Download - An Analysis of the Linearbandkeramik and Wartberg Cultures of Neolithic Germany

Michael HuffstutlerCreated for the Department of Anthropology

A Brief Comparison of the Germanic Aspect of the LBK & WBCCultures

Written for the University of Minnesota Twin-Cities [2013]

What knowledge is able to be ascertained about the customs,

social organization, and values in the early Linearbandkeramik

period (5700-5000 BC) of Neolithic Germany by analyzing burial

sites, styles and patterns, and how did these characteristics

change in the Wartberg Culture of the late Neolithic (3600-2700

BC)?

Linearbandkeramic Culture

Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)

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Before the rise of agriculture in the Neolithic, the Late

Mesolithic period was largely characteristic of traditional

hunter-gatherer societies, yet showed signs of an impending

transition to a sedentary lifestyle. A wider variety of plant and

animal species ranging from acorns to hazelnuts, and seals, to

wild boar and deer were preyed upon and foraged in the later part

1 Photo courtesy of: John, J., Ifantidis, F (Ed)., Nikolaidou, M (Ed). (2011). Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data and Approaches, Contributions to theArchaeology of Shell Techniques. BAR International Series 2216.

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of the Mesolithic2. This is indicative that technological

specialization was occurring, and is evidenced by the arrival of

various hunting prospects and creations such as nets, hooks,

harpoons, and canoes. An expanded amount of projectile weapons

were crafted from materials such as bone, wood, and antler3. With

the arrival of agriculture in the Neolithic period, societies

were revolutionized and a new age of human culture began.

In Europe, the arrival of the LinearBandKeramik (LBK)

culture of the Early Neolithic introduced the first farmers and

the start of agriculture4. The earliest sites are found in the

StarcevoKoros culture on the Hungarian plain around 5700 B.C.,

where it then separately spread North, East, and West5.

Radiocarbon dating methods indicate a rapid dispersal of the LBK

culture due to the fact that results dating Germany and Hungary

are practically synonymous. It is estimated that the movement

spread across Central Europe at a rate of approximately 3.5-5 2 Price, T. (2013). Pg. 156. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. 3 Hirst, K. (2013). Linearbandkeramik Culture (LBK): The First Farmers of Europe. 4 See Price, T. pg. 155. Note that agriculture originally rose in the Near East/Anatolia and then spread west, later arriving in Europe.5 Bickle, P., Hofmann, D. (2011). Investigating Archaeological Features: Culture, Tradition, and the Settlement Burials of the Linearbandkeramik (LBK) Culture.

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kilometers per year6. The remarkable uniformity of the LBK

culture is an expression as well as confirmation of its swift

dispersal from the edge of eastern Hungary, the Ukraine, Holland,

and Germany, where house construction, artifacts, material

culture, and pottery are largely the same7.

If there is any trait most definitive of the LBK

settlements, it would be the longhouses they created within their

settlements. Despite the fact that this specific culture is

named after the linear pottery it is renowned for making, these

immense free-standing timber structures signified dramatic

changes taking place within Early Neolithic culture8. Ranging

from 10-30 meters long and approximately 7 meters wide, these

seemingly monumental9 structures for the time period represent a 6 Price, T. (2013). Pg. 155. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.7 See Price, T. pg. 155.8 Other significant changes include larger, communal societies, mutual cooperation. Also a shift from a subsistence hunter-gatherer lifestyle to sedentary agriculture, creating objects for storage and pottery arise with theNeolithic; Price, T. (2013). Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.9 Monumental refers not to comparison of megaliths or architecture, but rathersize relative to earlier periods of small, circular huts and housing structures. These earlier structures made commonly of wood or animal bone and skins could easily be built independently by a single family. LBK longhouses would have required at least two large families, some estimates conclude at least 12 full size adults would have been needed to achieve placing the posts for the roofs. Price, T. (2013). Pg. 156. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

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new idea of communal cooperation, something not evident even in

the Late Mesolithic. These small farmstead communities generally

consisted of several longhouses, each separated by a fair amount

of distance. Location preferences also change in the Early

Neolithic, and LBK farmers were probably more attracted to loess

basins rather than typical hunter-gatherer environments. The

landscape included a naturally rich soil profile within the

basins, as well a reduced presence of indigenous Mesolithic

hunter-gatherers, whom it is thought by many field experts to

have poor and often violent encounters between each society

respectively10.

