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document.docChapter I Introduction
Oscar Wilde is a famous playwright and aesthete of the
late Victorian society. In addition to his plays, novel
and essays, he had published nine fairy tales included in
two volumes: Happy Prince and Other Tales and A House of
Pomegranates. According to the previous studies, Wilde’s
fairy tales contain various moral themes. These moral
themes contradict Wilde’s Aesthetic views. This thesis
adopts historical-biographical approach to analyze two
moral themes.
1.1 Wilde and Aestheticism
Wilde has been an important representative of
Aestheticism, an art movement popular at the end of the
19th century in Britain. “Art for art’s sake” is one of
Aestheticism’s famous slogans. Also, Wilde said, “No
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artist has ethical sympathies. An ethical sympathy in an
artist is an unpardonable mannerism of style” (Wilde,
2007:3). “Any element of morals or implied reference to a
standard of good or evil in art is often a sign of a
certain incompleteness of vision, often a note of discord
in the harmony of an imaginative creation; for all good
works aim at a purely artistic effect” (Wilde, 2013).
Wilde believed that art called for artists’ imagination
and creativity. Art should not be bound by other things,
which could damage art. Artists’ task was not to prove
anything but to reveal art.
1.2 The researches on the contradictions in Wilde’s works
Although Wilde objected to relate morality to literary
works, in his fairy tales, moral themes are obvious,
which contradicts his previous comments on literary
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works. Actually, not only his fairy tales, but also his
novel, plays and artistic views consist of
contradictions. Before the 1950s, most of the studies of
Oscar Wilde focused on his biography, scandal and trial.
Later, people paid more attention to his artistic views
and literary works. Previous studies on his
contradictions had begun as soon as his works were
published. In June, 1891, a review published on The
Athenaeun said that the contradictions had negative impact
on Wilde’s works. Arthur Symons, a writer and critic of
the Victorian period, spoke highly of the contradictions
in Wilde’s works. He thought the contradictions consisted
of Wilde’s wit ( 周,1994 : 95-96). However, most of the
studies were about his plays and novel while fairy tales
were just mentioned as part of his works. Few of studies
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aim at his fairy tales or their moral themes. By
analyzing moral themes in Wilde’s fairy tales, the thesis
explores the reasons for the contradiction between
Wilde’s Aesthetic views and the moral themes in his fairy
tales. This thesis is divided into six chapters. The
first chapter is an introduction to Wilde, Aestheticism
and researches on the contradiction between Wilde’s
Aesthetic views and the content of his works. The second
chapter reviews the foreign and domestic studies on
Wilde. The third chapter introduces the historical-
biographical approach and research procedure. The forth
chapter defines the contradiction in this thesis. Wilde’s
Aesthetic theories are based on his teachers’ theories.
His teachers’ theories contradict each other. This
chapter analyzes the influence of his teachers, which is
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the root of the contradiction defined in this thesis. The
fifth chapter analyzes two moral themes in Wilde’s fairy
tales. The sixth chapter is the conclusion of this
thesis.
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Chapter II Literature review
Foreign Studies on Oscar Wilde began as soon as his
works were published. Domestic Studies on Wilde date back
to Zhou Zuoren’s translation of Wilde’s works in 1909.
Today’s studies on Wilde are multi-approach. This chapter
reviews the studies on Wilde at home and abroad.
2.1 Foreign studies on Oscar Wilde
In 1993, Thomas A. Mikolyzk published Oscar Wilde: An
Annotated Bibliography, which sorted books and periodical
articles about Wilde between 1900 and 1990. During these
ninety years, there were 416 books entirely about Wilde,
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1023 books partially about Wilde, 1742 articles on Wilde.
(周, 2004: 8-9)
Based on Mikolyzk’s book, Professor Zhang Jieming
divided foreign studies on Wilde into three periods in
his Contemporary Western Study on Oscar Wilde,(Qtd. in Zhong 2011:
8): the early period (before 1950), the middle period
(1951-1980) and the late period (after1980).
2.1.1 The early period
During this period, most of the studies were from
Wilde’s friends and acquaintances. They compiled Wilde’s
works and wrote about his life. Wilde’s close friend,
Robert Baldwin Ross, published Wilde’s long letter from
jail and compiled Miscellanies by Oscar Wilde in 1908. Robert
Harborough Sherard published Life of Oscar Wilde and The Real
Oscar Wilde. Frank Harris published Oscar Wilde: His life and
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Confession. However, their studies were mainly about Wilde’s
biography and anecdotes, which “lack depth on his
thoughts and creations” (Zhong 2011: 8).
2.1.2 The middle period
Under the influence of new criticism, the researches
on Wilde laid stress on text and artistic form. In 1967,
Epifanio Jr San Juan published The Art of Oscar Wilde which was
based on textual analysis. Richard Ellamn had used modern
critical approaches to study Wilde’s works since the
early 1960s. As time goes by, people tended to see
Wilde’s works in the background of Victorian society
(Zhong 2011: 8-9).
