“Food of the Gods”

A Summary of Chocolate in the Nineteenth Century

Compiled by Richard D. Deverell, M.A.

For Genesee Country Village and Museum

Chocolate played a role in American society prior to

the Revolution. The supplement to the Boston-Gazette from

March 12, 1770 contained an advertisement stating,

CHOICE CHOCOLATE made and Sold by John Coldfmith1, at the Corner Shop leading down John Hancock, Efq’rs; Wharff, by thelarge or fmall Quantities. – Alfo all Sorts of Groceries.The Chocolate will be warranted good, and fold at the cheapest Rates – Cafh given for Cocoa.Cocoa manufactured for Gentlemen in the beft Manner.ALSO, Choice COCOA and Cocoa Nut Shells.2

By the beginning of the nineteenth century, chocolate was

fully integrated into American food culture. The emphasis on

the quality of the chocolate in this advertisement recurs

throughout recipes from the 1800s, further demonstrating the

importance of this foodstuff to Americans. Though most

recipes treat chocolate as a luxury good, it appears

relatively ubiquitous except in times of extreme hardship,

such as the later years of the Civil War, and then only in

the South. The various recipes took advantage of this

ubiquity to foster novelty both in form and use. Throughout

1 The “f” in Coldsmith is known as a long s and pronounced as an “s.”2 Massachusetts Historical Society, “March Meeting. Gifts to the Society; Lincoln’s Method of Ending the Civil War; The Boston Gazette ofMarch 12, 1770; Letters of George Ticknor,” Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society 59 (October 1925 – Jun 1926): 256, Accessed March 10, 2015, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080185.

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the nineteenth century, American chocolate specialized in

three forms: solid food, drink, and medicine.

Part of the reason for the emphasis on the use of

quality chocolate in the nineteenth century stemmed from the

prevalence of adulterated products. According to

anthropologists Sophie D. Coe and Michael D. Coe, “Cookbooks

of the 18th and 19th century are always warning us about the

adulteration of chocolate, with everything from brick dust

to red lead being added to replace the cacao solids, and the

cacao butter being substituted by cheaper oil of sweet

almonds, lard, or marrow.”3 While disreputable sellers may

have used such methods, the constant warnings appear to have

worked, though several recipes added equally dubious

ingredients for flavor or medicinal purposes.

The word for chocolate descends from a combination of

Maya and Nahuatl (the language of the Aztec) words. The Maya

used the words chacau haa for hot water, chocol for hot, and

the verb chokola’j meaning “to drink chocolate together.”4 The

3 Sophie D. Coe and Michael D. Coe, The True History of Chocolate (London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd., 1996), 29.4 Coe, The True History of Chocolate, 118.

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Aztec, from whom Hernán Cortés first learned of chocolate,

called it cacahuatl with the “atl” (pronounced “atay”)

meaning water.5 Sophie and Michael Coe posit that the

Spanish, in order to avoid the connotations invoked by a

word beginning with “caca,” merged the Maya chocol with the

Nahuatl atl to create chocolatl (pronounced “chocolatay”) which

English speakers pronounced chocolate.6

Chocolatiers made, and continue to make, chocolate and

cocoa from the fruit of the Theobroma cacao plant. The plant

is native to Central and South America and, according to

nineteeth century gourmand Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin,

“the best fruit is produced by the trees which grow on the

banks of Moracaibo, in the valleys of Caracas, and in the

province of Sokomusko.”7 The tree “bears two harvests of

cocoa pods per year” which require intense labor to

collect.8 Following harvest, the chocolate manufacturers

5 Coe, The True History of Chocolate, 119.6 Coe, The True History of Chocolate, 119.7 Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, Physiology of Taste; or, Transcendental Gastronomy(Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1854), 143-144.8 “Harvesting and Processing Cocoa Beans,” Cadbury, accessed 31 March 2015, https://www.cadbury.com.au/About-Chocolate/Harvesting-and-Processing-Cocoa-Beans.aspx.

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split the pods for fermentation and drying. The chocolate

flavor begins to develop during the fermentation process,

after which the manufacturers dry the wet beans and remove

the nib from the shell. They roast and grind the nib,

creating the “mass,” a solid product containing 53-58% cocoa

butter which “is the basis of all chocolate and cocoa

products.”9 Following this, chocolate makers press the mass

to extract the cocoa butter before pulverizing the remainder

to make cocoa powder. This process has undergone very little

change since the late nineteenth century, despite minor

alterations to create different textures and the creation of

milk chocolate. While Europeans and New World colonists

experimented with chocolate use during the sixteenth and

seventeenth centuries, including an Italian recipe for

chocolate on pasta, by the nineteenth century chocolate use

was nearly identical to what twenty-first century chocolate

lovers expect with slight variations from medical recipes.

Food

9 “Harvesting and Processing Cocoa Beans,” Cadbury.

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Though chocolate began as a beverage, it quickly

transitioned to solid food. According to Sophie Coe and

Michael Coe, “There is a misconception among some food

writers that solid chocolate confectionary is a fairly

modern invention, being unknown until the 19th century. Yet

there is evidence that such sweets were being manufactured

early on in Mexico by Spanish cloistered and missionary

nuns.”10 Despite these cottage industries, Helen Cox, the

Conservator for Doncaster Museum and Art Gallery, writes of

widespread solid chocolate manufacture, “The technique of

making solid chocolate developed in the early Victorian

period, facilitated by the 1828 invention of the cocoa press

by C.J. Van Houten, a Dutch chocolate-maker.”11 Later, “milk

chocolate was invented in Switzerland in 1875 by Daniel

Peter, and in 1880 Rodolphe Lindt discovered the process

known as ‘conching’ whereby a batch of warm chocolate was

agitated and mixed over a period of days, breaking down the

grainy texture.”12 By the end of the nineteenth century, 10 Coe, The True History of Chocolate, 136.11 Helen Cox, “The Deterioration and Conservation of Chocolate from Museum Collections,” Studies in Conservation 38 (1993): 218.12 Cox, “The Deterioration and Conservation of Chocolate,” 218.

