reactions, emotions and stimulus. It is the capability to deter and to think about their reactions to events before starting work. An EI individual is a systematic and

committed employee; open to everything new, even in the most uncertain prospects and sudden changes such as people tend to perceive as a new options rather than as a damage to personal safety and suffer in stress. EI individual can keep the strike in the worst circumstances, never surrender and don’t fall into panic but react carefully (Goleman, 1998). These proficiency may give assistance to employees to deal stress effectively. Employees having EI competencies manage their negative reaction in the workplace and report fewer psychological problems with high levels of satisfaction in job and commitment in organization (Gardner, 2005). RATIONALE OF THE STUDY The study has been entitled as Emotional Intelligence In Managing Occupational Stress And General Anxiety At Workplace. This study is limited to achieve the following objectives:

1. To examine the role of EI in managing stress at workplace, 2. To examine the role of EI in managing anxiety at workplace 3. To examine relationship of EI with stress and anxiety

METHODOLOGY Sample This study was conducted using convenient sampling of 100 (31 males and 69 females) among staffs in one of the University located in Perak. The participants ranged from 25 to 50 years of age. Measures For this research study the following measures were used: 1. Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) The emotional intelligence (EI) scale devised by Schutte et al (1998) was administered to university staff, academic and non-academic. The scale consisted 33-items used a 5-point Likert scale to measure EI. All items were ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. 2.GAD – 7 Anxiety This easy use self-administered questionanaire is used as a screening tool and severity measure for generalised anxiety disorder and developed by Drs. Robert L. Spitzer, Janet B.W. Williams, Kurt Kroenke and colleagues (1999). GAD-7 moderately good at screening for Panic Disorder, Social Anxiety Disorder and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The scoring is by calculating the assign scores of 0, 1,2, and 3 to the response categories, respectively, of ‘not at all’, ‘several days’, ‘more than half the day’, and nearly every day.’ GAD-7 total score for the seven items ranges from 0-21.Total score and interpretation for GAD-7 Anxiety as Table 1 below:

Table 1: Score And Interpretation For GAD 7 Anxiety Total Score Interpretation 0-4 Minimal Anxiety 5-9 Mild Anxiety 10-14 Moderate Anxiety 15-21 Severe Anxiety

3. (i) Job Stress Inventory (JSI): Symptoms Of Job Stress The scoring is by calculating the assign scores of 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 to the response categories, respectively, of ‘never’, ‘occasionally’, ‘somewhat often’, ‘frequently; and almost always.’ Total score for the twenty items ranges from 0-80. Total score and interpretation for JSI as below:

Table 2: Score And Interpretation For JSI Total Score Interpretation 0-25 Adequate coping with stress of your job 26-40 Suffering from job stress, wise to take preventative action 41-50 Need preventative action to avoid job burnout 56-80 Burn out, must develop comprehensive job stress plan (ii) Job Stress Inventory (JSI): Sources Of Job Stress The scoring is by calculating the assign scores of 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 to the response categories, respectively, of ‘never’, ‘occasionally’, ‘somewhat often’, ‘frequently; and almost always.’ This Stress Inventory covers nine areas of stress (lack of control, information gap, cause and effect, conflict, alienation, overload, underload, environment, value conflict). If the score is over 100, the respondent more than an average number of job stressors. If the score is 130 or higher, the number of job stressors is unusually high. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The obtained data were subjected to a number of statistical analyses by using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 17.0). The results of various analyses have been presented below. 1. Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistics was used to understand the nature of the data. Table 3 below presents the mean score and standard deviation of the observed variables. Descriptive statistis was tabulated to know the pattern of score distribution and analysis of the respondent during the survey.

Table 3: Summary of respondents surveyed in the study as below (N=100) Items

Components Frequency

Gender Male Female

31 69

Race Malay Chinese Indian

92 4 4

Age 25-30 31-40 41-50

36 36 28

Program Bachelor Pharmacy Diploma Pharmacy Diploma Radiografi Diploma Fisioterapi General Studies Non Academic

9 23 12 12 18 26

Position Senior Lecturer Lecturer Assistant Lecturer Instructor Others

8 19 22 18 33

Service Duration 0-3 years 4-6 years 7-9 years 10 years and more

25 25 32 18

Table 4: Mean Score and Standard Deviation Of EI, Anxiety and Stress Variables Mean Score SD Emotional Intelligence (EI) 127.42 9.745 Anxiety 12.72 4.397 Job Stress 77.87 40.02 Table 4 reveals that the mean score on EI is 127.42 with the standard deviation (SD) of 9.745. The mean score on anxiety is 12.72 with the SD of 4.397 and on job stress the mean score was 77.87 with the SD of 40.02. Table 5: Anxiety Severity Among Respondents (N=100) Total Score Interpretation Percentage 0-4 Minimal Anxiety 52% 5-9 Mild Anxiety 20% 10-14 Moderate Anxiety 28% 15-21 Severe Anxiety 0%

Based on Table 5, more than 50% of respondents experienced minimal anxiety. Table 6: Realibility Test Cronbach’s Alpha N of items Emotional Intelligence 0.814 33 Anxiety 0.841 7 Stress 0.967 65 Schutte et al. (1998) reported a Cronbach alpha of 0.90 for the internal consistency for adults with mean age of 29.3 (SD =10.2) and ⍺ =0.78 for test-retest reliability after a two-week interval on the scale for a smaller group drawn from the sample. The high Cronbach’s alpha value indicate a high internal validity of the questionnaire. For the purpose of this study realibility test for each category is shown in Table 6. 2. Correlation Table 7: Correlation Analysis of EI, Stress and Anxiety Variable EI Anxiety Stress EI Pearson Correlation 1.00 -0.247* -.0212* Anxiety Pearson Correlation -0.247* 1 0.369** Stress Pearson Correlation -0.212* 0.369** 1 * Correlation is significant at the level 0.05 (2 tailed) ** Correlation is significant at the level 0.01 (1 tailed) Correlations among all the 3 variables were computed through Pearson Correlation. It was aimed at examinining the degree of association between the measures of Anxiety, Stress and Emotional Intelligence. (Table 7) Correlation Analysis Of EI And Anxiety The Correlation between EI and anxiety is -0.247 which is significant at 0.05 probability level. This means individual with high EI have low level of anxiety. This indicates that individual with high EI is considered to be helpful in managing anxiety. EI facilitates coping with negative emotions. Salovey et al. (2002) found a link between EI (based on the Trait Metamood Scale) and lower levels of perceived social anxiety, symptom reporting and physiological stress reactions based on measures of blood pressure and salivary cortisol secretion (Salovey et al., 2002). Correlation Analysis Of Anxiety And Stress The Correlation between anxiety and stress is 0.369 which is significant at 0.01 probability level. This means individual with high level of stress are having more chances to develop anxiety. It can also be said that the stress can be the root of developing anxiety in a person. Workplace stress can have a negative impact on the well-being of the individual and his or her day-to day functioning.

Correlation Analysis Of EI And Stress The Correlation between EI and stress is -0.212 but significant at 0.01 probability level. This means individual with high EI have low level of stress. It shows that people who are highly emotionally intelligent are having less probability to get stressed. Garochi, Chan and Caput (2000) explained that EI may protect individual from stress and lead to better adaptation. The increasing of EI skills (empathy, impulse control) necessary for successful job performance can help workers to deal more effectively with their feelings, and thus directly decrease the level of job stress and indirectly protect their health”. An employee with high emotional intelligence can deal with work environment stress. (Cooper, C.L.,et al.,2001). EI significantly contributes to reducing occupational stress by better identifying feelings of frustration and stress and, consequently, regulating those emotions (Cooper & Sawaf, 1997). Studies done by Oginska et al., (2005), Matthews et al. (2006), Montes-Berges et al., (2007), Naidoo et al., (2008) etc, stated that there is a negative relationship between EI and stress. So it is said that EI is able to restrain negative feelings of anger, stress and anxiety and focus on positive. Emphasizing on developing EI to overcome stress and anxiety at workplace to seek success in life is vital. IMPLICATION OF THE STUDY Although there is no limit to identify the implication of this study, but some suggestions for researchers can be recommended based on the results of this research. There is a need to research on developing and constructing training programs according to work environment for employees from the aspects of EI competency so that they can increase their skill in managing problems in the start of their career from the efficiency aspects of managing stress and anxiety in workplace. CONCLUSION This research was conducted to find out the role of EI in managing stress and anxiety at workplace. After analyzing the results, it can be summarize that emotional intelligence correlate negatively with stress and anxiety. Negative correlation of EI with stress and anxiety highlights that EI will prove helpful tool in dealing with stress and anxiety at workplace.The EI competencies play a crucial role to create the abilities in an individual’s to better control the stress and anxiety in the workplace. The findings of the present study indicates a significant relationship with stress and anxiety. This indicates whenever people feel under pressure at work it can lead to stress and anxiety.Neverthless, stress is not always a negative thing. It can trigger innovation and efficiency. According to Robert Ostermann, professor of psychology at FDU's Teaneck-Hackensack Campus, "No one reaches peak of an achievement without being stressed out, whether an athlete, an office worker or a manager." The natural pattern of human a behavior is to encounter a surrounding, react to it with increased tension and then return to a normal and finally relaxed state.

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The Level of Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) on Mobile Phone Use Related to Young Adult Lifestyle

Zulkifli Abd. Latiff, Ph.D. and Noraini Maridi zulatif@gmail.com / ammaranim@gmail.com Faculty of Communication and Media Studies

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) 40450 Shah Alam,

Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia Abstract With the advancement in mobile technology, mobile phone have become progressively more popular as they are one of the frequnetly used means of communication that people rely on to communicate often because its features. The revolution in mobile phone has partially replaced the old location based paradigm with the new social network-based paradigm. This paper explores the impact of this the connected phenomenon towards mobile phones, called Fear of missing out (FoMO) that change the lifestyle of young adult. FoMO not only created anxiety and fear but also they intention of continuously using mobile phone 24 hours a day. The scenario become dangerous as the addicted FoMO tend to blur the line between the main tasks and their anxiety. Through this study, the researcher proposed to study the level of FoMO among Malay young adult as the highest users in Klang Valley. To explore this possibility, this study used 45 questionnaires to identify the relationship between the three variable. The findings reveal that the level of FoMo young Malay adult is high, gender has no difference in determining level of FoMO, mobile phone is most viewed as the tool to enhance young adult life and level of FoMO and mobile phone use has significant relationship. The findings of this research could be utilized to create awareness campaign on the excessive usage on mobile phone. Keywords: FoMO, mobile phone use, young adult Introduction Being connected to mobile phone is no longer restricted to being at home or in the office. It is something people are able to do 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Hence, the issue of ‘fear of missing out’ (FoMO) as a driven factor to young adult lifestyle changes comes into consideration. And when the FoMO phenomenon sets in, the effects can spiral into peoples’ life (Dossey, 2013). Peer pressure and FoMO drive teens to explore all sorts of dangers as long as they can lead them into their grip of friends. For young adult, ‘getting a cell phone is a step towards independence and a status symbol among their friends’ (Iannelli, 2009). Being an individual gadget, mobile phone has given the users more personal freedom that created not only individuals’ identity and prestige but also develop new sub culture especially among young adult. As for parents, Lombardo, a psychologist noticed that continually checking mobile phone while playing with the kids prevent the mobile phone users from being fully present and enjoying their times with loved ones. That can affect people perception on how important they are to their family (Lombardo, 2009). This is how the mobile devices have interrupted in between the family.

By spending so much time with someone through mobile phone, especially in times of crisis, there’s no doubt that some of us may easily lead to an emotional affair. Datuk Seri Michael Chong, who is the MCA public services and complaints Department admitted many cases were reported to him on broken marriages because of overuse of mobile phone and the involvement of the “third party” (Lim, Wong, Farik Zolkepli, & Bedi. R., 2012, February 12). A former FoMO victim, Glennon Melton in her blogs admits that electronic devices sabotage intimacy and make her “somewhere else and alone” (Dossey, 2013). As Hato (2013), Turkle (2011) who studied people and technology explain on her books that FoMO lead to constant checking and texting behaviour. It seems that FOMO person can become dissatisfied with their family, partner, job or their own life.

The scenario are parallel with Przybylskia et al. (2013) findings in their study that FOMO is an unhealthy trend and can be quite paralyzing. Low level of FoMO person requires gratification and life satisfaction are linked to high FOMO. The situation is even more extreme. Individual with a high level of FOMO can having fears and unable to decide what they should be doing at any gain moment (Przybylskia et al., 2013).

FoMO is also a driving force behind internet addiction. In the most wired nation, that is South Korea, Murakami (2011, December 8) reported in News Straits Times, according to a Japanese government survey, in between April and September 2011, there were more than one mobile phone users fell down from railway station platform in Tokyo. There were also cases such as bumping to other people or doors. Several study on overuses of mobile phone also showed several bothersome trends, among them is the increase of societal and behavioural problem come from the heavy mobile phone users. (Balakrishnan & Raj, 2012; Keating, 2005), lower grades (Massimini & Peterson, 2009) sleeping disorder (Sahin, Ozdemir, Unsal, & Temiz, 2013) and health problem (Punamaki R.L, Wallenius M, & C.H., 2007).

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Psychiatrists believe that mobile phone addiction is becoming one of the biggest behavioral addictions (Bivin, Mathew, Thulasi, & Philip, 2013). Based on the worrisome, a study (Barney, 2008) was conducted in United Kingdom to look anxieties suffered by mobile phone users and coined a term of Nomophobia. The study found that nearly 53 percent of mobile phone users in Britain has developing Nomophobia. Being worse, more than one user never switch off their mobile phones.

Nomophobia literally means ‘no mobile phobia’ that is the fear of being out of mobile phone contact (Barney, 2008). A survey last year, carried out by YouGov1 (Bivin et al., 2013), found that nomophobia include the stress of running out of battery or credit, losing one's handset and not having network coverage. On the other hand, Dr. Brian Johnson, director of addiction psychiatry at SUNY Upstate Medical School in Syracuse, New York clarified that nomophobia and addiction are different concepts as the differences between highly engaged and addicted players (King, et al., 2010). Among signs of Nomophobia include; frequent checking for the phone, high-intensity of anxiety or panic over losing their phone and answering or using in inappropriate places Lerner (2012).

Framework of Study Based on the literature review done, a theoretical framework as shown in Figure 1 below was derived. Three main categories were identified namely FoMO level, mobile phone use and life style were identified.

Figure 1 : Conceptual Framework of the study FoMO Level With the accessible of the internet through mobile phone the development of various hardware, software, and different applications for the mobile phone to suit today’s modern and hectic lifestyle., the behavioural addiction has increased. Here comes the concept of Fear of Missing out or FoMO. The acronym of FoMO, was early came out in the Urban Dictionary on April 14, 2011 as `word of the day’. FoMO only come to be known with the expanding usage of social media three years ago which also increase in smartphones usage. The three research on FoMO ( (Hato, 2013; JWT Intelligence, 2011; Przybylskia et al., 2013) recently developed FOMO as a concept.

An extensive trend report on JWT Intelligence investigated on FoMOs’ relationship with new media. Sixty five (65) percent respondents felt they would not stand the idea of missing out. The survey concluded that the feel of fear and anxiety on mobile phone force people to check their mobile phone regularly to calm the feeling of missing out (JWT Intelligence, 2011). A research that has been published in the journal Computers in Human Behaviour in 2014 is the second research that dug further of the phenomenon. Przybylskia et al. (2013), define FoMO as “ a fear of one’s social standing or how one is perceived amongst peers and a need to constantly know what is happening and what others are doing.” They explained, social media offers a new access into other people’s life through mobile devices that created the fear and anxiety emotion. The study revealed that those who have lower level of satisfaction, competence and also connectedness in life had more severe FoMO which make them more attached to social media. Przybylskia et al. (2013) characterized FoMO by “the desire to stay continually connected with what others are doing. It is also “a pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent”.

A study by Hato (2013) was the third study on FoMO. The study develop C-FoMo-scale. The scale assessed to what extent people check their mobile phone because of FoMO. The findings showed that the five scales in C-FoMO which consist of social domain, general, news, work or school and safety domain have positive relationship with smartphone engagement and checking frequency of mobile phone. On the other hand, a new survey on social network by MyLife.com revealed 56 percent of people are afraid that there will miss the events, news and important status updates if they are away from social networks and emails. Agreed with the previous study, the result shows how social media can be one factor consumed by a syndrome of FoMO (MyLife, 2013, July 9). Grohol (2011) in his article refers FoMO as the mix feeling of anxiety, insufficiency and impatience that can arouse while browsing social media and also instant messenger.”

Mobile Phone Use

Pattern Dependency

Life Style FoMO level

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Mobile Phone Use Nowadays, most of mobile phones are `smartphone’ which offer more advanced computing power and connectivity. The multiple capabilities have reposition the device as “a new information medium” (May & Hearn, 2005). White (2010) highlights a number of key technological advances that have assisted technology and telecommunication companies in bringing smartphone to the general consumers. These include :

• Dramatic improvements in network band-with, • Increased availability of wireless broadband. • Increased size of memory cards for mobile phones. • Technological improvements in screen design enhance the quality of images. • The introduction of mobile search which leverages the `location awareness’ of the mobile phone.

Another application that suit with younger generation is camera phone, mobile TV and internet. Mobile

phone users are now constantly plugged-in to the web at all times bringing the world closer to a truly networked society. While, MP3 player figures mobile phone as digital music organizers, players and sharing device, mobile-phone games can be a time filler or escapism (Haddon & Vincent, 2009) for young adult to continuously depend to mobile phone. Life Style The creation and invention of mobile phone are tactically mark the era of innovation, change and re-invention of older existing media. It is also a key indicator of twenty-first-century post modernity (Hjorth, 2009). The current X-generation who being the first to have grown up in mobile technology era, they have assimilated the gadget into their lives. Carter, Thatcher, Applefield, and Mcalpine (2011) on their study revealed that young people develop close emotional values with mobile devices as its involved more traits of their daily lives and social relations. Similar with Rippin (2005), Kim et al. (2011) in their study of common meaning of mobile phone is self-expression, connection, satisfaction and entertainment. Moreover, with the variation of functionality, the mobile phone is no longer only a tool of communication but an necessary instrument of an individual’s social and work life especially in creating young adult’s personality. This study focus on three changes of life style; self presentation, managing daily life and human relationship. i. Self Presentation The present study believes that young user precisely in search of social recognition through representation. By taking mobile phone as technologies of self-toll, the device becomes a reflection of their user, has function as a fashion accessory and also a symbol of economic status and power. The device itself is becoming a “cultural artefact” in references to youth. It also shapes cultural flows (Aguardo & Martinez, 2008) and the emergence of youth lifestyle governing use of cell phones in public places (Bivin et al., 2013). The situation increase individualistic tendencies (Takao, 2009 ). Balakrishnan and Raj (2012) in their study asserted that the evolution of mobile phone is more a cultural process rather than technological process. The mobile phone has changing their function from communication device to become a symbol that defining a status or lifestyle of the users (Rippin, 2005).

In a study Hazrina Hassan and Nasir (2008), Malaysian youth claimed that mobile phone is ‘an extension of self’ and essential part of users’ life. In other words, the device become a way to describe themselves, a symbol artefact of personal display (Contarello et al., 2008) as below:

Mobile phone as a fashion item – Young adult viewed mobile phone as a fashion theme that represent status and style functions (Kim et al., 2011). Mobile phone project information on the users’s style and how the users wants other people to see him. To express their characteristics and differentiate from others, users customize their phones with wallpaper and used uniques ring tones and accessories.

Selfie as self presentation – Usually, the photos posted reflect the view of an individual and what they want to project themselves out into the world. However Rippin (2005) argued that the self-portrayed through mobile phone and ICT usage may not necessarily be a true representation of the inner self or what Goffman (1959) claimed as `virtual self’. ii. Managing Daily Life Carter et al. (2011) reveals that as usage of mobile phones permeates in more aspects of their daily lives, people are increasingly reliant on the device as their memory. On the other hand, the mobile phone also becomes a problem solution tool (Aguardo & Martinez, 2008). The ability to access work communication via smartphones enable users to meet their work obligation while at the same time meeting family needed. Here, the users can have healthy work-life balance. The present study looks on the use of mobile phone as a calender, an alarm clock, in doing internet banking, to play internet games and to know the outside world latest development. Rippin (2005) suggested that the mobile phone is polysemy or refer to many meanings with many potential use.

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Other usage include as an organiser and phone directory. Therefore, the technical memory function on the mobile phone has developed into a need to have it and the biggest fear of teenagers in losing their mobile phone is equivalent to losing their “memory”. iii. Human Relationship Besides Bauman (2003)’s arguments that such relationship as “liquid love” where interpersonal bonds are loose, quickly tied and quickly broken is also taken into account. It is unlike ‘real relationship’ instead virtual relationship are easy to enter and exit. Hjorth (2009) argue that dependency on the phone has increases feeling of loneliness and unhappiness. Some user feel that no one is thinking of them and they feel unwanted when no calls or text messages are received. Similarly, Rippin (2005) found that mobile phone creating “new forms of individualism, and yet salient to already existing forms of sociality”. It can also lead to decrease of human interactions in the modern and may cause social fragmentation because everyone’s goal will not be exactly the same. This tension between individual and collective goals may threaten the family united.

Besides, Campbell and Nom Kwak (2010) noted that mobile phones tend to raise individuals’ social standards by supporting them to reach out to other people. By using apps like Skype, the device enable more face to face communication when families are apart due to work commitments. Methodology To gain the statistical data, quantitative study was developed by employing questionnaire based on the literature rview and previous studies. A 48 questionnaire assessing demographic information, mobile phone use pattern and dependency and lifestyle was prepared in English with tranlastion in Malay Language. The questionnaire consisited of four mjor sections. For Section A, respondents only need to fill up 3 questions on their demographic background (gender, age, occupation) by ticking at the provided place. A set of 10 questionnaires in Section B are taken from the previous research (Przybylskia et al., 2013) and modified to adapt to the present research in order to measure the individual level of FOMO. The items consist of five-point Likert scale 1=Not at all, 2=Slightly true of me, 3=Moderately true of me, 4=True of Me and 5= Extremely true of me. Section C focuses on 20 questions of mobile phone use. Ten factors representing several daily activities on smartphone and general social media usage were used. Responses were divided into five Likert scale of frequencies of use from “Less than once in a week” to “Always.” The questions that was developed for the present study, used as a general measurement of mobile phone usage and does not attempt to distinguish excessive usage or identify consequences or sympthoms associated with mobile phone use. As for dependency on mobile phone, the respondents were asked to give their own agreement on another ten questions also in five Likert Scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The questions were modified to be suit with local environment from Problematic Mobile Phone Usage Scale (PUMB) developed by Merlo, Stone, and Bibbey (2013) and Smartphone addiction scale by Kwon, Kim, and Yang (2013). In section D, the researcher conducted a wide literature review to find a good measurement for studies which can be suit with mobile phone lifestyle in Malaysia. The reseacher then opted to use a self administered questionnaire based on qualitative research by Rippin (2005) and few other researches. The 15 questions are paired ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. Each five questions are used to measure three aspects which are self presentation, managing daily life and human relations. Result and Discussion Respondents’ Background Table 1 depicts the demographic data of the respondents studied. From the results, the majority of the rerspondents were female (58%), aged 19 to 25 years (33.2%) and were students (40.8%).

Table 1: Respondents’ Demographic Data Level Frequency Percentage Gender Male Female Age 18 & below

105 145 18

42.0 58.0 7.2

19-25 83 33.2 26-30 68 27.2 31-35 38 15.2 36-40 43 17.2 Occupation Goverment Sector

46

18.4

Private Sector 76 30.4 Self-employed 18 7.2 Unemployed 8 3.2 Students 102 40.8

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Level of FoMO The one sample t-test in Table 2 indicates a significant difference in the mean scores for level of FoMO ( t =-513.41), p=0.000). It indicates that the level of FOMO among young adult is significant more than 4.

Table 2: Result of One-Sample T-Test on the Level of FoMO

Statements t-value p-value Mean Level of FoMO -513.41 .000 M=-37.321, F=-37.035

In term of gender and its significant differences towards level of FoMO, an independent t-test was

conducted to compare between gender and level of FoMO. The result in Table 3 indicate that there is no evidence of significance difference between male and female towards level of FoMO (t = 0.562, p > 0.05) with no mean difference. Specifically, the result suggests that either male or female will be affected by FoMO phenomenon easily.

Table 3: The Independent T-Test on Gender and Level of FoMO

* The mean difference is significant at p<0.05 level

Young adults’ FoMO level were found to be high (more than 4 based on 5 Likerts scale). The previous study supported the study Przybylskia et al. (2013) that indicate that the young, aged were more affected than others from the fear of missing out. This group saw social media as important toll for them and they were more dependent on social media as part of their social development. The findings alos supported the ealier industry reports JWT Intelligence (2011) that suggested FoMO tends to be a phenomenon grappled with by younger people. The individuals between 13 and 33 years old comprise the most at risk group of developing a FoMO. Young adult interaction nowadays more focused mainly for informal or more towards social interaction. Mobile phone also have separated individual from the social integration in real life. Life Style Changes Table 4 above revealed that the highest mean for lifestyle changes from mobile phone usage was managing daily life ( M= 3.67, SD=.937), followed by human relation (M=3.49, SD=.668) and self-presentation (M=3.389, SD=1.047). Hence the hypothesis alternate of self-presentation changes is the most prominent lifestyle change from mobile phone use is rejected.

Table 4 : Descriptive Statistics for lifestyle changes and mobile phone use

Life style changes Mean Std Deviation Managing Daily Life 3.6720 0.93754 Human relation Self presentation

3.4928 3.3888

0.66829 1.04710

*N=250

The results in Table 5 showed that the highest mean for managing daily life as lifestyle changes from mobile phone is by using mobile phone as alarm clock, followed by enhance life convenience, relied phone memory, do things on time and lastly banking and shopping. The mean for all the sub items are more than 3.00, indicate that respondents are agree on the impact of the mobile phone use on lifestyle.

Table 5 : Managing daily life as lifestyle changes from mobile phone ordered in the rank of ascending mean values Lifestyle changes Mean SD as alarm clock 4.1680 1.20398 enhance life convenience 3.6800 1.12010 relied phone memory 3.6440 1.32525 do things on time 3.6120 1.11103 banking & shopping 3.1360 1.39617

A majority of 84.4 percent respondents in Table 6 were agree (53.2 percent strongly agree and 31.2

percent strongly agree) on perceive mobile phone as alarm clock. The other percentages show that only 13 percent respondent were not agree (8 percent strongly disagree, 4.8 disagree) while 2.8 percent are not sure or neutral.

Statements t - value p - value Mean Difference Level of FoMO .562 .574 M = .08263, F = .08263

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Table 6: Cross Tabulation gender and mobile phone as alarm clock

Agreement /Gender

Strongly Agree

Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Total

Male 22.4% 12.4% 1.2% 1.6% 4.4% 42.0 % Female 30.8% 18.8% 1.6% 3.2% 3.6% 58.0 % Total 53.2% 31.2% 2.8% 4.8% 8% 100 %

From that percentage, 49.6 percent female respondent are agree with the statement (30.8 percent

strongly agree and 18.8 percent agree). Meanwhile, 22.4 percent of male respondent are strongly agreed and 12.4 percent are agreed which make the combine percentage of 34.8 percent. Hence, the data proved that most of the respondents especially female have more agreement on using mobile phone as alarm clock. The result suggests females are carefully manage their daily routine plan compare to men.

Mobile phone have their own lifestyle when it comes to how they use the device. According to the data analysis, mobile phone are mostly viewed and used as a tool to manage daily life instead of only as self-presentation. This concurs with Market Analysis and Consumer Research Organization (2014) findings in Mumbai, India, where 58 percent of the respondents could not manage their lives without their mobile phone even for a day and 72 percent leave their phones on. The three most important usage of mobile phone in managing young adult daily life refers to its usage as alarm clock, enhances the convenience of life and as a memory function. Two more functions are as able to do things on time and banking and online shopping. Hence, it would be clear to summarize that these users value the gadget abilities that is provided when using mobile phone. majority of 84.4 percent respondents were agree (53.2 percent strongly agree and 31.2 percent strongly agree) on perceive mobile phone as alarm clock. The other percentages show that only 13 percent respondent were not agree ( 8 percent strongly disagree, 4.8 disagree) while 2.8 percent are not sure or neutral.

Given the various benefits a mobile phone offers, it is not surprising that the majoritiy of the young adult respondents are extremely attached to their mobile phones. Findings gathered have shown that level of FOMO has strong positive correlation with mobile phone use (the pattern of usage and dependency) towards mobile phone with r = .634, p = 0.000 Observation on the gathered findings has supported the common theme of many study on mobile phone that smartphone are habit forming. Hato (2013) found that people who owned a mobile phone develop ‘check habits’ which saw users ritually unlock and check one more than one application or social networking on their phone. The concept of people becoming addicted to their mobile phone is one that probably warrants further study as usage of the devices becomes more widespread. A similar concept is known as behavioural salience, whereby users constantly check their mobile phone for missed messages or calls (Walsh et al., 2008). Thus, it has answered the fourth research question, that both variable has strong positive relationship and high correlation. Relationship Between Level of FoMO and Mobile Phone Usage A Person Correlation analysis was used to measure the degree of relationship and direction of the relationship. Results shows in Table 7 that there is a high positive significant correlation (p-value =0.000, r= .634) between FoMO level and mobile phone use. It is clear that level of FoMO increase or decrease parallel with mobile phone usage pattern and dependency.

In term of usage pattern, most of the activities through mobile phone are according to individual preferences shown in Table 8 as follows; messages, calls, social media, brose web, email, and snap photos.

Table 8: Mobile Phone Use (Activities) in accordance with mean values

Exposure Mean SD Messages 4.0640 1.06604 Calls 4.0000 .94847 Social Network Browse web

3.8360 3.5080

1.22929 1.31180

E-mail Snap photos

3.4280 3.4040

1.32811 1.43143

Music 3.1440 1.61918 Game 2.8000 1.61320 GPS 2.6840 1.59068 Video 2.4800 1.53199

*N= 250

Table 7 : The Pearson Correlation between level of FoMO and mobile phone usage among Malay young adult Item Total score p

Level of FoMO .634 .000

Mobile phone usage .634 .000 * Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

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The dependency or what is the most important things must a respondent do on their mobile phone is “to

come back if they forgot their mobile phone”. As for consequences, the respondent admitted they would sleep with their mobile phone, used hand phone instead of doing their work and keep from doing important work as among the highest answer receive from the respondents as presented in Table 9 bellow.

Table 9: Dependency on mobile phone in accordance with mean values Activities Mean SD Sleep with Instead doing homework Thinking to use

3.4200 3.3880 3.1480

1.38102 1.29467 1.33161

Stop important work Forget important people 3.0680

2.9360 1.30775 1.35174

People tell me Asked to stop

2.8280 2.8160

1.19168 1.29493

Mostly caused accident 2.7480 1.26606 Get moody 2.7360 1.22323

*N=250

The present study found, dependency on mobile phone received high reaction from the respondents for the following five statement `when I forget my mobile phone, I would come back for it,’ ‘I have used my hand phone when I knew I should be sleeping’ I have used my hand phone when I knew I should be doing work or school work,’ ‘When I am not using my cell phone, I am thinking about using it or planning the next time I can use it’ and ‘The amount of time I spend using my cell phone keep me from doing other important work.’ The five statements agreed by respondents suggest that particularly for young adult, that excessive mobile phone usage may be associated with subjective distress that create FoMO.

The second agreement on `skip sleep because of mobile phone’ supported Rice (2011) study on 200 university students in examine what role mobile phone play in their sleep habits. The study reports that mobile phone can lead to depression and anxiety as a result of sleep deprivation and insufficient rest. The qualitative study also reported that the most common reason given by students, is wanting to not miss out on something. The high level of FoMO make the students couldn’t stop thinking about the message and how their friend might be upset if they didn’t respond. Rice (2011) study also approved the significant relationship between the mobile phone use and level of FoMO when they reveal that the students who had the highest rates of technology use also had higher levels of anxiety and depression. Similarly Sahin et al. (2013) found, when mobile phone addiction level increases in the students, the sleep quality deteriorates. Massimini and Peterson (2009) stated that a great majority of the students cannot sleep enough due to mobile phone use in at least one day of the week. King et al. (2010) define dependency as uncontrollable desire that could administer the psychoactive action. The study argues that the high level of dependency to device usage create addiction where people could not distinguish the destructive consequences of their extensive usage on phsychology, social or even their career. The scenario suitable to explain the study done by Przybylskia, Murayama, DeHaanc, and Gladwelld (2013) that explain the level of FoMO is high in those involve in dangerous driving. In order not to miss out, so much people tend to reply or read text messages while driving.

However it is also interesting to note in the present study that the more critical impact such ‘I have almost caused an accident because of my cell phones use’ has the lowest answered by the respondent. Four other sub item; ‘At times, I find myself using cell phone instead of spending time with people who are important to me and want to spend time with me,’ ‘people tell me I spend too much time using my mobile phone,’ ‘I have continued to use my cell phone even when someone asked,’ and ‘when I stop using my cell phone, I get moody and irritable.’ also has means lower than 3.00. The overall score is, five subitems of dependency have higher mean while the other five have lower mean below than 3.00.

Conclusion and Recommendation Limitations exist in every study and this research leaves room for future improvements. Some possible problems with the present study are, the sample size is small (N=250) and was comprised of individuals recruited through convenience. Many of the participants were recruited by using snow ball sampling, some from a mobile phone and email address store and friends in social media, which may introduced selection bias. It is highly suggested that for coming study, the researcher could expand the sampling to other races, other ranges of ages such primary school children or older generation above 40 years old. The future studies can also aim of expanding this study by comparing the level of income, as costs is consider the main factor when talking about mobile phone addiction. Those expansion of study can get fully ascertain the impact of FoMO in life style changes.

In reality these results give an alarming indication that in coming era more and more youth may become users and so will be more dependent on mobile phones, which may lead to serious psychiatric and psychological problems among users. The policy makers may use the information in designing, specific campaigns to minimise

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the unsafe behaviour of mobile phone use and developing procedures and programs for young technology users. The findings also provide a baseline data for Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission to develop proper guidelines, new policy and regulations towards healthy mobile phone content or application and take an initiative to educate youth about the appropriate mobile phone use. On the other hand, the findings may add public understanding and knowledge of mobile phone technology in order to provide positive guidance towards computing activities. Besides, future research may use this study as a reference for further development of future works in the field. References Aguardo, J. M., & Martinez, I. J. (2008). Mobile Phone Culture. In G. Goggin (Ed.), Mobile Phone Culture (pp.

7-8). New York: Routledge. Balakrishnan, V., & Raj, R. G. (2012). Exploring the relationship between urbanized Malaysian youth and their

mobile phones: A quantitative approach. Journal of Telematics and Information, 29(3), 263-272. Barney, K. (March 31, 2008). Phone-reliant Britons in the grip of nomophobia. Retrieved Jun 22, 2014, from

http://sci.rutgers.edu/forum/showthread.php?98014-Phone-reliant-Britons-in-the-grip-of-nomo-phobia Bivin, B. V., Mathew, P., Thulasi, P. C., & Philip, J. (2013). Nomophobia: Do We Really Need to worry about?

Review of Progress, 1(1), 2-5. Campbell, S. W., & Nom Kwak, N. (2010). Moble Communication and Social Capital: An Analysis of

Geographically Differentiated Usage Patterns. New Media and Society, 12(3), 435-451. Carter, M., Thatcher, J. B., Applefield, C., & Mcalpine, J. (2011). What cell phones means in young people's

daily lives and social interactions. Paper presented at the Southern Association for Information Systems Conference, Atlanta, USA.

Contarello, A., Fortunati, L., & Sarrica, M. (2008). Social Thinking and the Mobile Phone: a study of Social Change with the diffusion of mobile phones, using social representations framework. In G. Goggin (Ed.), Mobile Phone Culture (pp. 181). New York: Routledge.

Dossey, L. (2013). FOMO, Digital Dimentia and Our Dangerous Experiment. Explore : The Journal od Science and Healing, 10(2), 67-73.

Goffman, E. (1959). The Presentation of Self in Everday Life New York Bantam Doubled Day Dell Publishing. Grohol, J. M. (2011). FOMO Addiction : The fear of missing out. Psych Central. Retrieved August 26, 2014

from http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2011/04/14/fomo-addiction-the-fear-of-missing-out/ Haddon, L., & Vincent, J. (2009). Children's Broadening Use of Mobile Phone. In G. Goggin & L. Hjorth (Eds.),

Mobile Technologies. New York: Taylor & Francis. Hato, B. (2013). Mobile Phone Checking Behavior Out of a Fear of Missing Out: Hazrina Hassan, & Nasir, M. H. N. M. (2008). The use of mobile phones by older adult : a Malaysian study.

ACM SIGACCESS Accessibility and Computing(92), 11-16. Hjorth, L. (2009). Mobile Media in the Asia-Pacific: Gender and the art of being mobile New York: Routledge. Iannelli, V. (2009). Kids and Cell Phones Retrieved June 23, 2014, from

http://pediatrics.about.com/od/otherparentingissues/i/kids_cellphones_2.htm JWT Intelligence. (2011). Fear of Missing out. Retrieved August 4, 2014, from

http://www.jwtintelligence.com/production/FOMO_JWT_TrendReport_May2011.pdf Kim, M. S., Kim, Y. C., & Kim, J. I. (2011). Divergent meaning of convergent mobile phone from generic

mobile phone King, A. L. S., Valenca, A. M., Silva, A. C., Sancassiani, F., Machado, S., & Nardi, A. E. (2010). Nomophobia:

the mobile phone in panic disorder with agoraphobia: reducing phobias or worsening of dependence. Cognitive Behavior Neurology, 23(1), 52-54.

Kwon, M., Kim, D.-J., & Yang, S. (2013). The smartphone addcition scale: Development and validation of short version for adolescents. Addiction and Health Journal, 8(12).

Lerner, M. (2012). Nomophobia: Is your cellphone addiction covered? Retrieved July 3, 2014, from http://www.insurance.com/health-insurance/other-health-insurance-topics/cellphone-addiction.html

Lim, Y., Wong, P. M., Farik Zolkepli, & Bedi. R. (2012, February 12). Marital issues among problems caused by smartphone addiction The Star Retrieved from http://www.thestar.com.my/News/Nation/2012/02/12/Marital-issues-among-problems-caused-by-smartphone-addiction/

Lombardo, E. (2009). A Happy You. New York: Morgan James Publishing Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission, M. (2012). Hand Phone Users Survey 2012 (pp. 1-35).

Cyberjaya. Market Analysis and Consumer Research Organization. (2014). A report on study of mobile phone usage among

the teenagers and youth in Mumbai. (Vol. April-May ). Mumbai, India MACRO. Massimini, M., & Peterson, M. (2009). Information and communication technology: Affects on U.S college

students. Cyberpsychology: Research on Cyberspace, 3(1), 1-15.

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May, H., & Hearn, G. (2005). The mobile phone as media. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 8(2), 195-211.

Merlo, L. J., Stone, A. M., & Bibbey, A. (2013). Measuring Problematic Mobile Phone Use: Development and Preliminary Psychometric Properties of the PUMP Scale. Journal of Addiction, 2013, 7. doi: 10.1155/2013/912807

Murakami, M. (2011, December 8). Smart phone fever takes over Japan, New Straits Times. MyLife. (2013, July 9). Social Media Survey: We're overwhelmed. mylife.com. Retrieved August 30, 2014,

from http://www.mylife.com/blog/social-media-survey-says-were-overwhelmed/ Przybylskia, A. K., Muruyama, K., DeHaanc, C. R., & Gladwelld, V. (2013). Motivational, emotional, and

behavioral correlates of fear of missing out. Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 1841–1848, 29, 1841-1848.