2.1.3 The late period
In this period, people gradually realized the impact
of contemporary society and culture on Wilde’s works. The
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representative studies in this period are Regenia
Gagnier’s Idylls of the Marketplace: O.W. and the Victorian Public and
Critical Essays on Oscar Wilde, Curtis Marez’s The Other Addict:
Reflections on Colonialism and Oscar Wilde’s Opium Smoke Screen. At the
end of the twentieth century, the centenary of Wilde’s
death, an increasing number of books, articles and
periodicals about Wilde were published (Zhong 2011: 9-
10).
2.2 Domestic studies on Oscar Wilde
In 1909, Zhou Zuoren was the first person who
introduced Wilde’s works to China. He translated Wilde’s
“The Happy Prince”. Later, Ba Jin translated all the nine
fairy tales. Wilde’s plays and novels were also
translated in succession. Since then, “Wilde seemed
forgotten for almost more than 40 years due to various
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reasons in China” (Zhong 2011: 11). In the 1990s, the
studies on Wilde “flourished” in China (ibid). Ju
Wuxuan’s Aestheticism and The Picture of Dorian Gray evaluated
Wilde’s works and Aestheticism. Professor Zhou Xiaoyi
believed that “as a social man, Wilde could not help the
penetration of the consumer culture into the subtext of
his Aesthetic works” (Qtd. in Zhong 2011: 12). Apart from
Zhou Xiaoyi, there were “more critical studies emerged
during the 1990s as cultural approach in Wilde research”
(Zhong 2011: 12). These studies include: Alternatives’ Ghost
Tale--- Cultural View on Wilde's The Canterville Ghost by Lang Xiaoling,
Wilde’s Salome and Its Cultural Impact by He Zhenbiao, On Aesthetic
Culture View of Wilde’s Comedies by Chen Aimin. The researches on
Wilde’s works showed a tendency of studying the influence
of culture and society (Zhong 2011: 10-12).
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Chapter III Methodology
This thesis adopts historical-biographical approach to
analyze the moral themes in Wilde’s fairy tales. Two
moral themes are chosen in this thesis: the blend of
Christianity and artistic life, the critique of upper
class people’s exploitation of the poor.
3.1 Introduction to the historical-biographical approach
and traditional literary criticism
Historical-biographical approach is one of the
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traditional critical approaches to literature. “This
approach sees a literary work chiefly, if not
exclusively, as a reflection of its author’s life and
times or the life and times of the characters in the
work” (Guerin 2004: 22). Before analyzing literary works,
people should use textual criticism to try to establish
an authentic text. Next, to analyze the literary works,
the first step is to ascertain the literary genre,
because “different literary genres are judged according
to different standards” (Guerin 2004: 28). For example,
a love lyric will not have “the sweep and grandeur of an
epic” (ibid). Moreover, if it is a novel or a short
story, it is necessary to introduce the situation, the
rising action, the climax and the dénouement of the plot.
Then, people can use historical and biographical
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information to “feel the full impact of this story,
aesthetically and intellectually” (Guerin 2004: 38).
3.2 Research question
Aestheticism is an art movement happened in the late
nineteenth century. “Art for art’s sake” is the most
famous slogan of Aestheticism. The slogan means that “art
should avoid social, political, and moral themes and
concentrate instead on creating beauty, so it really
means ‘art for the sake of beauty and its elevating
effects’” (Landow, 2012). Wilde is a representative of
Aestheticism. However, his fairy tales are full of moral
themes, which contradicts the slogan of Aestheticism.
The research question of this thesis is: Why did Wilde
add moral themes in his fairy tales?
3.3 Research procedure
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Historical-biographical approach is widely accepted in
contemporary studies on Wilde’s works. In order to meet
the requirement of historical-biographical approach, this
thesis focuses on two moral themes which are supported by
solid evidence about Wilde’s life and times: The blend of
Christianity and artistic life, the critique of upper
class people’s exploitation of the poor.
3.3.1 The selection of moral themes
●The abandoned moral themes
The moral themes in Wilde’s fairy tales are various.
According to Professor Jack Zipes, Happy Prince and Other Tales
is “an anthology about British civilization and its
discontents” (Wilde 2008: 211). He believes that “The
Happy Prince” and “The Nightingale and The Rose”
implicitly expresses Wilde’s idea that the society is not
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able to appreciate the noble role of artists. “The
Devoted Friend” and “The Remarkable Rocket” are about
people’s unawareness of ruthlessness. Wilde’s another
volume of fairy tales, A House of Pomegranates, “explores the
connection between love, art and sacrifice” (Wilde 2008:
212). Apart from Professor Jack Zipes’s researches, some
other researches focus on the suffering, deaths of
characters and charity. However, this thesis adopts the
historical-biographical approach which calls for solid
evidence. The moral themes above lack evidence from
Wild’s life and times, so they are not appropriate for
this thesis.
