Latin American Antiquity

PRODUCTIVE PROCESSES LINKED TO COPPER EXTRACTION: PIGMENT-MAKING AND ITS EXCHANGE IN THE ATACAMA DESERT (NORTHERN CHILE)

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Full Title: PRODUCTIVE PROCESSES LINKED TO COPPER EXTRACTION: PIGMENT-MAKING AND ITS EXCHANGE IN THE ATACAMA DESERT (NORTHERN CHILE)

Article Type: Article

Corresponding Author: Marcela Sepulveda, Ph.DUniversidad de TarapacáArica, Arica y Parinacota CHILE

Corresponding Author SecondaryInformation:

Corresponding Author's Institution: Universidad de Tarapacá

Corresponding Author's SecondaryInstitution:

First Author: Marcela Sepulveda, Ph.D

First Author Secondary Information:

Order of Authors: Marcela Sepulveda, Ph.D

Valentina Figueroa, Master

Sandrine Pagés- Camagna, Ph.D.

Order of Authors Secondary Information:

Abstract: This article presents the results of physical-chemical analyses of samples of rock artpainting and green pigments from the Atacama Desert in Northern Chile. The resultsallow us to incorporate a new technology, pigment production, into the mining andproduction process of copper that had previously been associated with lapidaryproduction and metallurgy. The article also discusses the importance and implicationsof these results in relation to exchanges that would have occurred during Late periods(900-1550 A.D.) in and around this desert region.

Suggested Reviewers: Diego Salazar, MasterProfessor, Universidad de Chiledsalazar@uchile.clLots of work in metallurgy and mining process of northern chile

Marta Maier, Ph.DProfessor, Universidad de Buenos Airesmaier@qo.fcen.uba.arSpecalist in pigment analysis in south america

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PRODUCTIVE PROCESSES LINKED TO COPPER EXTRACTION:

PIGMENT-MAKING AND ITS EXCHANGE IN THE ATACAMA

DESERT (NORTHERN CHILE)

Marcela Sepúlveda R., Valentina Figueroa L. and Sandrine Pagés-Camagna.

DO NOT CITE IN ANY CONTEXT WITHOUT PERMISSION

OF THE AUTHOR(S)

Marcela Sepúlveda R., Dept. of Anthropology, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica,

Chile (marcelaasre@gmail.com/msepulveda@uta.cl).

Valentina Figueroa L., UMR 8096, Archéologie des Amériques, Université de

Paris I-Sorbonne, France (vfigueroalarre@yahoo.es).

Sandrine Pagés- Camagna. Centre de Recherche et de Restauración des Musées

de France, Paris, France (sandrine.pages@culture.gouv.fr).

*Cover Letter

Figure Captions

Figure 1. Map of Atacama desert.

Figure 2. Rock art painting at Incahuasi.

Figure 3. Sack of leather with green powder from Los Abuelos de Caspana.

Figure 4. SEM image from Incahuasi sample.

Figure 5. SEM-EDX spectra from Incahuasi sample.

Figure 6. RAMAN spectral of Atacamita from 3 samples (Santa Bárbara,

Incahuasi and Caspana).

Figure 7. RAMAN spectral of 2 samples from Incahuasi.

Figure 8. Scheme of copper´s process production.

Figure 9. Rock art painting from Santa Barbara.

Figure 10. Leather, wood and fiber objects near Iquique.

Figure CaptionsClick here to download Figure Captions: Figure Captions.doc

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure

Figure 3.

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

Figure 6.

Figure 7.

Figure 8.

Figure 9.

Figure 10.

Table 1.

Sample Color Physical

form

Archaeological

period

Archaeological

context

Confluencia-

M1 Green Paint Formative period Campsite, Route

SBa1-9 Green Paint Late Intermediate

and Late periods

Caravan campsite,

Routes

INC01 Blue Paint Late Intermediate

and Late periods Village, Funerary

INC03 Green Paint Late Intermediate

and Late periods Village, Funerary

INC05 Green on red Paint Late Intermediate

and Late periods Village, Funerary

Dupont Green Powder Late Intermediate

period Funerary

Caspana Green Powder Late Intermediate

and Late periods Funerary

INC fragment Green Raw material indeterminate Mine

Table

Table captions

Table 1: Description of analyzed samples.

Table CaptionsClick here to download Table Captions: Table captions.doc

1

Abstract

This article presents the results of physical-chemical analyses of samples

of rock art painting and green pigments from the Atacama Desert in

Northern Chile. The results allow us to incorporate a new technology,

pigment production, into the mining and production process of copper that

had previously been associated with lapidary production and metallurgy.