Punamaki R.L, Wallenius M, & C.H., N. (2007). Use of ICT and perceived health in adolescence. The role of sleeping habits and waking-time tiredness. Journal of Adolescence, 30(4), 569-585.

Rice, A. (2011). Tired Students Skip Sleep for Texting. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Rippin, H. (2005). The Mobile Phone in Everyday Life. Retrieved October 14, 2014, from Fast Capitalism

website. http://www.uta.edu/huma/agger/fastcapitalism/1_1/rippin.html Sahin, S., Ozdemir, K., Unsal, A., & Temiz, N. (2013). Evaluation of mobile phone addiction level and sleep

quality in university students. Pakistan journal of medical sciences, 29(4), 913. Takao, M. (2009 ). Addictive personality and problematic mobile phone use (Vol. 12). Turkle, S. (2011). Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other New

York: Basic Books.

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PENJANAAN SEMULA EKONOMI ASNAF DI WILAYAH PERSEKUTUAN: CADANGAN PERNIAGAAN SOSIAL

Najwa Mohd Khalil Fakulti Kewangan Antarabangsa Labuan, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kampus Antarabangsa Labuan, 87000 Wilayah Persekutuan Labuan najwa@ums.edu.my Mohamad Azmi Abdullah Fakulti Kewangan Antarabangsa Labuan, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kampus Antarabangsa Labuan, 87000 Wilayah Persekutuan Labuan azmi4386@ums.edu.my Nurul Izzati Abd Razak Fakulti Kewangan Antarabangsa Labuan, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kampus Antarabangsa Labuan, 87000 Wilayah Persekutuan Labuan izzatiar@ums.edu.my Ahmad Aizuddin Hamzah Fakulti Kewangan Antarabangsa Labuan, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kampus Antarabangsa Labuan, 87000 Wilayah Persekutuan Labuan aizuddin@ums.edu.my Farah Shazwani Ruzaiman Fakulti Kewangan Antarabangsa Labuan, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kampus Antarabangsa Labuan, 87000 Wilayah Persekutuan Labuan farahshazwani@ums.edu.my

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ABSTRAK Pengagihan zakat di Wilayah Persekutuan dikelolakan sepenuhnya oleh Majlis Agama Islam Wilayah Persekutuan (MAIWP). Justeru, kajian ini dijalankan untuk membina modus operandi berdasarkan modul yang dikemukakan oleh Yunus 2010. Kaedah ini dijangka dapat mengurangkan budaya kebergantungan asnaf daripada pusat zakat dan ia berkemungkinan dapat membantu golongan asnaf keluar dari kepompong kemiskinan serta dapat meningkatkan minat golongan asnaf dalam bidang keusahawanan. Kajian ini mendapati bahawa model perniagaan sosial mempunyai perkaitan dengan program pembiayaan kredit mikro dan Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia (AIM) dan dijangkakan dapat menjana semula ekonomi asnaf dan melahirkan peribadi usahawan asnaf ke tahap yang lebih baik.

Kata kunci: Kredit mikro, Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia (AIM), Perniagaan Sosial, Agihan Zakat ABSTRACT Zakat dispensation in Federal Territory of Labuan is fully manage by Federal Territory Islamic Religious Council (MAIWP). Thus, this research is conducted to develop a module based on module designed by Yunus in 2010. The suggested method is expected to discourage the culture of dependency of asnaf on the zakat distribution center and it is likely to help the asnaf out of poverty and promoting their interest in entrepreneurship. Result shows the social business model is related to micro-credit financing programs and Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia (AIM) and it is expected to regenerate the economic capability of the asnaf and enhance their entrepreneurship spirit to the next level.

Keywords: Micro Credit, Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia (AIM), Social Business, Distribution of Zakat PENGENALAN Di Malaysia, Pusat Pungutan Zakat, Majlis Agama Islam Wilayah Persekutuan (PPZ-MAIWP) adalah agensi yang ditubuhkan oleh Majlis Agama Islam. PPZ-MAIWP berteraskan tugas memungut zakat di tiga wilayah iaitu di Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya, dan Labuan. Pengagihan zakat atau program-program agihan kepada asnaf yang layak menerima zakat adalah di bawah tanggungjawab Baitulmal, MAIWP. Baitulmal berjaya menjalankan pelbagai bentuk program dan mendirikan beberapa pusat kebajikan dan pendidikan khususnya kepada masyarakat bandar hasil dari kutipan PPZ-MAIWP (PPZ, 2014).

Jika dilihat daripada aspek pungutan zakat, pelbagai kaedah baru telah diperkenalkan seperti pembayaran zakat melalui e-banking, sms, direct debit, dan sebagainya. Hal ini telah memudahkan masyarakat dalam urusan pembayaran zakat dan secara tidak langsung telah

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meningkatkan hasil pungutan zakat. Dalam pada itu, aspek agihan zakat juga memerlukan suatu transformasi pengurusan bagi memastikan kesinambungan dalam pengurusan zakat.

Sejarah menunjukkan pengurusan zakat telah mengalami beberapa perubahan sejak pemerintahan Khulafa’ Al-Rasyidin lagi sehingga kini dan sebarang perubahan dalam pengurusan zakat sentiasa akan berlaku secara berterusan selari dengan pembangunan syariat Islam itu sendiri (Hamat, 2011). Ini termasuklah kaedah agihan melalui bantuan zakat dalam bentuk modal perniagaan yang bertujuan untuk melahirkan usahawan asnaf dan seterusnya dapat mengeluarkan mereka dari kepompong kemiskinan.

Justeru, bantuan perniagaan merupakan salah satu pelan dari Skim Agihan Zakat di Wilayah Persekutuan yang disediakan oleh MAIWP. Penglibatan golongan asnaf dalam bidang ekonomi adalah satu wadah unggul bagi membasmi kemiskinan dan menjana kemajuan ekonomi umat Islam. Berteraskan wadah tersebut, kajian ini mencadangkan agar pihak pusat zakat menggunakan kaedah perniagaan sosial dalam membantu usahawan asnaf untuk berjaya dalam dunia perniagaan dan pada masa yang sama pihak pusat zakat turut sama berjaya mencapai objektif pengagihan bantuan modal zakat untuk membangunkan sosioekonomi ummah.

Fokus utama perniagaan sosial adalah membantu dan menyediakan penyelesaian untuk masyarakat terutama golongan fakir dan miskin bagi mencapai keperluan hidup serta menjaga maqasid al-syariah. Dalam usaha membangunkan ekonomi asnaf, pelbagai cabaran yang terpaksa diharungi dalam melaksanakan program pembasmian kemiskinan bagi memastikan setiap asnaf berusaha dan berdikari keluar dari kepompong kemiskinan.

Cabaran yang sering dihadapi oleh pusat zakat dalam menjayakan program pembasmian kemiskinan terhadap golongan asnaf adalah (Makhtar, 2011):

i. Sikap asnaf itu sendiri yang tidak mahu berdikari serta sentiasa mengharapkan bantuan oleh pusat zakat saban tahun.

ii. Ketiadaan pengalaman serta tiada modal yang mencukupi dalam menjalankan perniagaan. Oleh itu, beberapa proses tapisan diperlukan bagi menentukan kelayakan mereka dalam menerima bantuan. Maka, mereka perlu bermula dengan menghadiri kursus dan setelah itu barulah bantuan diberikan.

iii. Walaupun bantuan modal telah diberikan tetapi mereka tetap gagal dalam meneruskan perniagaan malahan terdapat segelintir daripada mereka memohon bantuan ulangan bagi menjalankan perniagaan yang lain pula.

iv. Golongan asnaf tidak menghargai atau menyalahgunakan bantuan yang diberikan, sebagai contoh, mereka menjual peralatan bantuan perniagaan yang diberikan.

v. Bantuan yang diberikan tidak di manfaatkan sepenuhnya malahan mereka telah menggunakannya bagi perkara-perkara yang tidak berfaedah.

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Kelemahan-kelemahan inilah yang telah menyebabkan asnaf sukar berdikari serta mengalami kerugian sekali gus menyebabkan mereka putus asa serta tidak bersemangat untuk meneruskan perniagaan walaupun pusat zakat telah memberi modal perniagaan kepada mereka. Justeru kaedah perniagaan sosial ini dicadangkan agar mereka tidak hanya melakukan perniagaan secara individu tetapi kaedah ini menggalakkan mereka melakukan perniagaan secara berkawan atau berkumpulan seperti yang dipraktikkan dalam kaedah AIM.

KAJIAN LEPAS

Kini pusat zakat merupakan salah satu tunjang kepada pembangunan sosioekonomi ummah. Dalam kajian agihan zakat sebagai sumber pendapatan oleh Noor Ghani et al. (2002), menyatakan bahawa pengurusan zakat perlu diuruskan dengan bijaksana agar kutipan zakat dapat dioptimumkan dan pengagihan zakat yang terhad dapat dilaksanakan secara berkesan bagi memaksimumkan manfaatnya kepada golongan asnaf.

Terdapat beberapa kajian terdahulu yang membincangkan mengenai kesan agihan zakat dalam memperbaiki dan menjana semula ekonomi asnaf. Antaranya, hasil kajian Ibrahim (2006), mendapati bahawa agihan zakat berjaya mengurangkan ketidakseimbangan agihan pendapatan dalam kalangan asnaf. Dalam kajian beliau telah mencadangkan supaya kaedah pengagihan zakat diperbaiki dengan menggunakan had kifayah sebagai pendapatan garis kemiskinan serta mengambil kira lokasi penerima zakat sama ada di bandar atau luar bandar dan kedudukan kewangan asnaf sebagai syarat kelayakan penerima agihan zakat.

Walau bagaimanapun, sehingga kini masih tiada kajian yang mencadangkan konsep perniagaan sosial sebagai salah satu kaedah pengagihan zakat. Sehubungan dengan itu, perbincangan seterusnya akan melihat perkaitan antara pembiayaan kredit mikro dan Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia (AIM) dengan perniagaan sosial yang menyebabkan idea perniagaan sosial dicadangkan.

Kredit Mikro

Kaedah pembiayaan kredit mikro telah diperkenalkan bagi memperbaiki kualiti hidup golongan miskin serta memungkinkan mereka keluar daripada kepompong kemiskinan. Skim pembiayaan ini ditawarkan kepada mereka yang ingin menjalankan perniagaan tetapi tidak mempunyai modal yang mencukupi bagi memulakan perniagaan. Pinjaman kredit akan diberikan secara percuma tanpa cagaran dan ia membolehkan golongan miskin menjalankan aktiviti yang dapat menjana pendapatan (Rosenberg, 2010). Selain itu, program ini memberi pinjaman dalam jumlah yang kecil kepada orang miskin bagi menjalankan perniagaan yang dapat menjana pendapatan diri dan keluarga (Microcredit, 2004).

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Instrumen kewangan pembiayaan kredit mikro ini memperkenalkan suatu bentuk pembiayaan yang asalnya disediakan oleh institusi kewangan bukan bank dan instrumen kewangan ini menepati konsep serta sesuai diguna pakai oleh institusi perbankan Islam (Wilson, 2007). Rajah 1 di bawah menunjukkan struktur kredit mikro yang digunakan oleh institusi kewangan bukan bank bagi membiayai pinjaman kepada golongan miskin.

Rajah 1: Struktur Kredit Mikro

Huraian:

1. Ianya sebuah usaha untuk memudahkan proses pinjaman tanpa cagaran atau penjamin oleh institusi kewangan bukan bank kepada golongan miskin. Pembiayaan pinjaman dilakukan berdasarkan konsep amanah. Oleh itu peminjam perlu menyertai kumpulan penerima pembiayaan pinjaman mikro, yang mana ahli kumpulan diberi pinjaman kecil dan pinjaman baru akan diberikan selepas pinjaman sebelumnya dibayar.

2. Pembayaran perlu dilakukan dalam jangka masa pendek iaitu pada skala seminggu atau dua minggu. Jika terdapat ahli kumpulan yang tidak melakukan pembayaran dalam tempoh masa yang ditetapkan maka pinjaman seterusnya tidak akan diberikan.

Pergerakan pertama adalah kaedah pembiayaan pinjaman institusi kewangan bukan bank kepada kumpulan penerima. Manakala, pergerakan kedua adalah kaedah pembayaran balik kepada institusi kewangan bukan bank. Syarat yang mengatakan bahawa pinjaman baru tidak akan diberikan sebelum menjelaskan pinjaman terdahulu merupakan suatu bentuk jaminan kepada pembiaya pinjaman agar kumpulan penerima dapat membayar semula pinjaman pada masa yang telah ditetapkan kerana proses pinjaman yang diberikan adalah mudah dan tidak memerlukan penjamin. Walau bagaimanapun, kesan pelaksanaan kredit mikro di Malaysia adalah berbeza kerana kebanyakan usahawan menghadapi masalah bagi memulakan perniagaan mereka sendiri walaupun telah menggunakan kaedah kredit mikro tersebut. Ini kerana kesukaran peniaga dalam mendapatkan sumber dana kewangan dari bank-bank atau institusi kewangan lain yang menawarkan kredit mikro. Dalam erti kata lain, ketiadaan pelan perniagaan, kekurangan penjamin dan rekod pinjaman yang tidak lengkap bagi menyokong pinjaman mereka telah menyebabkan pihak institusi kewangan beranggapan bahawa penyediaan kemudahan kredit kepada usahawan kecil mempunyai risiko kegagalan yang tinggi dalam membayar kembali pinjaman (Ismail, 2001). Oleh itu, pembiayaan kredit mikro ini adalah sukar dilaksanakan secara berkesan di negara ini.

Institusi Bukan Bank Golongan Miskin 1

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Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia (AIM)

AIM diwujudkan bagi mengatasi masalah kemiskinan serta mengurangkan kemiskinan isi rumah miskin di Malaysia dan ia telah memberikan suatu harapan baru kepada kumpulan asnaf ini. AIM merupakan suatu organisasi bukan kerajaan yang menyediakan perkhidmatan bantuan kewangan (pinjaman dalam nilai kecil) dan latihan kepada isi rumah yang miskin dan miskin tegar bagi membaiki keadaan sosioekonomi mereka.

AIM yang diinspirasikan dari model Grameen Bank telah membentuk suatu program yang direka khas bagi memudahkan golongan miskin membuat permohonan. Ciri-ciri reka bentuk seperti berikut (Omar, 2002): 1. Syarat yang sesuai dengan pinjaman; tiada penjamin, tiada faedah dan tiada tindakan

undang-undang dikenakan jika gagal membayar wang pinjaman. 2. Liabiliti (tanggungan) kumpulan diperlukan bagi menggantikan penjamin. Ahli kumpulan

adalah penjamin bagi setiap ahli yang lain. 3. Mempunyai simpanan wajib mingguan dalam dana kumpulan. 4. Pinjaman dilakukan bagi menjalankan aktiviti-aktiviti yang dapat menjana pendapatan dan

ia akan dipantau oleh kakitangan AIM. Rajah 2 di bawah merumuskan keseluruhan praktik dan struktur program AIM yang melibatkan isi rumah miskin di Malaysia.

Rajah 2: Struktur Program AIM Huraian: 1. AIM memberikan bantuan berbentuk modal kepada isi rumah yang miskin agar ia dapat

membuka peluang kepada isi rumah miskin untuk menjana pendapatan sendiri. Syarat dan prosedur pinjaman yang tidak mengenakan faedah, cagaran, mahupun penjamin adalah mudah dan bersesuaian dengan situasi peminjam. Apabila pinjaman telah dibayar sepenuhnya, maka pinjaman yang lebih besar akan ditawarkan.

2. Pembayaran perlu dilakukan dalam jangka masa pendek iaitu pada skala seminggu atau dua minggu. Oleh kerana tiada penjamin maka pengganti jaminan diperlukan. Oleh itu, sebuah kumpulan akan dibentuk yang terdiri daripada lima orang sahabat. Setiap sahabat dalam satu kumpulan perlu menjadi penjamin bagi sahabat yang lain.

AIM Isi Rumah Miskin

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2

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Walau bagaimanapun AIM mempunyai kelemahan dari segi sikap ahli sahabat yang akan memberi kesan negatif kepada pembentukan sahabat. Hal ini demikian kerana sikap mereka yang membuat sesuatu pinjaman perniagaan hanya kerana suka-suka atau ikutan. Ini akan menghasilkan etika kerja yang negatif dan prestasi kerja yang tidak berkualiti. Oleh yang demikian, sebagai penambahbaikan, program ini juga perlu memberi penekanan dalam aspek pemilihan sahabat yang benar-benar layak.

Perniagaan Sosial

Dalam kajian Yunus (2007), perniagaan sosial ialah suatu perniagaan bukan kerugian dan syarikat bukan dividen yang dijalankan bagi mencapai matlamat sosial. Perniagaan sosial menyumbang kepada ekonomi masyarakat dalam meningkatkan kemahiran individu, kebebasan dan fungsi sosial atau emosi (Cohen et al., 2008).

Menurut Yunus (2010), perniagaan sosial terbahagi kepada dua jenis. i. Perniagaan sosial type I.

Pelabur menyumbangkan dana modal ke dalam syarikat dan keuntungan yang diperoleh akan digunakan untuk memperluas dan memperbesarkan perniagaan tetapi pelabur tidak akan diberikan sebarang dividen dari keuntungan.

ii. Perniagaan sosial type II. Perniagaan yang dimiliki oleh orang-orang miskin, sama ada secara langsung atau tidak langsung.

Bantuan modal zakat yang diberikan kepada usahawan asnaf adalah bersesuaian untuk digunakan sebagai modal pelaburan dalam perniagaan sosial jenis kedua (type II) kerana ciri perniagaan sosial type II ini lebih menepati matlamat untuk membantu asnaf menguruskan perniagaan mereka sendiri. Fokus utama perniagaan sosial type II adalah membantu asnaf dan menyediakan penyelesaian bagi mengatasi masalah asnaf fakir dan miskin dalam memperbaiki kehidupan dan perniagaan mereka, sementara di sisi lain, fokus AIM sentiasa kukuh dengan prinsipnya yang tidak tertumpu pada meraih keuntungan semata-mata (Musa, 2011). Dengan itu, nilai konsep perniagaan sosial akan menjadi lebih tinggi dan lebih bermakna kerana prinsipnya yang membantu masyarakat memperoleh sumber pendapatan melalui cara yang menepati syarak Islam. PERBINCANGAN Kajian ini melihat permasalahan asnaf yang berkemungkinan boleh diatasi dengan bantuan oleh pusat zakat yang menjadikan wang zakat sebagai modal awal dalam menjalankan perniagaan sosial. Prinsip asas pembiayaan kredit mikro merupakan langkah awal dalam pembentukan perniagaan sosial. Perniagaan sosial adalah suatu alternatif bagi pusat zakat dalam memberikan modal perniagaan kepada golongan asnaf. Ijmalnya, program keusahawanan yang dikemukakan

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ini adalah merupakan salah satu mekanisme yang dapat mencukupkan wang zakat yang diagihkan kepada asnaf untuk suatu jangka masa yang panjang. Melihat pada fokus utama hala tuju pusat zakat MAIWP yang ingin mencapai pengagihan zakat yang berkesan dan dapat membantu mengurangkan kadar kemiskinan dalam negara, maka kajian ini mencadangkan modus operandi perniagaan sosial yang praktikal dan sesuai untuk pusat zakat dalam membangunkan ekonomi ummah. Modus operandi tersebut diterangkan oleh Rajah 3.

Rajah 3: Cadangan Struktur Perniagaan Sosial oleh pusat zakat MAIWP

Huraian: 1. Isi rumah atau komuniti yang telah cukup syarat zakat akan membayar zakat kepada PPZ-

MAIWP. 2. Sebahagian hasil kutipan wang zakat oleh pusat zakat akan diagihkan kepada usahawan

asnaf dalam bentuk peratusan saham perniagaan. Usahawan asnaf merupakan satu kumpulan asnaf yang terdiri daripada empat atau lima orang ahli yang dikenali sebagai sahabat.

3. Dengan adanya sahabat, maka setiap kemahiran dapat dikongsi serta membolehkan penghasilan barang dan perkhidmatan yang memenuhi cita rasa komuniti. Kumpulan usahawan asnaf membekalkan perkhidmatan atau barangan kepada isi rumah atau komuniti.

4. Melalui penggunaan perkhidmatan atau pembelian barangan oleh isi Rumah dan komuniti ianya akan menjadi sumber pendapatan kepada usahawan asnaf. Sumber pendapatan ini akan digunakan sebagai modal pusingan dan lebihannya akan diagihkan dalam kalangan sahabat sebagai hasil pendapatan usahawan asnaf.

5. Dengan pendapatan yang diperoleh diharapkan usahawan asnaf dapat membayar zakat perniagaan kepada pusat zakat pula.

Struktur perniagaan sosial yang dicadangkan ini dapat memberi peluang kepada asnaf dalam menjana ekonomi keluarga serta meringankan penderitaan yang dialami oleh mereka. Selari dengan kedudukan konsep zakat yang menumpukan bantuan pada kedua-dua aspek jasmani dan rohani, bantuan yang diberikan bukanlah sekadar bantuan modal perniagaan yang berbentuk fizikal tetapi juga bantuan berbentuk akliah yang dapat membantu menginspirasikan golongan asnaf melakukan anjakan paradigma dalam meningkatkan mutu kehidupan mereka. Begitulah fungsi pusat zakat sangat signifikan dalam mewujudkan keseimbangan ekonomi masyarakat

Usahawan Asnaf Isi Rumah / Komuniti 3

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1 5

2

Institusi Zakat

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yang mana ianya jelas dapat dilihat dengan pensyariatan terhadap golongan yang berkemampuan untuk mengeluarkan zakat bagi membantu golongan yang kurang berkemampuan. Seperti yang telah diterangkan dengan panjang lebar dalam kajian ini, perniagaan sosial merupakan salah satu mekanisme pengagihan zakat sebagai modal pelaburan jangka panjang kepada golongan asnaf. Zakat yang diagihkan perlulah dijadikan modal sama ada dalam bentuk dana untuk memulakan perniagaan, pertanian, dan penternakan ataupun ia boleh diagihkan dalam bentuk saham perniagaan, syarikat, dan perusahaan. Oleh itu, diharapkan golongan asnaf yang menerima bantuan ini dapat beroleh manfaat dan tidak perlu menerima zakat kembali.

KESIMPULAN

Secara kesimpulan, walaupun hasil dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa instrumen kewangan kredit mikro dan AIM memainkan peranan yang penting dalam pembentukan struktur perniagaan sosial yang dicadangkan tetapi faktor agihan zakat juga turut diambil kira. Transformasi dalam strategi pengagihan juga perlu dilakukan oleh MAIWP agar golongan asnaf tidak mengharapkan wang zakat semata-mata dalam menjana ekonomi kehidupan mereka. Melalui cadangan wang agihan diberikan dalam bentuk saham perniagaan dan perniagaan secara berkumpulan, adalah diharapkan ia dapat meningkatkan semangat motivasi asnaf dalam memajukan ekonomi keluarga. Maka kajian ini diharapkan boleh memberikan gambaran terhadap struktur perniagaan sosial yang menggunakan wang agihan zakat sebagai bantuan modal perniagaan. Ini seiring dengan program transformasi yang telah diperkenalkan oleh pihak kerajaan. Wang zakat adalah lebih baik jika dapat digunakan bagi menangani simptom kemiskinan dalam bentuk pencegahan. Hal ini sesuai dengan kaedah Islam yang lebih mengutamakan pencegahan dari perawatan. RUJUKAN Ahmad, R. a. R. S. 2011. Strategi Pembangunan Keusahawanan Asnaf Fakir Dan Miskin

Melakui Agihan Bantuan Modal Zakat. Jurnal Pengurusan 22(37- 44. Ahmad, S. & Wahid, H. 2005. Persepsi Agihan Zakat Dan Kesannya Terhadap Pembayaran

Zakat Melalui Institusi Formal. Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia 39(53 – 69). Al-Mamun, A., Adaikalam, J. & Wahab, S. A. 2012. Investigating the Effect of Amanah

Ikhtiar Malaysia's Microcredit Program on the Client Quality of Life in Rural Malaysia. International Journal of Economics and Finance 4(1): 192-203.

Amin, S. M. & Salim, S. S. M. 2012. Pembasmian Kemiskinan Di Malaysia: Keperluan Kemahiran Pekerja Komuniti. Academia 82(1): 81-89.

Anon 2011. Membantu Keluarga Miskin Berikhtiar Menambah Rezeki, Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia.

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Chowdhury, MS 2007, „Overcoming entrepreneurship development constraints: the case of Bangladesh‟, Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy, vol.1, no.3, pp.240-251.

Cohen, M., Goldberg, M., Istvanffy, N., Stainiton, T., Wasik, A. & Woods, K.-M. (2008). Removing Barriers to Work – Flexible Employment options for People with Disabilities in BC. Vancouver: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.

De Aghion, B.A. and Morduch, J. 2005. The Economics and Microfinance. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

Ekonomi, P. R. U. P. 2011. Dasar Ekonomi Baru Pembangunan Ekonomi. Ghazali, D. H. R. 2010. Rebet Cukai Zakat Perniagaan : Keberketan Dalam Pengurusan

Kewangan Negara. Hamat, Z. 2011. Perubahan Dalam Perakaunan Zakat Di Malaysia. Jurnal Pengurusan

JAWHAR 5(1): 19-34.

Hamdan, H., Othman, P. & Hussin, W. S. W. 2012. Is Microfinance Program in Malaysia Really Effective in Helping the Poor World Review of Business Research 2(1): 79-97.

Hamid, H. A. 2011. Penjenamaan Semula Zakat lebih 'catchy pikat pembayar. Berita Harian, 01/07/2011

Hamid, H. A. 2011. Zakat Perniagaan Dlm. Hamid, H. A. (pnyt.). Zakat Terapi Kekayaan, 1. hlm. 337-339. Gruo Buku Krangkraf Sdn. Bhd.

Hashim, L. M. 2011. Minda Penerbit : Membantu Mengatasi Kegawatan Ekonomi. Humberg, K. M. 2011. Proverty Reduction through Social Business : Lessons Learnt from

Grameen Joint Ventures in Bangladesh. www.oekom.de Ibrahim, P. 2006. Economic Role of Zakat in Reducing Income Inequality and Poverty in

Selangor. Fakulti Ekonomi dan Pengurusan, UPM

Ismail, R 2001, „Economic and social impact of Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia (AIM) scheme: a case study in Kedah and Terengganu‟. Humanomics, vol.17, no.1/2, pp.141-155.

Kadri, Z. 2012. Zakat Sebagai Pemangkin Pembangunan Ekonomi: Ke Arah Negara Berpendapatan Tinggi Prosiding Perkem Vii, hlm. 1263 – 1273

Kelantan, M. a. I. D. a. I. M. 2012. Asnaf-Asnaf Zakat. Khalil, N.M. & Ahmad S. (2013). Penjanaan Semula Ekonomi Asnaf: Cadangan Perniagaan

Sosial (Vol. 1, pp. 1-10). Koveos, P 2004, „Financial services for the poor: assessing microfinance institutions”,

Managerial Finance, vol.30, no.9, pp. 70-95. Ll.M, A. a. S. 2010. Miskin Ingkar, Kaya Bersyukur. Pustaka Azhar Makhtar, A. S. 2011. Cabaran Dan Transformasi Agihan Zakat Dalam Pembasmian

Kemiskinan : Pengalaman Lzs Dlm. Salleh, M. S., Abdullah, M. S. & Hamat, Z. (pnyt.). Transformasi Zakat Daripada Zakat Saradiri Kepada Zakat Produktif hlm. Pulau Pinang: Pusat Urus Zakat, MAINPP

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Malaysia, J. K. 2011. Dasar Model Ekonomi Baru. Program Transformasi Ekonomi : Hala Tuju Untuk Malaysia.

Malaysia, K. K. 2013. Laporan Ekonomi 2012/2013: Pengurusan Dan Prospek Ekonomi. Kemiskinan dan Perbandaran

Malaysia. 2010. Rancangan Malaysia Ke Sepuluh 2010-2015. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Percetakan Negara.

Masyhur, D. R. a. a. a.-L. 2010. Zakat Penjana Ekonomi Islam. Al-Hidayah Publication Microcredit, S. 2004. State of Microcredit Campaign Summit

Report. www.microcreditsummit.org/pubs/report/socr/2004/SOCR04.pdf Morduch, J 2008, „How can the poor afford microfinance?‟, Financial Access Initiative,

January, NYU Wagner Graduate School, viewed 18 October 2008. Morris, G & Barnes, C 2005, „An assessment of the impact of microfinance‟, Journal of

Microfinance, vol.7, no.1, pp. 40-54. Musa, S. 2011. UKM Jadikan Perniagaan Sebagai Alat Membangunkan Masyarakat. UKM

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Omar, M. 2002. Towards the Reduction of Rural Poverty in Malaysia : Lessons from the Innovative Scheme of Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia Borneo Review XIII(1):

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Zakat Selangor.

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Islamic Banking and Finance in Malaysia: An Evaluation from the Perspective of Maqasid Al-Shari`ah

Osman Chuah Abdullah1

Associate Professor, Department of Usuluddin, International Islamic University Malaysia,

osmanabdullah300@yahoo.com&ochuah@iium.edu.my Department of Usul Ad Din,

International Islamic University Malaysia, Jalan Gombak, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Tel: 603-61965573 (O) and Fax 603:61964542 (O)

Abstract

Riba is haram in Islam. In the past, conventional banks use riba as a mechanism to charge borrowers. This is a great problem for Muslims throughout the world. However, in Malaysia, the Pilgrimage Management and Fund Board was established in 1962 to collect money from Muslims to finance their trip to Makkah to perform al-haj. In 1983, in addition to the collection of funds from Muslims for the trip to Makkah, Islamic banks implementing finance in all services similar to conventional banks were set up. After more than three decades, with Islamic banks making good profit nearly every year, all conventional banks in Malaysia are emulating Bank Islam Malaysia Berhad to set up Islamic banks with no riba in their banking services. The Islamic banks now offer services that comply with the rules and regulations of Islam. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to evaluate the challenges faced by Islamic banks in Malaysia and their solutions for the benefit of the ummah. This paper also identifies the issues and makes recommendations for these Islamic banks.

Key terms: riba, Islamic finance, banking service, objectives of Al-Shari`ah

Introduction

The Islamic Al-Shari`ah exists to ensure justice and non-exploitation of the social life of Muslim consumers. It is asserted by Allah (swt) that riba (usury) is haram. Thus, it is a fundamental issue for Islamic banking to completely eradicate riba (usury) as the main mechanism of financing and replacing it with joint venture forms of financing such as Mudharabah, Murabahah and Bai’ Bithaman Ajil (BBA). This will balance the moral and material needs of Muslim consumers and ensure that the objectives of Maqasid Al-Shari`ah, the upholding of justice and removal of unfairness, can be met (Al-Ghazali, 1937). However, Mudharabah consists of a very little percentage of financial services of the Islamic banks in Malaysia. As for Bai’ Bithaman Ajil, the banks usually do not bear the same risk with the financed entrepreneurs. There is also accusation that the Bai’ Bithaman Ajil has predetermined rate of return.

1 Osman Chuah Abdullah is an Associate Professor at the International Islamic University Malaysia.

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The Islamic banks’ products of Mudarabah and Murabahah seem fairer as the banks share the hardship, profit and loss together with the entrepreneurs. According to Al-Quran, Surah al-Baqarah2:275:

Allah permitted trade and forbade riba (usury)

This is a vital issue in Islamic banking. Besides this, other important issues are making speculation (maysir) and ambiguity (gharar). Al-Qur’an has emphasized on justice; when a transaction is speculative or ambiguous, it is not transparent and can cause failure or produce disadvantages to both the financier and the financed (Chapra, 2000). The Islamic finance transaction which does not follow Al-Shari`ah would be rejected in Islam.

The growth of Islamic finance in Malaysia is very fast. The annual current Islamic financing transaction is estimated to be more than 100 billion USD; in 1985 it was only 5 billion USD while in 1997 it was 70 billion USD. It continues to grow (Zamir Iqbal, 1997). There is also tremendous growth of Islamic finance and banking services. The current asset under Islamic finance and banking management globally is 750 billion. It was expected to be 1 trillion in 2011 ( Mackinsey Report, 2007-2008). Abdul Razak (2001) mentions that the assets of Islamic finance and banking have reached between USD400 billion to USD500 billion. It would very soon grow to trillions of USD.

Malaysia is a pioneer in Islamic banking. Islamic banking assets reached USD65.5 billion with a growth rate of 18-25% in 2011. The share of the total banking service in Malaysia from Islamic banking was only 6.9% in 2000. Malaysia is a nation in which conventional banking with riba and Islamic banking without riba are practised simultaneously. In 2008, Islamic banking had expanded to 17.4% of the total sum of banking assets in Malaysia.

The main objective of this paper is to evaluate the Islamic banking in Malaysia; whether it fulfils Maqasid Al-Shari`ah in the five important things of life, religion (din), wealth, mind and purity of the ummah. It will look at the maslahah or welfare created by Islamic banking by first critically presenting the definition of riba.

Definition of Riba

There are two categories of riba namely, riba al-fadl and riba al-nasiah. Riba al-fadl means the excess over the exchange at the counter, for example, when 10 kilos of rice are exchanged for 9 kilos and one gets less than the required amount. The other is riba al-nasiah. It is the excess when money is lent; the repayment over a certain time is paid with more than or excessive of the money. Riba generally means ziyadah or excess. It means an increase, expansion or growth. When one dirham is exchanged for two dirhams, the increase is due to the thing growing by itself (Usman, 2002) or in the exchange of money, one dirham for two dirhams (Al-Shawkani, 1973). This is supported by the hadith of Prophet Muhammad (saw):

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The selling of wheat to wheat is riba except if it is handed from hand to hand and equal in amount, the selling of barley to barley is riba except if it is handed from hand to hand and equal in amount, the selling of date is riba except it is handed from hand to hand and it is equal in amount. (Bukhari)

Thus, riba in Islam is an increase and based on the above dalil, it is based on credit and business transactions in the time of Prophet Muhammad (saw). Riba is the predetermined excess or surplus either in money or goods. It is the surplus or increase of which the entrepreneur pays more than what he has originally borrowed. Abu Bakar Ibnu Arabi maintains that every excess is riba if no reward is paid. Based on this, during the time of Prophet Muhammad (saw), riba is an excess of which the borrower has to pay to the creditor conditionally within a specific time. It must have three elements: there is excess of the original loan, there must be a specific time period and there is a stipulation of surplus or excess in the agreement (Al-Rahman, 1976).

The above definition is similar to `interest’ or `usury’ in conventional banks. Both terms are used to indicate excess or surplus or increase paid towards a specific time. This is clearly declared haram in Al-Qur’an, Surah al-Baqarah 2:275.

This is because they say, “Trade is like riba” but Allah had permitted trade and forbidden riba …”

This shows that Islam is fair to the low segments of society who are constantly in need of financial assistance. Without riba, the society will be a just and fair one. The tool of suppression towards the poor is declared wrong and thus forbidden.

Islam tells us that forcing borrowers to pay more than the original sum is very wrong and not according to justice. The Qur’an tells us wealth is a trust from Allah (swt). We must spend it in a way accountable to Allah (swt) and benefiting all of mankind. We must treat the poor kindly and must not find ways to destroy them. Prophet Muhammad (saw) loved all of mankind. He is known as rahmatan for the entire universe (mercy for the whole universe). Once a poor man came to see him and he gave all his goats to him (Al-Yahsubi, 1991).

Since 1983, when was first set-up, there have been various financing services or products such as Mudharabah, Murabahah, Bai’ Bithaman Ajil (BBA) and Ijarah. At this point we shall compare these terms with the definition and concept of riba. In Malaysia, Bank Islam Malaysia Berhad was the first bank to provide Islamic financing services. Later, when it became more viable, other conventional banks also applied to the Central Bank to produce Islamic services. Today, all banks in Malaysia have Islamic bank as a separate entity including Citibank and Hong Kong Shanghai Bank. Thus, in Malaysia, Islamic banks and conventional banks are managed side by side.

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Mudharabah - Mudharabah is from the Arabic word dhuraba which means to walk on the earth, seeking profit or producing goods or services. In actual sense, this means the bank provides finance for traders to produce goods or service or trade for profit. Mudharabah can be an investment in which the bank and traders work together to share profit or loss. The sharing of the profit can be divided into 70% for the bank and 30% for the trader. Under this system, the bank is the provider of all capital whereas the trader is the mudharib (ibnun Rushd 2000 )

Musharakat- Musharakat is another form of joint venture in business aimed at profit sharing. It comes from the word sharakat. For example, the bank might provide 60% of the capital and the trader the remaining 40%. The percentage of profit sharing is determined by both parties, for example in the case above, the bank gets 60% and the trader gets 40%. Musharakat too is the operation of cooperative of which members contribute to the funds and the co-operative conducts the business.

Bai’ Bithaman Ajil (BBA) - The majority of financing services from Islamic banks have been from Bai’ Bithaman Ajil since the formation of Bank Islam in 1983. This is merely a deferred payment system of which the bank buys a house and resells it to a customer or owner for anumerical monthly payment for a period of time such as 20 years for a house.

Discussion of Financial Services

We must realize that for banks, whether Islamic or conventional, profit is important for their business. If an Islamic or conventional bank is not making profit, it can be ruined and close down. Bank Islam and conventional banks are competing in the Malaysian scene. Thus, in 1983, when Bank Islam was established, it had to face fierce competition in order to survive the opposition coming from conventional banks. So far, they have gained great success and until now Islamic banks have proven that banking without riba and following the Islam way can survive so much so all the conventional banks in Malaysia are also applying for Islamic bank licences so that they can get a portion of the profit from Islamic banking including Hong Kong Shanghai Bank and Citibank. This seems to prove that Malaysia is a very viable field for Islamic banking and financial services although the Muslims are only 60% of the total population (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 1997: p. 5). This can be regarded as a success for Bank Islam Malaysia Berhad.

As for the small portion of Mudharabah and Musharakat in today’s composition of products from Islamic and financial services in Malaysia, the main reason for their lack of success may be caused by many people who try to fraudulently cheat the banks and so the banks, through their experience, decide to use Bai’ Bithaman Ajil where they could have more control as they sell back the products’ financing to the consumers or traders with fixed payments. This would cause the banks to be accused of just changing the riba rates of conventional banks. The rate of profit of Islamic bank is fixed but the riba rate in conventional banks may change according to the market situation.

5

In actual fact, Bai`Bithaman Ajil or BBA is just a deferred payment system of which the bank buys the property and sells it back to the consumers with deferred payments such as for 20 years. Bank Islam also uses the riba rate to calculate its rate of interest or what it calls the rate of profits. In fact, during the Asian crisis of 2007, the bank managed to survive because it charged the rate of profit more than the riba rate of conventional banks (Abdul Razak 2011. )

There was a court case of BBA product between Bank Islam and Adnan Omar (31994 CJL). In this case, Adnan Omar entered into a debt financing agreement with Bank Islam Malaysia Berhad. The bank purchased a house at RM88, 333.33 and sold it to Adnan Omar to be paid back in 180 instalments in 15 years. The repayment of the instalments totalled to RM194, 333.33. After the second year, AdnanOmar defaulted and the bank sued him for RM194,333.33 and won the case. In such a situation, if it is the conventional bank based on riba, it is normal for the bank to charge interests for two years only instead of 15 years. The amount of RM194, 333.33 also deprived Adnab Omar from getting a conventional bank or another Islamic bank to refinance his transaction with Bank Islam as the amount was too big. This was such as a heavy burden on Adnan and it did not seem to fulfil the objective of Al-Shari`ah as justice and welfare are the main objectives of Al-Shariàh (Al-Ghazali, 1937).