●“The blend of Christianity and artistic life”
Professor Christopher Nassar pointed out that Wilde
was deeply influenced by Walter Pater’s Studies in the History of
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the Renaissance. Pater emphasized the artistic form and
artistic life, which was also valued by Wilde. Pater once
tried to mix Christianity and artistic life in his Marius
the Epicurean. Wilde borrowed this idea in some of his
tales. Nevertheless, Wilde added more emotional facts
than Pater did. This theme can be found in five of his
fairy tales. All the protagonists in these five tales
develop from an aesthete to a Christ-like figure.
(Nassaar, 2012) This thesis focuses on this moral theme
because it can be found in most of Wilde’s tales and have
compelling evidence.
●“The critique of upper class people’s exploitation of
the poor”
One of Wilde’s tales, “The Devoted Friend”, is
distinguished from other tales. Wilde did not add any
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fantasy into this tale and showed the social class gap
between two protagonists clearly. Wilde satirized “social
obedience between the rich and poor” in Victorian
society, “the institutionalized religion” and
“exaggerated altruism” (Marsh 2008: 72-87). One of the
protagonists, Miller, represented the rich working-class.
He showed no pity to poor little Hans and even exploited
Hans. Two years after publishing this fairy tale, Wilde
published an essay “The Soul of Man under Socialism”
where he elaborated on the ideas expressed in “The
Devoted Friend” (Marsh 2008: 76). The evidence of this
theme is closely related to social class and the Church
in Victorian society. Besides, his essay, “The Soul of
Man under Socialism” strengthened this theme. Therefore,
this theme is chosen in this thesis.
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3.3.2 The reasons for choosing historical-biographical
approach
Historical-biographical approach emphasizes the life
and times of the author or the character. Modern studies
on Wilde’s works tend to relate his works to his life and
times. Also, Wilde is not the founder of Aestheticism.
His theories are based on the theories of forerunners of
Aestheticism. However, his theories are not totally the
same as others’. For example, he added moral themes in
his fairy tales. By using historical-biographical
approach, Wilde’s works are closely connected with the
overall social environment and his own experience, which
can reveal and explain the distinct features of his
works. Therefore, historical-biographical approach is
appropriate for this thesis.
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3.3.3 The specific process of the analysis
The first step is to explore why Wilde chose the fairy
tale, a genre “known for its moralistic nature”
(Wijingaart, 2012) to express his ideas. Aesthetes
emphasized the artistic form and separated art from
morality. Wilde objected to attach literary works to
morality too. Fairy tales contradict Wilde’s Aesthetic
ideas. Therefore, it is worthwhile to analyze the reasons
for choosing this genre.
The analysis of the first moral theme, the blend of
Christianity and artistic life, started with a table. The
table analyzes the protagonists and their features in all
nine tales. According to the table, five tales have the
protagonists who can embody this moral theme. Then, the
analysis of the first theme centers on these five
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protagonists.
The second moral theme is about two protagonists in
one tale: “The Devoted Friend”. The first step is to
analyze the plot about these two protagonists. Next, this
tale reflects the theme in three aspects: “social
obedience between the rich and poor”, “the
institutionalized religion” and “exaggerated altruism”
(Marsh 2008: 72-87). The research of this theme is
carried out in these three aspects.
By analyzing these two moral themes, this thesis
substantiates and explains the contradiction between
Wilde’s Aesthetic views and moral themes in fairy tales.
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Chapter IV The contradiction between Wilde’s Aesthetic
views and moral themes in fairy tales
The contradiction studied in this thesis is about
Wilde’s Aesthetic views and moral themes in his fairy
tales. Wilde’s Aesthetic views were deeply influenced by
the theories of his mentors: John Pentland Mahaffy, John
Ruskin and Walter Pater. The theories of his three
teachers are different. What is more, Ruskin’s theories
are opposite to Pater’s theories, which is the root of
Wilde’s contradiction.
4.1 The definition of the contradiction in this thesis
In many of Wilde’s essays like “The English
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Renaissance of Art”, “The Decay of Lying” and the preface
of The Picture of Dorian Gray, Wilde expressed his Aesthetic
views that good works aim at a purely artistic effect and
art should not be bound by morality. However, his fairy
tales contain morality themes, which contradicts his
Aesthetic views claimed in his essays. This contradiction
is what this thesis focuses on.
4.2 Three mentors’ influence on the development of
Wilde’s Aesthetic views
Mahaffy, Ruskin and Pater are the three people who
impacted greatly on Wilde. Mahaffy was Wilde’s teacher
when he was in Dublin. Mahaffy was the first person who
introduced Aestheticism to Wilde. Ruskin and Pater were
Wilde’s teachers in Oxford. Their contrary opinions
towards art are the origin of Wilde’s contradiction.