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companies such as Stollwerck, a German confectionary

company, were producing “drinking chocolate, chocolate bars

and other sweets, and a range of chocolate novelty products

for children, including a clock, a train and a

phonograph.”13 As to the nature of the chocolate, Cox

explains, “The composition of chocolate has not changed much

over the past century, although modern chocolate often

contains additives such as lecithin, flavourings and other

fats (cocoa butter equivalents).”14 Despite these modern

changes, the recipes found in nineteenth century cookbooks

should prove easily adaptable to modern enthusiasts.

Chocolate and candy-making were common to many cities

in the antebellum era. David R. Meyer writes, “Monroe’s

(Rochester) manufactures typified a subregional metropolis;

besides extensive flour milling, the county specialized in

leather tanning as well as sugar, chocolate, and

confectionery.”15 Despite the presence of chocolatiers and

confectioners, Rochester’s reputation grew out of its flour 13 Cox, “The Deterioration and Conservation of Chocolate,” 217.14 Cox, “The Deterioration and Conservation of Chocolate,” 221.15 David R. Meyer, The Roots of American Industrialization (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 223.

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production and the ability to ship it along the Erie Canal.

Much later, taking further advantage of the business offered

by the Erie Canal, Nicholaus Restaurant, opened in the late

1800s, “offered hot chocolate and warm drinks to skaters on

the canal” during the winter months.16 Though the history of

Rochester and the Erie Canal offer little specifics about

chocolate making, nineteenth century recipe books as well as

letters provide an invaluable insight into the diverse

preparations available to chocolate lovers throughout the

United States during the antebellum period and after the

Civil War.

In An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa and Chocolate in

Ancient and Modern Times, Together with Copious Receipts for Their Preparation

for Domestic Use, Walter Baker & Co. write, “The cocoa paste

and chocolate are now largely used in the preparation of

some of the most delicate and delicious desserts.”17

Enterprising gastronomists adapted cocoa paste, intended for

16 “Erie Canal Audio Tour,” Museum of Innovation and Science, http://www.misci.org/pdf/ErieCanalTourBrochure.pdf.17 Walter Baker & Co., An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa and Chocolate in Ancient and Modern Times, Together with Copious Receipts for Their Preparation for Domestic Use (Boston, MA: Alfred Mudge & Son, 1876), 13.

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making cocoa and chocolate drinks, to food more recognizable

to modern palates, such as puddings, cakes, and more.

Despite the chronic food shortages of both the Union

and Confederate soldiers that William C. Davis described in

his book, A Taste for War: The Culinary History of the Blue and the Gray,

soldiers still had access to chocolate, typically from care

packages. Davis quotes Federal Pvt. John Billings’s account

of his Christmas care package’s contents, including

“pudding, turkey, pickles, onions, pepper, paper, envelopes,

stockings, potatoes, chocolate, condensed milk, sugar,

broma, butter, sauce preservative (for the boots)…boiled

ham, tea, cheese, cake, preserve (as jam or jelly); and

sometimes (against the rules) ‘intoxicating liquors.’”18

Sadly, Billings was unclear as to whether the chocolate was

in the form of candy or drink, though the broma may have

been a solid chocolate product.

Like Billings, Sergeant Henry W. Tisdale, of the

Thirty-Fifth Regiment of the Massachussetts Volunteer

Infantry, wrote of chocolate in his diary on February 22, 18 William C. Davis, A Taste for War: The Culinary History of the Blue and the Gray (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003), 111.

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1863, “Sabbath, a severe rain with wind and consequently

quite dreary without.  Lay in tent all day, not going out

but once and then to make some chocolate.  Have felt but

little the true Sabbath feeling.”19 This chocolate was

likely a drink since it required preparation. Sergeant

Tisdale may also have used it as a medicinal product to

bolster his spirits or aid digestive issues stemming from a

soldier’s diet.

Prior to the war, wealthy Southerners “had the

resources, access, and ability to buy the more expensive

commodities such as wheat flour, butter, sugar, Irish

potatoes, beef, and poultry.”20 These preferences survived

early into the war, with recipes such as that Emma Holmes

described in her diary,

The weather was bitter cold…The girls determined to take advantage of it an enjoy some ice cream. We had much amusement in collecting the materials, finally borrowing eggs and churn…After many quakings and considerable excitement, at half past 10 we were regaled with an excellent Confederate article, sorghum and lemons combined,

19 Mark F. Farrell, “Jan – July 1863,” Civil War Diary of Sergeant Henry W. Tisdale, Company I, Thirty-Fifth Regiment, Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 1862-1865, Typed & Bound in 1926 for Frederick C. Tisdale (Henry’s Son) by Margaret H. Tisdale (Frederick’s Wife), last modified 2001, http://www.civilwardiary.net/diary1863.htm.20 Frances M. Burroughs, “The Confederate Receipt Book: A Study of Food Substitution in the American Civil War,” The South Carolina Historical Magazine 93 (1992): 37.

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having produced chocolate cream equal to the palmy days of Mount Vernon Garden.21

As the war progressed, “the lack of dependable

transportation, the northern blockade of the coast,

antiquated and inefficient agricultural methods, unusually

adverse weather patterns (for the years 1862-1863), military

supply needs, and civilian hoarding” diminished Southerners’

access to luxury products, resulting in increased food

substitution.22 By the end of the war, Southerners had

almost no access to yeast, let alone chocolate.