Similarly, with Affin Bank versus Zulkifli Abdullah (2006, ICLJ 438), the bank took legal action against Zulkifli Abdullah over the whole sum of 20 years’ worth of instalments that he had to pay back. The judge decided in favour of the bank. Based on the original agreement, he only had to pay 2 years’ worth of riba. This too was burdensome and very unfair on the consumer.

In Malaysia, the regulations of conventional and Islamic banks go side by side. Islamic banks are thus placed under the Federal laws. The law regulating the Islamic banking is the Islamic Banking Act of 1983. It was passed at the House of Parliament in 1983. One concern regarding this is how many Members of Parliament actually understand Islam, Shari`ah and Maqasid Al-Shari`ah. Islamic banking disputes are placed under the jurisdiction of civil courts. The civil courts in Malaysia do not deal with Islamic affairs. There is no indication that the judges from these courts can deeply understand Islam and Maqasid Al-Shari`ah better than those in Al-Shari`ah courts. However, in Malaysia, Al-Shari`ah courts fall under the various state religious departments whereas Islam banking is legally under Federal affairs.

Analysis from Maqasid Al-Shari`ah

Despite the tremendous growth of Islamic banking and its annual profits, it should not be interpreted that Bank Islam has already fulfilled the objectives of Al-Shari`ah. This is the

6

opinion of some scholars like El-Gamal (2006), Al-Ghazali (1937), Abdul Razak (2001) and Dusuki (2005). These scholars are of the opinions that most of the mode of financing are still using fixed rate of return similar to the rate of riba from in conventional banking. This cannot eliminate the injustice of riba rate of return although the rate of return is changed to the rate of profit. This could be seen in the above two court cases of which conventional banks only charge two years of interest but Islamic banks charge 20 years for their profit of return. Maqasid Al-Shari`ah is therefore applied to protect these five elements of religion (din), intellectual, mal (wealth), human self (nafsu) and posterity (nasl).

According to fiqh, riba can be eradicated but the rate of profit remains ten times greater than the rate of interest in the two court cases mentioned above as the rate of profit is fixed as riba. The financing instrument of Bai’ Bithaman Ajil seems to be unethical than the one with interest. By right, the banks could have given borrowers or traders discount and allow the rate of profit to run for two years like conventional banks. The present action goes against the objectives of Al-Shari`ah in protecting the religion (din), intellect or mind, mal or wealth, the human self (nafsu) and posterity (nasl). It can cause the consumers of Islamic finance to go bankrupt, having experience great injustice and unfairness.

Sanusi (2006), however, relates that in reality, Islamic banks in Malaysia never purchase the house in house financing in Bai’ Bithaman Ajil. The receiver of this form of financing buys the house from the developers and sells it to the Islamic bank. Subsequently, the bank resells to the receiver of finance. The difference between the price of the receiver`s purchase from the developers and the bank reselling to the customer is the rate of profit. This resembles the rate of interest of conventional banks.

It is unlike the Mudharabah mode of financing of which a very good example is how Prophet Muhammad (saw) did business for his wife, Khadijah. Khadijah provided all the funds and the Prophet (saw) became the mudharib. The profit was shared between the mudharib and the financier. It creates an economic activity. This mode of financing is very low in volume in the financing of Bank Islam (Abdul Razak, 2001). However, this is a kind of partnership that gives rise to the stimulation of more economic activities in society. This is also mentioned in Al-Quran, An-Nisa 4:12:

But if more than two they share in a third; after payment of legacies and debts; so that no loss is caused to anyone …

In a Hadith Qudsi, Allah (swt) says, “I am the third in the partner as long as there is no debtor if any partner does betray the others. I ceased to be a partner to them.”

This clearly vindicates the importance of Mudharabah type of finance and this kind of partnership. On many occasions, Prophet Muhammad (saw) also approved this partnership as he too had one with AbiSaiib. However, we must bear in mind that Prophet Muhammad (saw) was a man of great amanah and he never cheated anyone. In this Mudharabah partnership, the bank has very little control over the running of business and so the

7

mudharib could manipulate and cause a great loss out of the partnership whereas in Bai’ Bithaman Ajil, if he could not make the regular monthly payments, the bank could take legal action as repayment is the responsibility of the trader receiving finance from the Islamic bank.

Conclusion

Due to the growth of Islamic financing in banks in Malaysia and the volume of Islamic financing, Malaysia is clearly becoming a regional Islamic banking centre in the world. However, the Islamic banks here face great challenges especially in terms of Maqasid Al-Shari`ah. In the two court cases between Bank Islam and Adnan Omar (3 1994 CJL) and Affin Bank versus Zulkifli Abdullah (2006 ICLJ 438), the courts had issued the sum of total years of instalments of which Adnan Omar and Zulkifli Abdullah had to pay to the banks, the principal loan and rate of profit of 20 years whereas both of them would have to pay only 2 years’ worth of riba if they were financed by conventional banks. There was a great difference between Islamic banks and conventional banks and the amount financed by these Islamic banks owed by house buyers were much larger than the interests of the conventional banks. This is very unfair and unjust according to Maqasid Al-Shari`ah because Islam fights for the welfare of the society (maslahah) and not suppression of people. To address these problems and since the Islamic Banking Act of 1983 had been passed in Parliament, the Members of Parliament or the bankers should amend agreements in future contracts.

Most of the people getting Islamic finance are ordinary layman; they may not understand the terms of the contracts as the documents they sign have many complicated legal terms. Usually, when they purchase finance, they just sign the documents. Thus, there are certain degrees of ambiguity (gharar) about the agreements.

The challenges of Islamic banking are not only to remove riba as well as speculation (maysir) and ambiguity (gharar) but also to fulfil Maqasid Al-Shari`ah. The Bai’ Bithaman Ajil has many similarities to the financing services at conventional banks. The rate of profit is fixed like any conventional bank. The Islamic bank has no risk at all like conventional banks. Moreover, apart from paying al-zakat annually, they do not look into the welfare and social responsibility towards the poor in the society. Part of their annual profit should be used as Qardalhassan to fulfil the social responsibility. Finally, Islamic banks should not operate by just substituting riba as the rate of profit and the objectives should not be the final and ultimate aim. Otherwise, Islamic banks would just be like any other conventional banks in which there is no spiritual life which is an essential part of Islam. As for the employees of Islamic banks, they should go for training and understand more about the shariàh and its objectives rather than be proud of the profit made by the bank they are working at.

Finally, the civil court in Malaysia is a non-Islamic court. In this country, any dispute at the Islamic banks will be referred to the civil court in Malaysia. Since Malaysia has both civil

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court and Al-Shari`ah court, the right court to deal with Islam is Al-Shari`ah court. However, Al-Shari`ah is excluded from dealing with any dispute with Islamic banking and financing.

References

Abdul Razak D. (2001).Diminishing Partnership as an Islamic Home Financing In Malaysia-Issue and Perception. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Universiti Sains Malaysia.

Al-Ghazali, M.(1937). Al-Mustapha. Vol 1, Cairo: Al-Matabak Al-Tijarriyah Al-Kubra.

Al-Rahman, Afzal.(1976). Economic Doctrine of Islam. Lahore: Lahore Publication Ltd.

Al-Shawkani.(1973). Nayt al-Awtar. Beirut: Dar al-Jil Press.

Al-Yahsubi, QadiIyad Ibn Musa. (1991). Muhammad Messenger of Allah: Ash-Shifa of QadiIyad. Inverness: Madinah Press.

Chapra M. U. (2000). The Future of Economics: An Islamic Perspective. London: The Islamic Foundation.

Department of Statistics Malaysia. (January, 1997). Monthly Statistics Bulletin. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysia.

Dusuki, A. W. (2005). Corporate Social Responsibility of Islamic Banks in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Loughborough University.

El-Gamal, M. A. (2006).Islamic Finance, Law, Economics and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ibn Rushd. 2000

Mckinsey Report. (2007-2008). The World Islamic Banking Competiveness Report. Retrieved on May 24, 2011 from http://www.blominvestbank.com/Library/Files/Islamic Banking.pdf.

Sanusi, M. (2006). Al-Qawad’id al-Fiqhiyyah: Its Relevance to Malaysian Islamic Financial Products. Shariah Law Reports (MLJ) (pp. 1-16), July-Sept 2006.

Usmani, M. T. (2007). Islamic Finance. Karachi: Maktaba Ma’ariful Quran.

Usmani, Muhammad Imran Ashraf. (2002). Meezan Bank’s Guide to Islamic Banking. Karachi: DarulIshaat.

Zamir Iqbal. (1997). Islamic Financial Systems. Finance & Development, Karachi, Maktaba Maàriful Quran .

2015 The International Conference on Islam, Economic , Banking, Social Science,

Communication and Education (IEBBSSCE2- 2015)

http://iebbssce2-2015.com/

Millennium Hotel Sirih, Jakarta, Indonesia 29-30th May 2015

PEMIKIRAN POLITIK ISLAM PAK NATSIR ‘vs’ PEMIKIRAN POLITIK SEKULAR SUKARNO SEMASA ZAMAN PEMERINTAHAN BUNG KARNO

(ISLAMIC POLITICAL THOUGHT OF PAK NATSIR 'vs' SECULAR POLITICAL THOUGHT OF SUKARNO DURING THE REIGN OF BUNG KARNO)

Oleh.

DR. MOHAMAD MUZAMMIL MOHAMAD NOOR

muzammil@usm.my

UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA

Abstrak

Pak Natsir merupakan Perdana Menteri Pertama (1950-1951) semasa zaman pemerintahan Presiden Sukarno. Penglibatan Natsir dalam politik adalah bagi mendaulatkan undang-undang Islam kerana baginya agama dan politik tidak boleh dipisahkan dalam pemerintahan Sukarno. Beliau yakin dengan cara itu, pemerintahan negara dapat diserasikan dan seiring dengan pembangunan masyarakat Islam dan tanah air. Dalam zaman pemerintahan Sukarno sebagai kepala negara dan Natsir menjawat jawatan Perdana Menteri, kedua-dua tokoh itu berbeza pandangan dalam pemerintahan negara. Mereka sering kali bertelagah pendapat dan pemikiran berkaitan isu-isu agama dan idea sekular Sukarno. Sebagai seorang pemimpin parti Islam yang terbesar, Masyumi, Natsir memperjuangkan idea-idea Islam dan bertegas mahu menjadikan ajaran dan hukum Islam sebagai dasar dan teras pemerintahan Indonesia. Paling beliau menentang idea Sukarno ialah isu Pancasila yang menjadi ‘rukun negara’ di jiwa rakyat Indonesia. Dalam Pancasila, Sukarno membelakangi nilai-nilai Islam tetapi menerapkan nilai-nilai sekular. Bagi Natsir, jika Pancasila diserapi unsur-unsur sekular, ia akan menjadi ‘bahaya

sekularisme’ dan boleh menggugatkan agama Islam dan masyarakatnya. Natsir boleh menerima Pancasila itu dengan syarat tidak bercanggah dengan al-Quran dan al-Hadis di dalamnya tetapi tidak mendapat reaksi positif daripada Sukarno. Sukarno menginterpretasikannya dengan tidak menerapkan nilai-nilai Islam. Natsir tidak merasa puas hati kerana ideanya dihalangi lantas Sukarno giat menjalankan propaganda bagi menerima ideanya dan menyeru rakyat mempertahankan Pancasila berorientasikan sekular. Namun, mendapat tentangan hebat daripada Natsir dan golongan Masyumi, Sukarno tetap mempertahankan prinsipnya iaitu beliau bimbang masyarakat bukan Islam di beberapa bahagian negaranya akan berpecah belah dan akhirnya akan runtuh sebuah bangsa Indonesia yang berdaulat. Satu lagi berlaku pertentangan hebat antara Natsir-Sukarno adalah berkaitan konsep ‘demokrasi cara Sukarno’. Natsir menggalakkan pemerintahan Indonesia mengikut cara demokrasi berteraskan Islam. Walau bagaimanapun Sukarno tidak menyetujui pandangan Natsir kerana beliau mahukan Indonesia Merdeka mempunyai satu parti sahaja iaitu Partai Nasional Indonesia (PNI) yang berkuasa di Jakarta. Natsir merasakan ideanya itu sudah melampau dan ia seperti sistem politik negara fasis yang diamalkan oleh Benito Mussolini dan Adolf Hitler di Eropah. Ia menjadi satu kenyataan apabila Sukarno melalui kuasanya telah membubarkan Masyumi pada tahun 1960 melalui bentuk pemerintahan Demokrasi Terpimpin. Natsir telah menjadi musuh politik ketatnya dan menganggap beliau sebagai ‘diktaktor’.

Kata kekunci: Natsir; Sukarno; Masyumi; Pancasila; Partai Nasional Indonesia; Demokrasi Terpimpin

Pengenalan

Muhammad Natsir dan Sukarno merupakan dua orang nasionalis dan ahli politik yang

melakarkan sejarah tersendiri Indonesia. Natsir yang berjuang dalam politik dan

nasionalisme di Indonesia atau disebut Netherlands East Indies (Hindia Timur) atau

Nederlandsch Oost-Indie (Hindia Belanda) di zaman penjajahan Belanda. Beliau juga

berusaha menerapkan nilai-nilai Islam dalam pentadbiran dan politik. Natsir yang amat

membenci penjajah Belanda telah bercita-cita untuk mendirikan negara Islam di Indonesia.

Dalam perjuangan politik beliau, pelbagai cabaran dan dugaan yang telah ditempuhinya

termasuklah beberapa kali ditahan dalam penjara oleh pihak penjajah itu serta semasa di

zaman pemerintahan sekular Presiden Sukarno1. Namun begitu, segala yang dihadapinya

tidak mematah semangat beliau untuk berjuang kepada seluruh masyarakat Indonesia serta

terhadap Islam melalui pidato-pidatonya yang berapi-api, penulisan di akhbar, majalah dan

buku yang diterbitkan serta bergiat aktif dalam persatuan-persatuan sosial dan politik

termasuk Partai Masyumi iaitu sebuah parti Islam terbesar di Indonesia dan juga di dunia

Islam yang berdasarkan jumlah ahlinya.

Mereka merupakan dua orang tokoh zaman silam yang berjuang dalam pelbagai

bentuk iaitu melalui pengkaryaan, berpidato, parti dan pertubuhan di Indonesia.

Perjuangan mereka yang anti penjajah dan tetapi berbeza pendirian dalam pemikiran dan

perjuangan politik iaitui Natsir menegakkan agama slam dan undang-undang Syariah

dalam pemerintahan negara dan Sukarno yang menegakkan idea sekularnya. Walau

bagaimanapun, idea pemikiran Islam Natsir sukar diterima oleh kerajaan Sukarno yang

baru dibentuk selepas merdeka. Kerajaan yang memerintah di Indonesia adalah kerajaan

yang diwakili pemimpin dan parti politik yang menerima pendidikan sekular yang dibawa

penjajah Barat, seperti Sukarno melalui Partai Nasional Indonesia (PNI)2 yang merupakan

parti warisan penjajah.

Definisi Sekularisme

Tafsiran pengertian “sekuler” bagi Natsir ialah, “memisahkan hal yang mengenai

hidup ruhani dari hal yang mengenai hidup duniawi, sebagai dua lapangan terpisah dan

malah dianggap berlawanan, dan dengan mengutamakan hal-hal duniawi (temporal) atas

hal ruhani (spiritual). Malah paham “sekularisme” tersebut seakan-akan sudah merupakan

satu dogma, kepercayaan bagi penganutnya. Sekularisme ini terang berasal dari ketidak

pahaman, atau pengingkaran dari kepentingan hukum-hukum Ilahi dalam mengatur

kehidupan pribadi manusia ataupun bangsa-bangsa serta nasib perikemanusiaan

seluruhnya.” 3

Pemikiran politik Natsir yang bertentangan dengan Pemikiran Politik Sukarno

Natsir dan Sukarno adalah golongan anti penjajah di tanah air. Namun, Natsir

dikenali sebagai tokoh pembaharuan dalam pendidikan berteraskan Islam, sosial, politik

Islam dan agama. Disebabkan faktor ini, beliau digelarkan oleh sejarawan sebagai

pemimpin berhaluan kiri dan agak radikal kerana pemikiran dan perjuangannya tidak

sehaluan dengan perjuangan yang dibawa oleh kerajaan yang memerintah iaitu Sukarno.

Natsir menerima kekangan, tekanan dan seterusnya pergerakannya dalam politik dihadkan

oleh pemerintah kerana pengaruhnyaa mula mendapat sambutan orang ramai dan akan

menggugatkan kepentingan pihak kerajaan yang memerintah dalam politik dan urusan

pentadbiran negara.

Idea dan pemikiran Islam yang dikendong oleh Natsir melalui perjuangannya dalam

bidang politik dan pentadbiran di Indonesia mulai berpengaruh dalam parti berteraskan

Islam terbesar, Masyumi. Perjuangannya dalam Parti Masyumi mendesak kerajaan yang

memerintah yang dipimpin oleh Presiden Sukarno supaya meletakkan Islam sebagai satu

ideologi negara bersama-sama Undang-undang Syariah dalam pentadbiran perundangan

negara. Alasan Natsir adalah kerana di Indonesia, penduduknya majoriti beragama Islam

dan seharusnya menggunakan al-Quran dan al-Hadis sebagai panduan hidup dan urusan

negara. Sebelum dan semasa beliau menjadi Menteri Penerangan dan Perdana Menteri,

beliau sentiasa bertelagah dengan Sukarno dan golongan sekular lain dalam isu

pembentukan sebuah negara Islam. Pertentangan pendapat antara mereka itu dilakukan

melalui tulisan-tulisan Natsir sendiri dan juga di dewan persidangan parlimen. Selanjutnya,

dapat dikatakan bahawa perjuangan Natsir dalam mendirikan sebuah negara Islam dan

menegakkan Undang-undang Islam ini adalah seiringan dengan perjuangannya dalam

bidang dakwah. Para sejarawan Indonesia seperti Mestika Zed, Mohammad Noer dan Ajip

Rosidi meletakkan Natsir sebagai negarawan yang berjuang melalui ideologi Islam.

Misalnya, Profesor Dr. Mestika menjelaskan yang tokoh tersebut adalah seorang

negarawan yang berjaya membentuk sebuah negara Indonesia dengan penyatuan

wilayah-wilayah yang dipisah-pisahkan dan ditinggalkan oleh penjajah setelah

memperolehi kemerdekaan melalui gagasan Mosi Integralnya.4

Penglibatan Natsir dalam politik dan kegiatan Islam lebih menonjol setelah dilantik

oleh Hj. Ahmad Hassan sebagai anggota tetap Sidang Redaksi atau Pengarang majalah

Pembela Islam’.5 Pelantikan tersebut telah memberi ruang kepada beliau untuk berhadapan

dengan isu-isu dan soal-soal agama Islam, sosioekonomi dan politik Indonesia semasa

penjajahan Belanda. Semasa beliau menganggotai Sidang Pengarang majalah tersebut,

Sukarno yang terkenal sebagai pemimpin tertinggi PNI telah berpeluang berpidato di

sekitar Kota Bandung. Natsir turut ikut serta mendengar Sukarno berucap berapi-api di

hadapan para penyokongnya bagi menaikkan semangat menentang penjajah Belanda.

Sebenarnya, semasa Natsir di alam persekolahan lagi turut mendengar pemimpin PNI

tersebut berdebat sehingga menaikkan semangatnya ikut serta memberi ceramah berbentuk

sedemikian.

Berbalik kepada pidato Sukarno, dalam hujah-hujahnya yang mengkritik sistem

pentadbiran Belanda, Sukarno turut menyelit tuduhan yang memperlekeh-lekehkan dan

membelakangi Islam serta turut mengejek-ejek hukum-hakam Islam.6 Natsir melakarkan

pandangannya terhadap Sukarno;

“Diwaktu itu mulailah Aba sadar, bahwa gerakan kebangsaan yang dipelopori oleh Ir. Soekarno cs mengandungi bibit-bibit kebencian dan memandang enteng kepada Islam.”

(Natsir, Surat Aba M. Natsir Kepada Keluarga, 15 September 1958)

Segala tuduhan tidak berasas Sukarno tersebut telah membangkitkan kegusaran Natsir dan

mengecewakannya kerana tergamak seorang pemuda Islam memberi tuduhan pesong pada

agama pegangannya sendiri. Maka dengan itu, Natsir menggunakan saluran Pembela Islam

untuk menangkis segala tuduhan melulu Sukarno dalam setiap sesi ceramahnya. Setiap

bidasan Natsir terhadap Sukarno terpancul ketajaman buah fikirannya membicarakan

tentang Islam keseluruhan dengan menggunakan al-Quran dan al-Hadis dalam

membuktikan kebenaran agama Islam dengan menggunakan nama samarannya, “Is.”,

“Muazzin”, “A. Moechlis” dan “Spectator”.7 Selain membidas setiap tuduhan Sukarno,

Natsir juga turut mengkritik dan menangkis tuduhan liar terhadap agama Islam yang

dilakukan oleh Suwarni tentang keburukan poligami, Sitti Sundari yang mencela peraturan

hukum hakam atau undang-undang Islam dan Dr. Sutomo yang mendakwa “pergi ke

Digul lebih baik pergi naik haji ke Makkah” dalam Pembela Islam.8 Dengan peranan yang

dimainkan oleh Natsir ini dalam produksi Hj. Ahmad Hassan, telah mempopularkan lagi

majalah tersebut.

Selain itu, Natsir turut melibatkan diri dalam kegiatan persatuan sosial,

badan-badan agama dan politik Islam di Indonesia. Dalam tahun 1932, beliau

menganggotai Jong Islamieten Bond (Serikat Pemuda Islam) (JIB), tahun 1937 pula

menjadi pengerusi Persis iaitu semua persatuan sosial agama yang ditubuhkan oleh Hj.

Ahmad Hassan yang berpusat di Bandung. Pergerakan ini dikenali sebagai pergerakan

Islam moden di Jawa. Sebuah lagi badan Islam yang dianggotainya ialah The Islamic

Surpreme Council of Indonesia yang berpusat kegiatannya di Surabaya. Selepas itu, iaitu

pada tahun 1938, tokoh Islam ini mempengerusikan pula sebuah pertubuhan iaitu Partai

Islam Indonesia (PII) yang diasaskan oleh Dr. Sukiman Wirjosandjojo, Wiwaha dan

K.H.M. Mansur di Solo, Jawa Tengah. PII yang aktif juga di Bandung menjadi landasan

pertamanya berkecimpung dalam kerjaya politik. Semasa menjadi ketua parti Islam ini,

Natsir menggangotai Majelis Islami A’la Indonesia (MIAI).9 Semasa pendudukan Jepun

di Indonesia, Natsir dilantik sebagai Ketua Biro Pelajaran di Bandung. Beliau juga terlibat

secara langsung dalam penubuhan sebuah institut pendidikan yang dikenali dengan

Sekolah Tinggi Islam (STI) pada tahun 1945. Ketika itu Muhammad Hatta yang menjadi

Timbalan Presiden Republik Indonesia dilantik sebagai Pengarah STI dan Natsir menjadi

setiausaha sekolah tersebut.

Kesan kegiatannya yang aktif dalam persatuan-persatuan sosial dan parti politik serta

sifat kepimpinan yang ada dalam dirinya, akhirnya Natsir dilantik sebagai Ahli Parlimen

iaitu dikenali dengan Komite Nasional Indonesia Pusat (KNIP)10 dari tahun 1945 hingga

tahun 1946. Dalam masa pelantikan itu, beliau diberi kepercayaan oleh Presiden Sukarno

mengisi jawatan Menteri Penerangan dalam kabinet pertama. Seterusnya dari tahun 1949

hingga tahun 1958, Natsir menjadi presiden bagi sebuah parti Islam berpengaruh di

Indonesia iaitu Masyumi. Kerjayanya dalam politik terus berkembang apabila diberi

jawatan tinggi dalam pentadbiran Republik Indonesia apabila dilantik sebagai Perdana

Menteri pada 7 September 1950. Pelantikan beliau ke jawatan itu adalah kerana bagi

mengenangkan jasanya menukarkan Republik Indonesia dari sistem pemerintahan federal

kepada negara kesatuan yang dikenal dengan “Mosi Integral Natsir”.11 Bagi Natsir, beliau

merasa kebimbangan jika tidak ditukarkan sistem pentadbiran kerana bentuk sistem

pemerintahan federal akan membahagi-bahagikan wilayah-wilayah Indonesia yang

berpulau itu dan seterusnya membahayakan keutuhan republik. Namun begitu, pelantikan

beliau sebagai Perdana Menteri tidak mengambil masa yang panjang tetapi hanya kira-kira

enam bulan sahaja kerana komplot yang dilakukan oleh sekutu Presiden Sukarno.

Semasa awal penghijrahan Natsir ke Bandung dan mendirikan sebuah sekolah,

Pendidikan Islam (Pendis), beliau menulis secara tetap dan teratur. Ketika itu dapat

memperlihatkan pandangannya yang luas, ketajaman fikiran, kebijakannya dalam

berpolemik dan keteguhannya dalam membela agama dan bangsanya. Misalnya, melalui

majalah Pedoman Masjarakat dan Pandji Islam, beliau berdebat dengan Sukarno

disebabkan pemimpin PNI tersebut sering memperlekeh-lekehkan Islam dan Natsir dengan

tegas membidas kembali tuduhan melulu Sukarno tersebut.12 Dengan kata lain, selain

faktor mempertingkatkan imej kebudayaan, kesenian, sejarah dan ketamadunan Islam,

tujuan Natsir menulis adalah bagi memperbanyakkan bahan-bahan ilmu pengetahuan,

memperbetulkan kekeliruan orang kafir dan orang tempatan yang merendah-rendahkan

martabat Islam, membidas kritikan penjajah Hindia Belanda (Indonesia) terhadap

kemunduran Islam dan masyarakatnya, menangkis setiap tuduhan melulu Sukarno tentang

Islam serta kebangkitan aliran falsafah dan pemikiran Islam di Jawa dan Indonesia

keseluruhannya.

Bagi Natsir, agama dan politik tidak boleh diasingkan. Islam. Natsir sering

memberikan ulasan tentang ucapan-ucapan dasar pemerintahan Sukarno dan

pemimpin-pemimpin PNI lain pada masa pemerintahan presiden pertama itu. Penulisan

beliau banyak dipaparkan dalam majalah-majalah seperti Pandji Islam dan Pedoman

Masjarakat, yang memperlihatkan ketajaman analisis dan buah fikiran beliau dalam

memberikan pandangan yang bernas dan keluasan fikiran yang disampaikan dengan gaya

bahasa yang sederhana, mudah dan menarik untuk pembaca menghayatinya.13 Beliau turut

memberikan ulasan dalam hasil perdebatan Dewan Rakyat, kritikan penjajah dan

ucapan-ucapan Sukarno. Ketika Sukarno dalam tahanan menjalani hukuman di Penjara

Sukamiskin di sebelah timur Kota Bandung dalam tahun 1929, beliau sering membaca

hasil-hasil tulisan Natsir yang dikirimkan oleh Hj. Ahmad Hassan.14 Malahan, Sukarno

memuji hasil-hasil karya Natsir yang menggunakan sama samaran ‘Muazzin’. Menurut

Sukarno;

“Haraplah sampaikan saya punya compliment (pujian) kepada tuan Natsir atas ia punya tulisan-tulisan yang memakai bahasa Belanda. Antara lain ia punya inleiding (pengantar) di dalam Komt tot het gebed (Marilah Shalat) adalah menarik hati.”15

Dalam setiap penulisan Sukarno tentang agama Islam dan negara serta situasi

sosiopolitik luar negeri dilihat seperti “modernisasi” Islam yang dilakukan oleh Kemal

Ataturk16 di Turki yang dianggapnya telah melakukan pemisahan antara negara dan agama

tanpa meninggalkan unsur-unsur Islam sehingga negaranya mencapai “kemajuan”, telah

memberikan inisiatif dan idea untuknya dipergunakan di Indonesia. Sukarno mengukuhkan

penjelasannya;

“Disuatu Negara Demokrasi, yang ada Dewan Perwakilan Rak-yatnya, yang sebenarnya mewakili Rakyat, toh dapat ‘dimasukkan’ segala macam keagamaannya dalam tiap-tiap tindakan Negara dan kedalam tiap-tiap wet yang di pakai didalam Negara itu walaupun disitu Agama dipisahkan dari Negara, asal sebagian besar dari anggota-anggota Parlemen, politiknya politik agama, maka semua putusan-putusan Parlemen itu dengan sendirinya akan berisi fatwa-fatwa Agama pula. Asal sebagian besar dari anggota-anggota Parlemen itu politiknya politik Islam, maka tidak akan berjalanlah satu porstel juapun yang tidak bersifat Islam”17

Hasil-hasil tulisan Sukarno seperti, “Apa Sebab Turki Memisahkan Agama dari Negara”

dan “Masyarakat Onta dan Masyarakat Kapal Udara” menerima reaksi negatif daripada

umat Islam Indonesia termasuk H. Agus Salim, Hj. Ahmad Hassan dan Natsir sendiri

sehingga artikel tersebut tidak dimuatkan dalam Pandji Islam. Antara alasan yang

menyebabkan tulisan beliau ditolak ialah kerana Sukarno dianggap kurang mendalami

ilmu pengetahuan tentang agama Islam, sambil mempersoalkan apakah sebenarnya

pandangan Islam mengenai soal-soal yang dibahaskan oleh Sukarno itu.18

Sebagai tindakan selanjutnya, sebelum tahun 1939, Natsir membidas sekeras-kerasnya

pendapat Sukarno tentang Islam itu melalui penulisannya yang dimuatkan dalam majalah

al-Manar melalui tajuk “Sikap Islam Terhadap Kemerdekaan Berfikir, Persatuan Agama

dan Negara” dengan menggunakan nama samaran, A. Moechlis. Menurut Natsir,

kelemahan Sukarno dalam ilmu berkaitan Islam adalah disebabkan Sukarno lebih

memperluaskan pengetahuannya tentang Islam dengan hanya membaca buku-buku dalam

bahasa Belanda, Inggeris dan Jerman yang ditulis oleh pengarang bukan Islam. Di samping

itu, terdapat satu kelemahannya kerana agak kurang fasih dalam bahasa Arab. Oleh yang

demikian, memberi tanggapan kepada Sukarno untuk merendah-rendahkan kemampuan

penulis Islam tempatan.19 Namun, tulisan Sukarno itu mendapat kritikan daripada Natsir.

Oleh itu, melalui karya beliau, Natsir cuba mempertikaikan dan menyindir pendapat

Sukarno seperti mana tulisannya yang bertajuk, Natsir versus Soekarno-Persatuan Agama

dengan Negara20, Islam dan Akal Merdeka21, Demokrasi di bawah Hukum22, dan Islam

sebagai Ideologi.23 Dalam karya Natsir yang lain pula yang bertajuk Sikap Islam Terhadap

Kemerdekaan Berfikir, beliau hanya mengulas satu tema sahaja iaitu saranan supaya

masyarakat Islam perlu banyak menggunakan akal dalam setiap tindak tanduk dan

perbuatan serta huraian tentang peranan akal dalam agama Islam.24

Menurut Natsir, salah satu ajaran Nabi Muhammad S.A.W. yang sangat penting ialah

menghargai akal manusia dan melindungi daripada tindakan-tindakan yang mungkin

dilakukan oleh manusia di atas nikmat Tuhan yang tidak ternilai itu. Dalam al-Quran,

terdapat banyak ayat yang menyeru manusia menggunakan akal atau fikirannya. Akal

ditempatkan di tempat terhormat dan dijadikan sebagai salah satu alat untuk mengetahui

Tuhan dan kebenaran-Nya. Masyarakat Islam harus menggunakan akalnya untuk

memahami gejala-gejala alam yang ada di sekelilingnya25 dan juga untuk memahami

ayat-ayat al-Quran yang diturunkan untuknya.26 Tambah beliau lagi, Islam mengutuk

umatnya yang tidak mempergunakan akalnya, Islam juga melarang bertaklid iaitu “buta

kepada fahaman” dan iktikad yang tidak berdasarkan kepada wahyu Allah.27 Menurut

Natsir;

“Salah satu dari tiang-tiang ajaran Junjungan kita Nabi Muhammad s.a.w. yang penting ialah: Menghargai akal manusia dan melindunginya dari pada tindasan-tindasan yang mungkin dilakukan orang atas ni’mat Tuhan yang tidak ternilai itu. Muhammad s.a.w. meletakkan akal pada tempat yang terhormat dan menjadikan akal itu sebagai salah satu alat untuk pengetahui Tuhan. Bertebaran salam Al-Quran pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang memikat perhatian, menyuruh orang mempergunakan fikiran dan mendorong manusia supaya mempergunakan akalnya dengan sebaik-baiknya...”28

Natsir juga berpendapat bahawa berpegang kepada akal sahaja boleh menimbulkan

akibat-akibat tertentu, misalnya akal merdeka dapat meningkatkan keimanan seseorang

dan juga boleh mendatangkan kekufuran dalam kalangan ahli tasawuf jika disalah guna.29

Tambahnya lagi, akal merdeka sememangnya indah dan permai, tetapi boleh juga

menimbulkan kecelakaan. Oleh itu, tanpa disiplin, akal merdeka boleh menimbulkan

kekacauan. Menurut beliau lagi, ajaran Islam dapat membangunkan akal serta mendorong

manusia agar menggunakan akal sebaik-baiknya sebagai nikmat Allah yang sangat indah.

Oleh itu, agama boleh mengalirkan akal menurut aliran yang benar, supaya kekal di jalan

yang lurus.30

Perdebatan Natsir-Sukarno berkaitan isu-isu agama-sekular lebih menonjol selepas

penubuhan Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia atau Masyumi pada 7-8 November 1945.

Melalui Masyumi, idea-idea pemikirannya dan penglibatan dalam politik mulai

berkembang luas sehingga ketokohannya sebagai pemimpin agak menonjol terutama pada

zaman Sukarno. Menurut H. Munawir Sjadzali;

“... pikiran Natsir banyak mewarnai pandangan dan sikap partai, termasuk pikiran tentang tata negara.”31

Pendapat Munawir tersebut dapat ditafsirkan dengan peranan Natsir dalam politik kerana

sebahagian idea dan pemikirannya tentang penyusunan dan cadangan pembentukan negara

sering dipolemikkannya dengan Sukarno serta bertelagah pendapat. Antara perkara yang

diperdebatkan ialah yang berkaitan dengan agama dan negara, kemampuan al-Quran

mengatur negara, Islam dan demokrasi, kritikan terhadap gerakan

“sekularisasi-westernisasi” Mustapha Kamal Ataturk di Turki.32

Selepas pengunduran Natsir dalam pentadbiran dan pemerintahan Presiden

Sukarno, berlaku zaman kediktatoran Sukarno yang memperlihatkan kekuasaan beliau

yang menyebabkan kemerosotan demokrasi di Indonesia. Keadaan ini memberikan

peluang kepada rakyat Indonesia melakukan pemberontakan di daerah-daerah seluruh

Indonesia sebagai tanda protes kepada kepimpinan Sukarno yang meruntuhkan sistem

demokrasi.33 Pada masa yang sama, rakyat mulai gusar kerana pentadbiran pusat tidak

mengendahkan pembangunan di daerah-daerah terpencil. Malah, mereka tidak

menggemari sikap Sukarno yang melakukan pelbagai tindakan yang menyalahi

perlembagaan negara, lebih-lebih lagi apabila melantik dirinya sendiri sebagai “formatur

kabinet” ataupun ketua badan atau majlis tertinggi yang membentuk kabinet. Mereka juga

tidak dapat menerima Demokrasi Terpimpin yang diperkenalkan olehnya sendiri dan

seterusnya membantah Kabinet Gotong Royong yang turut disertai oleh Partai Komunis

Indonesia (PKI).34 Oleh sebab bantahan yang dilakukan oleh rakyat itu, hal tersebut turut

mendapat perhatian daripada ahli-ahli politik yang membangkang dasar Sukarno.

Melihat keadaan ini, Natsir dan para penyokongnya terutama ahli politik daripada

Masyumi membantah sekeras-kerasnya dan terus mengambil langkah tidak bekerjasama

dengan presiden tersebut. Natsir berpendapat perkara yang dilakukan oleh Sukarno itu

menyimpang daripada unsur-unsur demokrasi dan apabila hancurnya demokrasi, maka

hancurlah juga hasil kemerdekaan yang selama ini diperjuangkan. 35 Sebagai langkah

bantahan dan demi keselamatan perjuangan, Natsir dan rakan seperjuangannya

bersama-sama dengan Sjafruddin Prawiranegara dan Burhanuddin Harahap telah

membentuk sebuah “kerajaan tidak rasmi” iaitu Pemerintah Revolusioner Republik

Indonesia (PRRI) di Padang, Sumatera Barat pada 15 Februari 1958. Keadaan menjadi

genting apabila Sukarno mengeluarkan perintah akan menangkap dan memenjarakan

mereka yang cuba menentang beliau. Dasar yang dibuat oleh Sukarno tersebut telah

memberikan kesimpulan kepada Natsir bahawa perjuangan menegakkan demokrasi sudah

tidak dapat dilakukan menerusi sistem politik biasa.36 Oleh sebab itu, Natsir merasakan

pembentukan PRRI adalah perlu dengan keadaan semasa demi menjatuhkan kuasa

Sukarno tersebut. Menurut Kahin pula, penyertaan Natsir dalam PRRI dilihat sebagai suatu

usaha menghalang tindakan tidak demokratik dan tindakan Sukarno itu adalah sesuatu

yang melanggari perlembagaan. Diperjelaskan maksud Kahin tersebut;

“It has seemed to me that one of Natsir’s major contributions to his country came in the course of the PRRI rebellion. Since this episode has been the object of such differing points of view in Indonesia and so much ignorance abroad, his role in it merits closer scrutiny than has usually been given. My own assessment reflects long study of this episode and recent access to data that have not been available to other writers. Upon the basis of this, it is very clear that Natsir must be credited with having made an important contribution to the maintenance of Indonesia’s territorial integrity. Supported bye Sjafruddin Prawiranegara and Burhanuddin Harahap, he carried out an ultimately successful struggle within the PRRI to block those who favored Sumatras’s seceding from Indonesia and becoming a separate state. He insisted on such a course even if doing so meant forfeiting potentially powerful outside support. It is to large extend because of Mohammad Natsir that the PRRI’s struggle was waged within the context of Indonesian unity.”37

Bantahan dan bangkangan Natsir terhadap usaha Sukarno yang mempunyai

ciri-ciri kedikdatoran itu menimbulkan kegusaran dan ancaman kepada Natsir dan

keluarganya,38 serta para pemimpin politik lain yang tidak menyokong dasarnya. Pada

akhir tahun 1957, penyokong Sukarno daripada pemuda yang berideologi komunis

melancarkan ancaman kepada Natsir hingga menimbulkan kebimbangan keluarganya di

Jakarta.39 Menurut salah seorang anaknya, Natsir menerima pelbagai jenis surat layang,

panggilan telefon yang memberikan pelbagai ugutan dan malah rumahnya turut dikepung

oleh pemuda-pemuda komunis. 40 Tekanan yang diterima oleh Natsir tersebut

menyebabkan beliau melaporkan kepada pihak berkuasa dan pihak tertinggi

undang-undang, namun tiada reaksi yang diterima kerana cengkaman kuasa daripada

Sukarno.