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4.2.1 The artistic views of Wilde’s three mentors
When Wilde was at Trinity College in Dublin, his
professor Mahaffy was fond of ancient Greek and Roman
literature. Mahaffy had been Wilde’s friend for many
years and had a great influence on Wilde. Wilde highly
praised ancient Greek and Roman culture, which can be
seen in his essays, novel and fictions. Mahaffy said that
“there can be no strict mathematical definition of beauty
in nature, art, poetry or music” and that “beauty was
relative to taste” (Qtd. in Wijingaart, 2012). He
introduced Wilde the tradition of Aestheticism.
Later, when Wilde was at Oxford, two professors had a
great influence on him: John Ruskin and Walter Pater.
Ruskin developed a theory that “art justifies its own
existence through beauty”. He stated that:
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Ideas of beauty are among the noblest which can
be presented to the human mind, invariably
exalting and purifying it according to their
degree; and it would appear that we are
intended by the Deity to be constantly under
their influence...” Because God infuses all
things in nature with himself, which are
disproportionately more beautiful than
deformed, any experience of beauty relates to
God. (Qtd. in Wong, 2008)
This is similar to the Aesthetic idea that “Art never
expresses anything but itself’. However, Ruskin was
also concerned with “society’s relations to art” and
believed that “the force of good pervaded from
beautiful objects” (Qtd. in Wong, 2008). Therefore,
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Ruskin’s artistic views are not absolutely typical
Aestheticism views, which is one of the explanations to
contradictions in Wilde’s works.
By contrast, Pater’s Aestheticism views are freed
from Victorian conventionalities. He thought that art
can provide people with moments of high quality. He
published a collection titled Studies in the History of the
Renaissance. The book challenged “conventional codes of
religion, morality, sexuality, and scholarship”
(Teukolsky, 2009). During Wilde’s Oxford years, he read
the Renaissance for many times. Also, Pater held the
opinion that critics themselves were artists too,
because they saw artistic works in unique ways and
created literary theories. Wilde has expressed the
similar opinion in his essay The Critic as Artist.
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4.2.2 Wilde’s Aesthetic views
In 1889, Wilde published an essay “The Decay of
Lying”. In this essay, he criticized realism and said
that art should be beautiful. Artistic values were more
important than moralistic values. He believed that
imagination was the source of all art (Wilde, 2003). This
essay contains ideas similar to Mahaffy’s “beauty is a
matter of taste” and Pater’s art for its own sake rather
than for morality. In the preface of The Picture of Dorian
Gray, Wilde articulated his Aestheticism views thoroughly:
“Those who find beautiful meanings in beautiful things
are the cultivated…They are the elect to whom beautiful
things mean only beauty” (Wilde, 2007: 4). “Vice and
virtue are to the artist a materials for an art” (ibid).
He believed that art was superior to morality. Morality
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could be the source of art instead of the aim of art.
What is more, in “The English Renaissance of Art”, Wilde
showed his attitude towards moral themes in literary
works clearly: “…all good work aims at a purely artistic
effect” (Wilde, 2007: 3). Even in his De Profundis written
in prison, he said that “Morality does not help me. I am
a born antinomian” (Wilde, 1999: 46). However, in Wilde’s
fairy tales, he valued Christianity and satirized the
inequality in different social classes. These moral
themes contradict Wilde’s Aesthetic views expressed in
essays.
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Chapter V Analyzing the moral themes in Wilde’s fairy
tales
Based on Professor Christopher Nassar and Sarah
Marsh’s studies on Wilde’s fairy tales, this thesis
analyzes two moral themes that are suitable for
historical-biographical approach: the blend of
Christianity and artistic life, the critique of upper
class people’s exploitation of the poor.
5.1 The genre of the story: the fairy tale
The fairy tale is a genre “known for its moralistic
nature” (Wijingaart, 2012), which contradicts Wilde’s
claims that art should not contain any element of
morality. During 1865 to 1900, some famous writers like
John Ruskin and Lewis Carroll made contribution to the
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development of fairy tales. In 1889, Wilde reviewed
William B. Yeats’s Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry (Qtd.
in Wilde, 2008) and showed great interest in this genre.
Wilde’s wife also published some children stories. His
mother edited two books on Irish Folklore. Also, in some
of his tales, Wilde unsettled the traditional structure
of fairy tales in order to satirize some social
phenomenon. For example, “The Devoted Friend” is quite
similar to Hans Christian Andersen’s “Little Claus and
Big Claus”. However, Wilde’s tale ends with the good
person’s death while Andersen’s tale ends with the bad
person’s death. Therefore, it is quite natural for Wilde
to choose this genre. Besides, the settings of fairy
tales can let writers wield their imagination which was
valued by aesthetes including Wilde.