Though a luxury, chocolate also appeared in Civil War

prison camps. John H. Robertson, a member of Maury’s

division of the Army of Tennessee, wrote of his time in Fort

Delaware following his capture at the Battle of Gettysburg,

We were detailed to work in the fields and our rations was corn bread and pickled beef. However I fared better than some of the prisoners for I was given the privilege of making jewelry for the use of the Union soldiers…These I sold to the soldiers of the Union Army who were our guards and with the money thus obtained I could buy food and clothing. The Union guards kept a commissary and they had a big supply of chocolate. I ate chocolate candy and drank hotchocolate in place of coffee until I have never wanted any chocolate since.23

21 Burroughs, “The Confederate Receipt Book,” 36-37.22 Burroughs, “The Confederate Receipt Book,” 38.23 “Captured During Longstreet’s Charge at Gettysburg – American Memory Timeline,” Library of Congress, accessed 19 February 2015,

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Most prisoners of war, however, would not have shared this

opportunity. It was only through his fine work in the camp

that Robertson was able to afford the luxury item.

In 1864, Chaplain Thomas Scott Johnson wrote about his

efforts to comfort soldiers at Fortress Monroe, Virginia as

part of the United States Christian Commission. He wrote in

his letter of August 2, 1864,

On Sunday A.M. Walter Condict came down to Ft. Monroe to engage in the U.S.C.C…A hospital boat was just coaling at the wharf – and could only stop an hour or two. 334 wounded and sick men were on board…Walter & I got a cart with the assistance of the soldiers sent down to them Farina, Cornstarch, cocoa, milk & canned fruit, with clothing for the naked.24

Even at this late point in the war, chocolate remained

available to soldiers outside of combat zones through

missionary sources like Johnson.

President Abraham Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Ball on

March 6, 1865, the height of luxury for its time, featured

three separate chocolate dishes. One of the “Ornamental

Pyramides” came was chocolate, chocolate ice cream appeared

http://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/timeline/civilwar/soldiers/jhrobts.html.24 Thomas Scott Johnson, “Letters from a Civil War Chaplain,” Journal of Presbyterian History (1962-1985) 46 (1968): 222.

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toward the end of the meal, and the menu lists “coffee and

chocolate” as after dinner drinks.25 According to Yale

historian Paul Freedman, Ornamental Pyramides were “popular

during this period…were included in the banquet feast.”26

The 250-foot-long table “was adorned with elaborate spun-

sugar models of the U.S. Capitol, Fort Sumter and Admiral

David Farragut on the mast of his ship, the USS Hartford.”27

This ostentation further demonstrates the luxury nature of

chocolate, a trend that only continued after the war as

chocolate desserts proliferated.

Following the Civil War, wealthy Americans seeking to

raise funds for a cause might attract possible donors

through the use of themed events. According to Kristin

Hoganson, “Women’s fund raising fairs predated the great

international exhibitions held in the United States, but by

the late nineteenth century, they had come to include the

25 Megan Gambino, “Document Deep Dive: The Menu from President Lincoln’sSecond Inaugural Ball,” Smithsonian.com, last modified January 15, 2013, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/document-deep-dive-the-menu-from-president-lincolns-second-inaugural-ball-1510874/.26 Gambino, “Document Deep Dive.”27 Gambino, “Document Deep Dive.”

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same objects found at world’s fairs.”28 In these events, the

booth representing “Amsterdam might have blue and white

Dutch china, brass and copper, woodenware, chocolate, Dutch

cheeses, and doughnuts.”29 Hoganson concludes, “As the

presence of chocolate, cheese, coffee, rice-wafers, and

oranges at these events suggests, food played an important

role in fund raising fairs.”30 Following the Civil War,

chocolate expanded its role as a luxury good while still

reaching the masses, befitting the descriptions first posted

in the 1770 Boston-Gazette.

This luxury good status led to the creation of distinct

sets of chocolate pots, cups, and saucers, much like tea and

coffee sets. Unlike tea pots, chocolate pots were tall with

a short spout, “placed low on the body…which also sported a

straight handle.”31 Along with the handle, “a chocolate pot

was made with a hinged finial that allowed for the insertion28 Kristin Hoganson, “Food and Entertainment from Every Corner of the Globe: Bourgeois U.S. Households as Points of Encounter, 1870-1920,” Amerikastudien/American Studies 48 (2003): 130-131.29 Hoganson, “Food and Entertainment,” 131.30 Hoganson, “Food and Entertainment,” 131.31 Vic, “Hot Chocolate, 18th-19th Century Style,” Jane Austen’s World, last modified 9 August 2008, https://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/2008/08/09/hot-chocolate-18th-19th-century-style/.

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of a swizzle stick for stirring the hot chocolate.”32 Unlike

coffee and tea sets, chocolate sets eventually fell out of

fashion “due to the complexity of making the beverage.”33

Despite the short-lived popularity of these sets, the fine

craftsmanship, either in porcelain or metalwork, further

demonstrates the luxury quality of chocolate, especially as

a drink akin to tea or coffee at a social function.

Drink

Originally a bitter, unsweetened drink with a thick

head of foam, drinking chocolate developed into a more

modern, recognizable form by the seventeenth century through

the addition of sugar to satisfy European palates. The

previously mentioned chocolate pots helped create this foam

through the use of attached swizzle sticks for European

drinkers. Though the ancient Maya and Aztec used seasonings

like chili in their beverage, Europeans chose to add vanilla

or musks. By the nineteenth century, drinking chocolate had

32 Vic, “Hot Chocolate, 18th-19th Century Style.”33 Vic, “Hot Chocolate, 18th-19th Century Style.”

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achieved a basic formula that varied little from recipe to

recipe.34

In her 1861 book, The Housekeeper’s Encyclopedia, or Useful

Information for the Housekeeper in All Branches of Cooking and Domestic

Economy, Mrs. E.F. Haskell devotes a chapter to coffee and

chocolate. Sadly for historians of chocolate, she devotes

nearly the entire chapter to coffee, leaving less than a

full page for two chocolate recipes at the end. The first,

American Chocolate, calls upon the housekeeper to “procure

the best chocolate, grate it, and allow for one quart of

water four table-spoons of chocolate” which are then boiled,

mixed with milk, and spiced with nutmeg.35 While this

recipe closely resembles modern hot chocolate, Haskell’s

German Chocolate recipe is more akin to chocolate eggnog.