Sebagai langkah seterusnya, Natsir bersama-sama pemimpin kanan parti-parti

politik lain mengambil langkah melancarkan gerakan anti Sukarno; mereka termasuk

Sjafruddin Prawiranegara41 dan Burhanuddin Harahap. Tindakan ini terjadi kerana sikap

Sukarno yang tidak boleh diajak berunding lagi. Akhirnnya, para penentang Sukarno

menuju ke Padang, Sumatera Barat dan turut menemui beberapa kumpulan penentang lain,

iaitu Zulkifli Lubis, Kolonel Dahlan Djambek, Ahmad Hussen dan Sumitro

Djojohadikusumo untuk mengambil jalan mengatasi tindakan kediktatoran Sukarno yang

di luar undang-undang.42 Dalam pertemuan mereka itu, kata sepakat diambil untuk merayu

kepada Sukarno supaya kembali kepada kedudukan asal sebagai Presiden Republik

Indonesia yang sah disisi undang-undang dan mentaati perlembagaan yang telah

diperuntukkan. Menurut satu sumber;

“Menghapuskan Kabinet Djuanda dan konsep Presiden Sukarno tentang ‘Demokrasi Terpimpin’, kerana jelas bahawa Presiden Konstitusional dan memujuk Bung Hatta dan Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX sebagai formatur kabinet ahli.”43

Oleh sebab tuntutan mereka yang tidak dipedulikan, maka golongan politik

tersebut mengadakan satu pertemuan lagi di Sungai Dareh, Jambi pada 15 Februari 1958

dan mengisytiharkan penubuhan PRRI yang mempunyai “kabinetnya” sendiri diketuai

oleh Sjafruddin sendiri sebagai “Perdana Menteri”.44 “Kabinet” yang diusahakan oleh

Natsir dan Sjafruddin tersebut wujud selama dua tahun sahaja iaitu dari tahun 1958 hingga

tahun 1960. Namun tindakan PRRI itu telah memberikan peluang kepada Sukarno untuk

menangkap mereka dengan melalui “kerjasama antara mereka”. Sukarno menjemput

mereka iaitu daripada puak PRRI pulang ke Jakarta untuk berbincang dan seterusnya

“memberi keampunan”. Atas dasar kepercayaan kepada Sukarno yang mungkin berubah

dalam dasar pemerintahan, ternyata meleset apabila Natsir bersama-sama Sjafruddin,

Hamka, Mohammad Yunan Nasution, Mochtar Lubis45, Sutan Sjahrir dan Boerhanuddin

Harahap ditangkap tanpa dibicarakan dan seterusnya disumbat dalam penjara. Namun

demikian, setelah kejatuhan Sukarno dan digantikan oleh presiden baru, Suharto, semua

pejuang-pejuang demokrasi itu dibebaskan tanpa amaran. Penangkapan Natsir ini

memberikan kesan kepadanya apabila Suharto telah mengikat penglibatan dan kegiatan

beliau dalam parti politik.46

Akibat tindakan Sukarno yang membelakangi Perlembagaan Republik Indonesia

dan memerintah secara kuku besi, menyebabkan Natsir bersama-sama pemimpin lain

mengambil tindakan drastik menubuhkan “kerajaan asing” di Padang. Hal ini bermakna

Natsir telah menjadi pemimpin politik pembangkang kepada kerajaan pemerintah.

Golongan pemimpin komunis PKI diberikan ruang sehingga menyebabkan golongan

pemimpin Islam dan nasionalis lain melakukan penentangan terhadap Sukarno.

Penolakan Sekularisme dalam Pentadbiran

Natsir telah menunjukkan perjuangan yang agak mantap dalam membicarakan hal-hal

berkaitan agama, bangsa dan pentadbiran. Pertentangan pendapat beliau dengan Presiden

Sukarno adalah berkaitan dengan isu-isu agama dan idea sekular Sukarno. 47 Sebagai

seorang ahli politik yang memperjuangkan idea-idea Islam, Natsir bertegas mahu

menjadikan ajaran dan hukum Islam sebagai dasar dan teras pemerintahan tanah airnya.

Perjuangan Natsir bersama-sama tokoh agama lain bertambah kukuh apabila Dekrit

Presiden dikeluarkan bagi membubarkan Konstituante dan kembali kepada

“Undang-undang Dasar 1945”.48 Begitu juga perdebatan antara mereka melalui isu-isu

sejarah, pemikiran dan politik berhubung tentang isu Pancasila49 yang menjadi “rukun

negara” di jiwa rakyat Indonesia. Beliau menerima Pancasila dengan diterapkan nilai-nilai

agama, tetapi menolak jika “rukun negara” Indonesia itu diberikan tafsiran sekular.50

Natsir menjelaskan;

“Bagi seorang sekularis, soal Ketuhanan, sampai kepada soal Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa, tak ada hubungannya dengan Wahyu : baginya soal Ke-Tuhanan adalah soal ciptaan manusia yang berganti-ganti.”51

Menurut beliau lagi, bila Pancasila diserapi dengan nilai-nilai sekular, ini akan

mengundang bahaya sekularisme dan boleh menggugat agama dan masyarakat Islam itu

sendiri. Hal ini dapat dibuktikan dengan kata-katanya, iaitu;

“...bila ada penganut Islam yang nenjadi chauvinist, seorang yang ta’assub bangsa atau agama dan melanggar perikemanusiaan, maka itu terang-terang melanggar ketentuan Islam yang nyata-nyata. Tetapi rasialisme Hitler yang melanggar perikemanusiaan tidak dapat dinamakan sesuatu ‘excess’ sikap hidup sekuraisme. Sebab dalam paham sekularisme itu, sama sekali tidak ada ketentuan-ketentuan batas yang nyata untuk membendung rasialisme ala Hitler itu.”52

Oleh itu, Pancasila yang dijadikan dasar negara, harus mengemukakan sifat-sifat yang

terkandung di dalamnya selagi ia tidak bercanggah dengan al-Quran dan hukum-hukum

Islam.53 Menurut beliau lagi;

“...dasar negara pun harus sesuatu faham yang hidup yang dijalankan sehari-hari, yang terang dan dapat dimengerti, pendek kata yang menyusun hidup sehari-hari rakyat perseorangan mahupun kolektif.”54

Bersangkutan dengan itu, Natsir menerima Pancasila dengan mempunyai unsur-unsur

syarak dan tafsiran tauhid kepada sila Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa. Sehubungan dengan itu

juga, dalam pidatonya yang bertajuk What and how can the Muslims contribute to the

attainment of a stable World Peace yang diucapkannya dalam satu persidangan anjuran

Pakistan Institute of International Affairs pada tahun 1952, ada beliau menjelaskan hal

yang berkaitan;

“So is Indonesia an Islamic country by the fact that Islam is recognized as the religion of Indonesian people, though no expressed mention is made in the constitution to make it the state’s religion. But neither has Indonesia excluded religion from statehood. In fact it has put the monotheistic creed in the one and only God, as the head of the Pantjasila-The Five Principles – adopted as the spiritual, moral and ethical foundation of the state and the nation.”55

Natsir merasakan bahawa tokoh-tokoh pemimpin politik daripada parti-parti Islam

lain yang menganggotai Masyumi tidak akan membiarkan Pancasila dan dasar-dasar

negara yang lain bertentangan dengan ajaran Islam. Oleh sebab itulah beliau mempercayai

bahawa Pancasila tidak bertentangan dengan al-Quran, namun Sukarno telah

menginterpretasikannya dengan tidak menerapkan nilai-nilai Islam. Natsir menjelaskan;

“Saya percaya bahwa di dalam keadaan yang demikian, para pemimpin yang berkumpul itu (bermesyuarat bagi menggubal ‘Pancasila’), yang sebagian besarnya adalah beragama Islam, pastilah tidak akan membenarkan sesuatu perumusan yang menurut pandangan mereka, nyata bertentangan dengan asas dan ajaran Islam.”56

Seterusnya, Natsir memberikan beberapa persoalan tentang justifikasi keislaman terhadap

kelima-lima elemen atau sila dalam Pancasila, iaitu; 57

“(a) bagaimana mungkin Qur’an yang memancarkan tauhid, akan terdapat a priori bertentangan dengan idee Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa?

(b) bagaimana mungkin Qur’an yang ajaran-ajarannya penuh dengan kewajipan menegakkan ‘Adalah ijtima’iyyah’ bisa a priori bertentangan dengan Keadilan Sosial?

(c) bagaimana mungkin Qur’an yang justru membanteras sistem feudal dan pemerintahan istibdad sewenang-wenangnya, serta meletakkan dasar musyawarah dalam susunan pemerintahan, dapat a priori bertentangan dengan apa yang dinamakan kedaulatan Rakyat?

(d) bagaimana mungkin Qur’an yang menegakkan istilah ishlahu baina’n-Nas sebagai dasar-dasar pokok yang harus ditegakkan oleh ummat Islam, dapat a priori bertentangan dengan apa yang disebut Pri-Kemanusiaan?

(e) bagaimana mungkin Qur’an yang mengakui adanya bangsa-bangsa dan meletakkan dasar yang sehat bagi kebangsaan, a priori dapat dikatakan bertentangan dengan Kebangsaan?”

Natsir tidak berpuas hati dengan dasar Sukarno terhadap Pancasila tersebut dan

seterusnya membangkang segala dasar Sukarno dan golongan sekularnya yang mahukan

elemen-elemen Pancasila tidak dikaitkan dengan unsur-unsur agama. Ketetapan pendirian

Sukarno itu diperbahaskan dalam sidang parlimen pada tahun 1957. Pada masa yang sama

juga, terutama semasa pascarevolusi, Sukarno giat menjalankan propaganda bagi

menerima ideanya itu dan menyeru rakyat untuk “mempertahankan Negara Nasional yang

berasaskan Pancasila”. Kebimbangannya jelas, iaitu jika dibentuk sebuah negara Islam

seperti kehendak Natsir akan memberikan kesan kepada beberapa bahagian Indonesia yang

majoritinya beragama Kristian seperti Ternate, Sulawesi Utara, Ambon dan kepulauan

lain. Kesannya, bahagian-bahagian tersebut akan cuba diisahkan dengan Jakarta dan

sebuah negara bangsa Indonesia akan runtuh.58 Natsir berpendapat bahawa Pancasila yang

tidak dikaitkan dengan agama adalah Pancasila yang sekular, sedangkan sekularisme

adalah fahaman yang secara langsung bertentangan dengan Islam yang tidak meletakkan

Islam ditempat yang sepatutnya, iaitu Islam dam politik tidak boleh dipisahkan.59 Beliau

mempertahankannya dengan memberikan tafsiran tauhid kepada sila Ketuhanan Yang

Maha Esa dan sila-sila seterusnya. Namun begitu, perjuangan Natsir meletakkan Islam

dalam Pancasila dan pentadbiran negara, menemui jalan buntu kerana pengaruh Sukarno

dan amalan sekular yang kuat diamalkan dalam pemerintahan presiden itu, terutama antara

tahun 1952 hingga 1955. Dengan kegagalan tersebut, beliau merasa bimbang dengan dasar

negara Republik Indonesia yang mengamalkan falsafah “neutral agama”. Walaupun

begitu, Natsir menganggap Pancasila sebagai pure concept walaupun ideanya tidak

diterima golongan nasionalis-sekularis yang didukung oleh Sukarno. Menurutnya;

“Inilah satu tragik yang dihadapi oleh Pancasila yang sekuler (la-diniyah) dan netral.”60

Akhirnya, beliau memberikan kesimpulan bahawa;

“Dari ideologi Islam ke Pancasila bagi ummat Islam adalah ibarat melompat dari bumi tempat berpijak ke ruang hampa, vacuum, tidak berhawa.”61

Kebimbangan Natsir terhadap ancaman sekularisme dalam pentadbiran negara

berterusan. Kebimbangan ancaman tersebut adalah disebabkan golongan

nasionalis-sekularis yang memisahkan sistem pemerintahan daripada unsur-unsur

ketuhanan. Beliau menganggap ancaman ini berbahaya serta mengkritik sekularisme hanya

meliputi proses cara hidup, pemikiran dan cita-cita yang tertumpu dalam ruang lingkup

kehidupan duniawi semata-mata dan tidak sepatutnya mendapat tempat dalam sistem

pemerintahan negara. Menurut tulisannya, aliran pemikiran sedemikian adalah tindakan

yang mahu memisahkan jiwa manusia dengan Maha Pencipta serta memisahkan sains

daripada moral dan nilai-nilai budaya.62 Perkembangan aliran ini adalah beriringan dengan

perkembangan ilmu-ilmu lain, antaranya, ilmu ekonomi, falsafah, psikologi, perundangan

dan sains sosial yang terpisah dengan moral, etika dan norma-norma budaya dan agama.

Beliau memberikan pendapat lagi, ahli sains sekular yang mencipta bom atom tidak

bertanggungjawab terhadap penggunaan bom buatan mereka kerana telah berubah haluan

dan tidak memberikan kebaikan kepada manusia dan pengabdian kepada Tuhan lagi.

Mereka menganggap yang diri mereka sebagai matlamat tersirat dalam ungkapan “science

for the sake of science”.63

Penularan aliran sekularisme membimbangkannya kerana aliran tersebut tidak dapat

memberikan garis panduan yang jelas dalam kehidupan individu dan kehidupan sesama

manusia. Tidak seperti ajaran agama yang dapat memberikan apa yang tidak dapat

diberikan oleh aliran sekularisme itu. Beliau menegaskan, sebaliknya, hanya agama yang

dapat menyempurnakan “keadilan dan kesejahteraan sosial” dan menyelesaikan masalah

erti hidup (the meaning of life).64 Beliau menjelaskan beberapa ciri aliran sekularisme

dalam konteks sebuah negara. Ciri-ciri tersebut ialah, persoalan-persoalan tentang hal

ekonomi, undang-undang, pendidikan dan kemasyarakatan hanya berdasarkan kepada

kepentingan kebendaan semata-mata. Disebabkan aliran ini menidakkan peranan agama

dan ketuhanan, ia hanya melandaskan kepada aspek kerohanian sahaja yang terbatas

melalui sempadan-sempadan yang dicipta oleh manusia sendiri. Sehubungan dengan itu,

penolakan Natsir terhadap Pancasila ciptaan Sukarno itu adalah disebabkan pihak yang

terlibat gagal mentafsirkan lima sila tersebut yang menurut beliau terlalu kabur dan tiada

ciri-ciri keislaman. Baginya, lima sila tersebut tidak dapat berdiri sendiri tanpa

bersandarkan kepada norma-norma yang positif dan menerapkan nilai-nilai agama.

Kesannya, Pancasila tiada “nilai-nilai ideologi” dalam kehidupan rakyat dan seterusnya

dasar negara itu tidak dapat “mengakar” di jiwa rakyat Indonesia yang sudah mempunyai

ideologi Islam yang kukuh untuk menerimanya.

Selain penjelasan tentang ancaman sekularisme, Natsir tidak terlepas daripada

berbicara tentang amalan demokrasi di negaranya. Istilah demokrasi baginya adalah

tentang demokrasi berteraskan Islam. Penjelasannya, Islam sememangnya demokrasi

dalam erti antiabsolutisme iaitu bentuk pemerintahan tanpa undang-undang dasar iaitu

semua kekuasaan terletak di tangan penguasa seperti raja atau seorang diktator. Menurut

beliau lagi, hal ini tidak bererti bahawa semua perkara harus diperbincangkan, padahal

“parlimen Islam” tidak akan memutuskan hal-hal yang sudah ditetapkan oleh syariat Islam

kecuali membincangkan cara-cara bagaimana ketetapan-ketetapan itu harus dilaksanakan,

seperti yang diulasnya;

“... kalau kerana itu Islam tidak hendak dinama bersifat demokrasi, itu terserah! Islam adalah suatu pengertian, suatu paham, suatu begrip (?) sendiri, yang mempunyai sifat-sifat sendiri pula. Islam bukan demokrasi 100%, bukan pula otokrasi 100%. Islam itu...yah Islam!”65

Sehubungan dengan itu, beliau memberikan tujuh pandangan yang relevan tentang

ketatanegaraan dan demokrasi berteraskan Islam, iaitu meliputi:66

(a) nilai tolong menolong;

(b) nilai demokrasi bermusyawarah;

(c) nilai mencintai tanah airnya;

(d) nilai cinta kemerdekaan;

(e) nilai kesukaan membela yang lemah;

(f) nilai tidak mementingkan diri dan kesediaan hidup dan memberi hidup; dan,

(g) nilai tolenrasi antara para pemeluk agama.

Natsir menamakan sistem pemerintahan Islam sebagai theistic democracy iaitu

suatu sistem yang memberikan ruang kepada manusia untuk memilih dan menentukan

sendiri, tetapi dikawal oleh prinsip-prinsip dan nilai-nilai dasar yang telah ditetapkan oleh

Tuhan. 67 Namun adanya garis-garis besar yang berupa wahyu Ilahi itu, tidak bererti

pemerintahan Islam itu bersifat teokratik yang didefinisikan olehnya sebagai pemerintahan

yang dikuasai oleh “sistem paderi” (priesthood) atas nama Tuhan. Oleh itu, Islam tidak

memperkenalkan “sistem paderi” seperti yang dinyatakan itu.

Pendekatan Natsir dalam idea politik Islam iaitu bercita-cita menegakkan agama Islam

di negaranya amat kukuh. Baginya, Islam harus bersama-sama seiring dalam politik,

pentadbiran dan undang-undang kerana majoriti penduduk tempatan adalah beragama

Islam di Indonesia. Namun begitu, Presiden Sukarno terang-terang memisahkan agama

Islam dalam pentadbirannya.

Penutup

Akibat tiada persefahaman antara Natsir dengan Sukarno, maka Natsir menerima

tuduhan yang beliau seorang pembelot dan pengkhianat kepada kerajaan pemerintah dan

negara Indonesia. Perkara ini merupakan salah satu strategi yang dilakukan oleh

musuh-musuh politik beliau termasuklah daripada Sukarno sendiri bagi membunuh

kerjaya politik Natsir. Misalnya, Natsir menerima hukuman penjara atas tuduhan

menubuhkan “kerajaan haram” di Sumatera Barat. Hal ini terjadi kerana beliau tidak

bersekongkol dengan Sukarno dalam pentadbiran setelah Sukarno mempunyai hubungan

baik dengan pihak komunis Indonesia. Di samping itu juga, Natsir menuduh Sukarno

memerintah Republik Indonesia secara “kuku besi”. Seorang penulis sejarah daripada

pihak orientalis iaitu George McTurnan Kahin yang menyifatkan Natsir sebagai seorang

yang membenci golongan sekular dan tidak akan bekerjasama dengan golongan yang

menolak unsur-unsur agama dalam pentadbiran. Beliau menambah lagi bahawa golongan

agama akan mengganggukan kestabilan golongan sekular dalam pentadbiran negara

dengan tuntutan-tuntutan seperti harus meletakkan Islam dalam urusan negara.68 Oleh itu,

Natsir juga digelar sebagai golongan kiri yang tidak bekerjasama dengan pemerintah

Belanda dan pemerintah kerajaan yang merdeka.

Sebagai seorang yang dikatakan berhaluan kiri oleh para penulis dan sejarawan yang

mendasari sumber-sumber tertentu dalam kajian mereka, Natsir menerima pelbagai

tuduhan yang boleh diragui. Selain dicop sebagai golongan berhaluan kiri, pengkhianat

bangsa, agak fanatik dalam agama, mereka juga dituduh mengadakan hubungan yang baik

dengan pihak komunis di tanah air masing-masing. Tuduhan sebegini boleh dipertikaikan

jika berpandukan pada beberapa dokumen yang diselidiki.

Bagi Natsir, ada segelintir sejarawan barat seperti Kahin menuduh Natsir

bersahabat baik dengan pemimpin-pemimpin kanan Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI)69

terutama semasa di sesi luar dewan parlimen. Bagi Natsir, ideologi komunis menidakkan

kewujudan Tuhan dan tidak sesuai pergerakan politik mereka diamalkan di tanah airnya

yang majoriti beragama Islam. Oleh sebab itulah beliau membangkang penglibatan PKI

dalam pemerintahan Sukarno sehingga sesama mereka bertelagah di medan politik. Tetapi

di luar medan politik, beliau menjalani hubungan yang akrab dengan golongan komunis ini

adalah kerana berdasarkan satu bangsa iaitu bangsa Indonesia.

Nota Akhir

1 Sukarno lahir pada 6 Jun 1901 di Blitar, Surabaya, Jawa Timur. Nama sebenar beliau ialah Kusno Sosro Sukarno. Anak kepada Raden Sukemi Sosrodihardjo (priayi bergelar guru) dan Idayu Nyoman Rai (wanita Bali). Pendidikan awalmya di sekolah peribumi dan melanjutkan pendidikan Belanda di Europeeseche Lagere School (ELS), seterusnya di Hoogere Burger School (HBS), Surabaya. Semasa beliau belajar di situ, beliau menumpang di rumah Omar Said Tjokroaminoto (pemimpin Sarekat Islam) dan menjadi anak

angkatnya. Oleh itu, Sukarno mula terdedah dengan kegiatan politik dan nasionalisme yang kian rancak. Sukarno menerima pendedahan aliran politik yang terbahagi kepada aliran marxisme (Indische Social-Democratische, 1914/PKI), aliran kebangsaan Islam (Sarekat Islam/Budi Utomo/Tri Koro Darmo/Jong Java) dan aliran nasionalisme sekular (Perhimpunan Indonesia). Percubaan pertamanya dalam politik ialah apabila menyertai pergerakan Tri Koro Darmo, sebuah pertubuhan yang dimonopoli oleh pelajar. Semasa beliau berdamping dengan Tjokroaminoto, beliau turut mendekatkan diri dengan Agus Salim, Hendrik Sneevliet (pemimpin aliran Marxist), serta Semaun. Pada tahun 1921, meneruskan pendidikannya di Kolej Teknologi Bandung (Institut Teknologi Bandung) dan mulai terserlah kegiatan politiknya melalui kongres Jong Java Bandung. Di situ juga beliau telah membentuk idea politiknya dan tanggapannya tentang nasionalisme dan kolonialisme. Sebelum beliau menamatkan pelajarannya, Sukarno mengasaskan Kelab Studi Umum Bandung dan menerbitkan majalah Indonesia Moeda yang memuatkan artikelnya yang bertajuk ‘Nasionalisme, Islam dan Marxisme’. Pada 4 Julai 1927, beliau bersama rakan-rakannya menubuhkan Perserikatan Nasional Indonesia (PNI). Dasar PNI yang tidak bekerjasama dengan Belanda telah memberi kesan kepadanya apabila beliau ditahan pada Disember 1929. Akhirnya PNI terpaksa dibubarkan dan diganti Parti Indonesia (PARTINDO) pada 29 April 1931. Semasa Sukarno memimpin PARTINDO, berlaku perpecahan antara golongan yang dipimpin oleh Mohammad Hatta dan Sjahrir dengan golongan nasionalis yang dipimpin Sukarno. Seterusnya, Hatta dan Sjahrir mengasaskan Pendidikan Nasional Indonesia (PNI-Baru). Pada tahun 1938, Sukarno terus menerima hukuman Belanda apabila dihukum buang daerah di Endeh, Flores dan Bengkulu. Semasa di Endeh, beliau mula memperdalami ilmu-ilmu agama dan mula mengenali tulisan-tulisan Natsir melalui Hj. Ahmad Hassan, seorang pelopor gerakan ‘Kaum Muda’ dari Bandung. Pada tahun 1950-1957, melalui Undang-undang Dasar 1950, Indonesia mengamalkan sistem demokrasi berparlimen dengan kuasa politik dipegang oleh parti politik, Sukarno adalah presiden berperlembagaan. Sepanjang pemerintahan Sukarno, pelbagai peristiwa dan dasar pemerintahannya diperkenalkan, iaitu Revolusi Indonesia (1945-1950), Undang-undang Dasar 1950 (1950-1957)/Demokrasi Berparlimen, Pemerintahan Revolusioner Republik Indonesia (PRRI), Piagam Perjuangan Semesta (PERMESTA), Demokrasi Terpimpin, Undang-undang Dasar 1945, dan dasar pemerintahan Sukarno lebih cenderung kepada negara komunis kerana negara-negara barat memulaukan Indonesia disebabkan oleh dasar anti baratnya. Dasarnya itu menimbulkan rasa tidak senang hati ahli politik lain terutama Natsir yang cukup anti komunis serta melancarkan pentadbiran secara kuku besi dan berusaha untuk menjatuhkan Sukarno. Selepas itu berlaku ketidakstabilan politik di Indonesia dengan penglibatan para pemimpin komunis yang menghuru-harakan suasana politik. Namun, dengan bantuan Jeneral Suharto, cubaan pihak komunis merampas kuasa dapat ditumpaskan dan nama Sukarno mulai tercemar. Beliau dipaksa melepaskan kuasanya kepada Suharto pada bulan Mac 1966. Pada 27 Mac 1966, Suharto dilantik sebagai Presiden yang kedua dan Sukarno ditahan di Bogor. Pada 21 Jun 1970 Sukarno meninggal dunia. Sumber, Soekarno, 1967. Soekarno: een autobiografie uit de mond van de Presiden Opgetekend door Cindy Adams. `s-Gravenhage: W. van Hoeve; Soekarno, “The National State and The Ideals of Islam (1953)”, dlm. Herberth Feith and Lance Castle, Indonesia Political Thinking. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.; Fatmawati Sukarno, 1978. Catatan kecil bersama Bung Karno, Cet. ke 2 (revisi). Jakarta: Sinar Harapan; John David Legge, 2003. Sukarno: a political biography. Singapore: Archipelego Press; Helen-Louise Hunter, 2007. Sukarno and the Indonesian Coup: the Untold Story. Westport, Conn.: Praeger Security International.

2 PNI ditubuhkan pada tahun 1927 di Bandung oleh Sukarno. Parti ini adalah sebuah parti politik dan nasionalisme daripada Indonesia yang cukup berpengaruh di Tanah Melayu. Pengaruhnya itu disebarkan melalui bahan-bahan bacaan dan idea perjuangan mereka yang menjadi tunjang perjuangan dan prinsip bagi parti-parti radikal di Tanah Melayu terutama KMM dan PKMM. Antara tokoh yang terpengaruh dengan parti yang ditubuhkan pada 4 Julai 1927 di Bandung ini ialah Dr. Burhanuddin al-Helmi, Ahmad Boestamam dan Ibrahim Hj. Yaakob. Antara tokoh-tokoh PNI yang menjadi ‘idola’ pemimpin radikal Melayu ialah Ir.

Sukarno, Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo, Ir. Anwari, Sartono dan Sunarjo. Mereka ini pejuang kemerdekaan Indonesia yang mengamalkan dasar tidak bekerjasama dengan pihak penjajah Belanda. Pengaruh yang hebat datangnya daripada Sukarno yang telah mengumpulkan ahlinya sehingga mencapai 10,000 orang dalam bulan Mei 1929. Kelantangan suara Sukarno telah memberi kebimbangan kepada Belanda dan tanpa memikir panjang terus menangkap Sukarno serta pemimpin kanan parti yang lain. Kesannya telah menjejaskan perjuangan PNI dan mengalami perpecahan sehingga membentuk parti-parti baru iaitu Partindo dan PNI Baru. Keterangan lanjut, rujuk Margono, 1971. Ichtisar Sedjarah Pergerakan Nasional (1908-1945), Departemen Pertahanan-Keamanan, Pusat Sejarah ABRI, 1971; dan, Bernard H.M.Vlekke, 1967. Nusantara (Sejarah Indonesia). Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

3 M. Natsir, 2008. Capita Selecta 2. Jakarta: PT. Abadi & Yayasan Capita Selecta, hlm. 171

4 Misalnya, salah satu penulisan beliau, Mestika Zed, 2008. “Mohammad Natsir, Negarawan, Pemikiran Islam Dalam Pembentukan Indonesia Moderen”, dlm., 100 Tahun Mohammad Natsir Berdamai Dengan Sejarah. Jakarta Selatan: Republika.

5 Ibid.

6 KSPMN: Surat Aba M. Natsir Kepada Keluarga, bertarikh 15 September 1958.

7 Memperolehi maklumat tersebut daripada Asma Faridah. Menurut keterangan beliau, nama pena ‘Aba’nya, ‘A. Moechlis’ diambil sempena nama anak sulungnya, Sitti Muchliesah.

8 KSPMN: Surat Aba M. Natsir Kepada Keluarga, bertarikh 9 Agustus 1958.

9MIAI adalah badan pertubuhan bagi masyarakat Islam di Indonesia yang dibentuk dari hasil pertemuan para pemimpin Nahdlatul Ulama (Nahdatul Ulama), Muhammadiyah, Sarekat Islam dan al-Irsyad pada 18 -21 September 1937. MIAI juga dikenali sebagai ‘dewan Islam tertinggi Indonesia’. KH Hasyim Asy'ari merupakan pencetus kepada pembentukan MIA ini, sehingga menarik perhatian kepada kalangan modernis seperti KH Mas Mansur dari Muhammadiyah dan Wondoamiseno dari Sarekat Islam. Sebelum pendudukan Jepun, MIAI mendominasi berbagai kegiatan dan berusaha menyatukan umat Islam bagi menghadapi penjajahan Belanda. KH Hasyim Asy'ari menjadi ketua badan legislatif dengan 13 organisasi tergabung dalam MIAI. Asas penubuhan MIAI tidak bertujuan untuk menjadi ‘lembaga politik’ tetapi hanya menumpukan kepada tempat berdiskusi sahaja. Namun begitu, di pertengahan jalan, MIAI menghadapi pelbagai masalah dalam kalangan pertubuhan-pertubuhannya setelah berlaku pertikaian dan perselisihan faham antara mereka terutama yang bersangkutan dasar dan syariat Islam. Apabila Jepun datang menjajah Indonesia, MIAI dibubarkan dan digantikan dengan Masyumi. Apa pun, MIAI gagal memberi peranan yang besar kepada masyarakat Islam, politik mahupun budaya. Rujuk, M.C. Ricklefs, Sejarah Indonesia Moden 1200-2004, Jakarta: Serambi, 2007, hlm. 397; Benda, H. J., Bulan Sabit dan Mata Hari Terbit: Islam di Indonesia Pada Masa Pendudukan Jepang, Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya, 1980; dan, Ahmad Mansur Suryanegara, Menemukan Sejarah Wacana Pergerakan Islam di Indonesia, Publisher Information, Bandung: Mizan, 1995.

10 KNIP yang berlangsung dari tahun 1945-1946 merupakan parlimen yang pertama Republik Indonesia di zaman revolusi. Semasa Natsir menganggotai KNIP, beliau mencadang menubuhkan Kementerian Agama pada tahun 1946. Natsir turut menceritakan bagaimana pengalamannya menganggotai KNIP secara tidak sengaja dalam KSPMN: Penceritaan oleh M. Natsir sendiri, dan diedit oleh Yaswirman, tidak diterbitkan dan tanpa tarikh, hlm. 3-4. Keterangan lanjut tentang KNIP, rujuk Deliar Noer dan Akhbarsyah, KNIP

Komite Nasional Indonesia Pusat Parlemen Indonesia 1945-1950, Jakarta: Yayasan Risalah, 2005. Rujuk juga, Akhbar Haluan – Harian Umum, 12 Agustus 2007/28 Rajab 1428H.

11 Keterangan berkenaan ‘Mosi Integral’ akan diperjelaskan dalam bab-bab seterusnya.

12 Segala kenyataan dan perdebatan mereka berdua akan diperjelaskan dengan khusus pada bab-bab seterusnya. Sila rujuk, Ahmad Suhelmi, 1999. Soekarno Versus Natsir: Kemenangan Barisan Megawati Reinkarnasi Nasionalis Sekuler, Jakarta: Darul Falah.

13 Penulis berpeluang membaca bahan-bahan penerbitan tersebut di Arsip Nasional Indonesia, Perpustakaan-perpustakaan Universitas Gadjah Mada, Universitas Indonesia dan Universitas Padjadjaran serta di DDII dan pemberian keluarga Natsir.

14 Rujuk, Surat-surat Islam dari Ende, Persatuan Islam Indonesia, 1936.

15 Ajip Rosidi, M. Natsir Sebuah Biografi 1, hlm. 254.

16 Nama sebenar Gazi Mustafa Kemal Pasha tetapi lebih dikenali dengan nama Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. Dilahirkan pada 12 Mac 1881 di Selanik, Greece. Ayahnya bernama Ali Riza Efendi dan meninggal dunia semasa Kemal berumur tujuh tahun. Ibunya pula bernama Zubeyde Hanim. Semasa berumur dua belas tahun, beliau dihantar ke Sekolah Tentera Selanik dan Manastir di Republik Macedonia. Pada tahun 1895 Kemal menyertai Akademi Tentera Ottoman di Macedonia dan terus bertugas di Damsyik. Beliau terkenal sebagai pengasas Republik Turki. Dengan sebab itulah beliau digelar ‘Ataturk’ yang bermaksud ‘Bapa Rakyat Turki’. Kemal seorang pegawai tentera, pemimpin revolusi dan Presiden Turki yang pertama. Beliau merupakan komandan tentera yang berjaya ketika berkhidmat dalam Pertempuran Gallipoli pada Perang Dunia Pertama. Setelah kekalahan Empayar Uthmaniyyah di tangan Tentera Bersekutu, terdapat rancangan oleh Tentera Bersekutu untuk memecahkan negara Turki. Kemudian beliau memimpin gerakan nasional Turki yang akhirnya tercetus Perang Kemerdekaan Turki. Selepas kejayaan beliau memimpin tentera tersebut, Kemal dipilih sebagai Presiden Turki yang pertama. Seterusnya beliau memindahkan ibu negeri Turki dari Istanbul ke Angora yang kini dikenali sebagai Ankara. Beliau telah membentuk semula aspek kehidupan rakyat Turki agar bersesuaian dengan tuntutan semasa yang dikenali sebagai ideologi ‘Kemalisme’. Ideologi ini bertujuan untuk menyediakan Turki ke arah negara moden, demokratik dan negara sekular. Kemal memerintah Turki dari tahun 1918 hingga 1934 dan meninggal dunia pada 10 November 1938. Rujuk, Andrew Mango, 1999. Ataturk, London: John Murray; dan, Turkish National for Unesco, 1963. Ataturk, Commission National Turque Sour l’Unesco.

17 Rujuk penulisan Natsir sendiri, ‘Islam “Demokrasi”’, dlm. M. Natsir, 2008. Capita Selecta 1, Jakarta Selatan & Jakarta: Yayasan Bulan Bintang Abadi & Media Da’wah, hlm. 550.

18 Untuk keterangan lanjut, rujuk artikel-artikel tulisan Natsir sendiri, ibid, hlm. 550-555; hlm. 556-557; hlm. 562-567; hlm. 568-582; hlm. 583-586; dan, hlm. 596-603.

19 Natsir sendiri turut mengakui tindakan Sukarno tersebut melalui surat beliau, KSPMN: Surat Aba M. Natsir Kepada Keluarga, bertarikh 15 September 1958.

20 M. Natsir, 1968. Natsir versus Soekarno-Persatuan Agama dengan Negara, Padang: Jajasan Pendidikan Islam.

21 Mohammad Natsir, 1970. Islam dan Akal Merdeka, Djakarta: Hudaya.

22 M.Natsir, 2002. Demokrasi di Bawah Hukum, Jakarta: Media Da’wah.

23 Mohamad Natsir, 1950. Islam Sebagai Ideologi, Djakarta: Penyiaran Illmu.

24 Semua penulisan Sukarno boleh dirujuk ‘Surat-surat Islam dari Endeh’, dalam Soekarno, 1964. Di Bawah Bendera, Jakarta: Panitia Di Bawah Bendera Revolusi, Jil. 1, hlm. 325-343.

25 Rujukan Natsir menerusi al-Quran, surah–surah Waqi’ah, ayat 63-72; dan, Al-Anam, ayat 98; dlm. Ajip Rosidi, M. Natsir Sebuah Biografi 1, hlm. 270.

26 Pemikiran Natsir tentang ‘akal dan fikiran’, lihat, “Sikap “Islam” Terhadap “Kemerdekaan Berfikir”: Kemerdekaan Berfikir, Tradisi, dan Disiplin”, dlm. M. Natsir, Capita Selecta 1, hlm. 279-310.

27 Rujuk Natsir melalui al-Quran, surah Bani Ismail, ayat 36; dlm. Ajip Rosidi, M. Natsir Sebuah Biografi 1, hlm 270.

28 M. Natsir, “Sikap “Islam” Terhadap “Kemerdekaan Berfikir”: Kemerdekaan Berfikir, Tradisi, dan Disiplin”, dlm. M. Natsir, Capita Selecta 1, hlm. 297; dan Pandji Islam, April-Juni, 1940.

29 Lihat keseluruhan artikel, M. Natsir, “Sikap “Islam” Terhadap “Kemerdekaan Berfikir”: Kemerdekaan Berfikir, Tradisi, dan Disiplin”.

30 Ibid.; dan, Ajip Rosidi, M. Natsir Sebuah Biografi 1, hlm. 270-271.

31 H. Munawir Sjadzali,1990. Islam dan Tata Negara. Jakarta: Penerbit Universitas Indonesia, hlm. 191.

32 Keterangan lanjut lihat tulisan-tulisan Natsir, “Kemal Pasja dan Vrijmetselarij”, dan “Kemalisten di Indonesia”, dlm., M. Natsir, Capita Selecta 1, hlm. 568-586. Rujuk juga, Dr. Siddiq Fadzil, 2009. “Mohammad Natsir Ahli Politik Dan Negarawan”, dlm. Mohammad Natsir Berdakwah di Jalur Politik Berpolitik Di Jalur Dakwah”. Bangi: Wadah Pencerdasan Umat Islam (WADAH) & Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor (KUIS), 2009, hlm. 32.

33 Daerah-daerah tersebut ialah Aceh, Kepulauan Maluku (Maluku Selatan) dan Jawa Barat. Di Jawa Barat, gerakan penentangan yang dilakukan oleh Kartosoewirjo. Menjelas tentang Kartosoewirjo, nama sebenar beliau ialah Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosoewirjo. Lahir di sebuah kampung di Cepu, Jawa Tengah pada 7 Januari 1905. Beliau meninggal dunia pada 5 September 1962. Kartosoewirjo menerima pendidikan di Institut Perubatan/Perguruan Tinggi Kedokteran (Nederlands Indische Artsen School). Beliau terkenal sebagai adalah seorang ulama karismatik yang berjuang membentuk dan mengisytiharkan Negara Islam Indonesia (NII) di Tasikmalaya pada tahun 1949. Penglibatan dalam politik Kartosoewirjo bermula semasa menuntut di sekolah tajaan Belanda lagi dan seterusnya menjadi setiausaha peribadi kepada tokoh Partai Sarekat Islam, HOS Tjokroaminoto. Seterusnya, beliau dilantik sebagai setiausaha kanan PSII. PSII merupakan parti serpihan SI. Kartosoewirjo kemudian bercita-cita untuk mendirikan negara Islam (Daulah Islamiyah). Di PSII beliau menemui jodohnya dan akhirnya menikah dengan Umi Kalsum iaitu anak salah seorang tokoh PSII. Kemudian beliau keluar dari PSII dan mendirikan Komite Pembela Kebenaran Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia (KPKPSII). Pada masa perang kemerdekaan 1945-1949 (kemasukan Belanda kali kedua), Kartosoewirjo masih terlibat aktif dalam kegiatan politik tetapi bertindak sebagai pembangkang kepada pemerintah, termasuk menolak jawatan menteri yang ditawarkan oleh Perdana Menteri, Amir Sjarifuddin. Kekecewaannya terhadap pemerintah pusat semakin membuak-buak dalam usahanya membentuk NII. Kartosoewirjo kemudian mengisytiharkan NII pada 7 Ogos 1949. Beberapa daerah

menyatakan hasrat menganggotai NII iaitu Jawa Barat, Sulawesi Selatan dan Aceh. Pemerintah Indonesia kemudian mengambil tindakan keras dengan menangkap Kartosoewirjo. Namun, bukannya suatu yang mudah memerangi tentera Kartosoewirjo dan akhirnya perjuangan Kartosoewirjo berakhir dan berjaya ditawan di wilayah Gunung Rakutak di Jawa Barat pada 4 Jun 1962. Pemerintah Indonesia kemudian menjatuhkan hukum mati kepada Kartosoewirjo pada bulan September 1962. Penjelasan lanjut, rujuk, Al-Chaidar, 2000. Sepak terjang KW9 Abu Toto menyelewengkan NKA-NII pasca S.M. Kartosoewirjo, Madani Press.