The article also discusses the importance and implications of these results

in relation to exchanges that would have occurred during Late periods

(900–1550 A.D.) in and around this desert region.

Resumen

Este artículo presenta los resultados de análisis físico-químicos aplicados a

muestras de pinturas rupestres y pigmentos verdes del desierto de

Atacama (norte de Chile). Estos resultados nos permiten incorporar una

nueva tecnología, la producción de pigmento, a la minería y proceso de

producción del cobre relacionada, hasta ahora, con la lapidaria y la

metalurgia. Este artículo discute también la importancia e implicaciones

de estos resultados en relación con los intercambios que pudieron

acontecer durante los períodos tardíos (900-1.550 d.C.) en y alrededor de

esta región desértica.

*ManuscriptClick here to download Manuscript: Manuscript.doc

2

Over the past two decades, the study of rock art has generated more

interest and importance in archeological investigations of the Atacama

Desert of Northern Chile (Sepúlveda and Valenzuela 2011). Recent work

has expanded on mostly descriptive initial studies by taking rock art

paintings and engravings into account in the reconstruction of pre-

Hispanic social and cultural processes. One aspect addressed recently is

the relation of rock art technologies to the different processes that emerged

in the region after 1500 B.C. (Sepúlveda 2009; Sepúlveda and Laval

2010a). Among other things, this work analyzed the physical-chemical

composition of rock paintings to obtain more precise information about

the nature of the components used, especially pigments, as well as their

size, shape and mixture. Particular attention was paid to the inorganic

phases of the paint preparations (Sepúlveda and Laval 2010b). To identify

the components of the green pigments used, we studied several

archeological samples from the Atacama Desert, a region of rich copper

deposits that was the center of pre-Hispanic mining activity from the

Archaic to the Inca Period.

The oldest mining development in South America has been identified as

the iron oxide mine of San Ramón, on the coast of Antofagasta Region

(ca. 1000–10,500 BP) (Salazar et al. 2011b). The Atacama Desert is

renowned for its mineral wealth, especially its large copper deposits. Since

pre-Hispanic times, these copper ore deposits have been exploited for

lapidary and metallurgical processes associated with the manufacture of

instruments and prestige goods using sophisticated technologies (Núñez

1999). The manufacture of beads (Rees 1999; Soto 2006, 2010 ; Carrión

2010) and metallic objects (Letchman and MacFarlane 2003; Figueroa et

al. 2010a; Salazar et al. 2010, 2011a) created a large demand for copper

ore in places where regional caravanning facilitated the circulation of such

goods (Lecoq 1987).

However, a preliminary elemental analysis of some paint samples taken

from rock art paintings in the Atacama Desert showed that copper ore was

also used to produce paint (Sepúlveda and Laval 2010b). These initial

results suggested an additional use for copper ore in the region that was

previously unknown, particularly in the South-Central Andes region.

In this study, we specify the mineralogical composition of the Salado and

Alto Loa rock art paintings through a more detailed examination of

preliminary results, which combined microscopic and chemical

3

composition analyses. The Salado River and Alto Loa conform together

the Upper Loa river basin (Figure 1). Additionally, we analyze local ore

samples from pre-Hispanic and present-day small-scale mining sites from

this region. To build a comprehensive understanding of all possible

technologies associated with the use of copper ore, we also analyze

samples of green powder, possibly pigment, that were taken from local

burial contexts in the same region.

These new results allow us to build a more detailed picture of the

operational sequence of green pigments and paints produced from copper

ore in the Upper Loa river basin of the Atacama Desert. Through them we

can identify different stages of a complex operational sequence that

included ore extraction, metal production, lapidary, and pigment

production, evidence of which has been found in many archeological

contexts of this region. Finally, the results are described within the

processes related to copper ore extraction and use in the region and its

possible relation to the exchange of goods occurring during Late pre-

Hispanic times (900–1550 A.D.).

DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES, ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

AND RESULTS

Nine samples were analyzed in the study: Six were from rock paintings (1

from Santa Bárbara in Alto Loa, two from Incahuasi Inca (Figure 2), two

from the Confluencia site -both in the Río Salado basin- and 1 from

Quebrada Amarga, in the lower reaches of the Loa River) and two were

samples of pigments from ancient leather pouches (from the cemeteries

Dupont 1 and Los Abuelos de Caspana) (Figure 3). The last sample

consisted of fragments from a present-day small-scale mining operation at

the Incahuasi site (Table 1). Though the samples are relatively few in

number, they are sufficient for the purpose of our discussion, as there is

only a scanty evidence of the use of these pigments in rock paintings in

the surrounding regions.

