REVIEW OF “CHAPTER 6 OF ROD ELLIS’ BOOK ENTITLED INPUT,
INTERACTION, AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION”
A. Introduction
According to the task given in Second Language
Acquisition course, one of chapters of Rod Ellis’ book
entitled Understanding Second Language Acquisition must be
reviewed. In this paper, the sixth chapter of Rod Ellis’ book
entitled Input, Interaction, and Second Language Acquisition
was chosen to be discussed by means of lottery system done in
the class. This review, furthermore, is intended to fulfill
the requirements of the course project.
There are some aspects that are going to be reviewed in
this paper about the chapter, such as giving the summary,
evaluating the chapter, discussing some argued points within
the chapter, and giving conclusion and the implication of the
chapter. In addition, some points being evaluated are the
organization of the chapter, the content, theoretical
soundness of the chapter, significance, special merit, and
also some weaknesses of the chapter being discussed.
The summary will be discussed briefly the major points
presented in the chapter. Since the chapter is talking about
input, interaction, and second language acquisition, the major
points being discussed are about input/interaction in natural
settings, input/interaction in classroom settings, the role of
input and interaction in SLA, and the effects of input and
interaction on the route and the rate of SLA. The author
begins the chapter by making available the three views on
input in language acquisition and ‘motherese’ which are being
the underpinnings of the discussion of the chapter and is
about to be discussed briefly in the summary.
The organization of the chapter is evaluated by looking
thoroughly the points discussed overall and the particular
points discussed in every single paragraph of the chapter. As
good writing provides good examples, the given examples are
also being evaluated in term of organization evaluation.
Besides, the provided summary in the chapter is also concerned
to evaluate the organization whether the placement is already
appropriate or not. By doing so, it can be concluded how well
the chapter is being organized and what style is Ellis using
in presenting the points in the chapter.
Content of the chapter is then evaluated on how detail is
the explanation and the examples given in the chapter, how
well the ideas presented in the explanation given, how well
the author relates each topic and sub topic being discussed in
the chapter and how well the author tell the summary in terms
of clear and detail. It is then having relation to the
theoretical framework given in the content, particularly in
theoretical soundness. The theoretical soundness is evaluated
on how strong is the theories given by some experts in
explaining the terms and what are the theories strengthen the
arguments given by the experts. As the continuance of the
evaluation, the significance, special merit and weaknesses are
given based on those evaluations of the organization, content,
and theoretical soundness.
By reviewing the chapter, it is expected that it will
give more detail in terms of SLA about input and interaction,
particularly how it is related to SLA. In addition, it is
expected to make the readers could have deeper understanding
about input and interaction. Furthermore, it is expected to be
able to socialize input and interaction, so that it could be
applied and be more useful in daily settings whether in
natural and classroom settings. It is also expected to prove
on how important the understanding about input and interaction
are in daily life, particularly in teaching, and to be able in
achieving the goal of teaching itself; thus, there will be
ease in teaching and learning in acquiring second language.
B. Summary
Chapter 6 of Ellis’ book, Understanding Second Language
Acquisition, focuses on input, interaction, and second
language acquisition considering on what happens outside the
learner and how this affects SLA. The starting point of this
chapter is an account of three different views on the role of
input in language acquisition: the behaviourist, the nativist,
and the interactionist views. The behaviourist view emphasizes
the importance of the linguistic environment, which is treated
in terms of stimuli and feedback. The accounts of behaviourist
view the learner as ‘a language-producing machine’ who
automatically and effortlessly learns a L2, provided he gets
the right input data. The nativist view minimizes the role of
the input and explains language development primarily in terms
of the learner’s internal processing mechanisms. Nativist
accounts of SLA view the learner as ‘a grand initiator’; that
is, he equipped with just those abilities that are needed to
discover L2, no matter how impoverished the L2 data are. The
interactionist view sees language development as the result
both of input factors and of innate mechanisms. Language
acquisition derives from the collaborative efforts of the
learner and his interlocutors and involves a dynamic interplay
between external and internal factors.