34 Pada 21 Februari 1957, Sukarno memperkenalkan gagasan pentadbirannya itu dan menyatakan golongan fahaman komunis yang diterajui oleh PKI turut terlibat. ‘Kabinet Gotong Royong’ yang bakal dipimpinnya itu akan diletakkan di bawah ‘Dewan Nasional’. Beliau memberi alasan penubuhan gagasannya itu yang tujuannya adalah bagi menggantikan pemerintahan ‘demokrasi liberal’ yang gagal memberi manfaat kepada rakyatnya untuk hidup dengan makmur dan adil, malah beliau berpendapat yang masa era pentadbiran lama itu ‘rakyat ditunggangi pemimpin dan rakyat menjadi alat demokrasi’. Dengan alasannya itu, Sukarno mencari peluang untuknya membenarkan ‘politik kuku besi’nya dengan melaksanakan pentadbiran ‘Demokrasi Terpimpin, 1950-1965’ dalam sistem pentadbiran politik Indonesia. Lihat buku beliau, Sukarno, 1963. Di bawah Bendera Revolusi, Djakarta: Panitya Penerbit Di Bawah Bendera Revolusi, hlm. 371-372.

35 Dalam pada itu, Natsir memberi reaksi yang agak terkejut dengan cadangan Sukarno itu. Tanpa melengah-lengahkan masa, Natsir bangkit menentang saranan Sukarno itu melalui rapat-rapat umum yang diadakan. Menurut laporan surat khabar Abadi, Natsir menolak pemikiran Sukarno yang sebelum ini mahu menguburkan parti-parti politik serta ada rancangan mahu melihatkan golongan komunis dalam pentadbiran Indonesia. Beliau menegaskan lagi bahawa selama demokrasi masih ada, maka selama itulah pula parti-parti politik terus ‘hidup’. Natsir menambah lagi, apabila parti-parti politik dikuburkan, secara automatiknya demokrasi turut terkubur sama, dan yang tertinggal di atas kuburan itu hanyalah diktator yang memerintah (merujuk kepada Sukarno). Lihat, Abadi, 30 Oktober 1956.

36 Rujuk, Deliar Noer, Partai-partai Islam di Pentas Nasional, hlm. 369-375.

37 George McTurnan Kahin, “Mohammad Natsir”, dlm. Panitya Buku Peringatan Mohammad Natsir/Mohammad Roem 70 Tahun, hlm. 335.

38 Temu bual dengan anaknya, Asma Faridah pada 22 Jun 2009, di Dewan Dakwah Islamiyah Indonesia (DDII), Jalan Kramat Raya, Jakarta Pusat, Indonesia.

39 Untuk mendalami sejarah pergabungan PNI dengan PKI serta kenyataan PNI yang kurang yakin kepada Masyumi, lihat, Arnold C. Brackman, Indonesian Communism: A History, New York: Praeger, 1963, hlm. 92.

40 Kenyataan Asma Faridah.

41 Sjafruddin Prawiranegara dilahirkan di Banten pada 28 Februari 1911dan meninggal di Jakarta pada 15 Februari 1989. Beliau merupakan seorang pejuang pada masa kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia. Beliau yang juga pernah menjawat jawatan sebagai Presiden/Ketua Pemerintah Darurat Republik Indonesia (PDRI) ketika pemerintahan Republik Indonesia di Yogyakarta jatuh ke tangan Belanda semasa Agresi Militer Belanda Kedua pada 19 Disember 1948. Sjafruddin menerima pendidikan awalnya di ELS pada tahun 1925 dan seterusnya melanjutkan pendidikannya di MULO pada tahun 1928 di Madiun. Selanjutnya menyambung

lagi pendidikan ke AMS di Bandung pada tahun 1931. Pendidikan tingginya di Rechtshogeschool (Sekolah Tinggi Hukum, Jakarta) iaitu pada tahun 1939. Sekarang ini institut tersebut adalah Fakultas Hukum (Fakulti Undang-undang), Universitas Indonesia. Rujuk, Badriah, “Sederhana Hingga Akhir Hayat”, dlm. Tempo, edisi Selasa, 1 Agustus 2006.

42 Deliar Noer, Partai-partai Islam di Pentas Nasional, hlm. 374. Rujuk juga, Kamardi Rais Dt. P. Simulie, PRRI Bukan Pemberontak, Tapi Gerakan Koreksi, Ranah-Minang.com, 20 Agustus 2006.

43 Ajip Rosidi, 1986. Sjafruddin Pawiranegara Lebih Takut Kepada Allah s.w.t. Jakarta: Idayu Press, hlm. 211.

44 Rujuk, Yusril Ihza Mahendra, 1998. “Prolog PRRI dan Keterlibatan Natsir-Syafruddin”, dlm. Endang Saifudin Anshari dan M. Amien Rais (Peny.), Pak Natsir 80 Tahun Pandangan Dan Penilaian Generasi Muda, Jakarta: Bulan Bintang, 1998, hlm. 156-157.

45 Mochtar dilahirkan di Padang pada 17 Mac 1922 dan meninggal dunia di Jakarta pada 2 Julai 2004. Beliau adalah seorang wartawan dan pengarang akhbar. Beliau telah menubuhkan agensi berita, Pejabat Berita Antara dan menerbit akhbar Indonesia Raya yang akhirnya diharamkan semasa pemerintahan Sukarno. Beliau dipenjarakan selama 9 tahun setelah dibebaskan pada tahun 1966. Di dalam penjara, beliau menulis buku ‘Catatan Subversif’ (1980). Setelah itu beliau dilantik sebagai presiden bagi Press Foundation of Asia. Novel beliau Jalan Tak Ada Ujung (1952) diterjemahkan oleh A.H. John dengan tajuk A Road With No End di England pada tahun 1968. Novel lainnya ialah Maut dan Cinta dan cerpen-cerpenya ialah Musim Gugur (1953) dan Perempuan (1956).Pernah memenangi ‘Hadiah Sastra BMKN 1952’. David Hill, ”Mochtar Lubis”,dlm. Inside Indonesia, bertarikh 1 Julai 2005.

46 PUSSEMAD, Operasi 17 Agustus, Code Dok. I-II, 2-209.

47 M. Natsir, 2008. Capita Selecta 2, hlm. 171.

48 Pidato Natsir semasa Persidangan Konstituante pada 13 Nopember 1957.

49 Perkataan ‘Pancasila’ adalah dua suku kata dari bahasa Sanskrit yang membawa pengertian, ‘panca’ ialah lima dan ‘sila’ pula ialah prinsip atau asas. Berikut dinyatakan 5 prinsip yang menjadi dasar negara Republik Indonesia, iaitu:

i. Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa;

ii. Kemanusiaan Yang Adil Dan Beradab;

iii. Persatuan Indonesia;

iv. Kerakyatan Yang Dipimpin Oleh Hikmat Kebijaksanaan Dalam Permusyawaratan/Perwakilan; dan,

v. Keadilan Sosial Bagi Seluruh Rakyat Indonesia.

Keterangan lanjut, lihat, Miriam Budiardjo, 1994. Demokrasi di Indonesia: Demokrasi Parlementer dan Demokrasi Pancasila. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama.; dan, Mestika Zed, 2009. “Indonesia Dalam Perspektif Pancasila” dlm. Seminar Kongres Pancasila, diselenggarakan oleh Universitas Gadjahmada bekerja sama dengan Mahkamah Konstitusi, Yogyakarta, 30-31 Mei 2009. 50 Muhammad Narsir, 1957. Capita Selecta Vol. 2. Djakarta: Pendis, hlm. 121 dan 293.

51 M. Natsir, 1957. Islam Sebagai Dasar Negara: Pidato Dalam Sedang Pleno Konstituante Pada Tanggal 12 November 1957. Bandung: Pimpinan Fraksi Masyumi dalam Konstituante, hlm. 36.

52 Ibid. hlm. 92.

53 Kenyataan Natsir dalam, Abadi, 24 Mei 1954.

54 M.Natsir, Islam Sebagai Dasar Negara, hlm. 12-13.

55 H. Munawir Sjjadzalio, 1990. Islam dan Tata Negara. Jakarta: Penerbit Universitas Indonesia, hlm. 194.

56 M. Natsir, Capita Selecta, Vol. 2, hlm. 148 dan 293.

57 Ibid., hlm 148.

58 Pidato-pidato Sukarno di sekitar Amuntai, Peraya dan Palembang; lihat juga, Negara Islam dan Cita-cita Nasional, naskah ceramah di Universitas Indonesia, t.p, 1953. Selain itu, antara sebab yang beliau ini menolak peranan agama dalam urusan pentadbiran negara ialah:

(a) Agama Urusan Dunia dan Peribadi;

(b) Tidak Ada Ijma’ Ulama; dan,

(c) Tidak ada Konsep Negara Islam.

Keterangan lanjut, lihat Sukarno, 1964. Di Bawah Bendera Revolusi. Jakarta: Panitia Di Bawah Bendera Revolusi, jil. 1, hlm. 452; Soekarno, “The National State and The Ideals of Islam (1953)”, dlm. PUSSEMAD, Operasi 17 Agustus, Code Dok. I-II, 2-209, hlm. 165-170; dan, Sukarno, 1984. Pancasila Sebagai Dasar Negara, Jakarta: Idayu-YPS.

59 Sidek Baba, 2009. “ Mengingati Pak Natsir Sebagai Pendidik Umat”, dlm. Mohammad Natsir Berdakwah Di Jalur Politik Berpolitik Di Jalur Dakwah. Bandar Baru Bangi & Kajang: WADAH & KUIS, hlm 34. Keterangan lanjut tentang ‘Pancasila’ dan ‘Theistic Democracy’ lihat, Muhammad Natsir, Islam Sebagai Dasar Negara, hlm. 30.

60 M.Natsir, Islam Sebagai Dasar Negara, hlm. 52.

61 Ibid., hlm. 53.

62 M. Natsir, 1970. “The Dangers of Secularisme”, dlm. Indonesian Political Thinking 1945-1965, ed. Herbert Feith & Lance Castle, U.S.A.: Cornell University Press, hlm. 215-219.

63 Ibid.

64 Ibid.

65 M. Natsir, 1968. Natsir versus Soekarno-Persatuan Agama dengan Negara. Padang: Jajasan Pendidikan Islam, hlm. 27-28.

66 Keterangan lanjut tentang ke semua nilai-nilai tersebut, lihat, Panitya Buku Peringatan Mohammad Natsir/Mohammad Roem 70 Tahun, 1978. Muhammad Natsir: 70 Tahun Kenang-kenangan Kehidupan dan Perjuangan, (Peny. Yusuf Abdullah Puar). Jakarta Pusat: Pustaka Antara, hlm. 194-200.

67 Rujuk, Muhammad Natsir, Islam Sebagai Dasar Negara: Pidato Dalam Sedang Pleno Konstituante Pada Tanggal 12 November 1957, hlm. 30.

68 Rujuk tulisan-tulisan beliau antaranya, George Mc. T. Kahin, 1970. Nationalism and Revolution In Indonesia. Ithaca: Cornell; George M. Kahin, [edit], 1982. Kerajaan dan Politik Asia Tenggara. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka; George M. Kahin, Rajab 1415/Januari 1995. “Mohammad Natsir (1908-1993) Sebuah Kenangan”, dlm. Media Dakwah; dan, George McTurnan Kahin & Lukman Hakiem, Jumadil Akhir 1429 H/Juni 2008. PRRI: Pergolakan Daerah Atau Pemberontakan?. Jakarta: Panitia Peringatan Refleksi Seabad Mohammad Natsir Pemikiran dan Perjuangannya & Media Dakwah.

69 Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI) adalah parti di Indonesia yang berideologikan komunis. Parti ini diasaskan oleh seorang tokoh sosialis Belanda, Henk Sneevliet pada 1914, dengan nama Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging (ISDV) atau Persatuan Sosial Demokrat Hindia Belanda. Semasa penubuhannya, ISDV tidak menuntut kemerdekaan Indonesia. Ini disebabkan yang ISDV mempunyai keahlian seramai 100 orang, dan dari semuanya itu hanya tiga orang sahaja yang merupakan warga peribumi Indonesia. Namun demikian, parti ini dengan cepat berkembang menjadi radikal dan anti kapitalis. Pada tahun 1917, kelompok reformis dari ISDV menukar namanya kepada Partai Demokrat Sosial Hindia. Pada tahun 1917, ISDV mengeluarkan penerbitannya sendiri dalam bahasa Melayu, Soeara Merdeka. Di bawah kepemimpinan Sneevliet, ISDV yakin bahawa ‘Revolusi Oktober’ seperti yang berlaku di Rusia boleh berlaku juga di Indonesia. Mereka berjaya mendapatkan pengikut di antara tentera-tentera dan pelaut Belanda yang ditempatkan di Hindia Belanda (Indonesia). Dalam masa tiga bulan sahaja jumlah keahlian mencapai 3,000 orang. Pada akhir tahun 1917, para tentera dan pelaut itu memberontak di Surabaya, sebuah pangkalan angkatan laut utama di Indonesia saat itu, dan membentuk sebuah ‘dewan soviet’. Kesannya, pihak kolonial Belanda mengambil tindakan dengan mengirim kembali mereka ke Belanda, termasuk Sneevliet. Walau bagaimanapun, ISDV terus melakukan kegiatan anti Belandanya dengan cara bergerak di bawah tanah. Pertubuhan ini kemudian menerbitkan sebuah terbitan yang lain, Soeara Ra’jat. Menyingkap sejarah awalnya, PKI adalah gerakan yang berasimilasi ke dalam Sarekat Islam (SI). Ini bermakna ahli PKI turut menganggotai SI. Melihat keadaan ini, berlaku pertentangan dan perselisihan tentang ideologi dan corak perjuangan. Hal ini berlaku di Semarang dan Yogyakarta. Oleh yang demikian, pihak SI telah mengenakan syarat supaya tidak berlaku keahlian berganda di dalam perjuangan nasionalisme di Indonesia. Keputusan tersebut telah membuatkan ahli PKI keluar daripada SI dan mengangotai ISDV. Pada Kongres ISDV di Semarang pada bulan Mei 1920, nama organisasi ini diubah menjadi Perserikatan Komunis di Hindia. Semaoen diberi tanggung jawab memimpin ISDV. Pertubuhan ini adalah parti komunis pertama di Asia yang menjadi sebahagian daripada Komunis International (Comintern). Sneevliet mewakili parti ini pada kongresnya kedua Comintern pada 1920. Pada 1924 nama parti ini sekali lagi diubah, dan dikenali dengan PKI. Pada November 1926, PKI memimpin pemberontakan melawan pemerintahan kolonial di Jawa Barat dan Sumatera Barat. PKI mengumumkan terbentuknya sebuah republik. Pemberontakan ini berjaya diatasi oleh pihak Belanda. Pada tahun 1927, PKI diharamkan dan para pemimpinnya dipenjarakan oleh Belanda. Oleh itu, PKI bergerak dalam bawah tanah dalam pergerakan nasionalisme Indonesia. Dalam masa yang sama PKI turut bergerak dalam kalangan mahasiswa-mahasiswa sehingga menembusi Perhimpunan Indonesia. Semasa zaman pendudukan Jepun PKI muncul kembali di dalam politik Indonesia dan ikut serta aktif dalam perjuangan kemerdekaan Indonesia. Keadaan ini agak membimbangkan Sukarno kerana akan mengancam kedudukan beliau dan akan menghuru harakan suasana politik serta keselamatan tanah air. Pada

8 Disember 1947 hingga 17 Januari 1948, pihak Republik Indonesia dan Belanda melakukan perundingan yang dikenali sebagai Perundingan Renville. Hasil kesepakatan perundingan tersebut dianggap menguntungkan pihak Belanda. Sebaliknya, Indonesia menjadi pihak yang merugikan kerana Indonesia akan kehilangan banyak wilayah. Ketika itu Amir Sjarifuddin menjadi Perdana Menteri. Dengan kegagalan perundingan itu, kabinet Amir dijatuhkan pada 23 Januari 1948 dan diganti dengan Muhammad Hatta. Amir membentuk pula Front Demokrasi Rakyat (FDR) pada 28 Jun 1948 dan berkompromi dengan PKI bagi tujuan merebut kembali kedudukannya dalam pemerintahan. Beberapa aktiviti yang telah mereka lakukan bagi melancarkan propaganda anti Hatta, demonstrasi, pemogokan dan rusuhan di beberapa tempat. FDR semakin kuat apabila Musso bergabung bagi menentang kerajaan Sukarno-Hatta. Melalui PKI, Musso telah melakukan pemberontakan besar-besaran di Madiun, Jawa Timur pada 18 September 1948 dengan tujuan untuk menubuhkan sebuah kerajaan komunis di Indonesia. (Lihat, The Straits Times, 23 September 1948, yang bertajuk “Plan To Recapture Madiun: Republic Army Has Day Of Successes”, dlm Mf 4184/Microfilm 668, 23 September-25 November 1948) Mereka telah menghuru harakan keselamatan dengan menyerang dan membunuh tentera TNI, pemimpin parti lain, alim ulama dan rakyat yang tidak berdosa sehingga membuatkan rakyat membenci PKI. Mereka bijak mengambil kesempatan mengadakan rusuhan yang ketika itu TNI sedang menghadapi kemaraan Belanda menjajah semua Indonesia. Walau bagaimanapun, pihak pemerintah telah mengambil tindakan drastik bagi membanteras keganasan PKI melalui perancangan Panglima Besar TNI, Soedirman yang memerintahkan Kolonel Gatot Subroto di Jawa Tengah dan Kolonel Sungkono di Jawa Timur untuk menjalankan operasi penumpasan pemberontakan PKI. Pada 30 September 1948, Madiun dapat dikawal kembali oleh TNI dan pihak polis. Dalam operasi ini Musso berjaya ditumpaskan dan ditembak mati sedangkan Amir Syarifuddin dan tokoh-tokoh lainnya ditangkap dan dijatuhi hukuman mati. Selepas peristiwa pemberontakan di Madiun, PKI kembali dalam arena politik Indonesia tanpa pengharaman parti tersebut. Pada 1950-an, PKI mengambil posisi sebagai parti nasionalis di bawah pimpinan D.N. Aidit. Di bawah Aidit, PKI berkembang dengan mendadak, pada tahun 1950 keahlian PKI kira-kira 5000 orang dan terus meningkat kepada 16,5000 orang pada 1954 serta 1.5 juta (959). Pada bulan Ogos 1951, PKI kembali melakukan pemogokan militan seperti yang dilakukan di Madiun. Kali ini mereka melakukan pemogokan di Medan dan Jakarta dan kembali bergerak di bawah tanah untuk sementara waktu. Semasa berlangsungnya pilihan raya umum tahun 1955, PKI memperolehi tempat yang keempat sebagai parti yang berpengaruh di Indonesia dengan menguasai 16% iaitu 80 kerusi dari 514 kerusi yang dipertandingkan di Konstituante (parlimen). Pada bulan September 1957, Masyumi melalui Natsir menuntut kepada Presiden Sukarno supaya parti itu diharamkan dalam gelanggang politik Indonesia. Namun, Sukarno tetap mengambil tindakan bekerjasama dengan golongan komunis. Pada tahun 1960 Sukarno melancarkan slogan ‘Nasakom’ yang merupakan singkatan dari ‘Nasionalisme, Agama dan Komunisme’. Semasa gagasan Malaysia diperkenalkan, PKI dan Parti Komunis Malaya (PKM) berpakat menolaknya. Pada Mac 1962, PKI bergabung dengan pemerintah. Para pemimpin PKI iaitu Aidit dan Njoto, dipilih menjadi menteri penasihat. Pada tahun 1963, pemerintah Malaysia, Indonesia dan Filipina terlibat dalam pembahasan tentang pertikaian wilayah dan kemungkinan tentang pembentukan sebuah Konfederasi Maphilindo, sebuah gagasan yang dikemukakan oleh presiden Filipina, Diosdado Macapagal. PKI menolak gagasan pembentukan Maphilindo dan pembentukan Malaysia. Para anggota PKI yang militan menyeberang masuk ke Malaysia dan terlibat dalam pertempuran-pertempuran di wilayah perbatasan di Kalimantan-Sarawak. Pada era akhir kekuasaan Sukarno, muncullah suatu insiden pembunuhan jenderal-jenderal TNI yang disebut insiden G30S. Dalam era tersebut, Sukarno dan PKI menghadapi krisis nasional. Dengan alasan 'keterlibatan PKI dalam G30S', parti ini diharam oleh Suharto pada 12 Mac 1966, setelah mendapat ‘Surat Perintah Sebelas Maret’ dari Presiden Sukarno tetapi dituntut oleh Suharto sebagai tonggak utama kekuatan politiknya. Rujuk, Ruth T. McVey, 1965. The Rise of Indonesian Communism, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press; Ruth T. McVey, 19957. The Soviet view of the Indonesian revolution: a study in the Russian attitude towards Asian nationalism, Ithaca, New York: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University; Ruth T. McVey, 1954. The

Development of the Indonesia Communist Party and Its Relations with the Soviet Union and the Chinese Peoples Republic, Center for Cambridge (Massachusetts): International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Harry J. Benda, 1960. The Communist Uprisings of 1926-1927 in Indonesia: Key Documents, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University; Soekarno, 1970. Nationalism, Islam, and Marxism, Ithica, New York: Modern Indonesia Project, Southeast Asia Program, Dept. of Asian Studies, Cornell University; dan, George McTurnan Kahin, 2003. Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia, Ithaca, New York:Southeast Asia Program Publications, Cornell University.

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Conference Paper (Draft)

Islamic Marketing Ethics and the Marketing Practices of Islamic Banks

By

Mr Muhammad Riaz Doctoral Candidate

School of Business and Management Queen Mary, University of London

Francis Bancroft Building, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS

Tel.: +44 (0) 7737474229 Email: m.riaz@qmul.ac.uk

Key Words: Islamic Banks, Marketing Mix, Marketing Ethics

Introduction

Islamic Banks (IBs) are purportedly built on the ethical foundations dictated by Islamic Economic philosophy (Siddiqui, 2001; Chapra, 2000) and therefore, designed to avoid unethical practices in economic behaviour and financial dealings while achieving the objectives of Shariah (DiVanna, 2006:3) The fundamentals of Islamic Finance, such as risk and reward sharing, have been reported to hold universal values because the principles of fairness and justice may be attractive to a larger a diverse investor and depositor base regardless of their religion (Al-Suwailem, 2008; Iqbal and Molyneux, 2005; Schoon, 2009:187). However, literature suggests that IB rely heavily on religious appeal to attract the Muslim client whereas they have been unable to highlight the core benefits of Islamic Finance to non-Muslim clientele despite inherent ethical credentials of IF (Jabaly, 2013; Sayani and Miniaoui, 2013 and Okumus & Genc, 2013). This paper therefore, intends to critically analyse the current marketing practices of IBs in light of the ethical criteria set out in the Islamic marketing ethics literature. The objective of this paper is to evaluate whether the acclaimed ethical ideals espoused by the Islamic marketing ethics literature are adequately reflected in the marketing practices of IBs. This paper consists of 4 sections; in the first section the concept and structure of IBs will be explored along with the perceived ethical basis of the IBs. Second section will introduce various approaches to marketing ethics before presenting Islamic perspective. In particular, Islamic marketing ethics approach presented by Saeed et al. (2001) will be introduced as a framework to analyse the marketing practices of IBs. Third section will briefly look at un-ethical marketing practices within the marketing mix (5Ps) context before delving deeper into its historical background and justification of its use in the proposed analysis. The final section will present a critical view of IB practices using marketing mix and ethical criteria suggested by Saeed et al. (2001). This paper argues that Islamic banks and Islamic marketing ethics derive their fundamental premises from a singular source namely, Shariah law (i.e. Quran and Sunnah), however, when IB practices are judged against the Islamic marketing ethics credentials, they may fall somewhat short of idealised ethics standards. Islamic Banks (IBs)

Islamic finance is achieving a phenomenal growth with Islamic banking assets with commercial banks in international markets projected to exceed $778 billion in 2014, representing a compound annual growth rate of around 17% from 2009 to 2013 (Ernst & Young, 2014-15). Many scholars believe that IBs are established as a practical manifestation of Islamic economic philosophy which is derived from the primary sources of Islamic law1. The purpose of IBs is to offer the same intermediary functions as conventional banks but engage in permissible activities defined by these principles (Lewis and Al-gaud, 2001; Hakim, 2007:161). Haniffa and Hudaib (2007) recount five distinctive features that differentiate IBs from their competitors (conventional banks): (a) underlying philosophy and values; (b) provision of interest-free products and services; (c) restriction to islamically acceptable financial transactions; (d) focus on developmental and social goals; and (e) subjection to additional reviews by the Shariah Supervisory Board (2007:99). These unique characteristics set IBs apart from conventional banks. As such, IBs are prohibited from dealing in (Riba) 1 The litrature provides four major sources namely, Quran (verbatim word of God) Sunnah (Record of words/action of Prophet Muhammad), Ijmaa (Consensus views of the scholars) and Qiyaas (analytical method of deduction by analogy).

interest-based transactions and instead required to operate on a profit and loss sharing (PLS) basis with depositors who are considered to be the shareholders2 of the bank (Hearn et al., 2012; Brown et al. 2007). As a logical corollary to the prohibition of Riba, the Shariah has prohibited all benefits accruing to a person without any labour, risk or expertise (Ayub, 2007:70). Apart from prohibition of interest, IBs are also prohibited from dealing in maysir (games of chance, gambling) and gharar (uncertainty, speculation)(Duran & Garcia-Lopez, 2012:51). Ethical Basis of IBs

According to Dusuki & Abdullah (2007) the Islamic banking system has an in-built dimension that promotes ethics and social responsibility (2007:145). As mentioned earlier IBs are practical manifestations of Islamic Economics philosophy and as such, designed to avoid unethical practices in economic behaviour and financial dealings while achieving the objectives of Shariah (DiVanna, 2006:3). Islam prescribes a moral standard based on principles of fairness, justice and the sharing of risk and reward (DiVanna, 2006; Ayub, 2007). The characteristics of sharing risk and reward, transparency and fairness and justices are considered to hold universal values and may espouse an ethical appeal to a larger a diverse investor and depositor base regardless of their religion (Al-Suwailem, 2008; Iqbal and Molyneux, 2005; Schoon, 2009; Wilson, 1997, Walsh, 2008). We can say that the ethical values of IBs are enshrined within the above mentioned foundational principle of IF and to a larger extant; the ethical framework of IBs is dictated by the underlying prohibitions involving financial transactions of IBs. Prohibitions such as trading in alcohol, tobacco, armaments and gambling etc, stem from the concern to protect health and life, so that products and services that put these at risk are prohibited (William and Zinkin, 2010:523).

Furthermore, only products that are lawful or permissible (halal) can be traded whereas any forbidden (haram) transactions are to be avoided. According to Hejase et al. (2013) forbidden transactions are any trade which involves cheating, injustice, exorbitant profits or the promotion of something that is prohibited in Islam. Such an emphasis on the moral core of business conduct is considered to be an act of faith by Beekun & Badawi (2005) and hence seen as a form of protection rather than a threat to the free market system (2005:133). In that sense, Islamic ethical injunctions do not stand as hurdles for IB’s in pursing economic goals instead they provide a competitive advantage while ensuring that the economic goals are met along with the moral obligations towards market and society. In the marketing context, the above mentioned prohibitions serve as the “moral filter” envisaged by Chapra (1993) for all private and public sector economic decisions to pass through before they are made subject to the discipline of the market (Rice, 1999:349). In other words, ethical judgements are not left entirely to market forces but have an added layer of oversight in order to enhance the ethical credentials of IBs. Thus, marketing from an Islamic perspective would be aimed at fulfilling both spiritual and physical well-being (Gibbs & Ilkan, 2008:166). A marketer of IB would, therefore, be expected to observe Islamic obligations in all business transactions in the process of satisfying customer needs (William and Zinkin, 2010:526). To gain a deeper understating of Islamic Marketing Ethics, we will now review marketing ethics - both from a philosophical as well as an Islamic perspective. 2 They fall under a special category of shareholder who have a share in the capital investment of the bank to the limit of his/her contribution and not in the building, equipment or other resources

Approaches to Marketing Ethics

Abela and Murphy (2007) define marketing ethics as a systematic study of how moral standards are applied to marketing decisions, behaviours and institutions (Abela and Murphy, 2007:39). According to William & Aitken (2011) ethics refer to the formalised social norms (into and codes and rules) that are concerned with notions of right and wrong (2011:445). Ethical norms are broadly divided into two categories: things that you should (or should not) do because they will have desirable (or undesirable) consequences; and things you should do for some other reason, usually expressed as ‘duty’ (Abela and Murphy, 2007). Hunt & Vitell (1986) distinguish the former as ‘teleological’ (usually known in the general ethics literature as ‘consequentialist’) and the latter as ‘deontological’ (William & Aitken, 2011:446). Similarly, normative and descriptive approaches to ethics represent teleological and deontological perspectives on marketing ethics respectively. As such, normative approaches to marketing ethics involve developing guidelines or rules to assist marketers in their efforts to behave in an ethical fashion (Hunt and Vitell 1986:6) whereas in descriptive approaches to marketing ethics, marketers deal with ethical issues through a multi-stage reasoning process which involves recognizing the presence of an ethical issue and invoking an ethical evaluation (Abela and Murphy, 2007:40). In that sense, the overall good or bad effects of the consequences are the major factors in teleological theories whereas the main factor to consider in one’s deontological evaluation is the righteousness of the specific act (Vitell & Patwardhan, 2008:197). Islamic Marketing Ethics

Religion has always been an important part of social fabric. A basic precept of all the major religions has been the consistent teachings pertaining to the individual and collective behaviour of human beings (William & Aitken, 2011). Islam is no exception. In Islam, ethics dominates economics (and not the other way around) – something that leads to a greater emphasis on duties rather than rights in Islamic ethics (Rice, 1999:346). The wisdom behind this is that if duties (relating to justice and trusteeship etc.) are fulfilled by everyone, then self-interest is automatically held within bounds and the rights of all are undoubtedly safeguarded (Rice, 1999:349). Elaborating on Shariah duties from a marketing perspective, Ayub (2007) describes fair dealing, honesty, straightforwardness, free consent and the negation of misstatement, misrepresentation and exaggerated product descriptions as important pillars of marketing ethics from an Islamic perspective. He further contends that false swearing; lying and hiding facts must be avoided in transactions. Shariah also does not approve of any publicity which leads to concealing facts about the business, exaggeration about the product or the financial position of any entity (Ayub, 2007:71). This shows that the Islamic approach to ethics can be considered teleological or consequencialist3 although there are also traces of the deontological approach particularly when it comes to the emphasis on individual responsibility towards society. In that sense Islamic ethics combine both teleological and deontological ethical considerations due to their emphasis on duties as well as their concern for the consequences of (non) fulfilment of these duties. Beekun and Badawi (2005) and Saeed et al. (2001) have in particular discussed marketing ethics from an Islamic perspective which can be equally applicable to IB’s alongside other businesses. Saeed et al. (2001) propose a new ethical marketing model based on Islamic

3 based on definitions by Hunt and Vitell (1986; 1993)

principles which is characterised by “value-maximisation” as opposed to “profit-maximisation” and argue that the application of Islamic perspective to the field of international marketing is relevant and effective in developing and maintaining a strong culture of ethical behaviour (2001:137). The authors believe that shifting the thrust of marketing away from profit maximisation towards value-maximisation will create a collaborative and value-laden global order that does not harm the competitive advantage of an organization. The general thrust of Saeed et al. (2001) is that the existing marketing ethics theories have not dealt with the concepts of justice and utility adequately and ignored the transcendental aspects which renders them incomplete with limited application and open to interpretation according to whims of businessmen (2001:129). They argue that the emergence of a trans-societal global moral order despite the dominance of ethical relativism may be a result of a natural universal desire for a more stringent moral and ethical value system (2001:129). This, they believe, is because at our very core there are innate universal moral values irrespective of time, religion, culture, economic status, race or creed. Hence, Saeed et al. (2011) argue that the desire for global moral order can be better explained and facilitated by an ethics system based on Islamic principles which are not relative but absolute and hence leave no room for mis-interpretation by the marketers (2001:130). In that vein, they explain that the commercial activities from an Islamic perspective are governed by two principles. Firstly, submission to the moral order of God and secondly, empathy and mercy to God’s creation, which implies refraining from doing harm to others and thus preventing the spread of un-ethical practices (Niazi, 1996). Therefore, they believe that a global ethical business (including marketing) framework based on the Islamic principles of value-maximization will be applicable for all times and across all cultures (2001:137) as the human desire for a global moral code is enshrined within the natural inclination in Islam to achieve higher ideal (2001:129). With this background in mind, we will look at what are the major un-ethical practices in marketing that the above marketing ethics theories attempt to address. Un-ethical practices in Marketing

The marketing literature suggests that a large number of unethical marketing practices (particularly on the promotional and communication side) relate to the marketing mix (price, product, place, promotion and people) and may involve false advertising, pressure selling (Landler, 1991), unsafe or harmful product (Schlegelmilch & Öberseder, 2009), deceptive pricing, deceptive communication or pressure selling (Farmer, 1977), bribery or discriminatory distribution and promotion of materialism (Brinkmann, 2002:159). Although most of the above mentioned un-ethical practices largely remain unchanged; technological advancement and innovation has added further problems such as stealth marketing, predatory lending, promotion of off-label uses of pharmaceuticals, and online privacy (Abela and Murphy, 2007:40). Other un-ethical practices include monopolizing distribution channels, deceptive advertising and resorting to questionable pricing practices (Saeed et al., 2001:135). Despite the scepticism and debate on the use of marketing mix in the marketing literature, Saeed et al. (2001) relied on its simplicity to present a model of Islamic ethical marketing. Therefore, due to the relevance of the marketing mix to unethical marketing practices and the current analysis, we will take a closer look at the marketing mix (4P’s) and its origins.

The Marketing Mix and its Relevance to the current Analysis

The marketing mix, commonly known as 4P’s, was originally introduced by Borden (1964) as a 12 point strategy to approaching key aspects of marketing management. However, McCarthy (1971) simplified these 12 categories into the more identifiable 4P’s namely, product, price, promotion and place (Magrath, 1986:44; ). The validity and usefulness of the traditional marketing mix i.e. 4P’s concept has been most recently questioned by many scholars such as Gronroos, (1994, 1997), Day and Montgomery (1999) and Gummesson (1999, 2000). However, the scepticism about the concept of 4P’s is not new. Shostack (1977) in her ground-breaking study, questioned the dominant marketing construct and argued that the classical marketing mix (4P’s) literature and the language of the marketing all derived from a manufactured goods perspective and suggested marketing should “break free” from product-oriented practice and vocabulary (1977:73). As the marketing discipline evolved, its emerging strands and sub-disciplines have found it convenient to propose other alternatives to 4P’s of marketing. For instance, Booms and Bitner (1982) suggested 3 additional P’s (people, physical evidence and processes) to address service marketing related issues (cited in Zineldin & Philipson, 2007:229). Among the major contenders to the marketing mix were Kotler’s “ten players” (Kotler, 1992), the “six markets” model (Christopher et al., 1991, 1994), ‘four partnerships’ (Buttle, 1996), ‘four partnerships and ten relationships’ (Morgan and Hunt, 1994), and ‘30R’s’ (Gummesson, 1996, 1999) all of which emphasised the partnerships within and across marketing actors, something which was seen as missing from the 4P model (Egan, 2003:351). However, despite criticism, convenient additions (more P’s) and various competing propositions, the marketing mix continues to remain valid in practice to this day with majority of the industry consistently relying on the marketing mix to drive their marketing strategy. This might partly be because the majority of marketing research scholars and practitioners grew up learning about the marketing mix and therefore, would have found it hard to switch to various other alternatives which were considered to be too cumbersome and complex as opposed to the simple 4P’s framework. Gronroos (1994) puts it down to the “pedagogical virtues” of the 4Ps that makes teaching marketing so easy and straightforward and acknowledges the simplicity of this model even if decrying its lack of emphasis on marketing as a social process (1994:333). Some of the recent research suggests that the practitioners continue to be attracted to the Mix’s simplicity and applicability and will not endorse a new framework unless they are persuaded that this can meet their management and planning needs better than the 4Ps (Constantinides, 2006:432). Therefore, to maintain consistency with Saeed et al. (2001), we will use the marketing mix approach to analyse the extent to which the ethical foundations of IBs and Islamic marketing ethics inform IB marketing practices. However, instead of 4Ps, we will use 5Ps model as used by Saeed et al. (2001) including an additional P for “People” due to the fundamental importance of marketing and finance personnel in the operations of IBs. In addition to the 5Ps, this analysis would also use ethical basis of IBs, Islamic marketing ethics criteria suggested by Saeed at el. (2001) and Islamic business ethics proposed by Beekun and Badawi (2005).