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5.2 Moral themes and reasons for the contradiction
The first moral theme this thesis analyzes is the
blend of Christianity and the artistic life advised by
Walter Pater in his Studies in the History of Renaissance. This
theme can be found in “The Happy Prince”, “The Selfish
Giant”, “The Young King”, “The Fisherman and His Soul”
and “The Star-Child”. The second moral theme is Wilde’s
critique of upper class people’s exploitation of the poor
which is obvious in “The Devoted Friend”.
5.2.1The blend of Christianity and artistic life
Wilde’s mentor, Walter Pater, once tried to add both
Christianity and the artistic life or Aestheticism in his
Marius the Epicurean. In many of Wilde’s fairy tales, “Wilde's
concern is exactly that of Pater's in Marius — to blend
Christianity and the artistic life or Aestheticism”
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(Nassaar, 2012). Nevertheless, in Wilde’s tales, “the
emotional content is higher” (ibid).
5.2.1.1The influence of Walter Pater’s Aesthetic views
In the conclusion to Pater’s The Renaissance, he advised
that people should devote their lives to the private
enjoyment of the best objects of art (Qtd. in Nassaar,
2012). Wilde spoke highly of Pater’s Aesthetic views.
When Wilde was in prison, Pater’s works were among the
few books that he wanted to read.
In De Profundis, Wilde wrote that:
In Marius the Epicurean Pater seeks to reconcile the
artistic life with the life of religion…But
Marius is…perhaps a little too much occupied with
the comeliness of the vessels of the Sanctuary to
notice that it is the Sanctuary of Sorrow that he
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is gazing at” (Wilde, 1999: 55).
Wilde thought Pater’s works still lacked emotional
factors: Marius failed to “notice that it is the
Sanctuary of Sorrow that he is gazing at”. In Wilde’s
fairy tales, he emphasized emotional factors more
strongly than Pater did, which is just like what
Professor Christopher Nassaar said, “(Wilde) impresses us
more strongly that we are in ‘the Sanctuary of Sorrow’”
(Nassaar, 2012).
5.2.1.2 The blend of Christianity and artistic life in
fairy tales
In Wilde’s fairy tales, many protagonists only lived
for pleasure at first. Later, they became unselfish and
ready to help others. They embody the blend of
Christianity and artistic life. The following table
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analyzes all the protagonists in nine fairy tales.
Table: The Analysis of Protagonists in Wilde’s
Tales
The tale The
protagoni
st(s)
The feature(s) of
the protagonist(s)
Can
he/she
embody
“The
blend of
Christian
ity and
artistic
life”? The HappyPrince
HappyPrince
He used to indulge inthe objects of art andenjoyment. Afterbecoming a statue onthe mountain, he wasaware of people’ssuffering.
Yes
TheNightingale andthe Rose
TheNightingale
The Nightingalepierced his heart on athorn to bleed onto awhite rose so that theyoung student couldget a red rose andinvite a girl to dancewith.
No (Thereis nochange ontheNightingale. He kepton helpingthe youngstudentuntil his
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TheSelfishGiant
The Giant At first, he wasselfish. Later, hebecame selfless andlet children play inhis garden.
Yes
TheDevotedFriend
The MillerLittle Hans
The Miller kept ontelling little Hansthe beautiful wordsabout friendship.However, Miller hadnever helped Hans andeven caused Hans’sdeath.
No (Thereis nochange ontheprotagonists. MilleralwaysexploitedHans andHans wasstilldevoted toMiller)
TheRemarkable Rocket
The Rocket He thought he wasremarkable and came ofremarkable parents.Therefore, he was veryconceited.
No (Thereis nochange onthe rocket.He wasarrogantfrom thebeginningto the end.)
The YoungKing
The YoungKing
When the lad wasacknowledged as theheir to the throne, hewas fascinated by thepalace, pictures andstatues. At the nightbefore his coronation,he dreamt that hisluxury robe, ruby andpearl came fromlaborers’ blood andsweat. At thecoronation, he refusedto use these luxuries.
Yes
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The Infanta During the celebrationof Infanta’s birthday,she threw a white roseto the Dwarf from theforest. Nevertheless,she just thought theDwarf was funny. Evenif the Dwarf was dead,she did not feel sadat all.
No (Thereis nochange ontheInfanta.She hadalways beencruel tothe Dwarf)
TheFishermanand HisSoul
TheFisherman
Initially, theFisherman wasfascinated by thebeautiful Mermaid. Hisheart had no place forhis Soul. At the endof the tale, his heartbecame large enough toembrace in love boththe Mermaid and hisSoul
Yes
The Star-Child
The Star-Child
He used to be arrogantbecause of hisbeautiful appearance.After becomingphysically ugly, hesuffered a lot andbecame aware ofothers’ suffering.