Linear pottery, an aspect derived from almost complete

uniformity is another striking feature of the LBK. The rise of

pottery indicates that these Early Neolithic farmers now had more

spare time to dedicate to craft specialization. Also, the new

idea of food storage for longer shelf life and preservation can

be linked to purposes fulfilled by non-formal LBK pottery.

Overall, LBK pottery can be defined through two different

10 There are frequent violent burials within the LBK culture, many of which are thought to be from encounters with Mesolithic persons. Price, T. (2013). Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

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categories: A plain, coarse ware most likely for everyday uses

such as cooking and storage, and a finer, more ornate decorated

ware, not associated with any clear purpose11. The pottery is

adorned with incised lines (not always perfectly straight), fist

cut in clay paste before being fired to produce the well-known

linear bands today. The common repertoire of patterns and motifs

include chevrons, spirals, triangles, and rectangles12. Among

all, the definitive schematic holotype of LBK pottery is the

ornately decorated hemispherical bowl13.

The domesticated animals and crops in Central Germany can

almost certainly be attributed to the near east. Such crops as

emmer, einkorn, wheat, and legumes such as peas and vetch were

grown and exploited14. There is minimal evidence of

autochthonous15 domestication of animals in any part of Europe

for that matter. In hierarchical order, cattle, pig sheep, and 11 Price, T. (2013). Pg. 157. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.12 See Price, T. (2013). pg. 157; Also note that among these patterns and motifs, the chevron pattern was usually incised outside of the linear band zone.13 Hemispherical bowls are commonly what comes to mind when referring to LBK pottery; Price, T. pg. 157.14 University of Oxford, School of Archaeology. (2013). The Nature of Earl Farming in South-East and Central Europe. University of Oxford.15 Autochthonous defined in the context of ‘indigenous,’ ‘aboriginal,’ or ‘a locality.’

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goats were most commonly raised domestically within LBK

settlements16. At the site of Karsdorf, in the Burgenlandkreis

district of Saxony-Anhalt, isotopic analyses demonstrates that

domestication was taking place due to the similar baseline and

mean isotopic signatures produced by animals with different

grazing and foraging habits such as sheep and goats17.

For historically beginning the path to a sedentary

lifestyle, the people of the LBK culture were curiously mobile.

Using the bioarchaeological method of strontium isotope analysis

from multiple biochemical analyses, data illustrates that as much

as 60% of LBK sites were comprised of non-local individuals18.

Strontium isotopes found in prehistoric human teeth and bones

concede a geochemical signature of respective birth and death 16 Oelze, V., Siebert, A., Nicklish, N. et al. (February, 2011). Early Neolithic diet and animal husbandry: stable isotope evidence from three Linearbandkeramik (LBK) sites in Central Germany. Vol (38). Issue (2). Journalof Archaeological Science.17Oelze, V., Siebert, A., Nicklish, N. et. al. p.277. A table in this academic work demonstrates that the domestic animal sample from Karsdorf features mean δ13C values of −21.0 ± 0.9‰ (1σ) and mean δ15N values of 7.3 ± 0.9‰ (1σ). This is significant because the values are practically synonymous with each other even though two different typologies are being compared. For instance, in this computation, sheep and goats cluster between 6.4 and 7.9‰ inδ15N and around the mean of −20.4 ± 0.3‰ (1σ) in δ13C, suggesting that these animals fed on a very similar diet, as on a similar kind of pasture, although sheep are grazers, whereas goats are habitual mixed feeders.18 Isotopic studies illustrated in Oelze, V., Seibert, A., Nicklish, N. et al.For further information on isotopic analysis in Germany see ‘Herxheim’ and ‘Nieder-Mörlen.’

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places19. Furthermore, this isotopic data supports that the

majority of non-local individuals at LBK were female, who

migrated from other geological spaces. What reasons motivated

these early farmers towards such high rates of mobility? One

explanation hypothesizes that as the LBK people spread throughout

Europe to places including the Upper Rhine Valley, it encountered

earlier Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, often times provoking

violence, cultural assimilation20, or migration21. Evidence of

migration and high amounts of violence are clear in LBK burials,

while mass graves such as Herxheim even contain possible evidence

of cannibalism.