Islamic Marketing Ethics and IBs – a critical analysis

Price

According to Saeed et al. (2001), “Islam encourages the self-operating mechanism of price adjustments because any unethical lapses in pricing are tantamount to injustice (and are sin) and all profits that accrue as a result are unethical and unjust (2001:138)”. They further elaborate that, “price adjustment mechanism is subject to prohibitions that include changing the price without altering the quality and/or quantity of the product; over charging the customer for illicit gain; practicing price discrimination; charging excessive prices as a result of scarcity of supply of a given commodity; hoarding; restriction on trade; unjustified price manipulation; black marketing; and concealment of essential foodstuffs (2001:138)”. The ethical dimension of pricing is not an issue unique to IBs - most marketing managers are faced with this dilemma (Amine et al. 2012:72). However, many studies show that the ethical dimension in the pricing of IBs is not consistent with the price adjustment mechanism as introduced by Saeed et al. (2001). A majority of the studies spanning the last three decades have consistently highlighted IB prices as being higher than conventional products. Housby (2005) noted that Muslim customers find Islamic mortgages to be more expensive than conventional mortgages and only see it as exploitation on behalf of the IBs (2005:230). This situation has remained largely un-changed in terms of the price of Islamic mortgages as Wilson (2010:218) has more recently echoed. Even in the most recent studies, price sensitivity (Wahyuni, 2013:169) and higher commissions (Okumus & Genc, 2013) are cited as two factors exacerbating the low take-up of IB services and the customer satisfaction among the potential customers. A major reason for the higher prices for IB products cited by Ghoul (2012) is a “Shariah” premium which is a result of the additional cost in acquiring Shariah compliance certification, fees for product engineering or legal fees (Ghoul, 2012:10). Notwithstanding the reasons for the higher prices, the fact remains that prospective clients are consistently finding the prices to be prohibitive to engage with IBs. The global growth and performance of the IB sector shows (see GIFR, 2013) a consistent upward trend with impressive growth figures and forecast. It can thus be argued that a growing IF industry means a sufficient built up capacity in the system to develop economies of scale which should be reflected in the pricing structure. On the contrary, IB products remain out of reach of many Muslims due to the pricing factor. Therefore, it can be said that a higher than market price would not match with the “justice and balance” criterion suggested by Beekun and Badawi (2005) as part of the Islamic ethical system (2005:134). In addition, while a Muslim consumer may be able to bear the additional “Shariah” premium as the “price to go to heaven” (Ghoul, 2012:10), the only way to attract and retain a non-Muslim ethically-minded consumer would be to offer a competitive price. Higher prices in the form of a “Shariah” premium would not be attractive to – or an encouraging factor for - a non-Muslim ethically-minded consumer. The pricing issue becomes even more critical if the limited range of ethical investment options available to a potential non-Muslim client of IB is taken into account. For example, the prohibition related to dealing in interest4, sale of alcohol and pork-based produce may not be high on the ethical agenda of a non-Muslim client although for a Muslim customer these

4 Dealing in interest is not a major concern for the Co-Operative Bank which is considered to be most ethically inclined bank in the UK. Their ethical concerns include, tackling poverty, community development, fair trade practices, SME finance etc. While they seek to avoid investing in arms companies, genetic engineering, animal testing and fossil fuel extraction etc.(Source: http://www.co-operative.coop/Corporate/CSR/Ethical%20Plan%202013-15.pdf)

are highly ethical concerns. It follows that the single key criterion considered by such a client would be price when other ethically identical options are available in the market. This is not to suggest that IB’s should consider dealing in prohibited trade for the sake of being ethically inclusive but to point out the pricing issues which pose major ethical challenges for IBs from the marketing perspective, both for Muslim and non-Muslim clientele. Product

According to Saeed et al. (2001), “Islamic principles dictate that the production process (in case of IBs, product development process) must be innocent and pure from beginning to end (2001:138)”. They further state that, “The production process must be guided by the criteria of the value and the impact of the product upon the whole society which is to prevent conflict, unjustified profits, fraud, uncertainty and harm to society (2001:138)”. There are two aspects of IB “product” which can be discussed in light of the above ethical criteria. These relate to the prominence of cost-plus methods in product development and the reliance of IB’s on re-packaging the existing conventional products to make them Shariah complaint. Currently, almost 80% of financial transactions undertaken by IBs are based on debt-based contracts whereas equity-based financing comprises merely 20% of overall transactions (Lewis and Algaud, 2001; Iqbal and Molyneux, 2005; Iqbal and Mirakhor, 2007; Asutay, 2007; Akbar et al. 2012). Many writers, such as Dar and Presley (2001), Ahmad (2000), Khan and Ahmed (2001), Siddiqui (2002) and Asutay (2007) contend that the debt-based contracts practiced by IBs are undermining the true essence of the foundational principles of IF. According to Asutay (2007) a persistent usage of the short-term mode of (debt-based) financing is evidence that the IF industry is not particularly interested in social welfare as equity financing with its longer-term nature has a greater potential to contribute to economic development than debt-financing (2007:173). The focus and emphasis of IBs’ on product development and innovation has resulted in ever-sophisticated financial instruments mostly in the mark-up credit sale category as opposed to the PLS system which underlies the IB’s ethical foundation. Several studies (Chapra, 1985; El-Gamal, 2006; Farooq, 2007; and Ahmed, 2011) have argued that Islamic values and the key principle of Islamic Finance “sharing the risk” (as part of PLS – Profit and loss sharing) is not given priority in the product development process although IB’s claim to hold Shariah compliance in high regard. Ahmed (2011) has empirically proven that the two major sources of ideas for the new product development process in IBs are the products of other Islamic banks (53%) and the products of conventional banks (46%.). As such, practices in product development that relate to either creating or endorsing “Islamised” conventional products with Arabic sounding names such as “Amana” are usually aimed at making more profit by offering costly Islamic alternatives (GIFR, 2013). Such tactics generate scepticism about the ethical dimension of IBs and not only cause controversy among Muslim clientele but also fail to win over the ethically-minded customer. Therefore, product-related issues are compounded by the ethical challenges posed by pricing as discussed earlier. The product development process which involves several layers of professionals, such as Shariah scholars, product engineers, and legal experts has lead to unjustifiable additional costs which add to the prices of these products as Ghoul (2012) has indicated, making them more expensive and hence undesirable.

Promotion

Quoting the Islamic sources and juristic opinions of scholars such as Al Ukhuwa (1938) and Niazi (1996), Saeed et al. (2001) have outlined the principles of promotion from an Islamic perspective as follows:.

“There is no room in Islam to justify any cover up of promotional behaviour. In terms of Islamic marketing ethics, it is unethical to attribute the qualities to the products which they do not posses. Giving false impression of any kind to sell a product is completely prohibited in Islam. In addition, it is obligatory for the sellers to reveal all available and known information of defects to the purchaser which cannot be seen on the surface and cannot be found out by cursory glance. Islamic principles dictate that promotional techniques must not use sexual, emotional, fear or false research appeal to attract customer and should not encourage extravagance” (2001:133).

Some of the practices described in the “product” section are equally applicable to the “promotion” of IB’s and raise ethics questions. For example, we may recall that IB products are largely a replication of existing conventional products in essence and “Islamised” by merely adjusting the technical differences. Housby (2005) does not see any sign that the ethical concerns which lie behind the Quranic prohibition of Riba are being considered adequately in product development process while companies deem it sufficient to advertise the fact that they have teams of experts working on ways of producing halal versions of conventional products (2005:29). Housby (2005) further notes that the promotional material produced by banks is not transparent enough for the customer to make clear judgment about the product, instead it encourages customer to place total reliance on the scholars (2005:29). A recent survey of Islamic banks by Khan (2012) in the Middle-East, Pakistan, Malaysia and UK has also highlighted ethical concerns about marketing practices of IB’s. The survey indicated that customers of IBs in Malaysia and UAE are not convinced that promotional advertising of their banks are sufficiently ethical (Khan, 2012:300). Khan (2012) also conducted content analysis of various IB websites to detect unethical practices in their promotional and advertising campaigns. The author noted that Bank Islam (Malaysia) tried to “lure” customers by offering them a chance to win large amount of money, a practice that is highly unethical in Islam (it falls under gambling which is prohibited). Various other banks offered incentives such as discounts, reward points, and travel miles but very little attention was paid to providing Shariah compliancy information which should form a key basis for a customer to make a purchase decision (Khan, 2012:304). It can, therefore, be concluded that promotion of such products without clear information on their structure can be construed as unethical as it would be in breach of “information disclosure” clause mentioned by Saeed et al. (2001:134).

People (Personnel)

With regards to People, Saeed et al. (2001) contend that, “Islamic ethics demand protection and to enable free and independent judgment on part of the customer. A marketer should not resort to any form of coercion and must make available all known information on a product or service to enable the customer to make an informed decision” (2001:139). They further stress that, “Any transaction concluded under constraints or coercion is prohibited since Islamic marketing ethics dictate that society at large must have access to honest information free from coercion” (2001:139).

In light of the above, it is vital that IBs employ marketers with strong professional and ethical background with in-depth understanding of Islamic approach to ethics. This is because information asymmetry and the service-based nature of IBs’ operations increase the risk of unethical behaviour amongst IB marketing manager. Banks as providers of financial services always have better information and knowledge than customers about the products and services that they offer (Sayani and Miniaoui, 2013:208). This information asymmetry coupled with the inherent characteristics of services (Shostack, 1970; Gummesson, 2004) and the limited knowledge base of the consumer makes it difficult for them to realistically evaluate the value of the exchange, creating an incentive for manager to behave unethically (Rao and Singhapakdi, 1997). However, Ahmed (2011) suggests that the adoption of a conventional organisational format meant that in early stages of its development, Islamic Finance relied heavily on banking and finance professionals from the conventional background who were not familiar with the risks of equity-based instruments (2011:5). In Ahmed’s (2011) view, such reliance may have contributed to IB’s divergence from PLS structure as exhorted by Islamic legal sources. It can be assumed that it would be natural for such professionals to resort to the tried and tested methods for the remaining external and internal organisational functions including marketing. Furthermore, Karbhari et al. (2004) have found that the Executives in IBs give preference to candidates with technical skills, banking knowledge and financial analysis than those with knowledge of Shariah or Islamic principles of banking (2004: 538). To a certain extent such attributes among senior IB management continue to persist as Ahmed (2011) suggested. A continued reliance of IBs on professionals from conventional background, while not unethical in itself, can raise ethical dilemmas with regards to provision of access to transparent information on products, free of coercion as Saeed et al. (2001) suggested. In the absence of adequate ethical awareness and training of marketing managers, economic imperative, meeting financial targets and goals can easily come into conflict with the ethical treatment of the client. A long standing issue of a lack of appropriately trained professionals in IBs, is evident that ethical issues related to financial and marketing professionals have not been fully addressed (Al-Omar and Abdl-Haq, 1996, Kharbhari et al, 2004; Iqbal and Molyneux, 2005; Ahmed, 2011). Place (Distribution Channels)

With regards to the “place” the focus of Saeed et al. (2001) has been the distribution, transportation packaging of physical goods (2001:134). Citing Exxon Valdes oil spill disaster in 1989, the authors argue that the unethical decision-making instigated by profit maximisation motives compromises the society’s welfare and hence is to be considered unethical by implication. The authors contend that in Islamic principles distribution channels are not supposed to create a burden to the final customer in terms of price hikes or delays in [product/service] delivery (2001:134). They further state that such burdens, resulting in unnecessary visits to the distribution centre and inconvenience to the customer, would be considered unethical. Based on that, it can be said that “place” in this context is not only seen as a delivery and distribution centre but also a venue for the interaction between customer and the organisation. Such a venue (place) is integral to the exchange of service or sales to take place for the ultimate value of the marketing process to be delivered. Within financial services and

context, a branch of an IB would be considered as “place/distribution channel”, therefore, we will look at the branch aspect of IBs to contextualise this point. There are two main issues with regards to place as a component of marketing mix of IBs - lack of IB branches and delivery of Islamic financial services through window operations. It must be noted that these two issues are linked more with accessibility rather than having any direct impact on marketing ethics of IBs. Nonetheless, the points are being raised as they may indirectly hinder the ethical projection of IBs if remained un-addressed. For example in the UK, a skeletal network of IBs is not able to fulfil the financial needs of a growing Muslim population which according to the recent census (2011) stands at 2.7 Millions. Islamic Bank of Britain (IBB), the only Islamic Bank with high street presence, has only 8 branches in England to-date. Some of the cities in the UK with substantial Muslim population have no IB at all. Second ethical concern from the “place” perspective is conventional banks selling IF products and services through window operations. While their high street presence and large branch network may provide ease of access, many Muslim customers would be very reluctant in dealing with such establishments due to their primary business rooted in interest based lending and borrowing. Housby (2005) pointed that such institutions may regard Muslims customers as just another market without making any concerted efforts to eliminate Riba (interest) from their transactions (2005:29). As a result a Muslim customer may not see these institutions as providers of valid Islamic financial solutions.

Conclusion

In conclusion, IBs’ foundational principles and ethical basis demonstrate ethical strengths inherent to IBs in providing synergies between positive and normative ethical theories. A marketing ethics theory based on Islamic principles can arguably play an important role in bridging a gap between normative and descriptive marketing ethics framework as it projects the strengths of both of these theories. Secondly, despite the strength of the foundational principles of IBs and their ethical merits, a practical manifestation of justice and equality espoused by these principles has yet to be fully realised in the practice by the IBs - both from the operational and marketing perspective. This is evident from the current state of marketing ethics in IBs where theory appears to at odds with the practice. This critical review shows a lack of consistency in the implementation of ethical ideals of IBs into their practice. The ethical dilemma of IBs is highlighted by the above analysis in light of the Islamic perspective on marketing ethics; the literature on product and human resources development and prevalent marketing ethics concerns in IBs (Saeed et al., 2001; Housby, 2005; El-Gamal, 2006; Ahmed, 2011; Khan, 2012). There is sufficient evidence to suggest that IBs need to strengthen their ethical promotional culture and bring it in line with Islamic ethics principles. A caveat in this analysis is that the synopsis of the current ethical concerns within IBs is based on a limited literature, predominantly related to marketing communication aspect and hence may not correctly depict the whole range of ethical issues within IBs.

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1

MEMPERKASA USAHA PENGHASILAN MAKANAN

MENERUSI PERTANIAN DENGAN MOD PEMBIAYAAN ISLAM

Dr Abdul Nasir bin Haji Abdul Rani

Universiti Islam Sultan Sharif Ali

Simpang 347, Jalan Pasar Baharu

Gadong, BE 1310

Negara Brunei Darussalam

nasir@unissa.edu.bn

Abstrak

Menghasilkan makanan menerusi pertanian merupakan satu tugas murni yang sangat dituntut

oleh Islam. Namun, kos penghasilan memerlukan biaya yang sangat besar; bermula daripada

penyediaan keperluan pertanian hinggalah hasil tanaman diproses dan siap untuk dikonsumsi.

Ini menggambarkan betapa perusahaan makanan itu sangat membutuhkan bantuan para

pembiaya. Para petani yang tidak mempunyai modal yang cukup mungkin saja terjerumus dalam

kancah riba apabila terpaksa berurusan dengan “penyangak” untuk mendapatkan pinjaman

uang. Dalam hal ini, institusi keuangan Islam harus berperan lebih efektif menjadi pembiaya agar

perusahaan tersebut dapat dilangsungkan dalam suasana Islamik. Pendekatan kepustakaan

digunakan untuk mengenalpasti dan menilai beberapa mod pembiayaan yang berpotensi untuk

dipraktikkan oleh bank Islam bagi tujuan di atas. Pengkaji mendapati beberapa bentuk mod

pembiayaan Islam yang sesuai untuk diadaptasi, iaitu; al-Sharikah al-Mutanaqisah, al-Ijarah al-

Muntahiyah bi al-Tamlik, Bay’ al-Murabahah li al-Amir bi al-Shira, Bay’ al-Taqsit, dan Bay’ al-

Salam fi al-Zira’ah. Kertas ini juga akan mengajukan sumbang saran bagaimana mod ini dapat

dipraktikkan.

Kata Kunci: Penghasilan Makanan, Pertanian, Mod Pembiayaan Islam, Bank Islam

Pendahuluan

Asas pertama yang diperjuangkan oleh manusia dalam kehidupan di muka bumi ini

ialah mendapatkan sumber makanan yang baik. Tanpa makanan sudah tentu makhluk

bernama manusia ini akan pupus. Oleh itu, Islam memberi perhatian yang sangat serius

dalam aktiviti bercucuk tanam (pertanian) “kerana aktiviti tersebut pada lazimnya

dapat menghasilkan makanan untuk melengkapi keperluan hidup manusia” (Ibnu

Khaldun, 2006).

Keperihatinan Islam terhadap aktiviti pertanian dapat dilihat dengan jelas

menerusi teks al-Qur’an dan al-Sunnah.

Pensyarah Kanan Fakulti Perniagaan dan Sains Pengurusan, Universiti Islam Sultan Sharif Ali,

Brunei Darussalam. Beliau juga adalah Pengarah (Direktur) Pusat Penyelidikan Mazhab Shafi’i di

universitas yang sama di samping menjadi Ahli Badan Penasihat Syari’ah Bank Islam Brunei

Darussalam.

2

Selain al-Qur’an dan al-Sunnah, pensyariatan Islam terhadap beberapa kaedah

pemakmuran bumi seperti Sistem Ihya’ al-Mawat, Sistem al-Iqta‘, Sistem al-Muzara‘ah,

Sistem al-Musaqah, dan Sistem al-Kira’ merupakan satu lagi pembuktian lain tentang

pentingnya usaha menghasilkan makanan menerusi aktiviti pertanian dari kaca mata

Islam demi kelangsungan hidup umat manusia sarwajagat.

Peran Institusi Keuangan Islam

Pada zaman serba maju ini, kos usaha penghasilan makanan memerlukan biaya yang

sangat besar; bermula daripada penyediaan keperluan pertanian, pembelian peralatan

dan pekakas, kos penjagaan tanam-tanaman hinggalah tanaman mengeluarkan hasil

kemudian diproses untuk dikonsumsi. Para petani yang tidak mempunyai modal yang

cukup untuk membiaya kos tersebut terkadang terpaksa membuat pinjaman uang dari

institusi perbankan konvensional yang pinjamannya adalah berteraskan riba (faedah).

Keperitan akan ditanggung oleh para petani sewaktu menuai hasil tatkala nilai pasaran

jatuh merundum yang memaksa mereka untuk menjual hasil tanaman pada harga yang

rendah. Dengan pendapatan yang kecil mereka gagal melunaskan hutang, apatah lagi

yang digandakan dengan faedah. Akibat daripada beban hutang ini, seterusnya

memaksa mereka untuk memperbaharui pinjaman uang dengan jumlah yang lebih

besar. Ini bererati, hutang mereka tidak pernah selesai, bahkan terus kian bertambah.

Dalam situasi ini, para petani akan terus berada di dalam lingkaran penderitaan kerana

terpaksa membayar hutang yang menggunung akibat faedah yang dilipat gandakan

(Daud, 2005).

Menyedari hakikat ini, institusi keuangan Islam perlu berperan lebih efektif

menggantikan bank konvensional dalam memberi pinjaman uang kepada para petani

yang butuh bantuan untuk memajukan usaha mereka menghasilkan makanan. Saran ini

dibuat kerana matlamat membangun institusi keuangan Islam itu sendiri bukan sekedar

menonjolkan identitinya sebagai sebuah institusi keuangan yang mengamalkan Syariat

Islam dan tidak mengamalkan riba, atau sekedar mementingkan keuntungan semata,

tetapi juga menjadikan aspek pembangunan dan kemajuan ekonomi sebagai matlamat

utama yang hendak dicapai. Hal ini termasuklah bidang pertanian yang wajar

ditingkatkan keupayaannya supaya dapat menghasilkan makanan pada tahap paling

optimal bagi tujuan mengurangkan kebergantungan masyarakat Islam dari negara luar.

Antara contoh bank Islam yang menjadikan kemajuan pertanian sebagai salah satu

matlamat penubuhannya ialah Bank Islam Dubai. Statut bank ada menegaskan

sokongannya terhadap pembangunan ekonomi pertanian. Ini dapat dilihat menerusi

produk perbankannya yang menawarkan pembiayaan usaha pertanian berteraskan

konsep al-Salam (http://www.dib.ae). Dengan nada yang sama, Bank Tadamun Sudan

juga menyokong penuh usaha membangun ekonomi pertanian dengan menawarkan

produk pembiayaan pertanian secara Islam yang berasaskan konsep al-Salam dan al-

Muzara’ah (http://www. tadamonbank-sd.com).

3

Mod Biaya Pertanian Secara Islam

Menerusi perbincangan di atas, dapat diteladani di sini bahawa apa yang telah

dilakukan oleh kedua-dua bank berteraskan Syariah di atas (Bank Islam Dubai dan Bank

Tadamun Sudan) dalam membangun ekonomi pertanian adalah merupakan satu uswah

hasanah (contoh terbaik), malah wajib diikuti oleh semua bank Islam agar penghasilan

makanan menerusi pertanian dapat diraih dengan jayanya demi menjaga kepentingan

umum dan negara. Dalam hal ini, bank Islam harus bersikap lebih kreatif dan inovatif

menawarkan mod pembiayaan pertanian berteraskan Islam supaya dapat memberi

impak besar terhadap kemajuan usaha tersebut.

Dengan menggunakan pendekatan kepustakaan, pengkaji telah mengenal pasti

beberapa mod pembiayaan Islam yang berpotensi untuk memperkasakan usaha

penghasilan makanan menerusi pertanian, iaitu:

1) Al-Sharikah al-Mutanaqisah ( َكُة ٱ ِ ملَُتنَاِقَصةُ ٱلَّشر )

Al-Sharikah bermaksud: “perkongsian antara dua orang atau ramai dalam satu urusan

untuk mendapatkan keuntungan melalui perkongsian harta atau tugasan atau

kedudukan. Risiko akan ditanggung oleh mereka mengikut persetujuan yang

dibenarkan” (Al-Khayyat, 1994). Umumnya, konsep al-Sharikah ini dihukumkan harus

berdasarkan dalil al-Qur’an, al-Sunnah, Ijma‘, dan dalil ‘Aqli (rasional).

Kini muncul pelbagai bentuk mod pembiayaan yang berasaskan konsep al-

Sharikah, antaranya ialah “al-Sharikah al-Mutanaqisah” (syarikat beransur kurang) yang

juga dikenali sebagai “al-Sharikah al-Muntahiyah bi al-Tamlik” (syarikat berakhir dengan

pemilikan)1. Menerusi mod pembiayaan ini, bank bukan sahaja berperan sebagai

institusi pembiaya proyek, tetapi juga berperan sebagai rakan kongsi pelanggan (Al-

Salus, 1998).

Gambaran amalan mod pembiayaan ini ialah satu bentuk perkongsian di mana

pihak bank memberi hak kepada pelanggan untuk mengambil alih kedudukan bank

sebagai rakan kongsi proyek sama ada sekaligus atau pun berperingkat-peringkat

berdasarkan syarat-syarat yang dipersetujui (‘Abdullah, 1997). Untuk mengambil alih

proyek secara berperingkat, pelanggan dikehendaki membayar balik kos pembiayaan

kepada bank secara beransur. Setiap bayaran ansuran yang dibuat akan mengurangkan

syer pemilikan bank terhadap proyek berkenaan yang akhirnya berpindah miliki

sepenuhnya kepada pelanggan tersebut (Irshid, 2001).

1 Adapun yang dimaksudkan dengan “syarikat beransur kurang” ia merujuk kepada bank

kerana bersetuju mengurangkan syer perkongsian syarikatnya terhadap proyek secara

berperingkat-peringkat hingga mencapai nilai sifar. Sementara yang dimaksudkan dengan

“syarikat berakhir dengan pemilikan” pula merujuk kepada pelanggan yang pada akhirnya

memiliki proyek sepenuhnya (Al-Shanqiti, 2001).

4

Menurut catatan sejarah, kaedah mod pembiayaan ini mula diamalkan di Mesir di

mana Jabatan Muamalat Islam sebuah bank komersil telah membuat perkongsian

bersama syarikat-syarikat pelancongan yang berhasrat untuk memiliki armada

pengangkutan darat pelancongan bagi mengangkut pelancong-pelancong dari Kaherah

ke Aswan. Nilai semua kenderaan yang diperlukan – pada waktu itu – ialah 5 juta

pound Mesir. Pihak syarikat mengeluarkan modal sejuta pound dan pihak bank

mengeluarkan 4 juta pound dan dibayar secara ansuran selama 5 tahun dengan bayaran

¾ juta setiap tahun. Setelah syarikat pelancongan memiliki bengkel dan kakitangan

yang cukup untuk mengendalikan armada berkenaan, maka pembahagian keuntungan

dilakukan mengikut perkiraan berikut, iaitu: 15% keuntungan bersih digunakan untuk

membayar kerja-kerja pengurusan, 85% keuntungan bersih dibahagikan dengan nisbah

4 untuk bank dan 1 untuk syarikat. Setiap bayaran ansuran dilakukan, peratus syer

perkongsian bank dalam syarikat semakin berkurang, sementara peratus syer syarikat

semakin bertambah. Proses ini berakhir dengan pemilikan penuh syarikat terhadap

kesemua kenderaan selepas selesai pembayaran dilakukan (Al-Masri, 1988).

Praktik yang sama juga dapat diaplikasikan dalam membiaya aktiviti penghasilan

makanan menerusi pertanian. Bank Islam membiaya kos pertanian dengan membeli

peralatan, contohnya kenderaan untuk mengangkut hasil pertanian. Pelanggan

membayar semula kepada bank secara ansuran dengan syarat tertentu. Setiap bayaran

ansuran yang dibuat oleh pelanggan akan mengurangkan syer pemilikan bank terhadap

kenderaan yang dibiaya dan akhirnya menjadi milik penuh pelanggan. Kaedah ini

setentunya akan dapat membantu para petani menjalankan tugas mereka menghasilkan

makanan di samping memperoleh sumber pendapatan dan seterusnya mengukuhkan

lagi perekonomian negara. Dengan adanya sokongan keuangan ini akan memberi

kekuatan kepada para petani untuk menembusi beberapa bidang pelaburan yang tidak

mampu mereka tembusi secara bersendirian.

2) Al-Ijarah al-Muntahiyah bi al-Tamlik ( بِالترْملِيِْك ملُنَْتِهَيُة ٱإِلَجاَرُة ٱ )

Hukum beramal dengan al-Ijarah (sewa) ialah harus. Pengharusannya dapat diambil

daripada nas al-Qur’an, al-Sunnah, Ijma‘, dan Qiyas.

Kontrak al-Ijarah seterusnya dikembangkan menjadi al-Ijarah al-Muntahiyah bi al-

Tamlik (sewa berakhir dengan pemilikan). Menurut al-Hasun (2005), kontrak ini mula

diperkenalkan pada tahun 1846 di England dengan nama “Hire Purchase”. Kaedah

pembiayaan ini seterusnya tersebar penggunaannya ke kilang. Kilang pertama yang

menggunakan kontrak ini ialah kilang mesin jahit “Singer” di England. Kemudian

kaedah pembiayaan ini tersebar luas penggunaannya terutama sekali di syarikat kereta

api untuk membiaya pembelian kenderaan arang batu. Pada tahun 1953, lahir pula

kontrak “Leasing” di Amerika dan “Credit Bail” di Perancis pada tahun 1962. Kontrak-

kontrak ini merupakan kasus baru dalam amalan kontrak al-Ijarah al-Muntahiyah bi al-

Tamlik iaitu dengan memasukkan pihak ketiga (lessor) antara kedua pihak yang

menandatangani kontrak sewa beli.

5

Kemudiannya kontrak al-Ijarah al-Muntahiyah bi al-Tamlik tersebar ke negara-

negara Islam melalui bank Islam dan dijadikan sebahagian daripada amalan

pembiayaan bank tersebut. Gambaran praktik amalannya ialah: “bank berperan

menyewakan barang kegunaan kekal – seperti kenderaan – kepada seseorang dalam

tempoh tertentu dengan mengenakan bayaran sewa tertentu yang mungkin lebih tinggi

daripada sewa biasa. Penyewa akan memiliki barang tersebut setelah tamat tempoh

sewa dan setelah selesai membayar ansuran sewa dengan kontrak yang baru (Shabir,

1999)”. Dalam kontrak baru tersebut, barang sewaan akan berpindah milik kepada

penyewa melalui pemberian percuma (hibah) atau dijual dengan nilai simbolik melalui

bayaran sewa terakhir. Sekiranya penyewa gagal membayar ansuran sewa, maka

terbatal lah kontrak al-Ijarah al-Muntahiyah bi al-Tamlik dan bertukar menjadi kontrak al-

Ijarah biasa kerana penyewa melanggar syarat bayaran ansuran sewa (Irshid, 2001).

Berdasarkan gambaran praktik di atas, dapat dilihat bahawa kontrak al-Ijarah al-

Muntahiyah bi al-Tamlik ialah gabungan antara dua jenis kontrak iaitu sewa dan jual beli

tergantung; kontrak sewa telah bertukar menjadi kontrak jual beli pada pembayaran

sewa terakhir dan bayaran sewa ansuran bertukar menjadi harga belian barangan.

Kontrak ini telah pun dibincangkan oleh ‘ulama’ dalam Majma‘ Fiqh ke-5 yang

diadakan di Kuwait pada 1-6 Jamadilawal 1409H bersamaan 10-15 Disember 1988M.

Para ‘ulama’ tidak mencapai kata sepakat tentang keharusan atau pengharaman

beramal dengan kontrak tersebut. Resolusi mencadangkan supaya pihak bank memberi

penyewa (selepas habis tempoh penyewaan) 3 pilihan berikut: (Majma‘ al-Fiqh al-

Islami al-Dawli, Resolusi No: 44 (5/6) berhubung dengan al-Iijar al-Muntahi bi al-

Tamlik)

a) Memanjangkan tempoh penyewaan; atau

b) Menamatkan kontrak sewa dan mengembalikan barang kepada bank; atau

c) Menjualnya dengan harga pasaran semasa dengan mengambil kira bayaran sewa

terdahulu.

Pun demikian, ramai daripada kalangan ‘ulama’ keuangan Islam kontemporari

yang mengharuskan amalan kontrak al-Ijarah al-Muntahiyah bi al-Tamlik dengan syarat

mematuhi peraturan berikut: (Al-Sibagh, 2009)

a) Menetapkan tempoh penyewaan dan mengikuti hukum-hakam kontrak al-Ijarah

sepanjang tempoh penyewaan;

b) Menentukan kadar setiap bayaran ansuran sewa sepanjang tempoh tersebut; dan

c) Menjadikan barang yang disewa milik penyewa melalui pemberian percuma sebagai

mengotakan janji terdahulu antara bank dan penyewa.

Syarat-syarat yang ditetapkan oleh ‘ulama’ keuangan kontemporari ini dilihat

lebih selamat untuk digunakan dalam praktik kontrak al-Ijarah al-Muntahiyah bi al-Tamlik

kerana ia berasaskan kepada hukum al-Ijarah yang tulen. Namun, syarat yang

memperuntukkan supaya hak milik barangan bertukar menjadi milik penyewa sebagai

mengotakan janji terdahulu tetap saja dilihat terikat dengan dua bentuk perjanjian iaitu

6

perjanjian sewa dan perjanjian beli yang tidak dibenarkan oleh Syarak walaupun

dilakukan dalam dua kontrak yang berasingan.

Untuk tidak mensia-siakan keistimewaan yang ada dalam kontrak al-Ijarah al-

Muntahiyah bi al-Tamlik ini, pemindahan milik kepada penyewa – pada hemat pengkaji –

biarlah dilakukan atas kehendak penyewa sendiri atau pun dengan penyewaan dengan

janji tidak terikat di samping mematuhi peraturan yang mengarah ke aplikasi yang

betul. Apa yang penting ialah pihak bank perlu mewujudkan satu unit pengawasan

supaya amalan kontrak ini selari dengan kehendak Syarak. Jika tidak, amalannya akan

menghadapi kritikan dan juga tentangan umum.

Faedah kontrak al-Ijarah al-Muntahiyah bi al-Tamlik tidak hanya terbatas

kegunaannya dalam bidang perniagaan sahaja, bahkan juga berpotensi untuk

diaplikasikan dalam aktiviti perkilangan, pertanian, dan semua proses penghasilan

yang mempunyai asas kukuh. Ia dilihat sebagai satu mod pembiayaan Islam yang dapat

memberi sumbangan positif kepada pembangunan ekonomi dan untuk maslahat

umum. Dengan mengaplikasikan penggunaan mod pembiayaan ini dalam usaha

penghasilan makanan akan dapat membantu sektor-sektor pertanian mendapat

peralatan baru dan meningkatkan kapasiti pengeluaran dengan lebih berkesan (Al-

Sartawi, 1999).

3) Bay‘ al-Murabahah li al-Amir bi al-Shira’ ( ٱَبيُْع ِاء َ ملَُراَبَحِة لآِلِمِر بِالَّشر )

Amalan Bay‘ al-Murabahah dalam konteks mudah merujuk kepada: “penjualan suatu

barangan pada harga asal dengan menambah keuntungan yang dimaklumkan kepada

pembeli (‘Abdul Mun‘im, 1999)”.

Jazi (T.T) penulis kitab Qawanin al-Ahkam al-Shar‘iyyah mendefinisikannya sebagai:

“penjual memaklumkan kepada pembeli harga asal barang tersebut dan memaklumkan

kadar keuntungan daripada penjualannya, sama ada dengan cara menyeluruh2 atau

terperinci3”.

Pada dasarnya, hukum beramal dengan kontrak Bay‘ al-Murabahah ini harus

mengikut pendapat Jumhur ‘ulama’ iaitu al-Imam Abu Hanifah, al-Imam Malik, al-

Imam al-Shafi‘i, dan ramai daripada kalangan al-Tabi‘in. Pengharusannya disandarkan

kepada dalil al-Qur’an, al-Sunnah, dan Ijma‘.

Walau bagaimanapun, amalan Bay‘ al-Murabahah kurang disenangi oleh al-Imam

Ahmad dan sebahagian daripada sahabat iaitu Ibnu ‘Umar dan Ibnu ‘Abbas Radiallahu

‘Anhum. Menurut mereka sekiranya keuntungan dimaklumi keseluruhannya, maka

amalan itu betul. Tetapi sekiranya keuntungan hanya disebut dengan kadar nisbah,

maka kontrak itu menjadi makruh kerana kadar keuntungan tidak jelas (Ibnu

2 Cara menyeluruh: contohnya, “aku membelinya dengan harga 10 dollar. Aku mengambil

untung daripada jualannya 2 dollar”.

3 Cara terperinci: contohnya, “aku membelinya dengan harga 10 dollar. Aku mengambil untung

1 dollar bagi setiap 2 dollar”.

7

Qudamah, 1999). Sungguh pun keuntungan dimaklumi dengan cara nisbah, contohnya

10%, ianya masih dianggap jelas iaitu dengan cara membuat pengiraan. Oleh itu, ia

tidak sesekali menjejaskan keharusan kontrak tersebut (Al-Shanqiti, 2001).

Amalan Bay‘ al-Murabahah dalam konteks mudah ini telah diubah kaedah

praktiknya di bank Islam. Kaedah praktik di bank Islam dikenali dengan istilah “Bay‘ al-

Murabahah li al-Amir bi al-Shira’” yang juga dikenali “al-Murabahah al-Murakkabah”

(Irshid, 2001). Pengubahsuaian praktik ini dilakukan atas dasar keinginan pihak bank

untuk membiaya keperluan pelanggan yang berhajat untuk mendapatkan mesin,

peralatan, kelengkapan, dan sebagainya.

Gambaran praktik Bay‘ al-Murabahah yang diamalkan oleh bank Islam ialah:

“pelanggan akan memohon bantuan daripada bank untuk membeli peralatan tertentu

dengan spesifikasi yang jelas dari segi kuantiti dan sifatnya. Sementara bank untuk

membeli peralatan yang dikehendaki berdasarkan perjanjian awal pelanggan akan

membelinya daripada bank. Peralatan seterusnya dijual kepada pelanggan pada harga

asal yang dicampur dengan kos pembelian dan kadar keuntungan tertentu sesuai

dengan persetujuan kedua-dua pihak. Pihak bank seterusnya membuat perjanjian

bersama pelanggan tentang cara pembayaran. Pelanggan akan dikenakan bayaran

pendahuluan untuk jaminan bagi memastikan kesungguhannya membeli peralatan

tersebut dari bank (Saleh, 2001). Bayaran seterusnya dilakukan secara ansuran pada

jumlah tertentu, dalam tempoh tertentu, dan pada tarikh tertentu sesuai dengan

kemampuan pelanggan (‘Abdul Qadir, 1997).

Hukum beramal dengan kontrak Bay‘ al-Murabahah li al-Amir bi al-Shira’ telah

dibincangkan dengan panjang lebar dalam Majma’ Fiqh ke-2 yang bersidang pada tahun

1403H bersamaan 1983M. Resolusi menetapkan: “Kontrak Bay‘ al-Murabahah li al-Amir bi

al-Shira’ sekiranya dilakukan pada suatu barangan yang sudah menjadi milik pembeli (bank) dan

ada dalam gengamannya, maka hukum jual beli barang tersebut ialah harus selagimana bank

bertanggungjawab atas kerosakan barang yang dibeli sebelum ia diserahkan kepada pelanggan,

dan menanggung risiko pemulangan sekiranya ada kecacatan yang tersembunyi, atau atas sebab

lain yang mewajibkan peralatan tersebut dipulangkan selepas penyerahan, dan selagimana jual

beli memenuhi syarat serta tidak mengandungi unsur terlarang (dari segi Syarak)” (Majma‘ al-

Fiqh al-Islami al-Dawli, Resolusi No: 40-41 (5/2) & (5/3) berhubung dengan

Memenuhi Janji dan al-Murabahah li al-Amir bi al-Shira’).

Pada kebiasaannya kontrak Bay‘ al-Murabahah li al-Amir bi al-Shira’ digunakan

untuk membiaya keperluan perniagaan jangka masa pendek. Pun demikian, ia dilihat

berpotensi digunakan untuk membiaya pelaburan jangka masa panjang seperti aktiviti

pertanian. Melalui kontrak ini akan dapat membantu para petani yang tidak

berkemampuan membeli peralatan dan mesin pertanian secara sekaligus, di mana pihak

bank akan melakukan pembeliannya dan menjualnya kepada para petani. Dengan cara

ini, para petani dapat memenuhi keperluan aktiviti pertanian dengan lebih mudah hasil

daripada biaya pendahuluan yang dihulurkan oleh pihak bank.

8

4) Bay‘ al-Taqsit ( لترْقِسيْطِ ٱَبيُْع )

Gambaran amalan Bay‘ al-Taqsit (jual beli dengan bayaran ansuran) ialah: “seorang

penjual menyerahkan barang jualannya kepada pembeli yang memberi hak kepadanya

untuk menggunakan barangan tersebut dan memanfaatkannya dengan syarat

membayar nilainya seperti yang dipersetujui oleh kedua-dua pihak sama ada sekali gus

pada waktu lain yang ditetapkan atau dibayar secara berperingkat dalam jangka waktu

yang ditetapkan seperti yang tertera di dalam kontrak perjanjian” (Al-Sartawi, 1999).

Dengan cara ini, seseorang yang tidak mempunyai sumber keuangan yang cukup dapat

memiliki barang yang diperlukannya tanpa perlu merujuk kepada institusi peminjam

uang yang berunsurkan riba. Ia adalah merupakan satu bentuk mod pembiayaan yang

dibenarkan dalam Islam kerana dapat membiayai keperluan masyarakat dan

menghindarkan mereka daripada terjebak dalam kancah riba.

Cara ini diluaskan penggunaannya ke bank Islam, di mana bank membeli

barangan tertentu dengan bayaran segera dan menjualnya semula kepada pelanggan

dengan mencampurkan kos pembelian dan keuntungan dan dibayar secara ansuran

(Irshid, 2001).

Beberapa resolusi telah dicapai dalam Majma‘ Fiqh yang bersidang pada 17-23

Sha’ban 1410H bersamaan 12-20 Mac 1990M di Jeddah berhubung dengan kaedah

muamalat ini, iaitu (Majma‘ al-Fiqh al-Islami al-Dawli, Resolusi No: 51 (6/2)

berhubung dengan al-Bay‘ bi al-Taqsit):

a) Harus menambah harga tertunda daripada harga pasaran semasa sebagaimana harus

menyatakan harga jualan tunai. Dalam jualan harga tertunda, bayaran dilakukan

secara ansuran untuk tempoh tertentu. Jual beli tidak sah kecuali kedua-dua pihak

memutuskan sama ada barangan dibayar dengan tunai atau ditunda. Sekiranya

berlaku jual beli yang tidak pasti – sama ada tunai atau ditunda – dan kedua-dua

pihak tidak mencapai kata sepakat dalam satu harga tertentu, maka urusan jual beli

tidak harus menurut Syarak; dan

b) Tidak harus dalam kontrak jual beli tertunda ada penetapan faedah ansuran yang

diasingkan daripada harga jualan semasa, tidak kira sama ada cara nisbah atau kadar

faedah tersebut dipersetujui oleh kedua-dua pihak.

Untuk menjadikan kaedah pembiayaan ini lebih realistik dan berlangsung dengan

effektif secara optimal, bank Islam perlu memiliki kedai-kedai perniagaan sendiri yang

menjual barang-barang yang diperlukan oleh masyarakat setempat supaya mereka

boleh mendapatkannya dengan mudah. Saranan ini dilihat sebagai suatu keperluan

untuk memenuhi syarat sah jual beli dalam Islam, iaitu penjual mesti memiliki barang

yang dijual. Sekiranya bank Islam membuka kedai-kedai perniagaan sendiri dan urusan

jual beli disandarkan kepada Bay’ al-Taqsit, pihak bank akan dengan mudah mendapat

keuntungan yang lebih besar dan masyarakat juga lebih mudah mendapatkan

keperluan mereka di samping mendapat kemudahan lain.

9

Melihat betapa mudahnya amalan Bay‘ al-Taqsit dan keberkesanannya dalam

memenuhi keperluan masyarakat, maka ada baiknya jika skop amalannya diperluaskan

meliputi semua aspek pembiayaan sama ada bahan konsumen atau non-konsumatif

termasuklah pembiayaan proyek pertanian yang terdiri daripada penjualan alat-alat,

mesin, pengangkutan, dan sebagainya.