The samples were observed through a binocular microscope and then

analyzed using a Scanning Electron Microscope connected to an X-Ray

dispersion system (SEM- EDX) and Raman spectrometer (with a green

excitation light at 532 nm, a diameter of 5µm, laser power of 12 µW, and

an acquisition time of approximately 30 minutes).

4

Initial observation of the paint samples indicates that all have a

heterogeneous composition, made up of large (200 µm)1 green, blue and

white grains. In addition to data from field observations and stratigraphic

analysis of the paint samples, we specify that the layers of paint are thick

and very dense, producing colors that are very bright and opaque to the

naked eye.

Through more detailed analysis using the X-Ray Dispersion System

connected to the Scanning Electron Microscope, we were able to observe

the presence of different copper compounds (copper oxides, copper

chlorides and copper sulfates) some of them surrounded or covered with

aluminosilicates, which may bea thickener and/or bonding agent (Figures

4 and 5). Indeed, the non-plastic nature of the copper ore samples leads us

to believe that some kind of agglutinant or binder would have been

required to help the paint adhere to the rock surface. No organic binding

agent was detected or identified, however.

In mineralogical terms, Raman spectrometry confirmed the presence of

copper ores such as Atacamite (Cu2Cl(OH)3), Clinoatacamite

(Cu2Cl(OH)3), Langite (Cu4(SO4)(OH)6.2H2O), Bandylite

(CuB2O4CuCl2.4H2O), Crisocola ((Cu,Al)2H2Si2O5(OH)4·nH2O) and

Malachite (Cu2CO3(OH)2) (Figures 6 and 7).

According to the initial results from the rock art painting samples, the

mixtures are based on copper ore that clearly originated in the same

region, where it is abundant. However, as chlorides are abundant in the

region, it is difficult to distinguish among them. The sulfates, for their

part, could come from mineral deposits in the region or could have been

produced by an alteration of the paint; this is especially likely in the

presence of gypsum, which is commonly found as a translucent surface

patina. Most interesting is the heterogeneity of sources, as demonstrated in

the results of the Incahuasi samples (Figure 6 and 7).

COPPER ORE PRODUCTION IN THE ATACAMA DESERT

This region is renowned for its mineral wealth, specifically its large

copper deposits. Since pre-Hispanic times copper ore has been extracted

and used in lapidary and metallurgical processes to manufacture

instruments and prestige goods using sophisticated technologies. The

many mines, waste rock piles and artifacts associated with mining

operations provide evidence of a longstanding mining tradition in the

1 The size is relative. The grain size refers to the large size of the grains that make up the mixture

compared to other samples analyzed, in which the different elements measured less than 10 µm.

5

region (Salazar and Salinas 2008; Salazar et al. 2011). These continued

diachronically into colonial times in some mining districts, such as El

Abra (Melero and Salazar 2003). It was in this context that the ancient

miner, denominated “Copper Man”2 was discovered. This figure was

found in the Chuquicamata sector with a series of common miner‟s

artifacts, including hammers with wood and leather handles, a rawhide

bag and a woven basket (Bird 1977-78, 1979; Craddock 1990; Craddock et

al. 2003). This and other miner mummies indicate that mining technology

was already highly developed in the Formative period (Figueroa et al.

2010). Given this context, we propose that the use of copper ore to make

pigments was part of a framework of well-established regional

technologies that included lapidary and metallurgy. These technologies

were linked to the regional caravan trade, as they facilitated the exchange

of surplus mining products for goods from Northwest Argentina and the

Bolivian Altiplano (Núñez 1987; Nuñez 1999; Núñez and Dillehay 1995;

Salazar 2002).

Investigation of lapidary, which predates metallurgy in the Atacama

region (Salazar 2002), has focused mainly on reconstructing the

operational sequence of bead manufacture (Rees 1999; Soto 2006, 2010).

Several recent studies examining the operational sequence of copper ore

bead production, use, and distribution in the Formative period have

confirmed the role that this industry played in regional exchange networks

(García-Albarrido 2007; Salazar et al 2010). This trading of goods and

general interactions among groups in the „circumpuna‟ region continued

into colonial times, when Lozano de Machuca noted that the green stones

(turquoise) of Atacama were highly valued by the Chiriguano chiefs, who

came all the way “to Lípez and even to Atacama”3 (Platt et al. 2006: 152)

to acquire them.