The recipe begins, “Four large table-spoonfuls of the best

chocolate grated fine, two quarts rich milk added gradually

to the chocolate, the whites of four and yolks of two eggs

beaten light, but not separated; add one gill of cold milk

34 Coe, The True History of Chocolate.35 E.F. Haskell, The Housekeeper’s Encyclopedia, or Useful Information for the Housekeeper in All Branches of Cooking and Domestic Economy (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1861), 210-211.

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to the eggs, beat well; add gradually a coffee-cup of the

chocolate to the milk and egg while hot, beating

constantly.”36 She allows the housekeeper to add sugar to

taste, while simultaneously warning, “The Germans use no

sugar.”37 The richness of the last recipe shows the luxury

quality of chocolate.

Capitalizing on the 1849 California gold rush and

subsequent population boom, Domenico Ghirardelli founded his

chocolate company on June 18, 1852. The only chocolate

company to precede him in the United States was Walter

Baker’s Chocolate of Massachusetts, founded in 1780.

Initially, “Ghirardelli combined chocolate and candy with

liquors, ground coffee, and spices as the focus of his

business.”38 It was in the post-Civil War years that

Ghirardelli made his greatest contribution to American

chocolate. Sidney Lawrence writes, “In 1867, Ghirardelli hit

paydirt with Broma, the firm’s name for soluble ground

chocolate…It was invented accidentally a year or two before 36 Haskell, The Housekeeper’s Encyclopedia, 211.37 Haskell, The Housekeeper’s Encyclopedia, 211.38 Sidney Lawrence, “The Ghirardelli Story,” California History 81 (2002): 92.

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after unattended bags of chocolate paste in a hot room

dripped butterfat onto the floor, leaving a greaseless

residue that could be ground and easily sweetened.”39

Finally, “By 1885, the term Broma had been dropped and

Ghirardelli’s Ground Chocolate, as it was now known, was the

star seller. To make it, some 450,000 pounds of cacao beans

were imported annually. Soon, sales amounted to one million

pounds a year.”40

Etienne Guittard’s chocolate company, named after

himself and still extant like Ghirardelli, experienced a

similar origin. Guittard also found his initial success

during the California Gold Rush and opened his first shop in

1868, on Sansome Street in San Francisco, where “in addition

to chocolate, Etienne also sold coffee, tea and spices.”41

When Guittard died in 1899, “Guittard Chocolate was an

established enterprise with an integral role in the growth

of the business community in San Francisco.”42 Along with

39 Lawrence, “The Ghirardelli Story,” 96.40 Lawrence, “The Ghirardelli Story,” 96.41 “Our Company,” Guittard Chocolate Company, accessed 14 March 2015, https://www.guittard.com/our-company.42 “Our Company,” Guittard Chocolate Company/

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the aforementioned Ghirardelli and Baker’s Chocolate,

Etienne Guittard’s company worked to sate Americans’ ever-

growing demand for chocolate.

Finally, Charles Dickens further demonstrated the

luxury quality of chocolate in A Tale of Two Cities when he

described a Monseigneur who required four people to aid in

his chocolate preparation:

It took four men, all four a-blaze with gorgeous decoration,and the Chief of them unable to exist with fewer than two gold watches in his pocket, emulative of the noble and chaste fashion set by Monseigneur, to conduct the happy chocolate to Monseigneur’s lips…It was impossible for Monseigneur to dispense with one of these attendants on the chocolate and hold his high place under the admiring Heavens.43

Though clearly meant as hyperbole and artistic license, the

scene readily demonstrates chocolate’s established luxury

value, which readers would instantly recognize and

understand.

Medicine

After introducing chocolate to the West, Spanish

explorers, following the medical philosophy of humors, 43 Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities (1859), quoted in Sophie D. Coe and Michael D. Coe, The True History of Chocolate (London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd.,1996), 205.

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ascribed to chocolate the qualities of cold and wet, even

when it was served at a warm temperature. For them, adding a

“hot” seasoning, such as chili, to chocolate could cause

imbalance in a patient’s humors. Additionally, it was the

Spanish who first claimed that chocolate had certain

digestive and aphrodisiac qualities, although Sophie and

Michael Coe caution that the Spanish were specifically

seeking out plants with these qualities at the time they

encountered chocolate. By the nineteenth century, humorism

was in decline, but chocolate still enjoyed its reputation

as a digestive aid.44

Chocolate played an important medicinal role during

Meriwether Lewis and William Clark’s expedition. On

September 13, 1806, Clark wrote, “I felt my Self very unwell

and derected [sic] a little Chocolate which Mr. McClellen

gave us, prepared of which I drank about a pint and found

great relief at 11 A. M.”45 Four days later, Clark noted the

supplies the expedition took on, writing, “We received some

44 Coe, The True History of Chocolate.45 “September 13, 1806,” Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition Online, accessed 14 March 2015, http://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/read/?_xmlsrc=1806-09-13&_xslsrc=LCstyles.xsl.

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civilities of Capt. McClellin, he gave us some Buisquit

[sic], Chocolate Sugar & whiskey, for which our party were

in want and for which we made a return of a barrel of corn &

much obliges to him.”46 Even by this early point in the

nineteenth century, chocolate was firmly entrenched as a

medicinal product in American minds.