Aiterhofen [5300 BC] & Vaihingen [5300BC] Discussion and Interpretations

5300 B.C. gave rise to the village of Aiterhofen, located in

Bavaria 5 kilometers south of the Danube22. In its excavation, 19 Bentley, R., Gronenborn, D., Lüning, J., et al. (2001). Prehistoric Human Migration in the Linearbandkeramik of Central Europe. Antiquity. 20 As LBK culture rapidly spread from the east into Europe, previous Mesolithic cultures generally joined and became part of LBK culture, migrated,or fought for the territory. Violence is usually thought to have occurred towards the later part of the LBK spread.21 Bentley, R., Gronenborn, D., Lüning, J., et al. (2001). Prehistoric Human Migration in the Linearbandkeramik of Central Europe. Antiquity.22 Bickle, P., Hofmann, D., Bentley, R., et al. (February, 2011). pg. 1245. Roots of Diversity in a Linearbandkeramik Society: Isotope Evidence at

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157 inhumations were uncovered along with 9 double inhumations

and 65 cremations, making Aiterhofen the largest known cemetery

of the LBK period. As seen in most typical LBK cemeteries, the

majority of the inhumation burials at Aiterhofen were fixed in a

crouched or flexed position, with the head facing the east23.

Within this group, roughly 65% were buried with some sort of

grave good. Pottery, shells24, bone and stone ornaments, red

ochre, and flint tools were the most commonly associated burial

items. Males were often accompanied by these same goods as well;

however polished adzes are abundantly present in their burials as

well.

Aiterhofen (Bavaria, Germany). Antiquity.23 Bickle, P., Hofmann, D., Bentley, R., et al. (February, 2011). pg. 1246. Roots of Diversity in a Linearbandkeramik Society: Isotope Evidence at Aiterhofen (Bavaria, Germany). Antiquity. 24 Among shells, spondylus shells were the most popular and must have had an important role or significance in LBK culture. River shell was also found among burial goods in the Aiterhofen cemetery.

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There appear to be five different spatial groupings of

interment at Aiterhofen, but it is solely based on typological

and ceramic sequences, which is problematic because this

interpretation lacks a solid basis for reliability such as

radiocarbon dating on which to establish itself. Norbert

Nieszery, a specialist in Bavarian Linear Pottery argued that

spatial groupings likely represented different settlements,

however, the variation in the demography and burial goods that

have been interpreted as ‘hunter’ or ‘farmer’ identities cross-

cut these spatial groups. What can be deduced from this is that

25 Photo courtesy of: Lenneis, E. (2010). Pg. 162,3. Empty Graves in LBK Cemeteries- Indications of Special Burial Practises. Documenta Praehistorica XXXVII.

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there is not likely a simple explanation as to why these spatial

groupings exist at Aiterhofen.

Also, grave goods and isotopic analysis of dietary habits

indicate that there may be a less than clear cut division between

farmer and forager. In LBK culture, the dead were never buried

with an abundance of grave goods, but the majority was buried

with some type(s) of artifact(s). The extensive variability

within the type and quantity is suggestive of some type of social

structure within these Neolithic societies. The presence of

polished adzes in male burials may represent a status

differentiation within the social structure of LBK communities.

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Not all male burials included polished tools, indicating

that there may have been a hierarchy composed of a smaller, more

elite group of males within the society. Another plausible

consideration could be that different burial goods represented

different ‘jobs’ or purposes within the community, such as a

hunter, or a farmer, indicating that there was probably some

specialization within LBK culture. The presence of exotic 26 This photo illustrates the different spatial groups represented in the Aiterhofen cemetery. A clear pattern of segregation is present. Photo retrieved from: Bickle, P., Hofmann, D., Bentley, R., (2011). Pg. 1246. Roots of Diversity in a Linearbandkeramik Community: Isotope Evidence from Aiterhofen. Antiquity.

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material such as spondylus shells27, which originate from the

Aegean Sea, is often interpreted as a signal of the rapid

dispersion of LBK culture westward across Europe.