The contribution of studies of the input provided by
mothers in L1 acquisition, which together with the three
different views, is important to understand the direction that
SLA research has followed. Mother’s speech was remarkably well
formed, containing few ungrammatical utterances or sentence
fragments; in addition, it was characterized by a number of
formal adjustments in comparison to speech used in adult-adult
conversations, and adjustments in pronunciation. These
adjustments were considered to constitute a special use of
language or register, known as ‘motherese’. As Ferguson in
Ellis suggests that there are three main functions of
‘motherese’ related to language acquisition, they are as an
aid to communication, a language teaching aid, and a
socialization function. Furthermore, the crucial importance of
the basis of adjustment made by mothers is the extent to which
the child comprehends what is said to him and the extent to
which he signals his comprehension or lack of comprehension to
his caretaker. In terms of in which the mother’s speech
adjustments affect first language acquisition, the available
evidence suggests that the route of L1 acquisition does not
change in any significant way as a result of differences in
the linguistic environment. However, there is much stronger
evidence for an effect on the rate of acquisition in which the
way mothers talk to their children influences how rapidly they
acquire the language.
The section discussed about a number of studies of input
(the contribution of the native speaker) and interaction (the
joint contributions of native speaker and learner) in natural
settings, input has been considered in terms of foreigner talk
(i.e. the register used by native speakers when they address
non-native speakers) and study of discourse involving
conversations between native speakers and L2 learners.
Foreigner talk occurs because of the need to negotiate meaning
and may be the result of universal processes of simplification
also found in SLA and pidgins. Foreigner talk involves a
number of formal and interactional adjustments in native
speaker speech. Some of these adjustments lead to
ungrammatical speech. Foreigner talk adjustments are more
frequent in discourse involving children than adults, and also
in two-way as opposed to one-way communication. How native
speakers are able to adjust their speech include regression,
matching and negotiation. Functions of foreigner talk as Hatch
(1983) suggests are to promote communication, to establish a
special kind of affective bond between the native speaker and
the non-native speaker, and to serve as an implicit teaching
mode. Ungrammatical foreigner talk, or known as ‘the talking
down function’, occurs under special conditions, such as when
the non-native speaker has very low proficiency in the L2,
when the native speaker thinks he is of a higher status, when
the native speaker has considerable prior experience of
foreigner talk, or when the conversation occurs spontaneously.
Interaction has been considered in terms of the discourse
that learner and native speaker participate in. Differences in
the type of discourse involving child and adolescent/adult
learners have been observed. Adults have to cope with topics
that place greater communicative demands on them, but they are
more likely to contribute to keeping the conversation going.
Differences also occur according to whether the native speaker
is a child or an adult. In the case of the child, there is
more playing with language, whereas with adult native
speakers, the learner gets the chance to nominate a topic
which the adult helps to sustain. Studies of discourse
involving L2 learners show that there is a negotiation of
meaning when the participants struggle to avoid and overcome
communicative breakdowns. On the part of native speaker this
involves the use of strategies and tactics. The result of
negotiation of meaning is that particular types of input and
interaction result. In particular it has been hypothesized
that negotiation makes input comprehensible. This may be
important for SLA.
Input and interaction in classroom, on the other hand,
have been investigated by means of interaction analysis, the
study of teacher talk, and discourse analysis. Interaction
analysis has been spawned numerous category systems, some
specifically designed for use in language classrooms. In
general, however, it sheds little light on input and
interaction in classrooms from the perspective SLA. There are
two kinds of studies of teacher talk, they are those
investigate the type of language that teachers use in language
classrooms and those that investigate the type of language use
in subject lessons involving L2 learners. Studies of teacher
talk indicate that similar kinds of modifications occur in the
teacher’s language as those observed in foreigner talk,
although ungrammatical adjustments may be less common. Also
teachers may not be able to tune their speech finely in the
one-to-many classroom situations. Discourse analysis shows
that many classroom interactions follow an IRF (initiate-
response-feedback) pattern, which restricts the opportunity to
negotiate meaning. However, other types of discourse also
occur when the L2 is used for general classroom organization
and management and for social purposes.