5) Bay‘ al-Salam fi al-Zira‘ah ( َلِم ِِف ٱَبيُْع َراَعةِ ٱلسَّ لزِّ )

Al-Salam ialah satu kontrak jual beli bagi suatu barangan tertangguh yang dijamin

keberadaannya oleh penjual (pada waktu tertentu) dengan mendapat bayaran segera

(Al-Shafi‘i, 2001). Al-Salam juga disebut sebagai al-Salaf. Al-Bahuti (1983) dalam

kitabnya Kashaf al-Qana‘ mengatakan al-Salam ialah istilah yang digunakan oleh

penduduk Madinah dan al-Salaf pula ialah istilah yang digunakan oleh penduduk Iraq.

Hukum beramal dengan al-Salam ialah harus. Pengharusannya diambil menerus

dalil al-Qur’an, al-Sunnah, dan Ijma‘.

Dalam resolusi Majma‘ Fiqh ke-9 yang berlangsung pada 1-6 Zulkaedah 1415H

bersamaam 1-6 April 1995M di Abu Dhabi Emeriah Arab Bersatu pula menyebutkan:

“Al-Salam pada zaman ini dilihat sebagai satu kaedah pembiayaan yang paling efisien dalam

Ekonomi Islam dan dalam aktiviti perbankan Islam. Ia dilihat sangat fleksibel dan responsif

dalam membiaya pelbagai keperluan, sama ada pembiayaan jangka pendek, sederhana, atau

panjang. Selain itu, ia juga sangat responsif terhadap pelbagai segmen keperluan pelanggan,

sama ada terdiri daripada pengeluar pertanian, kontraktor, atau peniaga, dan responsif dalam

pembiayaan kos operasi dan belanja modal lain” (Majma‘ al-Fiqh al-Islami al-Dawli,

Resolusi No: 85 (9/2) berhubung dengan al-Salam dan Praktikal Semasa).

Individu yang berkemampuan dalam proses penghasilan tetapi tidak mempunyai

modal keuangan yang cukup sangat memerlukan kepada kontrak al-Salam. Mereka

boleh menjual hasil mereka lebih awal untuk mendapatkan sumber keuangan. Hasil

jualan tersebut boleh mereka gunakan untuk kegunaan sendiri atau keluarga semasa

proses penghasilan sedang berjalan. Setelah proses penghasilan selesai, mereka mesti

menyerahkannya kepada pembeli pada waktu yang telah ditetapkan. Sekiranya

penghasilan adalah kurang daripada yang dijanjikan, mereka mesti mendapatkannya

daripada orang lain kerana barang yang dijual tidak ditetapkan daripada penghasilan si

penjual semata, bahkan suatu yang dijamin keberadaannya. Sekiranya penjual gagal

mengadakan barang jualan pada masa yang telah dijanjikan, maka pembeli diberi hak

memilih sama ada mahu membatalkan kontrak dan menuntut pulangan uang belian

pendahuluan, atau pun meneruskan kontrak tersebut ke suatu masa tertentu hingga

penjual dapat mengadakan barang jualan (Al-Ashqar et.al, 1998).

Disebabkan kriteria kontrak ini yang memperuntukkan penyerahan barang secara

tertangguh, maka sangat sesuai ia digunakan untuk membiaya aktiviti pertanian secara

khusus. Al-Sawi (1990) menjelaskan bahawa dengan kontrak al-Salam, seseorang petani

dapat mengelak dirinya daripada membuat pinjaman bank yang berunsurkan riba, iaitu

dengan cara menjual hasil tanaman yang diperolehi kepada bank dan mendapat uang

10

jualan segera. Idea yang hendak disampaikan melalui amalan kontrak ini ialah, pihak

bank membuat perjanjian bersama para petani untuk membeli produk pertanian mereka

di masa akan datang dan membuat pembayaran pendahuluan.

Pihak bank boleh menetapkan supaya aset pertanian (seperti mesin, kenderaan,

dan lain-lain) dijadikan sebagai jaminan pinjaman jika khuatir berlaku sebarang

penipuan atau kecuaian yang disengajakan daripada pelanggan. Jika berlaku sebarang

kerugian dalam masa proses penghasilan dijalankan, maka ia ditanggung sepenuhnya

oleh pihak bank (Majid, 2001).

Oleh yang demikian, pihak bank mestilah membuat perjanjian bersama para

petani yang dijangkakan akan memperoleh hasil tanaman mereka pada musim menuai

supaya mereka dapat menyerahkan hasilnya pada waktu yang ditetapkan. Pihak bank

akan membuat bayaran pembelian kepada para petani untuk digunakan dalam proses

penghasilan atau untuk kegunaan lain. Apabila tiba waktu penyerahan, para petani

mestilah menyerahkan hasil tersebut sesuai dengan spesifikasi dan syarat yang telah

dipersetujui. Pihak bank seterusnya melakukan pemasaran hasil dengan harga yang

lebih tinggi untuk mendapat keuntungan daripada kos pembiayaan yang dikeluarkan

sebelumnya. Selain itu, pihak bank juga boleh menggunakan alternatif lain seperti

berikut:

a) Mewakilkan pihak tertentu untuk melakukan pemasaran (setelah menerima hasil

daripada petani) dengan diberi upah mendatar (flat wages) atau upah yang

berdasarkan kepada peratusan harga jualan, atau kos jualan atau pun peratusan

untung jualan; atau

b) Bank mewakilkan para petani – setelah tamat kontrak al-Salam – untuk memasarkan

hasil pertanian tersebut (sama ada dengan upah atau tanpa upah berdasarkan

persetujuan antara keduanya) kerana berkemungkinan para petani mempunyai

pengalaman dalam pemasaran atau pun mempunyai pelanggan tetap yang

memudahkan urusan pemasaran; atau

c) Membuat perjanjian awal secara terbuka dengan pihak ketiga untuk menjual hasil

pertanian tersebut. Berdasarkan perjanjian ini, pihak bank masih belum boleh

mengambil bayaran daripada pihak berkenaan sehinggalah bank menerima hasil

tanaman daripada petani.

Selain itu, kontrak al-Salam juga boleh digunakan dalam aktiviti agro industri

seperti pembentukan portfolio pelaburan untuk membiaya kilang pembuatan gula,

tepung, dan sebagainya, iaitu yang penghasilannya adalah berlatarbelakangkan kepada

hasil pertanian yang boleh diproses. Melalui kontrak ini juga dapat membuka jalan

kepada anak-anak syarikat pemegang saham bank untuk turut serta membiaya aktiviti

pelaburan iaitu melalui pengeluaran Sukuk al-Salam. Seterusnya pihak bank

membelinya dengan kaedah al-Salam secara borong dan menjualnya dengan kaedah

yang sama tetapi satu persatu dengan menaikkan harga secara berperingkat-peringkat

apabila waktu penghantaran dan penerimaan barangan semakin dekat (Hamud, 1996).

11

Penutup

Pada zaman moden ini peran institusi keuangan Islam dalam membangun ekonomi

ummah dan negara tidak dapat dinafikan lagi, termasuk memperkasa usaha

penghasilan makanan menerusi pertanian. Institusi keuangan Islam perlu berganding

bahu menyokong dan memperkasa aktiviti pertanian di dalam sesebuah negara Islam

dengan menawarkan mod-mod pembiayaan yang bersesuaian dan berimpak tinggi

kepada para petani. Ringkasnya, dengan menawarkan mod pembiayaan Islam seperti

al-Sharikah al-Mutanaqisah, al-Ijarah al-Muntahiyah bi al-Tamlik, Bay’ al-Murabahah li al-

Amir bi al-Shira, Bay’ al-Taqsit, dan Bay’ al-Salam fi al-Zira’ah tidak membebankan para

petani, bahkan dapat memberi sumbangan positif untuk mencapai pembangunan

ekonomi yang lebih efektif dan agresif, terutamanya dalam bidang pertanian. Ini kerana

mod pembiayaan secara Islam belandaskan kepada prinsip al-ta’awun ala al-Birr (bantu

membantu dalam melakukan kebaikan) yang akhirnya dapat menghasilkan

pertumbuhan ekonomi dan keuntungan kepada para petani, bank, pelanggan,

masyarakat, bahkan negara.

Sungguh pun bank Islam komersil dapat menawarkan mod pembiayaan Islam

sebagai produk muamalat perbankan, namun pengkaji melihat sudah ada keperluan

pada hari ini untuk menubuh dan membangunkan sebuah institusi keuangan pertanian

Islam yang berperan secara langsung memajukan bidang pertanian di setiap negara

Islam. Bank pertanian Islam ini akan memberi khidmat perbankan kepada seluruh

penduduk luar bandar dan berperan membantu mengembangkan proyek pertanian

seperti memajukan tanah pertanian, agro industri, dan sebagainya.

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Fiqhiyyah. Kaherah: Dar al-Fadilah.

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Al-Hasun, Fahd bin ‘Ali. 2005. Al-Ijarah al-Muntahiyah bi al-Tamlik fi al-Fiqh al-Islami.

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Fiqhiyyah. Beirut: Dar al-‘Ilm li al-Malayin.

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Wad‘i. Beirut: Mu’assasah al-Risalah.

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Majma’ al-Fiqh al-Dawli. http://www.fiqhacademy.org.sa/qrarat.

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1999. Al-Mughni. ‘Abdullah bin ‘Abdul Muhsin al-Turki & ‘Abdul Fattah Muhammad

al-Helw (Pyt). Saudi: Dar ‘Alam al-Kutub.

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al-Iqtisad al-Islami. Al-Mansurah: Dar al-Wifa’.

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Doha: Dar al-Thaqafah.

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Masirah.

Al-Sawi, Muhammad Saleh. 1990. Mushkilah al-Istithmar fi al-Bunuk al-Islamiyyah wa Kayfa

‘Alajaha al-Islam. T.T.P: Dar al-Mujtama‘.

Shabir, Muhammad ‘Uthman. 1999. Al-Mu‘amalat al-Maliyyah al-Mu‘asirah fi al-Fiqh al-

Islami. Jordan: Dar al-Nafa’is.

Al-Shafi‘i, Muhammad bin Idris. 2001. Al-Umm. Rif‘at Fawzi ‘Abdul Mutallib (Pyt). Al-

Mansurah: Dar al-Wifa’.

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al-Mustahdasah. Madinah: Maktabah al-‘Ulum wa al-Hikam.

Sheikh ‘Abdullah Basmeih. 1990. Tafsir Pimpinan al-Rahman Kepada Pengertian al-Qur’an.

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Nahwa Da‘wah ‘Alamiyyah. http://www.sadazaid.com/ play.php?catsmktba=707.

PERSEPSI GOLONGAN PEKAK TERHADAP KEPENTINGAN BAHASA ISYARAT

MALAYSIA (BIM) DALAM PENGAJARAN PERKARA ASAS FARDHU AIN (PAFA)

Syar Meeze Mohd Rashidˡ, Norlidah Alias², Nazean Jomhari³, & Zulkifli Mohd Yusoff Institut Pengajian Siswazahˡ, Fakulti Pendidikan², Fakulti Sains Komputer & Teknologi

Maklumat³ & Akademi Pengajian Islam, Universiti Malaya

Kuala Lumpur

cikgumeeze@gmail.com

Abstrak

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti persepsi golongan pekak terhadap kepentingan Bahasa Isyarat Malaysia (BIM) dalam pengajaran Perkara Asas Fardhu Ain (PAFA). BIM merupakan bahasa utama yang digunakan oleh komuniti pekak di Malaysia. Penggunaan BIM dalam kalangan komuniti pekak bertujuan untuk berkomunikasi, memahami, dan menyampaikan sesuatu perkara yang diingini. Pengetahuan dan kefahaman dalam PAFA amat penting bagi membentuk seorang muslim memahami dan mengamalkan ajaran Islam sepenuhnya. Sehubungan dengan itu, artikel ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti sejauhmana persepsi golongan pekak terhadap kepentingan penggunaan BIM semasa pengajaran PAFA. Data telah diperolehi melalui hasil temu bual dengan lima orang pekak yang berkemahiran dalam BIM dan mempunyai pengalaman mengajar PAFA. Hasil dapatan kajian ini mendapati terdapat tiga persepsi golongan pekak terhadap kepentingan BIM dalam PAFA iaitu BIM dapat dapat memberi kefahaman terhadap komuniti pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA, BIM dapat menarik minat komuniti pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA dan BIM dapat memudahkan komuniti pekak berkomunikasi serta bersoal jawab berkaitan pengajaran PAFA.

Kata kunci : Bahasa Isyarat Malaysia (BIM), Perkara Asas Fardhu Ain (PAFA), komuniti pekak

Pengenalan

Bahasa isyarat merupakan suatu bentuk komunikasi yang digunakan oleh komuniti pekak.

Penggunaan bahasa isyarat boleh juga digunakan oleh komuniti yang mempunyai masalah

dalam bertutur, komuniti yang tidak boleh mempelajari bahasa melalui pertuturan, dan komuniti

yang tidak boleh mendengar (Wilbur, 2013). Hal ini kerana, penggunaan bahasa isyarat

memudahkan komunikasi komuniti pekak dan memberi peluang kepada mereka untuk

meluahkan rasa, pendapat, idea, perasaan dan sebagainya. Keunikan bahasa isyarat dapat dilihat

apabila timbul bentuk atau simbol tangan yang memberi makna terhadap sesuatu keadaan

(Loughran, 2013). Selain itu, bahasa badan dan ekspresi muka menjadi daya tarikan dan intonasi

dalam penggunaan bahasa isyarat (Wilbur, 2013). Di negara Malaysia BIM merupakan bahasa

utama orang pekak (Lim, 2006). Menurut Mohamed Sazali Shaari (2004) BIM merupakan

bahasa orang pekak yang digunakan dalam komunikasi mereka seharian dan merupakan

lambang identiti orang pekak di Malaysia yang kaya dengan pelbagai budaya. BIM dianggap

sebagai lambang identiti orang pekak kerana bentuk isyarat mereka adalah menurut kepada cara

hidup dan budaya mereka serta tidak terpengaruh kepada unsur luar yang lain (Mohamed Sazali

Shaari, 2004). Oleh itu, jelas menunjukkan bahawa BIM merupakan medium utama untuk

berkomunikasi dalam kalangan komuniti pekak.

Komuniti pekak sememangnya wajib mempelajari agama. Mereka adalah manusia yang

berakal dan dapat menerima dakwah serta mempelajari ilmu agama (Hamdi Ishak, 2010).

Menurut Hamdi Ishak, Ab Halim Tamuri, Rosadah Abdul Majid, dan Safani Bari (2010)

komuniti pekak wajib diberikan pendidikan agama yang berdasarkan al-Quran dan Sunnah

Rasulullah SAW, setiap bayi yang dilahirkan hendaklah diberikan didikan agama agar mereka

berada dalam jalan kebenaran. Di samping itu, mereka juga perlu hidup seperti manusia lain,

hidup dalam masyarakat dan beribadat kepada Allah kerana manusia diciptakan adalah untuk

beribadat kepadaNya. Allah berfirman sepertimana dalam Al-Quran, “Tidak aku jadikan jin dan

manusia melainkan untuk beribadat kepadaKu” (Al-Zariyat: 125). Setiap umat Islam wajib

diajar pendidikan Islam terutamanya pengetahuan dan pengamalan dalam Perkara Asas Fardhu

Ain sebagai asas kekuatan dalaman peribadi muslim untuk mengharungi kehidupan yang

mendatang (Mohd Huzairi Awang, Hajaratul Bahti Zakaria, Bani Hidayat Mohd Shafie, Nor

Hayati Fatmi Talib & Nabiroh Kassim, 2010).

Seperti yang diketahui bahasa isyarat merupakan bahasa utama orang pekak (Wilbur,

2013). Malahan BIM merupakan bahasa utama komuniti pekak di Malaysia (Lim, 2006).

Menurut Hamdi Ishak (2010) terdapat beberapa cara yang membolehkan komuniti pekak

menerima maklumat dan berkomunikasi dalam pengajaran berkaitan dengan islam, salah satunya

adalah dengan menggunakan bahasa isyarat. Oleh itu, penggunaan bahasa isyarat Malaysia

(BIM) merupakan perkara yang sangat penting untuk berkomunikasi dalam mempelajari fardhu

ain kepada komuniti pekak.

Kajian Literatur

Kebanyakan komuniti pekak masih lagi mempunyai masalah dalam mempelajari PAFA. Hal ini

terbukti melalui kajian yang dilakukan oleh Mohd Huzairi Awang et. al., (2010) mendapati

kebanyakan komuniti pekak tidak berminat menghadiri kelas tambahan fardhu ain, selalu

mengelak diri dari menghadiri kelas fardhu ain dan sukar memahami pembelajaran fardhu ain

yang diikuti. Hal ini merupakan masalah yang dihadapi oleh komuniti pekak dalam proses

pengajaran PAFA. Permasalahan ini berpunca kerana guru yang mengajar PAFA tidak

menguasai atau tidak mahir menggunakan BIM dalam proses pengajaran PAFA kepada komuniti

pekak. Ini bertepatan dengan kajian yang dilakukan oleh Mohd Huzairi Awang et. al., (2010)

yang mendapati salah satu punca masalah ini berlaku kerana ketidakmahiran guru yang

mengajar PAFA dalam berkomunikasi menggunakan BIM. Siti Muhibah Nor, (2010) sama

berpendapat bahawa kesukaran pemahaman komuniti pekak terhadap subjek fardhu ain adalah

kerana guru kurang berkemahiran dalam bahasa isyarat, tiada isyarat yang bersesuaian berkaitan

agama dan tiada kaedah yang bersesuaian dalam mengajar fardhu ain kepada komuniti pekak.

Begitu juga, menurut Lourghan, (2013) telah menyatakan untuk menyampaikan sesuatu

perkara atau pengajaran kepada komuniti pekak perlulah menggunakan bahasa isyarat sebagai

bentuk komunikasi utama. Sekiranya tiada penggunaan bahasa isyarat dalam pengajaran akan

menyebabkan komuniti pekak berasa kurang berminat untuk mempelajari sesuatu perkara kerana

mereka tidak memahami pengajaran yang disampaikan (Cooper, Sherly, Jody, Cripps, & Joel,

2013).

Objektif Kajian

Kajian ini dijalankan bertujuan untuk:

1. Mengenal pasti kepentingan BIM memberi kefahaman semasa pengajaran PAFA kepada

komuniti pekak

2. Mengenal pasti BIM dapat menarik minat untuk mempelajari PAFA kepada komuniti

pekak.

3. Mengenal pasti penggunaan BIM dapat mewujudkan komunikasi yang baik kepada

komuniti pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA.

Persoalan kajian

Persoalan kajian ini ialah:

1. Apakah kepentingan BIM dapat memberi kefahaman semasa pengajaran PAFA kepada

komuniti pekak ?

2. Apakah BIM dapat menarik minat komuniti pekak dalam mempelajari PAFA ?

3. Apakah BIM dapat membantu komunikasi komuniti pekak mempelajari PAFA ?

Metodologi Kajian

Sampel kajian

Sampel kajian adalah terdiri daripada 5 orang komuniti pekak yang berusia antara 25

hingga 45 tahun. Mereka mempunyai kemahiran dan kepakaran dalam penggunaan BIM. Selain

itu, mereka merupakan guru pendidikan Islam yang mengajar PAFA atau pedakwah kepada

komuniti pekak. Maklumat sampel kajian diterangkan dalam jadual 1 seperti berikut :

Jadual 1

Butiran makluman subjek kajian Subjek kajian Jantina Umur Pengalaman dalam BIM Pengalaman dalam

mengajar PAFA atau dakwah

Subjek kajian 1 Lelaki 45 tahun 23 tahun 10 tahun mengajar PAFA di Kuala Lumpur

Subjek kajian 2 Lelaki 40 tahun 20 tahun 12 tahun mengajar PAFA dan menjadi pendakwah bebas di Selangor dan Kuala Lumpur

Subjek kajian 3 Lelaki 34 tahun 20 tahun 12 tahun mengajar PAFA dan menjadi pendakwah bebas di Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Terengganu dan Pulau Pinang

Subjek kajian 4 Perempuan 35 tahun 20 tahun 10 tahun mengajar PAFA kepada murid pekak

Subjek kajian 5 Perempuan 25 tahun 10 tahun 5 tahun mengajar murid pekak

Sumber. Temu bual subjek kajian

Instrumen Pengumpulan Data

Instrumen yang terlibat dalam kajian ini adalah berbentuk temu bual. Jenis temu bual yang

digunakan adalah jenis temu bual separa berstrukur dengan harapan dapat menyingkap dan

memahami secara lebih jelas mengenai kepentingan bahasa isyarat dalam pengajaran PAFA

kepada komuniti pekak. Setiap sesi temu bual mengambil masa selama 60 minit seperti mana

yang telah disarankan oleh Meriam (1998). Menurutnya, temu bual adalah suatu kaedah yang

sesuai dan perlu dilakukan bagi mengetahui kelakuan, perasaan, dan bagaimana seseorang

menginterpretasikan segala yang berlaku dalam diri dan persekitaran mereka. Temu bual juga

merupakan satu keadah berkesan untuk mengetahui pengalaman lepas seseorang yang mana

ianya sukar diperoleh jika menggunakan kaedah yang selainnya. Temu bual yang dilakukan

adalah berpandukan satu senarai soalan atau isu yang ingin dicungkil oleh pengkaji dan ia

bertindak sebagai garis panduan semasa sesi temu bual dijalankan. Kadangkala pengkaji

membuat pengubahsuaian, penambahan soalan dan tidak terlalu terikat dengan soalan yang telah

disediakan, mengikut keadaan, dan respons dari guru yang di temu bual.

Analisis Data

Seterusnya, setiap perbualan temu bual akan dirakamkan video dengan menggunakan kamera

Olympus Tough TG-610 dan rakaman temu bual berkenaan akan ditaip semula. Setelah itu,

jawapan temu bual berkenaan akan dipecahkan mengikut tema-tema yang didapati berdasarkan

soalan yang diberi.

Dapatan Kajian

Dapatan kajian di bawah ini akan dibincangkan satu persatu berdasarkan objektif kajian yang

telah dinyatakan sebelum ini.

Setelah temu bual dijalankan kepada 5 orang subjek kajian berikut merupakan dapatan yang

didapati. Dapatan dari temu bual yang telah dilakukan ini dibahagikan kepada 3 tema utama

yang menunjukkan bahawa penggunaan BIM dapat memberi kefahaman komuniti pekak dalam

mempelajari PAFA, menarik minat komuniti pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA dan memudahkan

komunikasi komuniti pekak dalam mempelajari PAFA. Seterusnya, perbincangan dapatan kajian

ini dilakukan berpandukan kepada tema tersebut seperti mana yang diperjelaskan di bahagian

yang selanjutnya. Di dalam tema-tema yang telah dibahagikan mengandungi subtema tertentu

bagi memperkuatkan hujah daripada tema yang dinyatakan. Sehubungan ini juga, setiap subjek

kajian yang terlibat dalam kajian ini dikenali dengan panggilan subjek kajian 1, subjek kajian 2,

subjek kajian 3, subjek kajian 4 dan subjek kajian 5. Kadangkala pengkaji menggunakan

singkatan SK 1 yang merujuk kepada subjek kajian 1 yang terlibat dalam kajian ini.

Kepentingan BIM dapat meningkatkan kefahaman komuniti pekak mempelajari PAFA.

Berdasarkan daripada soalan pertama yang diajukan kepada kesemua subjek kajian mendapati

bahawa kesemua subjek kajian bersetuju bahawa BIM merupakan suatu medium komunikasi

yang sangat penting dalam pengajaran PAFA kepada komuniti pekak kerana dapat meningkatkan

kefahaman mereka. Hal ini dapat ditunjukkan melalui penyataan yang dinyatakan oleh kesemua

subjek kajian seperti subjek kajian 1 yang menyatakan,“BIM boleh difahami oleh orang pekak

untuk belajar PAFA..” (Subjek kajian 1) . Seterusnya, subjek kajian 2 juga menyatakan, ”BIM

dapat memberi kefahaman kepada komuniti pekak untuk belajar PAFA...” (Subjek kajian 2).

Begitu juga, subjek kajian 3 menyatakan bahawa, “Orang pekak lebih mudah dan faham

menggunakan BIM untuk belajar PAFA..” (Subjek kajian 3). Subjek kajian 4 juga menyatakan

perkara yang sama iaitu, “BIM tidak sukar dan mudah difahami oleh orang pekak kalau belajar

PAFA...” (Subjek kajian 4). Seterusnya, subjek kajian 5 juga menyatakan bahawa, “BIM

menjadikan orang pekak lebih mudah faham dan ingat untuk belajar PAFA....”(Subjek kajian 5).

Daripada jawapan kelima-lima subjek kajian mendapati bahawa mereka bersetuju

bahawa melalui penggunaan BIM dapat meningkatkan kefahaman komuniti pekak untuk

mempelajari PAFA.

Subtema 1 : BIM merupakan bahasa visual.

Melalui penggunaan BIM komuniti pekak dapat memahami pengajaran PAFA yang

disampaikan dengan lebih baik dan berkesan serta memudahkan mereka untuk mempelajarinya

kerana BIM merupakan bahasa visual. Disebabkan masalah pendengaran yang dihadapi oleh

komuniti pekak maka mereka banyak bergantung kepada visual melalui deria penglihatan. Oleh

itu, BIM adalah merupakan bahasa yang mudah difahami dan lebih sesuai digunakan dalam

mengajar PAFA. Perkara ini dapat dibuktikan melalui kenyataan subjek kajian 2 :

“Disebabkan masalah pendengaran yang dihadapi oleh orang pekak, jadi penggunaan BIM dalam komunikasi amatlah penting kerana BIM merupakan bahasa yang berbentuk visual. Isyarat-isyarat dalam BIM adalah visual dan mudah difahami oleh orang pekak serta lebih terus, jelas dan nampak..” (Subjek kajian 2)

Subtema 2 : Komuniti pekak mempunyai masalah pendengaran, tidak boleh bertutur dan

pemerolehan bahasa yang terhad.

Selain itu, subjek kajian 1 dan 3 turut menyatakan bahawa sekiranya pengajaran di dalam PAFA

menggunakan bahasa lain akan menyukarkan komuniti pekak untuk memahami. Hal ini kerana,

bahasa-bahasa lain melibatkan pertuturan dan kebanyakan komuniti pekak tidak dapat

mendengar pertuturan yang disampaikan kerana masalah pendengaran yang dihadapi oleh

mereka. Selain itu, pemerolehan bahasa komuniti pekak adalah terhad dan mereka banyak

bergantung bahasa visual seperti bahasa isyarat. Mereka juga, sukar untuk memahami ayat-ayat

di dalam bahasa lain seperti bahasa melayu, bahasa inggeris dan sebagainya.

“Orang pekak tidak dapat memahami sesuatu pengajaran dengan menggunakan bahasa lain selain daripada bahasa isyarat kerana mereka tidak boleh mendengar dan tidak boleh bertutur jadi sukar untuk mereka faham dalam belajar” (Subjek kajian 1)

Subjek kajian 3 juga turut menyatakan bahawa:

“BIM tidak sama seperti bahasa lain, kerana BIM bahasa visual lebih terus dan tidak mempunyai ayat bunga-bunga dan ayat panjang-panjang. Kalau orang pekak belajar apa sahaja menggunakan bahasa lain akan jadi susah kerana pertama mereka tidak boleh dengar, kedua kebanyakan mereka tak faham pergerakan bibir yang dicakap, dan ketiga bahasa orang pekak adalah terhad tidak sama orang normal yang banyak tahu perkataan dalam bahasa lain” (Subjek kajian 3)

BIM dapat menarik minat komuniti pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA.

Selanjutnya, hasil daripada soalan kedua yang dikemukan oleh kelima-lima subjek kajian

mendapati bahawa kesemua subjek kajian bersetuju bahawa penggunaan BIM sebagai medium

utama komunikasi yang dapat menarik minat komuniti pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA. Hal ini

dapat dibuktikan melalui penyataan subjek kajian 1,“Penggunaan bentuk isyarat dalam BIM

dapat menarik minat orang pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA..”. (Subjek kajian 1). Seterusnya

subjek kajian 2 menyatakan bahawa, “Isyarat BIM sangat diminati untuk digunakan oleh orang

pekak..” (Subjek kajian 2). Subjek kajian 3 turut menyatakan bahawa, “Jika mengajar PAFA

menggunakan BIM akan menarik minat komuniti pekak untuk belajar..” (Subjek kajian 3).

Selain itu, subjek kajian 4 turut menyatakan “Komuniti pekak akan lebih tertarik dan minat jika

menggunakan BIM dalam mengajar PAFA...” (Subjek kajian 4). Subjek kajian 5 juga, turut

menyatakan bahawa, “BIM sangat diminati dan harus digunakan jika mengajar PAFA untuk

orang pekak...” (Subjek kajian 5).

Hasil jawapan kelima-lima subjek kajian mendapati bahawa penggunaan BIM sebagai

medium utama dalam komunikasi semasa pengajaran dan dapat menarik minat komuniti pekak

mempelajari PAFA.

Subtema 1: Bahasa pertama komuniti pekak.

Jelas menunjukkan kesemua subjek kajian bersetuju BIM dapat menarik minat komuniti pekak

mempelajari PAFA kerana BIM merupakan bahasa pertama komuniti pekak. Hal ini kerana,

BIM merupakan bahasa yang mudah difahami oleh mereka. Perkara ini dapat dibuktikan melalui

kenyataan daripada subjek kajian 1, 3 dan 5 :

“Orang pekak amat meminati menggunakan BIM dalam komunikasi kerana itu merupakan bahasa pertama orang pekak jadi senang untuk mereka belajar PAFA...” (SK 1).

Seterusnya subjek kajian 3 menyatakan bahawa:

“Bahasa pertama orang pekak adalah BIM dan mereka akan lebih minat belajar...” (SK 3).

Begitu juga subjek kajian 5 menyatakan bahawa:

“Orang pekak menggunakan BIM kerana itu adalah bahasa mereka, bahasa utama mereka dan bahasa yang mereka gunakan seharian dalam kehidupan...” (SK 5).

Jelas disini membuktikan bahawa komuniti pekak akan berasa minat untuk mempelajari

PAFA sekiranya pengajarannya menggunakan BIM. Hal ini kerana, BIM merupakan bahasa

pertama komuniti pekak di dalam komunikasi harian mereka.

BIM dapat mewujudkan komunikasi yang baik kepada komuniti pekak untuk

mempelajari PAFA.

Selain itu, hasil daripada temu bual yang dijalankan kepada kelima subjek kajian daripada hasil

soalan ketiga mendapat bahawa BIM dapat mewujudkan komunikasi yang baik kepada komuniti

pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA. Hal ini dapat dibuktikan melalui kenyataan yang diberikan oleh

subjek kajian 1, “Sebenarnya BIM dapat memudahkan komunikasi komuniti pekak untuk

bertanya permasalah dalam PAFA...” (Subjek kajian 1). Selain itu, subjek kajian 2 menyatakan

bahawa, “Dengan menggunakan BIM sebagai medium komunikasi akan menjadikan komunikasi

lebih mudah dan berkesan dalam belajar PAFA...” (Subjek kajian 2). Seterusnya subjek kajian 3

menyatakan bahawa, “BIM dapat beri peluang orang pekak bertanya dan beri pendapat dengan

lebih baik lagi dalam belajar PAFA...” (Subjek kajian 3). Begitu juga subjek kajian 4

menyatakan bahawa, “Orang pekak boleh bertanya dan beri pendapat dengan bagi dalam

belajar PAFA kalau komunikasi gunakan BIM malah lebih memudahkan..” (Subjek kajian 4).

Selain itu, subjek kajian 5 menyatakan bahawa, “Guna BIM senang untuk komunikasi dan boleh

orang pekak bertanya dengan mudah berkaitan PAFA..” (Subjek kajian 5).

Daripada kenyataan kelima-lima subjek kajian mendapati bahawa sebenarnya BIM dapat

mewujudkan komunikasi yang baik kepada komuniti pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA.

Subtema 1: Aktiviti soal jawab akan lebih mudah

Jelas menunjukkan kesemua subjek kajian bersetuju bahawa BIM dapat mewujudkan

komunikasi yang baik kepada komuniti pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA kerana dapat

memudahkan komuniti pekak bersoal jawab mengenai PAFA dengan mudah. Hal ini dapat

dibuktikan melalui huraian subjek kajian 1 :

“Aktiviti soal jawab akan lebih mudah dan wujud interaksi yang berkesan jika menggunakan BIM sebagai medium utama dalam komunikasi untuk mengajar PAFA. Orang pekak akan lebih memahami menggunakan BIM dan mereka dapat peluang untuk bertanya dan mengeluarkan pendapat jika pengajaran PAFA menggunakan BIM sebagai bahasa utama” (Subjek kajian 1)

Secara keseluruhannnya, melalui persepsi golongan pekak mendapati penggunaan BIM

dalam pengajaran PAFA perlu diguna pakai. Hal ini kerana, melalui dapatan temu bual 5 orang

pekak mendapati mereka bersetuju bahawa BIM dapat memberi kefahaman kepada komuniti

pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA dengan lebih baik dan berkesan. Hal ini kerana, BIM

merupakan bahasa utama komuniti pekak. Selain itu, penggunaan BIM dapat menarik minat

komuniti pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA kerana BIM mudah digunakan dan penyampaiannya

lebih terus menjurus kepada makna yang ingin disampaikan. Seterusnya, penggunaan BIM dapat

memudahkan komunikasi komuniti pekak untuk bersoal jawab berkaitan dengan PAFA. Hal ini

kerana, komuniti pekak lebih mudah untuk berkomunikasi dengan baik dengan bertanya sesuatu

perkara yang berkaitan agama secara berkesan dengan menggunakan BIM.

Kesimpulan

Perbincangan

Penggunaan BIM dalam pengajaran PAFA perlu diguna pakai dalam pengajaran. Seseorang

guru yang ingin mengajar komuniti pekak mengenai PAFA perlulah mempersiapkan diri mereka

dengan kemahiran berkomunikasi menggunakan bahasa Isyarat. Perkara ini disokong oleh

Zulkifli Md Ali (2010) guru perlulah menggunakan BIM sebagai bahasa utama dalam

berkomunikasi dan mereka lebih memahami sesuatu arahan, pengajaran dan pembelajaran

dengan menggunakan BIM. Hal ini menunjukkan bahawa BIM sangat penting digunakan dalam

memberi sesuatu pengetahuan dan kemahiran kerana BIM merupakan bahasa utama komuniti

pekak (Abdullah Yusoff dan Che Rabiaah Mohamed, 2012).

Penggunaan BIM akan memudahkan lagi kefahaman komuniti pekak untuk mempelajari

PAFA. Menurut Lieberman, Bonovsky, Hatrak dan Mayberry (2014) menunjukkan bahawa

bahasa isyarat dapat membantu komuniti pekak memahami sesuatu perkara dengan lebih mudah

dan cepat. Hal ini disokong oleh Loughran (2014), bahasa isyarat lebih mudah untuk difahami

oleh komuniti pekak dan penerimaan ilmu akan mudah disampaikan dengan menggunakan

bahasa isyarat.

Sememangnya BIM perlulah diiktiraf sebagai bahasa utama orang pekak di Malaysia. Hal

ini kerana, menurut Mohammed Sazali Shaari (2004), BIM adalah lambang identiti orang pekak

Malaysia yang kaya dengan pelbagai budaya kerana bentuk isyarat mereka adalah menurut

kepada cara hidup dan budaya mereka serta tidak terpengaruh kepada unsur luar yang lain.

Menurut Abdullah Yusoff et. al, (2012) sekiranya adanya pengiktirafan ini, BIM akan menjadi

alat saluran dan penerimaan maklumat yang berkesan kepada komuniti pekak terutamanya dalam

pendidikan. Malahan, penggunaan BIM secara tidak langsung dapat berupaya memberi

pendidikan agama yang sewajarnya kepada komuniti pekak terutamnya dalam pengajaran PAFA

(Mohd Huzairi Awang, 2010).

Adalah amat digalakan, supaya kajian mengenai BIM perlu diperbanyakkan terutamnya

penggunaan BIM dalam pengajaran agama. Hal ini kerana, kajian mengenai BIM masih kurang

dan perlu dipertingkatkan agar dapat memberi manfaat sepenuhnya pada masa akan datang.

Implikasi

Berdasarkan dapatan kajian ini terdapat beberapa implikasi yang sepatutnya diberi perhatian

iaitu:

1. Bahagian Pendidikan Khas, Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia hendaklah menyusun

perancangan program dengan mengadakan kursus bahasa isyarat kepada guru-guru

pendidikan Islam yang mengajar murid pekak.

2. Pihak Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM) dan Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat

Malaysia (JKMM) haruslah bekerjasama dan menyediakan kursus bahasa isyarat kepada

tenaga pengajar PAFA untuk kelas dewasa dan mengadakan kelas PAFA kepada

komuniti pekak dengan menggunakan bahasa isyarat.

3. Pihak kerajaan Malaysia seharusnya mengiktirafkan bahasa isyarat Malaysia sebagai

bahasa utama orang pekak di Malaysia.

Rumusan

Secara keseluruhannya, rumusan kajian ini ialah BIM sangat penting digunakan dalam

pengajaran PAFA kepada komuniti pekak. Hal ini kerana, melalui persepsi golongan pekak BIM

dapat meningkatkan kefahaman komuniti pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA. Orang pekak

mempunyai masalah pendengaran, tidak boleh bertutur dengan baik dan pemerolehan bahasa

yang terhad maka BIM merupakan bahasa visual yang mudah difahami oleh komuniti pekak.

Selain itu, BIM dapat mewujudkan komunikasi yang baik kepada komuniti pekak untuk

mempelajari PAFA kerana BIM merupakan bahasa utama dalam komuniti ini. Seterusnya, BIM

dapat mewujudkan komunikasi yang baik kepada komuniti pekak untuk mempelajari PAFA

kerana dapat memudahkan komuniti ini mengadakan aktiviti bersoal jawab di dalam kelas

PAFA.

Penghargaan

Sekalung penghargaan dan terima kasih diberikan kepada Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia atas

pemberian “Exploratory Research Grant” (ERGS 020-2013A), Centre Quranic Research (CQR)

Universiti Malaya, Yayasan Pendidikan Al-Quran bagi Anak Istimewa (FAQEH) dan Persatuan

Orang Pekak Islam Malaysia (PRISMA) atas kerjasama dan sumbangan dalam menghasilkan

artikel ini.

Rujukan

Abdullah Yusoff, & Che Rabiaah Mohamed. (2012). Memartabatkan bahasa orang Pekak. Deaf Empowerment Through Sign language Research. UM. 1: 73 – 98.

Al-Quran. Surah Al-Zariyat: 125. Cooper, Sheryl B., Jody H., Cripps, & Joel I. (2013) Service-learning in deaf studies: impact on

the development of altruistic behaviors and social justice concern. American Annals of The Deaf . 157(5): 413-427.

Hamdi Ishak. (2010). Isu Pengajaran Pendidikan Islam kepada Kanak – Kanak Bermasalah Pendengaran. Prosedings First Annual Inclusive Education Practices Conference. UKM 1 131 – 141.

Hamdi Ishak, Ab Halim Tamuri, Rosadah Abdul Majid, & Safani Bari. (2010). Amalan

Pengajaran dan pembelajaran Pendidikan Islam kepada murid sekolah kebangsaan pendidikan khas masalah pendengaran: satu kajian kes. Prosiding Seminar Penyelidikan Siswazah UKM. 1(4): 163 – 171.

Lieberman, A. M., Borovsky, A, Hatrak, M. & Mayberry, R. I. (2014). Real-Time Processing of ASL Signs : Effects of Linguistic Experience and Profiency. BUCLD 38 Proceedings University of California. 23-26.