Throughout LBK culture, empty graves have had a presence in

many cemetery sites. It is useful to break down these

specialized burial pits into two different categories28:

Cenotaphs29, in which no remains of the skeleton are left or

buried, but the grave goods are intentionally placed signifying

the absence of the deceased. The second type then, an empty grave

contains burial goods that are not in the original or intended

position, and there are either few or no skeletal remains left in

the pit. At Aiterhofen, there are 36 empty graves, which accounts

for 13.6% of the total known burials at the site. This begs the

question, what purpose do these graves serve?

27 Spondylus shells were often shaped or made into bracelets, necklaces, beads, or belt buckles in LBK culture; John, J., Ifantidis, F (Ed)., Nikolaidou, M (Ed). (2011). Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data and Approaches,Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Techniques. BAR International Series2216.28 Lenneis, E. (2010). Pg. 162,3. Empty Graves in LBK Cemeteries- Indications of Special Burial Practises. Documenta Praehistorica XXXVII. 29 The origin of the word cenotaph is derived from the Greek work ‘Kenotaph.’ In its literal translation, kenotaph means empty grave.

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Specialized ritual practices can probably be the most

closely associated activity linking empty graves to societal

culture. The bodies would have had to have been wrapped in some

type of organic winding sheet made of a common material such as

tissue or leather, where the decomposition would occur quickly in

central European soil30. This implies that the time between

burial and disinterment would not have been very long. Other

German LBK sites such as Kleinhadersdorf and Schwetzingen had

high rates of empty graves. This pattern may be linked to the

consistency and uniformity overall of LBK culture and practices,

and there may have been possible ritual activities shared amongst

them. No data is known on where the bodies were moved after

disinterment, and due to lack of remains, empty graves remain an

archeological anomaly until further information is uncovered.

Beginning around 5300 B.C. near Stuttgart in the Nektar

Valley, the site of Vaihingen offers uniquely good preservation

in which many archaeological materials and site features have

survived31. There is evidence for over 100 houses at Vaihingen, 30 Lenneis, E. (2010). Pg. 164. Empty Graves in LBK Cemeteries- Indications ofSpecial Burial Practises. Documenta Praehistorica XXXVII.31 Bentley, R., Krause, R., Price, T., Kaufmann, B. (2003). Human Mobility at the Early Neolithic Settlement of Vaihingen: Strontium Isotope Analysis.

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spanning over 6 ha of landscape. This village appears to be

planned due to house orientation. Sometime after the construction

of the settlement, a large flat-bottom ditch was created

surrounding most of the village. In all, 138 skeletons were

excavated. The ditch surrounding Vaihingen was most likely used

as a burial ground after it was no longer used for whatever its

original purpose may have been. Within the fill, 85 human burials

were recovered. This village for the most part is typical of the

LBK culture, just as at Aiterhofen. However, there are higher

rates of violence exhibited through burials here than represented

at Aiterhofen.

In the ditch, many of the skeletons are not in the flexed

position attributed to typical LBK burials, but seem to have been

thrown in without any regard. Grave goods include nothing more

than shards of pottery32. These spatially separated groups

included all age and gender categories, which may suggest that a

kin based or familial type burial system was in place at the

time. A strontium isotope analysis was conducted on three cows

University of Oxford. 32 Price, T. (2013). Pg. 161,2. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

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from Vaihingen. The results show that during the summer, at least

one of the cows left the settlement, and was taken to the Black

Forest to pasture in the uplands, while then being brought back

to the settlement33. The other two cows tested don’t display data

concurrent with starting on the settlement, and they were led to

different locations to pasture34. This evidence procures the idea

that maybe family lineages controlled access to different parts

of pasture land, or through family, had a right to pasture their

cattle on certain parts of the surrounding landscape. This is one

viable explanation for non-age or gender specific spatial

groupings, and unceremonious burials in the ditch at Vaihingen.

Traumatic injury is also present on many of the dead.

These graves could likely the remains of non-locals. The ditch

site, almost a mass grave is suggestive that an instance of

conflict between existing Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and

incoming LBK peoples may have taken place, ultimately with the

33 Knipper, C., Bentley, R. (December, 2005). Transhumance at the Early Neolithic Settlement of Vaihingen (Germany). Antiquity. V(079). 34 The three cattle specimens used in this strontium isotope analysis sequencewere (3882) representing the Black Forest pasture feeding, and (3194) and (4805) representing cattle not originally from the settlement, taken to other areas of surrounding land to feed. See Knipper, C., Bentley, R. (December 2005).