Considerable differences between natural and classroom
environments arise, particularly when the focus is on form in
language lessons. These differences are not absolute; they
vary in degree according to the type of classroom and also the
type of teaching. Learner-centered teaching in subject or
immersion classrooms can lead to examples of interaction
similar to those found in natural setting.
A number of different ways exist for investigating the
effects of input and interaction in SLA. Many of these,
however, necessitate a leap from description of input language
to explanation of its effects. There is little hard research
showing whether input and interaction does affect SLA, what
features of input and interaction are important, and what
aspects of SLA are affected. With regard to the route of SLA,
input may facilitate development by providing the learner with
ready-made chunk of language to memorize and later analyze,
helping the learner to build vertical constructions, modeling
specific grammatical forms with high frequency, ensuring that
the input is one step ahead of the learner’s existing
knowledge (by providing comprehensible input), and providing
the right affective climate to ensure that input becomes
intake. With regard to the rate of SLA, a number of studies
have investigated the effects of input and interaction, with
mixed success. However, there are grounds for thinking that
both the quantity and the quality of input are important. The
characteristics of an optimal learning environment can be
deduced from studies of input and interaction in both first
and second language acquisition such suggested by Ellis
(1984).
Strong claims have been advanced that SLA is aided by
two-way communication in which comprehensible input is
provided by means of interactional adjustments. However, two-
way communication is not necessary condition for SLA. Nor is
it sufficient. There are no differential contributions of
input and interaction on the one hand and internal processing
mechanisms to SLA on the other because SLA is jointly
determined by factors inside and outside the learner. This
being so, it is an interactionist view of SLA, rather than a
behaviourist view or nativist view, that may be most
acceptable.
C. EvaluationThe sixth chapter of Rod Ellis’ book subtitled Input,
Interaction, and Second Language Acquisition is about to be
evaluated to some terms on this part, such as the organization
of the chapter, the content, theoretical soundness,
significance, special merit, and some weaknesses which is
found in the chapter. It is crucial to be discussed since
there are some things still need to be evaluated deeper.
1. Organization Evaluation
Overall, the organization of the sixth chapter of Rod
Ellis’ book is presented in well thought-out way. It is
because Ellis presents his ideas in a well organized way and
he is also logic and systematic in developing his ideas.
Ellis, in this way, has a clear understanding of the key
concepts/ideas/studies/models related to the topic. In
general, it provides introduction, subtopics in good sequence,
summary in the end of each sub topic and conclusion in the end
of the chapter. There are three major topics being discussed
in the chapter, they are input/interaction in natural
settings, input/interaction in classroom settings, and the
role of input and interaction in SLA. He begins the chapter by
presenting the introduction then giving some related theories
as the background, such as three views on input in language
acquisition and motherese, for it has link to the topic being
discussed. The organization of the content should be ordered
logically using logical division order of ideas which a topic
is divided into parts and each part is discussed separately
(Oshima and Hogue, 2002:34). Regarding to this, this chapter
has been successfully ordered in that way.
After that, it is followed by the explanation of each sub
topics and the summary of each sub topic. Not only that, the
well organized ideas can also be seen from the organization in
each subtopic given. It is begun by background which is
usually a problem related to the topic or stating some experts
who provide the theory, then given another theory to
strengthen it or theory against it. Mostly, Ellis begins the
discussion of each topic by providing such background, then
continue with theories from the experts, and followed by some
argument against or pro to those theories mentioned.
Otherwise, giving some former theories then followed by the
latter theories and argued them. At last, it is ended with the
summary of the sub topic. By granting the points in that way,
the reader could have of high quality understanding of what
happened to L1 acquisition as the basic to learn L2, and
therefore know what it occurs to L2 acquisition in both
natural and classroom setting. At last, the reader could
compare between those two settings and could have of high
quality of understanding of the effects to other aspects such
as on the route and the rate of SLA.