Clark’s use of medicinal chocolate as a digestive aid

found support in later nineteenth century manuals. Jean

Anthelme Brillat-Savarin wrote in his 1854 book, Physiology of

Taste; or, Transcendental Gastronomy,

…Chocolate prepared with care is as healthful as it is agreeable. That it is nourishing, easily digested, and is not so injurious to beauty as coffee is said to be. It is very suitable to persons who have much mental toil, to professors and lawyers, especially to lawyers. It also suitscertain feeble stomachs, and has been thought most advantageous in chronic diseases. It is the last resource inaffections of the pylorus.47

Brillat-Savarin suggests that drinking a full bowl of

chocolate after breakfast can enable the drinker to eat

again at their leisure without any adverse consequences.48

In order to spread the benefits of chocolate, Brillat-46 “September 17, 1806,” Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition Online, accessed 14 March 2015, http://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/read/?_xmlsrc=1806-09-17&_xslsrc=LCstyles.xsl.47 Brillat-Savarin, Physiology of Taste, 145.48 Brillat-Savarin, Physiology of Taste, 146.

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Savarin offered the following recipe: “about and ounce and a

half should be taken for each cup, which should be slowly

dissolved in water while it is heated, and stirred from time

to time with a spatula of wood. It should be boiled a

quarter of an hour, in order to give it consistency, and

served up hot.”49 This recipe, though touted as a medical

marvel, bears little difference from modern hot chocolate.

Walter Baker & Co. summarized the medical properties of

chocolate in their pamphlet An Account of the Manufacture and Use of

Cocoa and Chocolate, “The fruit of the cacao-tree possesses

more valuable dietary properties than almost any other

article of food.”50 Supposedly quoting “a prominent and

experienced New York physician,” Baker writes, “Experience

from many years’ practice in the treatment of lung diseases

has convinced me that, as an article of diet for those

suffering with any form of consumption, chocolate is far

preferable to tea or coffee; in fact, the two last mentioned

articles are injurious in many cases, while chocolate, being

an aliment and analeptic, is particularly serviceable where 49 Brillat-Savarin, Physiology of Taste, 150.50 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 7.

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digestion has been impaired by disease.”51 Naturally, the

doctor goes on to recommend Baker’s chocolate. Though an

obvious advertisement, it may have persuaded many readers to

the health benefits of chocolate in an era of medical

quackery.

In his ponderously titled 1877 work, The Pocket Formulary

and Synopsis of the British & Foreign Pharmacopoeias comprising Standard and

Approved Formulae for the Preparations and Compounds Employed in Medical

Practice, Henry Billings lists twelve separate chocolate

recipes. He begins with a description of chocolate itself,

writing,

Chocolata. The nuts are picked, slightly roasted to loosen the envelopes, broken, winnowed, and cleansed from the skins, &c., again heated, and ground in a mill. The powder is then beaten to a paste in a warm iron mortar, and mixed with sugar.52

One tantalizing preparation describes mixing chocolate with

saccharated vanilla while another uses saccharated lichen.

Perhaps the most outlandish recipe by modern standards is

for Chocolata cum ferrô, which calls on its preparer to mix a

51 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 9.52 Henry Beasley, The Pocket Formulary and Synopsis of the British & Foreign Pharmacopoeias comprising Standard and Approved Formulae for the Preparations and Compounds Employed in Medical Practice (Philadelphia, PA: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1877), 76.

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chocolate simplex with “Ʒx53, porphyrized iron filings, grs.

96.”54 Sadly, Beasley fails to explain the medicinal use of

iron filings in chocolate.

Beasley followed up The Pocket Formulary in 1878 with the

equally long-winded The Druggist’s General Receipt Book: Comprising a

Copious Veterinary Formulary, Numerous Recipes in Patent and Proprietary

Medicines, Druggists’ Nostrums, etc., Perfumery and Cosmetics, Beverages,

Dietectic Articles, and Condiments, Trade Chemicals, Scientific Processes, and an

Appendix of Useful Tables. This work contained a less technical

description of more common chocolate recipes as opposed to

the medical recipes found in his previous work. Again,

Beasley began with a description of chocolate and the need

to prepare it “from the finest cocoa-nuts (seeds of

Theobroma cacao)”55 before he examined recipes that modern

audiences would recognize, such as white chocolate, cocoa,

and guarana, which, like in modern times, was sought for its

53 The symbol for Ezh, an abbreviation for a dram. A dram is equivalent to one-eighth of an ounce, or 3.697 milliliters.54 Beasley, The Pocket Formulary, 77.55 Henry Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book: Comprising a Copious Veterinary Formulary, Numerous Recipes in Patent and Proprietary Medicines, Druggists’ Nostrums, etc., Perfumery and Cosmetics, Beverages, Dietectic Articles, and Condiments, Trade Chemicals, Scientific Processes, and an Appendix of Useful Tables (Philadelphia, PA: Lindsay and Blakiston, 1878), 283.

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caffeine content. Among the more palatable and timeless

recipes, however, were ones that failed to survive for

twenty-first century connoisseurs, like Wacaka des Indes,

which called for “Roasted cacao beans (chocolate) in powder

2 oz., sugar 6 oz., cinnamon ¼ oz., vanilla (powdered with

part of the sugar) ½ dr., ambergris 3 grs., musk 1½ grs.”56

If the presence of ambergris (excreted by sperm whales) or

musk were not available or failed to appeal to the

preparer’s palette, “Sometimes a drachm of prepared annotto

is added, and the ambergris and musk omitted.”5758 Despite

the offered subtitution, annotto, used primarily as a dye,

may not have wide modern appeal. All of these purportedly

medical recipes demonstrate a continued examination of

chocolate as a medicinal product in the nineteenth century,

nearly four hundred years after its introduction to European

palates.

56 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 284.57 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 284.58 The presence of ambergris suggests this recipe may derive from Francesco Redi’s (1626-97) jasmine chocolate recipe, which also used ambergris. Redi, the physician to Cosimo III de’ Medici, perfumed his chocolate through a closely-guarded recipe to smell of jasmine.