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LBK prevailing. Strontium isotope analysis taken from tooth

enamel indicates that strewn remains in the ditch tended to be

non-local individuals while the dead place in the traditional

flexed position were local35. Measurements of the bones were also

taken, and robusticity was higher in the unceremoniously

scattered bones as opposed to the crouched position typical in

the LBK36.

While the U-shaped ditch at Vaihingen can be thought to

represent a burial for lower status individuals or non-locals,

Graves outside of the ditch may represent an increased importance

within the village. Outside the confines of the ditch, 40+ graves

were discovered with a general trend of a higher number of grave

goods accompanying them. These graves were mainly burial pits or

adjacent to the longhouses. One grave adjacent to a house, known

as Grave 130, contained a child burial. The child was buried

crouched on the left side, in the typical LBK fashion and in

35 Price, T. (2013). Pg. 162. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.36 See Price, T. (2013). Pg. 162.

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front of its head 2 undecorated bowls were placed in front of its

head37.

Wartberg Culture [3600-2700 BC]

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37 Price, T. (2013). Pg. 1612. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 2013.38 This photo illustrates the geographic position of the WBC in relation to Germany and the Rhine river. Other subcultures are shown in relation. Photo courtesy of: Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Absolute Chronology and Cultural Development of the Neolithic Wartberg Culture in Germany. ComparativeArchaeology Web. jungsteinSITE.de.

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In the latter part of the Neolithic period from

approximately 3600-2700 BC39, The Wartberg Culture (WBC)

developed within the Hesse region, eastern North Rhine-

Westphalia, and western Thuringia states of Germany40. Subgroups

within this culture include: Trichterbecherkultur (TRB) or Funnel

Beaker culture, the Globular Amphora Culture, the Tieftisch

pottery group, and the Northern Hessian Wartberg group With their

unique settlements relative to the regional norm and their

megalithic tombs (gallery graves), Wartberg culture provokes

numerous questions on the dynamic and influence of this culture.

Due to its central geographic location, it also suggests

influences from various directions41. The grave culture of

megalithic tombs in the early period of WBC culture remains a

high point of mystery for archaeologists, due to the fact that

while surrounding cultures in similar time periods and geographic

locations such as the Netherlands and Northern Germany do not

39 Some dates have been given for the arrival for WBC/TBK culture as early as 4100 B.C. I remain conservative here because there is stronger evidence supporting a later, conclusive date. 40 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Absolute Chronology and Cultural Development of the Neolithic Wartberg Culture in Germany. Comparative Archaeology Web. jungsteinSITE.de.41 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (2 February 2002). Calden - earthwork and gallery gravesof the 4th Millennium BC. Journal of Neolithic Archaeology.

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share this burial style, societies from locations including the

Paris Basin and Brittany draw many parallels with this burial

culture42. The dimensions and burial materials used in the

collective tombs that characterize WBC indicate that they could

only have been built by groups or some sort of communal team

work43.

The gallery graves associated with the WBC can be divided

into two different categories based upon stylistic properties:

Züschen and Rimbeck style tombs44. These graves can be anywhere

from 10-35 meters long and 2-3 meters wide, and as part of their

unique construction process, are sunk into the ground and covered

with some type of mound architecture45. The building material for

these graves is predominantly limestone and sandstone in the case

of both Züschen and Rimbeck style gallery graves46. Züschen style

42 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Absolute Chronology and Cultural Development of the Neolithic Wartberg Culture in Germany. Comparative Archaeology Web. jungsteinSITE.de.43 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de. 44 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.45 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.46 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.

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gallery graves are characterized by access to the tomb on the

smaller, axial side and an antechamber or vestibule, whereas

Rimbeck style gallery graves have access to the tomb on the

longer, lateral side, similar to a Funnel beaker passage grave47.

In many gallery grave cases, there has been evidence for around

80-100 individuals within each tomb, however, much more minimal

numbers are discussed due to extenuating circumstances such as

diagenetic alteration leading to poor preservation, and chaotic

discovery circumstances48. In tombs where bones have been

preserved, inhumation burials are almost always common. The

bodies are generally found lying on their back in a supine

position49. In many tombs, it is common to find the heads or feet

of the deceased oriented towards the entrance to the gallery.