Regarding to the clarity, Ellis has been clear about what
he would like to convey. By providing the summary section at
the end of each sub topic discussed, it does help the reader
to know how a theory comes up and how it was debated against
or pro to the former theories, particularly beginner SLA-
reader in gaining more knowledge about SLA and
input/interaction. Thus, it is easy to follow and easy to
understand. Furthermore, clearly constructed sentences used
also encourage the interest of the reader and help the reader
track it easily while they read it on.
2. Content
The content of the sixth chapter of Ellis’ book being
reviewed is a high-quality one. It provides what it should be.
It is good for the author knows about the history of the
research area and any related controversies. It is discussed
in an appropriate context for the investigation and evaluation
of the work of others. This also clarifies important
definitions/terminology. It can be seen by the explanation
given in each sub topic which consists of arguments by stating
some theories to strengthen his opinion and giving some
theories against or pro about the topic. The theories opposed
are usually the theories in the same year or even latter ones.
This chapter also has good way in developing the research
space indicated in the introduction given in the beginning of
the chapter. It narrows the problem and makes the study
feasible. The introduction, in this way, has been successful
to introduce the main topics about to be discussed in the
chapter and to give clear image about what is being discussed
within the chapter. The author also gives the meaning of the
key words that is being topic discussed within the chapter. It
does help the reader to comprehend the content and follow the
material easily.
However, regarding to the language use, this chapter uses
a bit hard language to understand for beginner readers. It can
be seen by the provided vocabularies within the chapter that
is unusually used in common reading passage. However, it has
strength by doing so that it does help the learner to enrich
their vocabulary, particularly in language study. In addition,
the providing examples, tables, and diagrams do help the
learner to follow and easy to understand the ideas presented
even though the language is a bit hard to understand. By
making available those supporting details, it helps to shed
light the material discussed.
3. Theoretical Soundness
There are various theories which are chosen to report the
material of the study especially in chapter 6. Whereas this
chapter considers what happens outside the learner and how this
affects SLA, and the next investigates what happens inside the
learner. Underlying theories provided within chapter 6 were
taken from many sources whether from the author itself and the
other experts in terms of input and interaction in learning SLA,
while input is used to refer to the language that is addressed
to the L2 learners either by a native speaker or by another L2
learners; furthermore, interaction consists the discourse jointly
constructed by the learner and his interlocutors; input,
therefore is the result of interaction.
The term input is closely related with the three
different views regarding the role of input in language
development; the behaviorist, the nativist and the
interactionist. The theoretical soundness of the behaviorist
view make the learner involves to the social interaction so
that they built a good relationship with his surroundings and
he is able to produce L2 as much as possible from the
interaction; in addition, the model of learning is organized
by emphasizing the need to regulate the stimuli by grading to
input into a series of steps so each step constitutes the
right level difficulty for the level that the learner has
reached. Theoretical soundness of the nativist view; the
learner can explore their ability by activating the internal
mechanism with the input to achieve a better understanding of
the acquisition process. Theoretical soundness of the
interactionist view refers to both advantages behaviorist and
nativist view such as the field of science became wider as the
theory learns discourse so that it also involves developing
the acquisition of second language in terms of other skills.
The theory which relates with prevailing nativist view
consider with mothers tune the pitch, intonation, and rhythm
to the perceptive sensitivity of the child which known as
motherese (Sachs, 1977). Ferguson (1977) states the main
functions of these terms. The basis of adjustments made by
mother in term of L1 acquisition as Gleason and Weintraub
(1978) suggest that parents have a general idea of their
children’s linguistic ability, particularly their ability to
understand, but they lack an accurate knowledge of what
specific language features their children have mastered. The
effect of motherese shows there is considerable evidence for
an effect from studies conducted by Cross (1977; 1978), Ellis
and Wells (1980), and Barnes et.al. (1983) among others, to
suggest that the way mothers talk to their children influences
how rapidly they acquire the language.