In regard to the compositional analysis of copper ore used in lapidary, a

recent study conducted by Westfall et al. (2010) identifies blue and green

minerals present in the Formative period cemetery of Chorillos, close to

the city of Calama (Region II). Their results expanded upon the traditional

term copper ores, commonly used by archaeologists in this field, by

noting that it encompasses a wide variety of ores from sources near or far

from their place of use. The chemical composition of the beads found is

indicative of this, as it shows that many different ores were used to

manufacture them, not only the usual Malachite (green) and Azurite

2 Now conserved in the American Museum of Natural History, New York.

6

(blue). The analysis also shows that the color of the mineral was a

significant attribute for the pre-Hispanic bead makers, who could not

differentiate the mineral structure of the ore extracted.

Studies of metallurgy have been conducted separately from those on

lapidary. In addition to Latcham‟s seminal study of Atacameña metallurgy

(1936, 1938), the works of Rodríguez on Inca metallurgy in the areas of

Caspana and Northwest Argentina have the distinction of being the first to

introduce the notion of technical tradition in metallurgical production.

This concept is understood as the set of elements present in the

technological activities of a social group: operational sequences, attitudes

toward the material, organization of the work and associated ritual

elements (Rodríguez 1974, 1981, 1986). In addition, Núñez has

highlighted the role of these metals as prestige goods within mechanisms

of extra-regional interaction (Núñez 1987, 1999, 2005). More recent

studies have followed lines of investigation that incorporate local and

regional analyses of mining-metallurgical production, emphasizing both

the social dimension and historic transformations in the production

systems and symbolic aspects of mining (Salazar 2002, 2008). In regard to

physical-chemical analysis, there have been few archeometric studies

beyond those conducted on the Formative site of Ramaditas (in Region of

Tarapacá) and Lechtman and Macfarlane‟s work on the Middle Horizon of

San Pedro de Atacama, but several initiatives are currently underway in

this area (Figueroa et al. 2010; Maldonado et al. 2010; Salazar et al. 2011)

and on the Atacama coast (Figueroa et al. 2007, 2009; Salazar et al. 2010).

In regard to copper ore pigments, until recently no precise information

was available for the Atacama Desert (Sepúlveda and Laval 2010a).

However, some interesting results have come from a study of the paintings

found on the chullpas (funerary towers) of the Carangas zone, in the

Bolivian Altiplanoclose to the Northern Chilean border. Gisbert (1994)

analyzed samples from these paintings, material she described as green

earth, “emerald-green in color,” and the findings show the presence of

70% Chalcopyrite (S2FeCu), 10% Malachite (CO3Cu), and 20%

Magnesium sulfate (So4Mg), as well as animal fat used as a binding

agent. Although Gisbert does not detail the physical-chemical methods

used, the results show an interesting mixture based on copper ores that we

could analyze in more detail to determine whether it is similar to mixtures

used in the rock paintings found in the locality of Río Salado. While we

are not able to establish precise comparisons, we nevertheless note some

interesting information collected by Gisbert in a study of historical

7

chronicles, indicating that the copper ores used in the Carangas area

originated in the zone of Lípez (Gisbert 1994: 471), a neighboring locality

of Rio Salado in the Chilean Atacama Desert.

Based on the results obtained here, it is possible to reconstruct the

production processes used for copper ore pigment-making, lapidary and

metallurgy. The initial stages of the operational sequence of these three

technologies were the same, from obtaining the supply of ore from

prospecting and mining activities the final stages of ore selection. Mining

activities encompass a series of stages within the productive process that

range from extraction to selection and include several intermediate

crushing and milling steps. Studies in the mining district of Abra have

focused on identifying the operational sequences of pre-Hispanic mining

works, using different indicators to identify the functional variability of

sets of mining technologies (Salazar and Salinas 2008; Salinas and Salazar

2006, 2008). Thus, after primary, secondary and tertiary reduction the raw

material is treated differently depending on its end use. In the case of

metallurgy, the ore undergoes a chemical process that transforms it into

metal. In contrast, both pigment-making and lapidary involve the

mechanical treatment of the ore. Evidence of the latter activities include

large concentrations of waste ore, which correspond to primary waste

from malachite cleaning, bead preforms and finished beads (Rees 1999;

Soto 2006, 2010; see also Westfall and Gonzalez 2010).