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To quote the Helen Cox, “The ubiquity and popularity of

chocolate in the modern world mean that it is a substance

with which the museum visitor is almost certainly familiar;

thus, from a social history viewpoint, historic chocolate is

interesting and has a powerful display potential.”59 The

nineteenth century offers a unique opportunity for museums,

in that they can discuss and offer solid chocolate more

familiar to their visitors’ modern palettes than the often-

bitter drinking chocolate that dominated “nine tenths of its

long history.”60 An in-depth examination of these three

forms of chocolate will inspire a curiosity for history in

modern museumgoers through the lens of so simple a product.

59 Cox, “The Deterioration and Conservation of Chocolate,” 222.60 Coe, The True History of Chocolate, 12.

25

Appendix: Recipes

Food

From Baker’s An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa :

Puddings – (1.) Half a cake of common chocolate, grated

(Baker’s, two cakes in one package); vanilla to flavor.

Small half pint of soda-cracker crumbs; butter size of

an egg; half a pint of boiled milk; whites of six eggs;

half a cup of sugar; salt. Boil in a mould for one

hour. To be eaten hot. – Sauce: Yolks of six eggs; one

tumbler of sherry wine; half large cup of sugar. Beat

the yolks very light. Put the sugar in the sherry, then

beat the wine. When very hot add the beaten yolks; stir

quickly one way, until it thickens to a very rich

cream. To be eaten cold.

(2.) One quart milk; three ounces grated vanilla

chocolate; three tablespoonfuls of corn starch; two

eggs; half cup pulverized sugar. Boil the milk; stir in

the chocolate, starch, sugar, and beaten yolks of the

eggs. Bake. When the pudding is cold beat the whites of

the two eggs to a froth; stir in half a cup of

26

pulverized sugar. Place this frosting on the pudding,

and serve.61

Cakes – (1.) One very full cup of butter; two cups of sugar;

three and a half cups of flour; one cup, not quite

full, of milk; five eggs; one teaspoonful cream-tartar;

half teaspoonful of soda. – Icing: Whites of two eggs;

one and a half cups pulverized sugar; two teaspoonfuls

essence of vanilla; six tablespoonfuls grated vanilla

(Baker’s) chocolate. Beat the yolks of the five, and

the whites of the three eggs separately, until they are

as light as they can be made. Put the cream-tartar in

the flour; dissolve the soda in a little of the milk;

rub the butter and sugar to a cream; add the eggs,

milk, flour, and soda. Pour the mixture into a large,

shallow pan, well buttered, and put it in the oven.

While it is baking, make the icing by beating the

whites of the two eggs to a stiff froth, and stir the

sugar in well. Add the grated chocolate and the essence

61 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 13.

27

of vanilla. When the cake is done turn it out on a

sieve. While hot put on the icing.

(2.) One cup butter; two cups sugar; three cups flour;

half cup sweet milk; half teaspoonful soda; one

teaspoonful cream-tartar; seven eggs. – Chocolate Cream:

Quarter pound Baker’s best vanilla chocolate; one gill

sweet milk; one egg; sugar to taste. – Rub butter and

sugar together; beat the seven eggs until they are very

light; put the cream-tartar in the flour and the soda

in the milk. Mix all well, and bake in four Washington-

pie plates. While this is baking, scald the gill of

milk and the chocolate together; beat one egg

thoroughly and stir it in; add sugar to taste. When the

cake is done, spread the chocolate cream between the

layers and upon the tops of the cakes.62

Custards – One quart milk; one ounce Baker’s best French

chocolate; eight eggs; two teaspoonfuls of vanilla;

eight teaspoonfuls white sugar. Beat the eight yolks

and the two whites of the eggs until there are light.

62 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 14.

28

Boil the milk; when boiling stir the chocolate and the

sugar into it, then put it into a clean pitcher. Place

this in a pot of boiling water; stir one way gently all

the time, until it becomes a thick cream; when cold

strain it and add the vanilla. Place it in cups; beat

the whites of the eggs to a stiff froth, and add the

sugar to them; beat well, and place some of this

frosting on the top of each custard.63

Blanc-Mange – Half box gelatine; one quart milk; yolks of

two eggs; one small teacupful of sugar; one large

tablespoonful of vanilla; seven squares of Baker’s

chocolate. Dissolve the gelatine in about a gill of

cold water; let it stand for two hours. Grate the

chocolate fine, then dissolve it in a little of the

milk, slightly warmed; scald the remainder of the milk;

beat the yolks of the eggs and sugar together till very

light. When the milk is well scalded, add the gelatine,

chocolate, eggs, and sugar. Let this simmer gently for

63 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 14-15.

29

fifteen minutes. Strain the mixture into a mould. Set

on ice. This blanc-mange should be thoroughly cooked.64

Chocolate Creams – Inside: Two cups of sugar; one cup water;

one and a half tablespoonfuls arrowroot; one

teaspoonful vanilla. Outside: Half pound Baker’s

chocolate. – Directions. For inside: Mix the ingredients,

except the vanilla; let them boil from five to eight

minutes; stir all the time. After this is taken from

the fire, stir until it comes to a cream. When it is

nearly smooth, add the vanilla and make the cream into

balls. For outside: Melt the chocolate, but do not add

water to it. Roll the cream balls into the chocolate

while it is warm.65

Beverages

From Haskell’s The Housekeeper’s Encyclopedia :

American Chocolate – Procure the best chocolate, grate it,

and allow for one quart of water four table-spoons of

chocolate; mix free from lumps with little water, and 64 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 15.65 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 15.