In the explanation of input and interactional settings,
the major natural linguistic environment comprises two related
approaches: (1) the study of foreigner talk, and (2) the study of
discourse involving conversations between native speakers and
L2 learners. The first approach was stimulated by Ferguson’s
(1971) account of simplified register. It was then developed
by some experts, such as Long who provided the theory about
foreigner talk particularly about the characteristics, Hatch
who made available about the functions of foreigner talk, and
Corder about the explanations on how native speakers are able
to adjust their speech since foreigner talk considers to the
native speaker adjusts their way to communicate convergent
appropriately to the addressee whether those are convergent
upward or downward and the interactional adjustment as well as
both grammatical and ungrammatical input adjustments. The
second approach refers to the study of discourse in terms of
genre and register. The theories provided by Hatch and Warner-
Gough in child-child and child-adult conversations.
The classroom process research, as Gaies (1983) calls the
study of communication in classroom, has taken different
forms. The earliest was interaction analysis, which consists of
using sets of categories to code the kinds of language use
which occur in classrooms which made available by Moskowitz,
Fanselow, and Allwright. An alternative approached focused
only on the language used by the teacher when addressing L2
learners. It applies to the classroom to help identify the
different type which occurs there so that the teacher speaks
appropriately to the learner.
The analysis of selected L2 input and interaction
sequences approach adopted by Hatch and Long for natural SLA
and by Ellis for classroom SLA. For example Hatch examines
example of native speaker-learner discourse and then
speculates in what way they constrain. It does offer many rich
hypotheses.
4. Significance
By discussing the input, interaction and second language
acquisition, this sixth chapter of Ellis’s book can give
deeper understanding about some theories related to second
language acquisition, particularly about input and interaction
either in natural setting or in the classroom setting since
this chapter also discussing what adjustments occur in input
and interaction directed at learners, and why and how these
adjustments take place. Therefore, the teacher or the native
speaker can get some considerations and adjustments when doing
communication with L2 learner or non-native speaker.
Understanding input, interaction and second language
acquisition, for the development of the knowledge, can develop
or emerge the new ideas about method in teaching and learning
process. The field of second language acquisition (SLA) has
changed significantly in the past century, from grammar-
translation methods of the early twentieth century, audio-
lingual approaches in the 1950s,“designer methods” of the
1970’s, and the more recent shift in the field away from
behaviorism and structured linguistics to a more cognitive
approach. Indeed, even our current theories are continually
permutating as they are applied and evaluated in practice.
For other researchers, this chapter can be used as the
source of research because, as what have been discussed above,
the writer gives his theory by giving the former and continued
by latter theories. Sometimes he also gives other theory that
in contrast with his theory. By doing so, other researcher can
obtain wider information and a lot of references about input
and interaction related to second language acquisition that
can strengthen his/her argument in their research.
5. Special Merit
The study has special merit that providing of what is
known about second language acquisition especially in terms of
input and interaction where there is some information about
characteristic which are displayed by input and interaction
involving L2 learners. It is explain quiet a lot about input
and discourse between native speakers or teachers and L2
learners.
There are a number of different ways exist for
investigating the effects of input and interaction in SLA. It
develops our comprehension in second language acquisition
especially on whether SLA is significantly affected by the
quality and quantity of input and interaction and how does
input and interaction affect SLA.
By studying this chapter, we can get clear explanation
about three different views regarding the role of input in
language development as the basis of this study. Moreover, the
role of the linguistic environment in SLA is also discussed.
The main point of this chapter is knowing what adjustments
occur in input and interaction directed at learners and why
and how these adjustments take place either in natural setting
or in classroom setting; therefore, the effective
communication occurred.
6. Weakness
As what has been discussed above, this chapter is a very
high-quality reading material about input, interaction and
second language acquisition since it gives very clear and
structural explanations about it. However, in giving sub-topic
that will be discussed there is no numerical system;
therefore, the reader might be little bit confuse in making
scheme about the material. It would be better if the writer
use numeric system in this chapter so that the readers are
able to divide each subtitles of this chapter.
D. Discussion on Argued Points
In this part, actually there is nothing that could be
argued. We just want to add some new points related to the
topic being discussed. In Ellis book stated that the former
characteristics of foreigner talk by Long. In here we would
like to provide the latter characteristics of foreigner talk
based on Long, 1996. Foreigner talk has simple vocabulary,
using high frequency words and phrases, long pauses, slow rate
of speech, careful articulation, loud volume, stress on key
words, simplified grammatical structures, topicalization
(topic at the beginning, than comment about it), more
syntactic regularity, and retention of full form (e.g. last
contraction, fewer pronounce).