Lim, L. (2006). Understanding Deaf Culture Malaysian Perspectives. Kuala Lumpur: Majudiri Y Foundation for the Deaf.

Loughran, S. (2013). Cultural Identity, Deafness and Sign Language: A postcolonial approach. LUX: A Journal of Transdisiciplinary Writing and Research form Claremont Graduate University. 2(1): 1-8.

Meriam, S.B. (1998). Qualitative reasearch and case study: Application in educations, revised and expended from case study research in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mohd Huzairi Awang, Hajaratul Bahti Zakaria, Bani Hidayat Mohd Shafie, Nor Hayati Fatmi Talib & Nabiroh Kassim. (2010). Persepsi pelajar bermasalah pendengaran terhadap pembelajaran fardhu ain: Cabaran terhadap guru. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on teacher Education: Join Conference UPI & UPSI. 240

– 250. Mohamed Sazali Shaari. (2004). Budaya orang Pekak. Kertas persidangan keluarga Pekak bahagia. Hotel Crown Princess. Kuala Lumpur. 13 Ogos 2004. Siti Muhibah Nor. (2010). Kesukaran Pemahaman murid – murid bermasalah pendengaran terhadap mata pelajaran pendidikan Islam. Prosedings First Annual Inclusive Education Practices Conference. 122 – 130. Wilbur, R.B. (2013). Changing How we think about sign language, geesture, and agreeement. Sign Language and Linguistic. 16(2): 221 -258. Zulkifli Md Ali. (2010). Kesan Bahasa Isyarat Malaysia dalam penggunaan Kod Tangan Bahasa Melayu dalam kalangan pelajar bermasalah pendengaran. Prosiding Seminar

Penyelidikan Siswazah UKM. 1(4): 109 – 121.

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The Awareness on the Planning of Waqf, Wasiyyah and Faraid in Islamic Wealth Distribution Among Muslims: A Pilot Study

Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Economics and Muamalat,

Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM), Bandar Baru Nilai, Malaysia. ridhwan.aziz@usim.edu.my

Fuadah Johari Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Economics and Muamalat,

Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM), Bandar Baru Nilai, Malaysia.

fuadah@usim.edu.my

Nurul Izzati Nordin Postgraduate student at Faculty of Economics and Muamalat,

Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM), Bandar Baru Nilai, Malaysia.

izzati9018@gmail.com

Abstract

The planning of Islamic wealth distribution is very important for solving the problem of

freezing assets among Muslim. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the level of

awareness pertaining to the waqf, wasiyyah and faraid in Islamic wealth distribution

among Muslims in Malaysia. The methodology of this paper is quantitative research

through questionnaire. The general finding of this paper shows that the majority of

Malaysian Muslim are aware with the term of waqf, wasiyyah and faraid, however in

terms of planning the Islamic wealth distribution, this study shows that the level of

planning of the assets is still lower among them.

Keywords: Islamic wealth distribution, waqf, wasiyyah and faraid.

1. Introduction

Islamic wealth distribution is one of the components in wealth management cycle. It works very closely interrelated with aspect of economic and Muslim society. This subject becomes one of the most controversial subjects due to the attitude of Muslims who concerned this topic as a sensitive topic and should not be discussed widely and openly (Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz et. al., 2014c). Basically, Islamic wealth distribution can be defined as an act of passing on assets through estate planning using the Shari’ah guidelines on faraid, as well as, other instruments such as waqf and wasiyyah (Zurina Shafii et al., 2013). Planning of Islamic

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wealth distribution through estate planning involved two elements of time which are during the lifetime or after the death of Muslim. Thus, planning of Islamic wealth distribution dealing with the planning which it is carried out by a person in his life time with regard to the distribution while the disposal of his wealth upon his death in accordance with the principles of Islamic law.

The purpose of planning Islamic wealth distribution is to protect the beneficiaries after the death of the testator. In other words, planning Islamic wealth distribution through estate planning will provide assurance to the family after the death. Moreover, by planning the Islamic wealth distribution, the process to distribute the estate to the beneficiaries will be quickly. With planning the Islamic wealth distribution, all unnecessary hassle such as frozen assets can be avoided (Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz, 2012).

In Malaysia, after the death of one person, his or her assets will turn to frozen assets unless there are certain action taken to unleash the frozen assets. Generally, issues of frozen assets among Malaysian especially Muslims always increase from year to year. Increasing income level, assets possession and the value of the property are the factors that contributed to the rising in total number of frozen assets among Malaysian Muslims (Buang, 2008). It is estimated about RM42 billion (Harian Metro, April 2011) assets turned to frozen estate because it could not be distributed to the legal heirs after the death of demise due to the certain reasons caused by demise itself and beneficiaries. Issues of frozen assets will only rise the burden to the government to handle it since this assets cannot be utilized for the benefits of ummah as well as the beneficiaries whereby they cannot gain their rights from the estate leaved by the demise.

Since there are various mechanisms than can be applied in planning Islamic wealth distribution, therefore, the aim of this paper is to explore the coordination of three mechanisms (waqf, wasiyyah and faraid) in planning of the Islamic wealth distribution. Thus, the focus of this paper is to identify the level of awareness of Malaysian Muslims pertaining to the planning and coordination of waqf, wasiyyah and faraid in Islamic wealth distribution.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Definition of Waqf, Wasiyyah and Faraid

Waqf literally means to stop, contain or to preserve. Technically, waqf means withholding one’s property to eternally spend its revenue in fulfilling certain needs depending on the choice and conditions made by the al-waqif or the person who owns the property (Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz, 2012). While Ihsan and Ibrahim (2007), defined waqf as a donation and considered as an act of charity that can be characterized as sadaqah jariyah (ongoing charity). For instance, ongoing charity can be in the form of endowed public buildings or other places such as accommodation for travelers, mosques, a well, canal, etc. (Ahmed, 2004).

Wasiyyah is derived from the Arabic word ‘wassa’ which means connecting or delivering. Literally, it can defined as a gift to another party, either in the form of goods, debts or

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benefits, to be owned by the recipient after the death of the testator (Wahbah Zuhaili, 1985; MZ Muda, 2008). Moreover, wasiyyah also can be defined as a declaration of a person made during his life time with respect to his property or benefit thereof, to be carried out for the purpose of charity or for any other purposes permissible by Islamic law, after his death (Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz, 2012).

According to Islamic terminology, there are few definitions given to the faraid. Some scholar have defined faraid as a division that have been prescribed under Islamic terminology to the heirs. Besides that, faraid also refer as a knowledge refer to the fiqh of inheritance where it allowed a person to know the proportion that he or she entitled from the estate of deceased. Thus, we can conclude that, faraid is the division of the estate after the death of a Muslim who has been prescribed under Islamic law on the legal heirs and entitled (as daughter, wife, husband, mother, father, etc.) (Wahbah Zuhaili, 1985; Mustapha Al-Khin, Mustapha Al-Bugha and Ali Al-Syarbaji, 2009)

2.2 Current Practice of Islamic Wealth Distribution

Planning Islamic wealth distribution is very important to protect the benefits of the beneficiaries after the death of deceased. However, Islamic wealth distribution through estate planning in Malaysia is not widely practiced (Hassan and Yusof, 2006; Fatin, 2011; Shafinar et al., 2013). Moreover, based on the will report conducted by professional company (Rockwill Corp. Sdn.Bhd) more than 90% of Malaysian do not have a will and majority of them are Malay people which are Muslims. Furthermore, Amanah Raya Berhad (ARB) as the market leader in providing trust, legacy management and Will-services has pointed out that most Malaysian dies without leaving a will.

According to Al Ma’amun (2008), who have conducted a study on variations across control variables on the practice of wasiyyah (Islamic will) within the contextual form of Islamic estate planning in Malaysia, the number of Muslims who making a wasiyyah is very low. Her opinion, was supported (Omar, 2006; Hayati Mohd Dahan et. al., 2012) who claimed that the practice of Islamic estate planning among Malaysian Muslims was not widely practice.

Low level of awareness and knowledge are the one of the factors contributed to the reason Islamic estate planning was not practiced widely (Omar, 2009; Mohyin, 2004; Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz et. al., 2014a). Malaysian Muslims particularly Malay people do not really want to write wasiyyah due to three reasons. Firstly because not fully understood about wasiyyah and its significant. Secondly due to the attitude which was reluctant to write wasiyyah even though they are well informed about it and lastly caused by cost constraints which was contributed from zero knowledge on actual charge imposed by authorized party (Omar 2006; Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz et. al., 2014b).

Besides that, misunderstanding and misconception towards mechanisms in planning of Islamic wealth distribution also will influence to the low level of awareness in of Islamic wealth distribution (Ahmad & Pyeman, 2008; Al Ma’amun, 2010). Al Ma’amun (2010)

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claimed that, in Malaysia, wasiyyah is misunderstood and confused with the will for non-Muslim (which is used to instruct heirs on how estates should be distributed). This wrong conceptualization of wasiyyah is being spread to ordinary people through television soaps and movies. Besides that, they are adhered with the practice of wasiyyah to the beneficiaries. But the truth is, wasiyyah only applicable to the family members who are not listed as beneficiary such as adopted children unless there are approval from all beneficiaries.

3. Research Methodology

The research methodology used to carry out this study is quantitative method through the questionnaire. As a pilot study, the questionnaires were obtained by distributing to a sample of 47 respondents in Kajang (Selangor), Malaysia. The sampling procedure adopted for this research was simple random sampling.

Each respondent is required to answer close-ended questions which is to identify level of awareness in planning and coordinating of Islamic wealth distribution using waqf, wasiyyah and faraid concepts. We employ SPSS (Version 20) in order to conduct frequency analysis, descriptive analysis and reliability analysis. Frequency analysis is used to extract the percentile of the respondent’s demographics in terms of their gender, age, marital status, education level, job, income and total assets. Mean and standard deviation are computed for descriptive analysis. The reliability test is used to examine the internal consistency whether all the items are measuring the same underlying construct (Gliem JA and Gliem RR, 2003).

4. Empirical Results

Respondent’s Profile

As presented in Table 1, most respondents are male, which represent 76.6 percent while female represent only 23.4 percent. Out of 47 respondents, 36.2 percent representing age from 47-57 years old followed by 29.8 percent for 25-35 years old while the lowest responses was 4.3 from below 25 years old. Next, most respondents are married with 80.9 percent and 19.1 percent are single. Further, this study found that 61.7 percent of the respondents were diploma or degree holders followed by 29.8 percent from respondent’s age 25-35 years old and the least respondents are Masters/PhD (14.9). Based on the job, majority of the respondents work at private sector with 44.7 percent while government sector was 21.3 percent and least percentage was from unemployed with 2.1 percent. Next, 46.8 percent of the respondents earned highest monthly income (>RM 5000) followed by 31.9 percent (RM 1001-RM 2999). While the least amount earned by the respondents was 8.5 percent (< RM 1000). Lastly for total assets earned by the respondent, 34.0 percent (< RM 50, 000) was the highest percentage for total assets owned by the respondents. Besides that, from the results obtained for amount of total assets, there are two items sharing same percentage which are RM 300,001- RM 600, 000 and >RM 600, 000 with 23.3 percent. While the lowest percentage for total assets was 2.1 which represent RM 50, 001- RM 100, 000.

5

Frequency Percent Gender Male

Female 36 11

76.6 23.4

Age < 25 years 25-35 years 36-46 years 47-57 years >57 years

2 14 7

17 7

4.3 29.8 14.9 36.2 14.9

Marital Status Single Married

9 38

19.1 80.9

Education No formal education Primary school SRP/ PMR/ SPM/ Vocational Diploma/ Bachelor Masters/PhD

0 0

11 29 7

0 0

23.4 61.7 14.9

Job Unemployed Housewife Self-employed/ businessman Government sector Private sector Retired

1 2 8

10 21 5

2.1 4.3

17.0 21.3 44.7 10.6

Monthly Income < RM 1000 RM 1001-RM 2999 RM 3000-RM 4999 >RM 5000

4 15 6

22

8.5 31.9 12.8 46.8

Total Assets < RM 50, 000 RM 50, 001- RM 100, 000 RM 100, 001- RM 300, 000 RM 300,001- RM 600, 000 >RM 600, 000

16 1 7

11 11

34.0 2.1

14.9 23.4 23.4

Table 1.Respondent’s profile

Reliability Analysis

Table 2 demonstrate the result of the reliability test, whereby the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient is obtained. The variable of awareness is 0.723 and it is considered acceptable to measure for this study. The reliability of the measure indicates the internal consistency of the instruments and to measure the confidence level of the data collected.

6

Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized

Items

N of Items

.723 .739 5

Table 2. Reliability analysis

Descriptive Analysis

Figure 1: Awareness on waqf in wealth distribution

Figure 1 shows the analysis of the response from the respondents in questionnaire regarding to the statement ‘I am fully aware that waqf is one of the mechanism in wealth distribution’. This figure shows that more than 20 respondents aware with waqf as one of the mechanisms in wealth distribution. While out of 47 respondents, 10 of them show negative responses with 1 of them strongly disagreed, 4 disagreed and the rest is neutral.

Figure 2: Awareness on wasiyyah in wealth distribution

Figure 2 shows the analysis of ‘I am fully aware that wasiyyah is one of a mechanisms in wealth distribution’. Based on the figure above, majority of the respondents (47 respondents) had positive response towards wasiyyah as mechanisms in wealth distribution. From 47 respondents, only 3 respondents have given neutral response while the rest either agreed or strongly agreed.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Strongly DisagreeDisagree

NeutralAgree

Strongly Agree

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Strongly DisagreeDisagree

NeutralAgree

Strongly Agree

7

Figure 3: Awareness on faraid in wealth distribution

Figure 3 is a result obtained from analysis question in the questionnaire using Likert scale regarding the statement ‘I am fully aware that faraid is one of a mechanisms in wealth distribution’. The results show that positive responses is higher than negative responses. Majority of the respondents (41 respondents) give positive responses with 28 of them strongly agreed and 13 of them agreed with the statement. While 5 respondents have given neutral responses and only 1 respondent disagreed with the statement.

Figure 4: Decision to plan with waqf in wealth distribution

The result shown in Figure 4 is based on the analysis of response from respondents regarding the statement ‘I have planned to distribute my wealth using waqf upon my death’. The results show that, neutral responses (24 respondents) is the highest response from the respondent. 20 respondents have given positive responses to the statement with 12 of them agreed with the statement while the rest are strongly agreed.

Figure 5: Decision to plan with wasiyyah in wealth distribution

Another question using Likert scale from the questionnaire was about the statement ‘I have

planned to distribute my wealth using wasiyyah upon my death’. The analysis had been transformed into figure 5. The result shows neutral response is the highest frequency (22 respondents) compared with others. 23 respondents have given response that they have planned of Islamic wealth distribution using wasiyyah mechanism with 13 of them agreed and

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Strongly DisagreeDisagree

NeutralAgree

Strongly Agree

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Strongly DisagreeDisagree

NeutralAgree

Strongly Agree

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Strongly DisagreeDisagree

NeutralAgree

Strongly Agree

8

8 of them strongly agreed. While two of them disagree to plan the wealth distribution using wasiyyah.

Mean Std. Deviation

I am fully aware that waqf is one of a mechanisms in wealth distribution 4.09 1.080 I am fully aware that wasiyyah is one of a mechanisms in wealth

distribution 4.53 .620

I am fully aware that faraid is one of a mechanisms in wealth distribution 4.45 .775 I have planned to distribute my wealth using waqf upon my death 3.51 .906 I have planned to distribute my wealth using wasiyyah upon my death 3.66 .867

Table 2. Descriptive analysis

Table 2 illustrates the descriptive analysis results. Among the items on awareness, ‘I am fully aware wasiyyah is one of a mechanism in wealth distribution’ score the highest of 4.53; meaning that it is the most influence factor for awareness variable. The standard deviation of 0.620 shows how much variation or dispersion exists from its mean. Second highest score was ‘I am fully aware that faraid is one of the mechanism in wealth distribution’ with the score of mean is 4.45 with standard deviation is 0.775. While ‘I am fully aware that waqf is one of a mechanism in wealth distribution’ shows the lowest mean 4.09 with the standard deviation is 1.080.

While for the items either have planned of wealth distribution using waqf or wasiyyah, the item of ‘I have planned to distribute my wealth using wasiyyah’ shows the highest score 3.66 with the standard deviation 0.867 compared with ‘I have planned to distribute my wealth using waqf’ with the score only 3.51 with standard deviation of 0.906.

5. Conclusion

Based on the study, it can be concluded that the majority of Malaysian Muslims were familiar and aware with the term of waqf, wasiyyah and faraid. However, in terms of practice, there are still lower of the application by the Malaysian Muslims. Majority of the respondent’s still not plan how to distribute their assets. This is based on the results obtained from the analysis which majority of the respondent’s give the neutral responses in whether they have planned in wealth distribution using either waqf or wasiyyah mechanisms. Therefore, all parties such as government, financial institutions as well as Muslims community need to work together in order to increase the awareness on the importance and mechanisms used to plan Islamic wealth distribution especially using waqf, wasiyyah and faraid. Besides that, government should increase the knowledge by giving exposure to the young people as early as in the secondary school regarding the mechanisms and importance of planning Islamic wealth distribution.

6. Acknowledgement

9

This research is benefited from the funding of the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) (Model for Planning and Coordinating of Waqf, Wasiyyah and Faraid Wealth Distribution Before and After the Death among Muslims) (USIM/FRGS-FEM-32-51913).

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1

THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN SOCIO-DEMOCRATIC RELATIONSHIP: A CASE STUDY OF A MUSLIM COUNTRY IN SOUTH ASIA

MUHAMMAD OBAIDULLAH1 & LEYAKET ALI BIN MOHAMED OMAR2 1. PhD, International Islamic University Malaysia & Faculty, Manarat International University,

Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh. E-mail: obaidiub@yahoo.com 2. PhD Candidate in Interreligious Studies, UGM Graduate School, Gadjah Mada University,

Yogyakarta.

ABSTRACT

The main objective of this paper is to study the role of religion in socio-democratic relationship in a Muslim country in South Asia namely Bangladesh on the basis of a sample survey conducted in Satkhira, a southern district of the country. The study finds how the religion can play a good role towards promoting peaceful religious co-existence and ensuring the socio-democratic rights in a multi-religion society. While the world is facing a lot of challenges in promoting peaceful co-existence, this study demonstrates that, in Bangladesh, the Muslim-Hindu’s socio-democratic and religious relationships are good and they are living in the society peacefully and enjoying their rights equally. However, there are a few incidents happen occasionally which are the most possible key challenges towards promoting amicable relationship between two different religious parties in a democratic society. The study finds that the (1) lack of knowledge, (2) national and international political views, (3) using religion for the political ends and (4) anti-religious movements and (5) secularism are some other challenges in this regard. Therefore, the paper recommends some strategies and policies that could be applied for overcoming those challenges and to ensure the socio-democratic relationship in the civil society. The methodology applied in this study is both qualitative and quantitative.

K e y wo r d s : M u s l im , H i n d u , R e l ig io n , S o c i e t y , Re la t i o n s h ip , Co- Ex i s t en ce .

1.0. INTRODUCTION Religion plays good role in a society through the ages in the history of the world. Almost all people in the society all over the world follow any one of the world religions and their religion has influence on their social life. Their religion teaches them how to lend themselves to exist with others peacefully. The religions also ensure rights of the people in a society irrespective of different religions. In the present days, however, the riot among either enter-religious or intra-religious people have been observing since last few decades. Issue of majority and minority and their rights and responsibilities in a society is also overhead in the present world and socio-democratic rights are ignored in such societies. Religions, thus, have been criticized as it is one of the barriers of peaceful co-existence. It issue mostly raised by the secular people who use this as they want to achieve their own goals. Therefore, the second Pope Benedict called all religious people to be united against secularism.

In Bangladesh, the fourth Muslim majority country in the world, the issues of religious conflicts, discriminations, persecutions and etc. especially from socio-democratic perspective have been argued by some people (Ali, 2005; Kabir, 2001 & 2006 ; Choudhury, 2008; Umar, 2011). Therefore, Islam as the major religion and its follower Muslims are being questioned for that situation. However, some other people argue that the reason behind the situation is not religion but politics (Polash, 2001). Not only that, but also religion is used by the secular people and politicians for their own goals (Polash, 2001 & Obaidullah, 2015). The present study is

2

going to answer three questions such as (1) what is the real scenario of Muslim-Hindu relationship in Bangladesh? (2) How does religion play its role towards Muslim-Hindu relationship in Bangladesh from socio-democratic perspective?, and (3) what are the challenges and solutions towards promoting Muslim-Hindu relationship from socio-democratic perspective? 2.0. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The followings are the objectives of the study: i. To study the socio-democratic relationship between Muslims and Hindus in Satkhira,

Bangladesh. ii. To demonstrate the influences of religion in socio-democratic relationship between Muslims

and Hindus in Bangladesh. iii. To recommend the strategies, plans and recommendation to overcome the challenges and to

promote the Muslim-Hindu relationship. 3.0. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The methodologies applied in this study are qualitative and quantitative. However, the data collected from the sample survey conducted in Satkhira, Bangladesh have been considered as the primary source of this study. 3.1. Collection of Data Both primary and secondary sources of data have been accessed to find out the gist of the research. Basically, this study is based on the survey conducted by the researcher in Satkhira, Bangladesh. However, other sources of secondary data such as libraries, journals, books, online sources etc. were accessed as much as possible to get the information and to describe the reality of religion in civil society and its impact on the Muslim-Hindu relationship in Satkhira, Bangladesh. 3.2. Methods of Conducting Survey A self-demonstrated questionnaire was prepared to conduct the sample survey and distributed among the respondents to collect the primary data of this study. The respondents were selected on the basis of random sampling survey method. Out of 7 police stations, 3 police stations were selected to conduct the survey. A total of 2000 questionnaire were distributed among the respondents. However, the researcher was able to collect 452 complete questionnaires from Muslims and 229 from Hindu respondents. 3.3. Analysis of Collected Data It is noteworthy to state that there were three sections in the questionnaire such as (1) demographic information of the respondents, (2) the condition of religion in belief and practice and (3) views on socio-democratic relation between Muslims and Hindus. In the section two, there were two sub-sections to gain the information of their belief/knowledge and practice. Under the sub-sections, there were ten statements and the respondents were asked to point out their opinions from any one of the five options, e.g. (1) strongly disagree, (2) disagree, (3) no comment, (4) agree and (5) strongly agree. All of these options were later on coded as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

Finally, the collected data have been analyzed carefully, discussed critically and presented statistically using the SPSS.

3

3.4. Demographic Information 3.4.1. Demographic Information of Bangladesh Bangladesh as the eighth largest country of the world consisted of 166,280,712 total population in July 2014 (Index Mundi, 2015). Bengali ethno-linguistic group comprised 98.90% of the total population (Index Mundi, 2015). The national and official language is Bengali, also known as Bangla. English is used in offices and educational institutions as the second official language. The literacy rate is 56% (for males 61.3% and females 52.5%) (Index Mundi, 2015). There are two kinds of education systems; general education and madrasah education (BANBEIS, 2015). 3.4.2. Demographic Information of Satkhira Satkhira is a southern district of Bangladesh. It is one of the most influential developing rural-urban towns of the state (Govt., 2013). The district consists of two municipalities, 18 wards, 41 mahallas, 7 upazilas, 79 union parishads, 953 mouzas and 1,436 villages (Govt., 2013). Satkhira is famous all around the world for its largest mangrove forest locally called Sundorbon, a World Heritage Site in an area of 1445.18 km. The total population of Satkhira district is 19,49899, (Govt., 2013) of which 78.08% are Muslims, 21.45% are Hindus, 0.28% are Christians, 0.01% are Buddhists and 0.18% are people of other religions. The average literacy rate for males is 69.7%, and for females is 61% (Govt., 2013). Generally, the people are religious. There are 3,296 mosques, 1,305 Hindu temples, 59 churches, 35 Buddhist temples, 8 tombs and 45 Shrines (Govt., 2013). 3.4.3. Demographic Information of Respondents Six hundred and eighty-one respondents participated in the survey conducted in Satkhira. Among them, Muslim and Hindu respondents were 452 and 229 respectively. Male respondents were more than female respondents. The percentages of male and female Muslim respondents are 58.8% and 41.2% respectively whereas the percentages for the Hindus are 54.1% for males and 45.9% for females. All most all level of age (above 18) participated in the survey. The Muslim respondents in the study had low level of education as 53.1% of them had less than S.S.C., followed by those having a H.S.C/Diploma (26.1%) and a Degree/Masters’/Ph.D. (20.8%). However, more than half of the Hindu respondents (59.0%) are Degree/Masters’/Ph.D. followed by 23.1% with an H.S.C./Diploma and 17.9% with less than an S.S.C. education. Based on the profession, most of the Muslim respondents were government servant (24.1%) followed by 19.0% farmers, 15.5% NGO workers holders and activists and 15.0% housewives. Meanwhile, 41.0% of the Hindu respondents were government servants followed by 16.6% housewives, 14.4% NGO workers and activists while the rest of them were students, farmers and businessmen. 4.0. LITERATURE REVIEW Religion is a strong part of Bangladeshi people’s identity and it influences every aspect of their life (Ahmed, 2000). However, very limited academic attention has been given to study this issue especially from religious and the socio-democratic relationship perspectives. The works are not only limited but also limited in scope and in method. Some of those works are written from sociological and political perspectives (Banu, 2012). Thus the religious perspective of the study of Muslim-Hindu relationship has been ignored in most of the cases (Obaidullah, 2015). Moreover, the works done from sociological and political perspectives have portrayed Islam and

4

Muslims negatively as they used “militant Islam” “terrorist”, “fundamentalist”, etc. (Ali, 2005; Kabir, 2001 & 2006 ; Choudhury, 2008; Umar, 2011). They claimed that the religious minorities such as Hindus, Buddhists, Christians and others are neglected and persecuted in the society (Ali, 2005; Kabir, 2001 & 2006; Choudhury, 2008 & Umar, 2011). They are also deprived from the basic socio-democratic rights as well (Haque, 1997, Singho, 1999, Riaz, 2004 & Karlekar, 2005). However, there are some other works shows that non-Muslims are enjoying equal rights in the society (Banu, 2012 & Obaidullah, 2015). A study has been done recently by Muhammad Obaidullah (2015) on the basis of a sample survey among Muslims and Hindus respondents to depict their relationship from the socio-religious perspective and it has found that most of the respondents both Muslim and non-Muslim viewed that they have good and congenial relationship with each other. Importantly, non-Muslims are enjoying equal rights in the present-day Bangladesh. Mehedi Hasan Polash (2001) stated that the issue of majority and minority is raised for political goals and purposes. In most of the cases, there is a conflict between the news published in various media and the reality, Polash (2001) stated. Therefore, the present study aims to show the real scenario of religion and its influences on the socio-democratic life of Muslims and non-Muslims in Bangladesh. The study also emphasizes on the key challenges towards promoting Muslim-Non-Muslims relationship with special reference to socio-democratic rights in the contemporary Bangladesh. 5.0. RELIGION IN BANGLADESH: A HISTORICAL MILIEU Religion has a good role not only in the history but also in the present civil society (Banu, 2012, Obaidullah, 2015). It has also a great impact in the relationship between Muslims and Hindus in the modern Bangladesh (Obaidullah, 2015). If any one looks back to the history of Bengal and later on it became Bangladesh, it could easily be found how religion did play its role in her history. For instance, two examples can be mentioned here.

(1) In 1947, the separation of great India into two independent countries such as India and Pakistan was on the basis of religion and religious followers (Mamoon, 2009). Such as, India was the Hindu majority and Pakistan was the Muslim majority countries. Todays’ Bangladesh was under the occupation of Pakistan and on that time it was called as “East Pakistan”. It is surprising to note that in between these two parts of a country e.g. Pakistan about 1100 km were of India. The wisdom was the Muslim majority population (74%) of East Pakistan.

(2) Finally, in 1971, it is argued that the emergence of Bangladesh was on the basis of the concept of “secularism” (Kabir, 2001). However, other factors were also there behind the history of independence. In the present-day Bangladesh, the issue is also the concern of the scholars, researchers, policymakers and others. In the modern Bangladesh, there are four major religions such as Islam, Hinduism,

Buddhism and Christianity. 90% Muslims are the majority followed by 8% Hindus, 1% Buddhists and 1% Christians and others. A research shows that they are living in their society peacefully (Obaidullah, 2015). However, the arguments are observed frequently. It is also claimed that the argument of peaceful co-existence in Bangladesh is a political game because most of the incidents regarding persecutions of minority and other pessimistic observations of majority and minority happen immediately before and after national election. The reality will also be highlighted in the subsequent discussions.

5

Figure1 Religious Demography of Bangladesh 6.0. ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS It has already been mentioned earlier that a survey was conducted to collect the data from both Muslim and non-Muslim respondents. Based on that data, results are going to be shown in the following discussions. 6.1. Religion in Belief and Practice: Islam and Hinduism To measure the religious condition of Muslims and Hindus, there were two parts in the questionnaire. Each part contains some statements. In the sub-section of questionnaire titled “Religious Belief: Muslims” and “Religious Practice: Muslims”, there were ten fundamental statements. One the one hand, for the non-Muslims respondents, under the title “Religious belief and practices: Hindus”, there were also ten statements. Moreover, Like Banu (2012), the study classified the respondents into three groups to understand their scale of religin and later on its reflection on relationship with each other such as (1) Modern for Muslim and “Moderately practising people” for Hindus refer to the respondents who adopt rational interpretation in understanding their religion by applying a dynamic, scientific and progressive interpretation of the religious teachings, (2) Orthodox for Muslim and for Hindus “Highly practising people” refers to the respondents who strictly follow their religious beliefs and teachings and (3) Popular for Muslims and for Hindus “Least practising people” refers to the respondents who hold on to the belief in spirit and animism. Basically, the last group tries to practice religion but due to lack of knowledge their beliefs and practice mix us tawÍÊd with shirk. However, the study does not claim that the process of measuring the scores and the coding system were the most correct and accepted one in the interpretation and scaling of people’s religiosity. However, the way it is used in the study provides a rough idea about the religious beliefs and practices of Bangladeshi Muslims in the contemporary era. Finally, according to the data collected from the survey, the results found are as follows. 6.1.1. Religious Beliefs and Practices: Muslims

90%

8%

1% -1% 1%

Islam Hinduism Buddhism Christianity Others

6

The researcher combined all the scores gain from ten statements into one to explain the level of religious beliefs and practice of Muslims. Thus the results found are as follows:

Figure 1 Scale of Religious Beliefs and Practices of Muslims

Figure 1 shows that most of the Bangladeshi Muslims are high religious practising people in terms of their religious beliefs and practices. The percentage of high religious practising people is highest with 51.1% followed by 43.8% medium and 5.1% low religious practising people. The figure shows the percentage of high religious practicing people is increasing day by day.

6.1.2. Religious Beliefs and Practices: Hindus The same method used in measuring religious beliefs and practices of Muslims had been applied to understand the Hindus’ religious beliefs and practices in Satkhira. By applying the scale to all Hindu respondents, the study found the following result:

Figure 2 Scale of Religious Beliefs and Practices of Hindus in Bangladesh Figure 2 shows that only 3.9% of the respondents were classified as the least faithful and

practising, while 52% respondents were highly faithful and practising and 44.1% respondents were moderately faithful and practising Hindus. The figures indicate very clearly that the number of highly faithful and practicing Hindus are higher compared to the moderately and the least faithful and practicing Hindus in Satkhira district.

Based on the survey, the study found that the numbers of faithful and practising Hindus and Muslims in Satkhira are high which indicates that most of them are faithful and obedient

0

20

40

60

Modern Orthodox Popular

5

51 44

0

20

40

60

Least Moderately Highly

3.9

44.1 52

7

followers of their respective religions. It can be concluded that the majority of Muslims and Hindus in Satkhira learn about the fundamental teachings of their religions.

6.2. Muslim Hindu Relationship: Socio-Democratic Perspective Since the controversial argument is whether the Muslim-Hindu relationship is good or not, the present study could show the reality. To measure the respondents’ views on socio-democratic relationship between Muslims and Hindus, there were seven statements. Again, the study calculated and coded scores into three as follows:

Scores 7-16 = 1 (Disagree) Scores 17-25 = 2 (No comment) Scores 26-35 = 3 (Agree)

Thus the frequency is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Muslims’ and Hindus’ Perception on Relationship Since 81.3% Muslim respondents and 83.2% Hindu respondents agreed, the study can

unquestionably claim that there are good relations between Muslims and Hindus in contemporary Bangladesh. The data also reject those who say that relationship among Muslims and Hindus is not amicable and congenial. Some people claim that the percentage of the Hindu population is decreasing because of Muslims’ behavior to them (Shakil, 2013). Moreover, they also claim that Hindus are leaving the country because of the Muslim majority (Shakil, 2013).

Some people also argue that Hindus are persecuted, deprived and attacked by the majority (Ali, 2005; Kabir, 2001 & 2006, Choudhury, 2008 & Umar, 2011). The argument is null and void according to the present study as Figure 4 shows 83.2% of the Hindu respondents said that they have good relationship with the Muslims. Therefore, the voice that rose on the issue of majority and minority is not because of religious reason but of others. 6.3. Challenges towards Religious Coexistence A careful investigation and analysis could find out that a good number of respondents from both Muslims (4.5%) and Hindus (7.4%) disagreed with stating that they have good relationship with each other. Moreover, 14.2% Muslim and 9.4% Hindu respondents were silent to view their opinion in this regard. The study therefore tried to find out the reason behind it. 6.3.1. Political Reason

0

20

40

60

80

100

MPRWO HPRWO

4.5 7.4 14.2 9.4

81.3 83.2

Disagree

No Comment

Agree

8

The respondents were then asked to view on the following two statements and the result shows as follows:

The first statement was “the incidents such as religious riots/persecution/conflict (if any) because of (a) Religion or Religious Issue, (b) Political issue (Politics), (c) Inter-personal Issue/Matter and (d) Other (Please specify)” and the respondents were asked to choose any one or more of the above options. Thus, the study finds the following result:

Figure 5 Perception on the reason behind the religious riot/persecution/conflict Figure 5 shows that 95.3% Muslim and 97.1% Hindu respondents pointed out the politics

is the main reason behind the religious riot or the persecution of minority or any conflict between the two religious groups in the present Bangladesh.

Consequently, the second statement was “when do you observe the incidents such as religious riots/persecution/conflict (if any) in the country? (a) During/after the Religious occasion, (b) During/after National Festivals (New Year celebration/Independence day/other), (c) During/after the National election, and (d) Other (Please specify).

Figure 6 when the Incidents happen?

Figure 6 shows that most of the incidents happen in the country during and after national

election. Almost all respondents from both Muslim and Hindus pointed out that. 6.3.2. Lack of Knowledge and Understanding the True Teachings of Religion Knowledge is important to understand the true teachings of any religion. The study reveals that among the Muslim respondents who only had education below S.S.C., 8.8% disagreed about

0

20

40

60

80

100

MPRWO HPRWO

0.5 1.2

95.3 97.1

2.5 0.5

Religion

Politics

Inter-Personal

Other

0

20

40

60

80

100

MPRWO HPRWO

0.2 1.2 2.2 0.3

96.6 98

Religious Occasion

National Festivals

National Election

Other

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having personal and social relationships with the Hindus, 27.5% were silent and 7.5% disagreed about having political relationship with the Hindus, 10.4% did not comment and 11.5% disagreed to recognize and tolerate Hindus in the social life, and 8.3% were silent to state that the Hindus have equal rights and mutual benefit. Like Muslim respondents, among the Hindus who had below S.S.C. education, 9.8% were silent to say that they have good personal and social relationships with the Muslims. In both cases, those percentages are higher compared to people with other levels of education such as above H.S.C. to PhD. The findings indicate that education and knowledge can both promote good relationship and allow people to exist with others in the society. 6.3.3. Lack of Religiousness Religiousness is another significant key issue in order to have good relations and exist with others. The study, therefore, finds that orthodox Muslims and highly religious practising Hindus were more optimistic towards tolerance and mutual relationship with others compared to the Modern Muslim and Least religious practicing Hindu respondents. For instance, among the modern Muslims, 15.4% disagreed and 15.4% had no comments about having good relationship with the Hindus, 30.8% disagreed and 23.1% made no comments about recognizing each other, 23.1% commented that the Hindus have no equal rights in practical life, 15.4% disagreed and 30.8% made no observations about Muslims and Hindus working together for development, 38.5% stated that they observe religious persecution in society. In a Muslim majority country such as Bangladesh where a good number of modern Muslims were pessimistic about those statements, the study can claim that religiousness has a great role towards promoting peaceful religious co-existence. Similarly, 33.3% of least practicing Hindu respondents stated that they do not have good personal and cultural relationships with the Muslims.

To conclude, in both religions, Low religious practice people are pessimistic towards issues of religious co-existence. Therefore, the study states that religiousness can play a good role towards religious co-existence in the context of present-day Bangladesh.

6.3.4. Other Reasons Moreover, Obaidullah (2015) stated some other reasons behind the negative attitude towards a good relationship between Muslims and Hindus. The reasons include (1) Lack of Religious Activities, (2) Lack of Good Conduct, Manner and Behavior, (3) Lack of Interpersonal Relationship, (4) Financial Corruption, (5) Lack of Humanitarian Accomplishments, (6) Weakness of Religious Political Parties, (7) Issue of Secularism, (8) Desire for Power, (9) Role of the Government and (10) International Politics. 7.0. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Religion is a strong part of Bangladeshi’s identity. They are not only religious but also influenced by their religion in every aspect of life. This study finds that most of the respondents both from Muslims and Hindus stated that they have good and congenial relationship in their socio-democratic life. They are enjoying their socio-democratic rights equally irrespective of their different religion. It is not only because of law or constitution but also for their religions. Their religion teaches them to respect others as they are equal in the social life. The study can also claim that Islam as the major religion influences more on Muslims’ life to ensure other’s rights in the contemporary society.

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However, a good number of respondents either did not agree or comment on the statements. The study also tried to find out the key challenges towards promoting relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims in the contemporary Bangladesh. The present study, therefore, recommends following suggestions to overcome those challenges:

i. People should be more aware of others rights and responsibilities. ii. Since the scale of religion is a factor, the religious knowledge and activities should be

promoted. iii. People should be more careful about their religion, religious knowledge and practices.

As the present research found that the orthodox or high practicing people are more optimistic towards socio-democratic relationship between Muslims and Hindus.

iv. Since the politics is involved in the riot, persecution and conflict between two religious groups, they should be careful to use religious for their own goals.

v. People should be aware of using religion for political purpose thus they will not fight against each other.

vi. Government has the key role towards ensuring the socio-democratic rights of every citizen irrespective of religion and promoting peaceful existence in the society as well. Therefore, government should be a neutral authority.

vii. Since the research found that the secular people are more pessimistic towards Muslim-non-Muslims relationship, the concept of secular state should be revoked by the government. Because, only religion can promote a good relationship among citizens.

viii. The curriculum of national education system should be developed to make the people understood the true teachings of religion as it teaches to establish the equality in the socio-democratic rights.

ix. To promote the awareness of religious teachings towards mutual understanding and good relation with others, inter-faith, intra-faith and inter-religious dialogue should be arranged.

Finally, it could be said that Bangladesh can be a good model for peaceful religious co-existence in the contemporary world. Since all her citizens are careful about their religion and religious teachings, it could be stated that religion does play a good role towards socio-democratic relationship between Muslims and Non-Muslims. Although, the limitation of this study is the sample survey was conducted in a rural and semi-urban area of Bangladesh and respondents were only from Muslims and Hindus, further study could be extended to the mega city such as Dhaka and respondents could be selected from all religions. However, the present study must be useful for the future study in this field. 8.0. REFERENCES

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