Yes
This table shows that five protagonists can embody this
moral theme: Happy Prince, the Giant, Young King, the
Fisherman and the Star-Child. The analysis of these five
characters is as follows:
●“The Happy Prince”
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At the beginning of this tale, the Happy Prince was
“gilded all over with thin leaves of fine gold, for eyes
he had two bright sapphires, and a large red ruby glowed
on his sword hilt” (Wilde 2008:9). He used to “live in
the Palace of Sans-Souci” and “did not know what tears
were” (Wilde 2008: 12). Every evening, he “led the dance
in the Great Hall” (ibid). He existed as an aesthete and
a follower of Pater’s advice that is “to burn always
with this hard, gem-like flame, to maintain this
ecstasy, is success in life”. He used to devote his life
to the objects of art and enjoyment. However, after
becoming a statue, he gradually recognized all the pain
and sorrow in the city. “He developed into a Christian”
(Nassaar, 2012) and sacrificed his aesthetic decorations
to help others. In this tale, Wilde treated Pater’s
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advice as “an early, selfish stage that human beings
should develop beyond” (Nassaar, 2012). The Happy Prince
used to live in a typical Aesthetic way. After becoming
a statue, he developed his love and pity for others’
misery. Meanwhile, Wilde mixed the artistic life with
Christianity in other tales.
●“The Selfish Giant”
At first, the Giant, just like the Happy Prince, only
concerned about himself and lived an artistic life as
Pater advised. The Happy Prince lived in a magnificent
palace and the Giant lived in his beautiful garden. The
difference between the Giant and the Happy Prince is that
the Giant could enjoy his garden while children were
playing there, but the Happy Prince sacrificed his gold
and jewels to help the poor. In this regard, Wilde
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blended Christianity and artistic life fully in “The
Selfish Giant”. This blend can also be found in other
tales.
●“The Young King”
In this tale, Christianity and the Aesthetic life
blend perfectly. The young King indulged himself in
objects of art like a disciple of Pater’s advices: be in
a state of “ecstasy”, “the poetic passion, the desire of
beauty, the love of art for its own sake” (Nassaar,
2012). Nevertheless, the young King’s nature developed.
He became aware of his people’s life. When he was
finally on the altar in rags, “the sunbeams wove round
him a tissued robe that was fairer than the robe that
had been fashioned for his pleasure” (Wilde, 2008: 96).
“Whiter than fine pearls were the lilies…Redder than
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male rubies were the roses” (ibid). The Bishop said, “A
greater than I hath crowned thee” (ibid), which implied
that God had crowned the young King. Thus, the young
King had entered a new Aesthetic world where “the pure
and indescribably beautiful” Christianity is “the
highest form of Aestheticism” (Nassaar, 2012).
●“The Fisherman and His Soul”
Initially, the Fisherman was fascinated by the
beautiful Mermaid who sang marvelous songs and lived
beneath the sea. His heart had no place for his Soul. At
the end of the tale, his heart became “large enough to
embrace in love both the Mermaid and his Soul: without
abandoning Aestheticism, he becomes a Christian, and his
grave blooms, prompting a change in the wrathful priest,
who speaks of all-embracing love and blesses all of
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God's creatures” (Nassaar, 2012). Therefore, at the end
of the tale, the Fisherman is a figure that represents
the blend of Christianity and the beauty valued by
aesthetes.
●“The Star-Child”
The Star-Child used to be obsessed with his beautiful
appearance, which led to his arrogance. After becoming
physically ugly, although he suffered a lot, he became
spiritually beautiful. At the end of the story, he kissed
the wounds on his mother’s feet for forgiveness. He also
“clasped the white feet of the leper, and said to him:
‘Thrice did I give thee of my mercy. Bid my mother speaks
to me once’” (Wilde, 2008: 203). Star-Child’s experience
was quite similar to Saint Francis of Assisi, a venerated
religious figure in history. St. Francis embraced a leper
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on the road. Then, the leper turned out to be Christ “who
come down to earth in the form of a leper in order to
test Francis” (Landow, 2005). Star-Child’s mother and the
leper turned out to be the Queen and the King. Therefore,
the Star-Child is also a blend of Christianity and
Aesthetic life.
5.2.2 The critique of upper class people’s exploitation
of the poor
Wilde criticized the exploitation of the poor by
capitalist society and advocated Fabian Socialism. This
idea can be found in his essay “The Soul of Man under
Socialism”. One of Wilde’s fairy tales, “The Devoted
Friend”, represents the ideas in “The Soul of Man under
Socialism”. In this tale, Wilde satirized “social
obedience between the rich and the poor”, the
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“institutionalized religion” and “exaggerated altruism”
(Marsh, 2008: 72-87).