As in oral input, “simplification” of sentence structure
alone is of questionable value in enhancing the
comprehensibility of written text. Modification of written
input for L2 learners also typically includes controlled
vocabulary and shorter, simpler sentence structure. In written
academic texts, modifications meant to help L2 students
understand what they read are essentially the same as those
used in text books for native speakers of English.
Modifications in academic texts include frequent organization
markers, such as headings and linking devices, clear topic
statements, highlighting of key terms and inclusion of synonym
as paraphrase, bulleted or numbered lists of main points,
elaboration of sections which require culture-specific
background knowledge, visual aid, such as illustrations and
graphs, explicit summations and regular intervals, and
questions which can be used for comprehension checks.
In this chapter, the writer only made available about a
kind of interaction which is called interpersonal interaction.
In line with this, this paper would like to provide additional
theory about other kinds of interaction. Troike (2006) argues
that there are some kinds of interaction; they are
interpersonal interaction and intrapersonal interaction.
Interpersonal interaction is, so far we are using the term
“interaction” , communicative events and situations which
occur between people. Intrapersonal interaction is
communication that occurs within an individual’s own mind.
This is also viewed by Vygotsky in Troike (2006) as socio-
cultural phenomenon. In this type there is self-talk which is
called private speech which many children (in particular)
engage in that leads to the inner speech that more nature
individuals used to control thought and behavior.
Leaver et.al (2005:131) adds there can be a number of
ways of interrelating in a foreign language classroom. We call
these levels of interactions. While not all levels of
interaction that exist in real life are presents in the
foreign language classroom, at least three are. These includes
within the individual (intrapersonal processes), between two
individuals (processes or relations), and among members of a
group (group dynamic).
Individual dynamics are reactions to outside stimuli that
you experience but do not share with or express to others.
These show up as likes and dislikes, tension, anxiety, and
other emotions. You may find yourself feeling sick when you
need to open your textbook or go to class. Interpersonal
dynamics are quite different. When two people interact, they
influence each other in many ways, and are normally unaware of
most of those ways. Intragroup dynamics are very important to
your feeling comfortable in your foreign language classroom.
Intragroup dynamics can take at least three forms that can
create dysfunctional classrooms: division into subgroups,
scapegoating, and group reaction to the teacher.
E. Conclusion and Implication
Based on the review of the article above, we can conclude
that the chapter 6 of Rod Ellis book entitled Understanding
Second Language Acquisition is presented in well thought-out
way by the authors; therefore the readers can understand about
some terminologies in second language acquisition particularly
about input and interaction either in natural setting or in
classroom setting.
This review is intended to give some implications for the
readers. The field of second language acquisition (SLA) has
changed significantly in the past century, from grammar-
translation methods of the early twentieth century, audio-
lingual approaches in the 1950s, “designer methods” of the
1970’s, and the more recent shift in the field away from
behaviorism and structured linguistics to a more cognitive
approach. Indeed, even our current theories are continually
permutating as they are applied and evaluated in practice.
REFERENCES
Ellis, R. 1986. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford:
Oxford University Press
Leaver, B.L, Madeline E. and Boris S. 2005. Achieving Success in
Second Language Acquisition. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Oshima, Alice and Ann Hogue. 2002. Writing Academic English, Fourth
Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Saville, M. and Troike. 2006. Introducing Second Language Acquisition.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt, M. M. Interaction and Negotiation in Second Language Acquisition.
Columbia: University of Missouri
THE REVIEW OF CHAPTER 6 OF ROD ELLIS BOOK ENTITLED
UNDERSTANDING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
“INPUT, INTERACTION AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION”
By 6th Group:
Putu Tika Virginiya
I Made Harpian
Ni Wayan Satri Adnyani
POSTGRADUATE
ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
UNDIKSHA UNIVERSITY