30

boil fifteen minutes. Then add one quart of rich milk,

let it boil, grate in a salt-spoonful of nutmeg, and

sweeten to taste; add cream at the table.66

German Chocolate – Four large table-spoonfuls of the best

chocolate grated fine, two quarts rich milk added

gradually to the chocolate, the whites of four and

yolks of two eggs beaten light, but not separated; add

one gill67 of cold milk to the eggs, beat well; add

gradually a coffee-cup of the chocolate to the milk and

egg while hot, beating constantly. Take the chocolate

from the fire, keep it hot but not boiling, and add the

egg and milk gradually stir constantly, or it will

curdle; flavor with nutmeg, vanilla, or cinnamon, as

desired; sugar it to suit the taste. The Germans use no

sugar. The egg is to be added just before serving. This

makes a very delicious drink. Serve in chocolate

bowls.68

From Baker’s An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa :

66 Haskell, The Housekeeper’s Encyclopedia, 210-211.67 About half a cup.68 Haskell, The Housekeeper’s Encyclopedia, 211.

31

Baker’s Cocoa – To one pint of milk and one pint of cold

water, add three tablespoonfuls of Cocoa; boil fifteen

or twenty minutes. Any other proportions of milk and

water make a pleasant beverage.69

Premium Cracked Cocoa – Use the same quantity as of Coffee.

Cocoa in this form needs thorough and continued boiling

to extract its full strength. By adding a small

quantity of Cocoa daily, the consumer will have a

highly flavored cup of Cocoa at a trifling expense.70

Breakfast Cocoa – Into a breakfast cup put a teaspoonful of

the powder, add a tablespoonful of boiling water, and

mix thoroughly. Then add equal parts of boiling water

and boiled milk, and sugar to the taste. Boiling two or

three minutes will improve it.71

Cocoa Paste – Put two teaspoonfuls of the paste into a

teacup, pour upon it a little boiling water, and stir

it until it is dissolved, then fill the cup with

69 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 10.70 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 10.71 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 11.

32

boiling water, and stir again; add cream or milk, if

agreeable. Two or three minutes’ boiling improves it.72

Baker’s Chocolate – Scrape fine about one square of a cake,

which is an ounce; add to it about an equal weight of

sugar; throw these into a pint of perfectly boiling

milk and water, of each one half, and immediately mill

or stir them well for two or three minutes, until the

chocolate and sugar are quite dissolved; it is then

ready for the table. Some think that ten or twelve

minutes boiling improves it. Chocolate should never be

made but when it is intended to be used immediately;

for by suffering it to become cold, or by boiling it

again, the flavor is injured, the oily particles of the

cocoa are separated and rise to the surface, and will

never incorporate pleasantly again.73

American Mode of Preparing French Vanilla Chocolate – Into a

pint of boiling milk and water (of each one half, or

other proportions if more agreeable) throw two oblong

divisions of the chocolate cake (about two ounces) 72 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 11.73 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 11.

33

previously cut fine; then boil it from five to seven

minutes longer, stirring frequently.74

French Mode of Preparation – Into a silver or tinned vessel,

containing three or four gills of liquid just boiling

(water or milk, or an agreeable combination of both)

through four oblong divisions (about four ounces) of

the chocolate cake, previously cut fine; then boil it

five or six minutes longer, stirring it frequently,

when it is ready for the table.75

Eagle French Chocolate – Into a pint of boiling milk and

water (or each one half, or other proportions if more

agreeable) throw two oblong divisions of the chocolate

cake, previously cut fine; then boil it from five to

seven minutes longer, stirring frequently.76

French Sweet Chocolate – Into one pint of boiling milk add

water (of each one half) throw two squares of chocolate

scraped fine; then boil it five minutes longer or more,

stirring frequently.77

74 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 11-12.75 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 12.76 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 12.77 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 12.

34

German Sweet Chocolate – Into one pint of boiling milk add

water (of each one half) throw two squares of chocolate

scraped fine; then boil it five minutes longer or more,

stirring frequently.78

Baker’s Broma – Dissolve a large tablespoonful of broma in

as much warm water; then pour upon it a pint of boiling

milk and water, in equal proportions, and boil it two

minutes longer, stirring it frequently; add sugar at

pleasure.79

Cocoa Shells – Take a small quantity of Cocoa shells (say

two ounces), pour upon then three pints of boiling

water, boil rapidly thirty or forty minutes; allow it

to settle or strain, and add cream or boiled milk and

sugar at pleasure.80

Medicines

From Baker’s An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa :

78 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 12. Interestingly, this is the same exact recipe as for the French Sweet Chocolate.79 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 12-13.80 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 13.

35

Homeopathic Cocoa – Put two teaspoonfuls into a breakfast

cup, mix well into a paste with a little hot water,

fill the cup with boiling water, adding cream or milk

and sugar to suit the taste. Boiling for two or three

minutes will further improve the flavor, and boiling

milk may be partially or wholly substituted for water

if it agrees with the stomach.81

Homeopathic Chocolate – Into one pint of perfectly boiling

milk and water throw one square (or ounce) of

chocolate, scraped very fine, and immediately mill or

stir rapidly two or three minutes, until the chocolate

is completely dissolved, and the beverage will be very

rich and nutritious, and free from oil.82

From Beasley’s The Druggists’ General Receipt Book :

Chocolate. This is prepared from the finest cocoa-nuts

(seeds of Theobroma cacao) after roasting, winnowing,

&c., by grinding them on a hot stone or plate, or

beating them in a hot mortar to a smooth paste. Sugar

81 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 11.82 Baker, An Account of the Manufacture and Use of Cocoa, 12.

36

is gene rally added, and vanilla or other flavouring

ingredients.83

Chocolates, Medicated. See Chocolata, Pocket Formulary.84

White Chocolate. White sugar 3 lbs., rice flour 27½ oz.,

English or Indian arrow-root 8 oz., tincture of vanilla

½ oz., butter of cacao 8 oz., powdered gum Arabic 4 oz.