5.2.2.1 Wilde’s ideas in “The Soul of Man under
Socialism”
At the last quarter of the nineteenth century in
Britain, there was “an upsurge of interest in socialist
ideas” (Net 1) “The British socialist movement grew
particularly strong in the period between the 1880s and
1914 and included Christian and libertarian socialists,
Fabians, and Marxists” (Teukolsky, 2009). The Fabian
Society was established in 1884 in London. It aimed to
“level the gulf between the rich and the poor” (Net 1).
The difference between Fabians and Marxists was that
Fabians advocated a transition to socialism without
revolution. In “The Soul of Man under Socialism”, Wilde
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said that “Under Socialism…There will be no people living
in fetid dens and fetid rags, and bringing up unhealthy,
hunger-pinched children in the midst of impossible and
absolutely repulsive surroundings” (Wilde, 1997). He
thought that under Socialism everyone could share “the
general prosperity and happiness” because the private
property was “converted into public wealth”. In this
regard, Socialism could lead to “Individualism” since
people could “choose the sphere of activity that is
really congenial to them”. He also said that:
Just as the worst slave-owners were those who
were kind to their slaves, and so prevented the
horror of the system being realized by those who
suffered from it, and understood by those who
contemplated it, so, in the present state of
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things in England, the people who do most harm
are the people who try to do most good. (Wilde,
1997)
Wilde explained that the charity taught the poor to feel
grateful and content while in fact the charity just used
part of their private property to prevent riots.
5.2.2.2 The plot of “The Devoted Friend”
Wilde’s tale “The Devoted Friend” reflects his views
in “The Soul of Man under Socialism”. The situation of
this tale is that little Hans and the rich Miller were
friends. Miller taught little Hans some “noble ideas”.
Miller said “real friend should have everything in
common” (Wilde, 2008: 42), so he “would never go by
little Hans’s garden without plucking a large nosegay, or
a handful of sweet herbs” (ibid). However, Miller never
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gave little Hans anything in return, though Miller was
very rich. Little Hans’s neighbors thought it was
strange, but little Hans “never troubled his heads about
these things” (Wilde, 2008: 43). He felt happy to listen
to “all the wonderful things” (ibid). Miller said about
the unselfishness of true friendship. The rising action
is this: During the winter, little Hans had neither
flowers nor fruits to sell, so he had to sell his
wheelbarrow. Miller never visited little Hans in winter.
He explained that “when people are in trouble they should
be left alone and not be bothered by visitors” (Wilde,
2008: 43). When spring came, Miller went to little Hans’s
garden. He found that little Hans had sold the
wheelbarrow, so he told little Hans that he could lend
little Hans his broken wheelbarrow. However, to Miller,
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lending the wheelbarrow became an excuse for asking
little Hans to do many things for him. Besides, little
Hans was willing to do anything for Miller because Miller
was his “best friend”. “So little Hans worked away for
the Miller, and the Miller said all kinds of beautiful
things about friendship, which Hans took down in a note-
book, and used to read over at night, for he was a very
good scholar” (Wilde, 2008: 52). What is more, little
Hans was too busy helping Miller to take care of his own
garden, the source of his income. He lived in miserable
conditions. The climax comes when Miller asked little
Hans to find a Doctor for his son in a stormy night.
However, Miller did not lend Hans the lantern. Miller
said, “It is my new lantern, and it would be a great loss
to me if anything happened to it” (Wilde, 2008: 53).
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Since little Hans did not have the lantern, he lost his
way and was drown in a deep hole. The dénouement is that
Miller was the chief mourner of little Hans’s funeral.
Miller said little Hans was his best friend whose death
was a great loss to him because he could not lend his
wheelbarrow to little Hans anymore. Actually, his
wheelbarrow was in bad repair. He could not sell it. No
one else wanted his wheelbarrow.
5.2.2.3 The social obedience between the rich and the
poor
Through the two protagonists, Miller and little Hans,
“Wilde drew attention to the growing problems of class
politics across late nineteenth-century Britain” (Marsh,
2008: 82). Miller belonged to the rich working class. He
and his family always had more than enough to eat. Little
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Hans belonged to the impoverished class. He constantly
faced the danger of starvation. In a book What Then Must We
Do? published two years before Wilde’s fairy tales was
published, the author Tolstoy described “the relationship
between upper-class greed and lower-class deprivation”
(Qtd. in Marsh, 2008: 82). Although Miller was richer
than Hans, Miller asked Hans to do many things for him in
the name of friendship. Miller kept on telling little
Hans the “beautiful things about friendship” and “Hans
believed that Miller possessed a higher truth about
friendship and he practiced it by submitting to Miller’s
every request” (Marsh, 2008: 83). Here, “Wilde implies
that the upper classes victimize the poor not only by
withholding material wealth but also by withholding
knowledge” (Marsh, 2008: 83). The poor spiritually obeyed
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to the upper classes. The same idea was expressed in “The
Soul of Man under Socialism”: Charity “uses private
property to alleviate the horrible evils that result from
the institution of private property” (Wilde, 1997). “We
are often told that the poor are grateful for charity”
(ibid). Wilde believed “the best amongst the poor are
never grateful”. He advocated Socialism which could
relieve the poor of heavy burden and develop their
personalities; otherwise the poor might have the same
miserable ending as little Hans did.