Pigment-making is a process that begins with the tertiary reduction of the

copper ore and continues with selection, crushing and grinding of the ore

to obtain a fine copper powder that is transformed into pigment or, with

the addition of binding and thickening agents, into paint (Figure 8). This

paint can be an agglutinated mineral mixture, such as that found in the

tomb of the Dupont 1 cemetery and in Chunchuri, or it may be found

directly applied onto any one of several media such as rock (in the rock

paintings of Quebrada Amarga, Incahuasi, Santa Bárbara and Confluence,

Figure 9) leather or wood (at Los Verdes and Señor de Pica near Iquique,

Figure 10).

COPPER PIGMENTS AND EXCHANGE IN THE ATACAMA

DESERT

Evidence of the use of copper ore dates back to Late Archaic times, when

lapidary first appeared, followed by the use of metallurgy in the Formative

period. The issue of when this material was first used to make pigments

8

and paints remains unanswered, however. As we have seen, pigment-

making is closely related to lapidary and metallurgy production processes;

however, it also requires specific knowledge of how to crush the ore to

obtain fine-grained powder (which is still relatively coarse compared to

that used for red and yellow pigments, for example). Further knowledge is

required about how this powder was combined with other elements

(vehicle or binder) to obtain paint that could be applied to different media

(Figure 8).

The samples analyzed were taken from paintings attributed to styles of the

Late Intermediate period (900–1450 A.D.)- Confluencia, Quebrada

Amarga and Santa Bárbara- or the Late or Inka period (1450–1550 A.D.)-

Incahuasi Inca style (Table 1). While it has not been ruled out that

pigment-making began in the Formative period, the practice seems to have

become more common during the Late Intermediate period. The samples

of pigment from Dupont-1 (Latcham 1938; Núñez 1966) and the cemetery

of Los Abuelos de Caspana correspond to this timeframe, up to the Inka

period (Ayala et al.1999), indicating that most of the samples are

attributed to the Late periods of the regional sequence (900–1550 A.D.).

Other information relevant to this discussion comes from Gisbert‟s

iconographic analysis of motifs painted or constructed on the walls of

chullpas in the Bolivian Altiplano (see also Pärssinen 2005). The author

compares these designs to those present on Inkaunkus (tunics), leading her

to suggest that these funerary monuments were constructed in the Late

period, contemporaneous to the Inka presence in the region (Gisbert 1994;

Kesseli and Pärsinnen 2005). This allows us to attribute a Late period date

to the use of this kind of green paint in the Carangas zone; however, we

cannot specify whether the pigment was produced there or if it was

brought from another region, such as the Upper Loa.

Additional information comes from rock art paintings with similar motifs.

At the site of Tambillo in Northern Chile, for instance, an

anthropomorphic figure painted with a red-and-green checkerboard tunic

has been associated with the Inka development at Collahuasi mine, close

to a branch of the Inka Road (Romero, personal communication). Similar

representations using the same colors have been identified at Agua

Mineral in the Salado River basin (Sepúlveda 2006), at Quisma Alto in

Tarapacá Region, and at Pintosayoc in Cusco Region (Berenguer 2011).

Nevertheless, representations of this kind of tunic have been found with

red paint alone, and with alternating red and white paint, such as that

9

found at Mollegrande in Chile (Muñoz and Briones 1996: 78). It would be

worth identifying the exact locations of checkerboard tunics painted in

green and understanding why this color is used only rarely in that context.

Another interesting point is that checkerboard tunics have been interpreted

as military attire (Cumming 1997; Gentile 1996). Berenguer (2011)

suggests that these paintings may be representations of the Inka authority

in the landscape that were created to remind local peoples of their

obligation to the Empire.

Thus, recurrently we recognize the use of green pigment in the Late

Intermediate Period or Late Inka Period. It is possible that during this

period the Inka State encouraged the circulation of this material, which

originated in the Atacama Desert zones of the Upper Loa River and Lipez.

Evidence recorded to date indicates that pigment production fostered a

significant amount of interaction between pigment producers and other

groups during the Late Intermediate Period. In the late period the

production and circulation of pigment may have been controled by the

Inka, who restricted other raw materials and certain goods during this time

(Núñez 1999).