; form a paste with boiling water, and put it into

moulds.85

Cocoa. This should also be prepared from the seeds of

Theobroma cacao ; and the rock, roll, and flake cocoas,

often consist of this alone. But most of the paste

cocoa, and soluble cocoa powder, is mixed with

saccharine and farinaceous matters. This is the case

with much of the "Homoeopathic" Cocoa, which professes

to be unadulterated, but generally contains potato-

starch. A common proportion for soluble cocoa, appears

to be two thirds of pure cocoa, and one third of sugar

and farina ; the latter being one or more of the

83 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 283.84 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 283.85 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 283.

37

following Wheat flour, sago meal, potato flour, arrow-

root, &c. The Paste Cocoa often contains only about

half its weight of cocoa, the rest being sugar and

water, with sometimes the addition of sago meal or

other farina.86

Guarana. An alimentary and medicinal substance, imported in

the form of cakes from Brazil, where they are used as

we use chocolate, mixed with water and sugar, and taken

as a beverage. Guarana is very rich in caffein. See

Pocket Formulary.87

Broma. This consists of about 8 oz. of pure cocoa, 3½ of

sugar, and 4½ of sago-meal, arrow-root, &c.8889

Wacaka des Indes. Roasted cacao beans (chocolate) in powder

2 oz., sugar 6 oz., cinnamon ¼ oz., vanilla (powdered

with part of the sugar) ½ dr., ambergris 3 grs., musk

l½ grs. Sometimes a drachm of prepared annotto is

added, and the ambergris and musk omitted.90

86 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 283.87 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 283-284.88 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 284.89 This recipe refers to the main ingredient for preparing hot cocoa.90 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 284.

38

Racahout des Aeares. This is professedly a preparation of

acorns (perhaps those of the Quercus ballotta, which

are naturally sweet, or of other kinds deprived of

their bitterness by being buried in the earth) ; but it

is imitated by the following : — 1. Chocolate in powder

1 oz., rice flour 3 oz., sugar 9 oz., potato arrow-root

3 oz., vanilla (pulverized with part of the sugar) 1

dr. ; mix. 2. Chocolate in powder 4 oz., salep 1 oz.

(or powdered tragacanth 1 oz.), potato arrow-root 5

oz., sugar (flavoured with vanilla) 8 oz. — Cadet.91

Dictamia. Sugar 7 oz., potato arrow-root 4 oz., flour of

brent barley (Triticum monococcum) 3 oz., Trinidad and

Granada chocolate, each 1 oz., vanilla 15 grs.92

Palamoud. Chocolate 1 oz., rice flour 4 oz., potato arrow

root 4 oz., red Sanders, in fine powder, 1 dr. ; mix.

[In the above, by chocolate is meant the cacao beans

roasted and pulverized without addition. Indian arrow-

91 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 284.92 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 284.

39

root or tous les mois may be substituted for the potato

arrow root.]93

Farinaceous Food, &c. The following compounds are

accompanied with full directions for use : — …Bright's

Breakfast Powder. A combination of chocolate with his

nutritious farina.94

From Beasley’s The Pocket Formulary :

Chocolata. The nuts are picked, slightly roasted to loosen

the envelopes, broken, winnowed, and cleansed from the

skins, &c., again heated, and ground in a mill. The

powder is then beaten to a paste in a warm iron mortar,

and mixed with sugar.95

Chocolata Simplex vel Salutis. Chocolat de Santé. P. 9 pounds

each of Caraque and Maraignan cacao, treated as above,

with 15 pounds of sugar and 1½ - ounce of cinnamon,

run into moulds and kept in tinfoil.96

93 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 284.94 Beasley, The Druggist’s General Receipt Book, 284-28595 Beasley, The Pocket Formulary, 76.96 Beasley, The Pocket Formulary, 76.

40

Chocolata Lichenis. P. Chocolate simple Ʒ, saccharated

lichen (see Saccharum Lichenis) Ʒj. Proceed as for

Vanilla chocolate.97

Chocolata Mabtis. P. Chocolata cum ferrô. Chocolate simple Ʒx,

porphyrized iron filings, grs. 96. Proceed as for

vanilla chocolate.98

Chocolata Iodidi Febbi. Piebquin. Iodide of iron Ʒij,

chocolate Ʒxvj. Dose, Ʒss.99

Chocolata Paullinia. Guarana Ʒj, simple chocolate Ʒxvj.100

Chocolata Pubgans. Calomel Ʒij, jalap Ʒiij, chocolate Ʒxxxv.

Divide into Ʒj cakes. One for a dose.101

Chocolata cum Salepô. P. To Ʒxvj of prepared chocolate add

Ʒss of powdered salep. Arrow-root and tapioca are mixed

with chocolate in the same proportion.102

Chocolata cum Vanillâ. P. Chocolate simple Ʒx rubhed in a

warm mortar, then add to it grs. 175 saccharated

97 Beasley, The Pocket Formulary, 76-77.98 Beasley, The Pocket Formulary, 77.99 Beasley, The Pocket Formulary, 77.100 Beasley, The Pocket Formulary, 77.101 Beasley, The Pocket Formulary, 77.102 Beasley, The Pocket Formulary, 77.

41

vanilla (1 part powdered vanilla to 9 sugar), and run

into moulds.”103

Oleum Cacao Conobetum. Beurre de Cacao. The cacao nuts are

beaten to a paste (see Chocolata), and heated for a

short time in a water-bath with 1-10th of their weight

of water ; then enclosed in a hempen bag, and quickly

pressed between tinned plates heated by boiling water.

The oil is purified by melting it, and filtering it

through paper in a funnel kept warm.104

Trochisci Caebonis cum Chocolatâ.. M. Chevalltne. Prepared

charcoal Ʒj, sugar Ʒj, chocolate Ʒiij, mucilage of

tragacanth q. s.105

103 Beasley, The Pocket Formulary, 76-77.104 Beasley, The Pocket Formulary, 271.105 Beasley, The Pocket Formulary, 446.

42

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