5.2.2.4 The satire on the institutionalized religion
Wilde also critiqued the greedy upper class people who
used institutionalized religion to take advantage of
others by “situating Miller as a dubious agent of
Christian patriarchy” (Marsh, 2008: 83). When Miller
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explained to his wife why he did not help Hans during the
winter, his wife said, “You are certainly very thoughtful
about others…I am sure the clergyman himself could not
say such beautiful things as you do, though he does live
in a three-storied house, and wears a gold ring on his
finger” (Wilde, 2008: 43). Wilde connected “material
wealth and heartlessness to agents of institutionalized
religion” (Marsh, 2008: 84). Besides, Miller’s wife said
to Miller, “How well you talk...really I feel quite
drowsy. It is just like being in church” (Wilde 2008:
44). To Wilde, “such platitudes were convenient blinders
for the British upper classes” (Marsh 2008: 84). They
avoided responding to the suffering of the poor
seriously. A similar idea can be found in “The Soul of
Man under Socialism”. Wilde thought that the upper class
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used part of their money to pacify the poor instead of
transforming the social system.
5.2.2.5 The ideas about the exaggerated altruism
“The Devoted Friend” is quite similar to Andersen’s
“Little Claus and Big Claus”. However, unlike Andersen’s
tale, Hans, the kind person, died because of helping the
bad Miller. By unsettling the traditional fairy tale,
Wilde warned that exaggerated altruism could make the
poor lose everything, even their lives (Marsh, 2008: 86).
The phrase “exaggerated altruism” first appeared in
Wilde’s “The Soul of Man under Socialism”: “majority of
people spoil their lives by an unhealthy and exaggerated
altruism…They find themselves surrounded by hideous
poverty, by hideous ugliness, by hideous starvation”
(Wilde, 1997). Little Hans is a representative of
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exaggerated altruism. He was taught by Miller that
friends should help each other. Although Miller had never
helped Hans, Hans kept on helping Miller until his death.
Little Hans used to have a garden and some flowers to
sell. After sending flowers to Miller, he lost his
livelihood. At the end of the tale, he lost his life. In
“The Soul of Man under Socialism”, Wilde advocated
Socialism under which “poverty will be impossible”
(Wilde, 1997). He thought altruism “prevented the
carrying out of this aim” (Wilde, 1997). Therefore, Wilde
satirized little Hans’s helping Miller without
considering himself.
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Chapter VI Conclusion
Oscar Wilde, a famous representative of
Aestheticism, added morality in his fairy tales, which
contradicts Aestheticism theories and some of his own
ideas expressed in essays. This thesis studies two
moral themes, namely: the blend of Christianity and
artistic life, the critique of upper class people’s
exploitation of the poor. By analyzing the moral
themes, this thesis gives reasons for the
contradiction. Firstly, Wilde added Christianity and
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artistic life in fairy tales because his mentor, Walter
Pater, tried to do so in Marius the Epicurean. What is
more, Wilde added more emotional factors than that in
Pater’s works. Secondly, Wilde blamed the upper class
for their greed and apathy to the poor. He expressed
this idea in his essay: “The Soul of Man under
Socialism”. His fairy tale, “The Devoted Friend”,
embodies the views in “The Soul of Man under
Socialism”. In this tale, he satirized “social
obedience between the rich and the poor”, “the
institutionalized religion” and “exaggerated altruism”
(Marsh, 2008: 72-87). To conclude, Wilde added the
first moral theme in his fairy tales because he was
impacted by Pater’s Marius the Epicurean. The second moral
theme exists because Wilde was concerned with the
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problems between the rich and the poor. In some of his
essays, he expressed his ideas on theses problems.
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周周周, 1994 周周周周周周周周周周 周周周周周周周周周周周周周周,:, 《
周周周周周 周周周周》, , 95-96 周。
Net 1. Mary Magoulick. Folklore Connections
http://www.faculty.de.gcsu.edu/~mmagouli/
fairy_tales.htm
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Net 2. A Sermon for the Feast of St. Francis
http://www.stfrancisdunellen.org/
sermon_10_5_08.htm
Net 3. Fabian Society
http://www.fabians.org.uk/
Net 4. The Fabian Society in Late Victorian Britain
http://www.victorianweb.org/history/fabian.html
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Reflections
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