In terms of contexts, in the Atacama Desert green pigment has been found

in burial contexts (Dupont 1 and Caspana) and in pre-Hispanic burial

contexts in the localities of Iquique and Pica4 in Northern Chile. South of

the coastal city of Iquique is Los Verdes cemetery, a site associated with a

late phase of the Middle Horizon (Sanhueza, 1985). Here, two masks

made of sea lion skin were found bearing several anthropomorphic figures

painted in green. Near Pica, in a burial context at the locality known as

Señor de Pica,a helmet also made of sea lion skin was also found with a

motif painted in green (Figueroa 2012).

At Incahuasi, rock art painting sites are located close to mining works.

The rock art paintings of Confluencia, for their part, were found close to

an exchange route for copper ore beads. Given these associations, it would

be interesting to examine the contexts of the rock art paintings mentioned

by Berenguer (2001) in order to determine their relationship to mining

operations and/or trade routes. The evidence found to date seems to

indicate that the use of green pigment and paint was restricted to certain

spheres of action, which implies that the social implications of using these

materials were also specifically delimited.

4 Today these objects are conserved in the Museo de Iquique.

10

This or these implications must be specified, as the significance and use of

copper ore-based pigment lasted into colonial times and has been

identified in textile painting (Siracusano 2005), in sculptures (Tomasini et

al. 2011), and on decorative objects found in colonial churches in the

Andes region. These pigments were also exported to Spain for sale.

Siracusano (2005) cites several chroniclers who wrote of the production

and distribution of this pigment, while Bernabé Cobo mentions green and

blue pigment production in relation to the copper mines of Paria and

Lipes, which were then part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Copper ore, along

with iron, tin, lapis lazuli, lead, and other minerals, also supported the

trade route that began in Cobija and passed through Chacance, Calama,

and Chiu Chiu, arriving finally at Lipez (Siracusano 2005: 51).The

material was known even in the Alto Loa region: León Pinelo recorded the

depletion of the copper deposits of Cazpana in the Atacama highlands

around the middle of the 17th

Century (in Siracusano 2005:52), confirming

the importance of copper mining in the upper Loa River basin. Thus, the

knowledge acquired in pre-Hispanic times remained in use in colonial

times, at least into the 17th

Century.

CONCLUSION

Our analyses of the chemical composition of the pigment -both that used

in rock art paintings and the color nodules and powder found in pouches at

burial sites- are included in the discussion on pigment-making as a further

indicator of specific knowledge related to copper ore. As the results show,

the variety of ores identified indicates that the pre-Hispanic peoples of this

region used green pigment not only from different sources (or one source

with different types of ore),but for a variety of purposes.

The information available to date shows that the largest number of

paintings on any media in which green color is used occurs within the

Atacama Desert, more specifically in the Upper Loa River area. However,

without a systematic examination of all existing information (see for

example Berenguer 2011 and Figueroa 2012), and given that more

evidence may exist in the archeological record, this finding may not be

conclusive.

Even so, based on the evidence accumulated to date, it appears that the

technology associated with pigment production belongs to the Upper Loa

River basin and coincides with the presence of major deposits of the

material needed to produce those pigments, deposits that are still being

mined today.

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The incorporation of lapidary and metallurgy production into the

discussion seems essential for our understanding of pigment production in

the Atacama region. Paintings on rocks and other media must also be

closely examined if we are to understand the use of pigments in the

Atacama region, especially since the use of these substances can be seen

as a locally developed practice that was part of a longstanding tradition of

copper ore use, and to a lesser degree because the practice is quite

uncommon in other regions.

At present, we can effectively assume that this practice was locally

developed. It also seems reasonable to affirm that pigment-making

technology also was linked to the trading networks that connected the

Upper Loa River basin with neighboring zones such as Lipez in Southern

Bolivia and other regions during the Late period and up to colonial times.

However, it still needs to be determined whether pigment production

began before this time, in the Formative period for example.

There is much that still needs to be known before we can reconstruct the

scenario in which these elements were manufactured, the spatial

organization of their production, and the distribution and use of pigments.

We reiterate, however, that this technology should be considered an

inherent aspect of the operational sequence of mining in the region, and

that it should be deemed as important as other components of that

sequence, namely lapidary and metallurgy. Continuing the discussion will

also increase our understanding of how pigment-making technology fit

into the interactions that occurred in the Atacama Desert‟s ancient past.

Acknowledgements: This study was conducted as part of Fondecyt Project

1070083, led by Francisco Gallardo. The authors also wish to thank

Fondecyt Project 1080666, directed by Diego Salazar. We further express

our appreciation to Diego Salazar and Luis González for accepting this

work and allowing us to present it at the 53rd International Congress of

Americanist, held in Mexico City in 2009.

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