However, the anisotropy of the bodies is not related to any form

47 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.48 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.49 The author discusses an atypical case: “one individual is known lying face-down (Henglarn I: Günther 1992, 57). They were positioned parallel to the chamber axis. As seen in Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.

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of astronomical orientation because the tombs themselves are not

oriented in any particular direction50.

Although grave goods are not abundant or lavish within the

WBC, many personal ornaments have been attributed as cultural

burial goods. For instance, pendants made from animal teeth,

mandibles (often from foxes), and copper and amber objects51. The

animal tooth pendants, most often made from the teeth of dogs

have been associated with both males and females of various ages

and locations such as the head, neck, legs, and arms. From this

evidence, it can probably be said that these pendants were used

as decorative necklaces or various clothing ornamentations or

fixtures. The mandibles have been found circumstantially near the

waist area in almost all cases52. The consistent position of

these finds indicates that the dead of whom these were buried

with most likely carried these mandibles in some form of belt or

pouch carried around the waist. From this, it is thus indicative

that these mandibles may have been used as amulets or other

50 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.51 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.52 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.

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ritualistic type items. Arrowheads have been categorized by

region, with triangular shaped arrowheads originating from the

Northern Hesse and Eastern Westphalia regions, while arrowheads

trapezoidal in figure are found in Westphalia tombs53.

The Calden Enclosure and the tomb at

Züschen I: Discussion and Interpretations

The Calden enclosure, which has been radiocarbon dated back

to around 3600-3700 BC, but a more reasonable timetable being

close to 3400 BC, was a crucial discovery in attempting to

understand the early part of the WBC period54. The enclosure

itself is a 14ha double-ditch system located in a small valley

close to the two sources that feed the Calde creek near Kassel in

the Hesse region of Germany55. The entrance to this gallery grave

53 Bone arrowheads have also been discovered at sites in Warburg. There have been instances in which all three types of arrowhead have been found together,indicating that the arrows were kept together in a type of quiver. Schierhold,K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.54 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Monumentality and Communication: Neolithic Enclosures and Long Distance Tracks in West Central Europe. jungsteinSITE.de. 55 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (2 February 2002). Calden - earthwork and gallery gravesof the 4th Millennium BC. Journal of Neolithic Archaeology.

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is oriented towards the Southeast, and while most of the

architecture and reconstructions point towards a predominantly

general transportation related purpose, over 300 human remains

have been discovered within the ditch fill. This characteristic

along with the ditch being deliberately filled shortly after its

construction, and scattered human remains discovered in excavated

parts of the enclosure point to a possible mortuary or ritual

practice as a prominent aspect of the enclosure .

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[On the left, the symmetry of the gates is demonstrated at the Calden Enclosure. The

figure on the right is a plan of the tomb]56

Although the excavation of Calden I lacks the finding

of any completely preserved skeletons, many elements were left in

original anatomical positions. The buried deceased were laid down

in an extended supine position parallel to the longitudinal

direction of the tomb and the head of the entrance57. Some of the

bodies adjacent to one another were placed in a fourfold skeletal

superposition58. Children buried at Calden II were buried across

the chamber axis59. The style found here exhibits a regional

preference found at this location as well as others such as

Altendorf. Special body orientations can be found throughout the

WBC, and can be thought of as regional group preferences,

although they don’t seem to be influenced by age or gender60.

56 Photo courtesy of: Raetzel-Fabian, D. (2 February 2002). Calden - earthworkand gallery graves of the 4th Millennium BC. Journal of Neolithic Archaeology.57 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.58 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.59 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.60 Further discussion of age and gender by the author: “All age classes are represented. Many children died, about 10-30% of the population. Most people reached an age of 30 to 40, some over 60, very few grew older than 60. It has to be mentioned that the amount of male and female burials is more or less in balance. The data points to the conclusion that every member of a community

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This skeletal typology has been found in other WBC burial grounds

such as Altendorf and Wewelsburg61. This placement could suggest

that a series of burials with some aspect in common with each

other was taking place at the time.

At Calden II, the characteristic Wartberg group architecture

is displayed. This collective tomb (12 x 3-3.5m) has vertical

wall stones integrated into the foundation, and is made up solely

of local tertiary quartzite62. This site is crucial because it

offers a rare glimpse at some of the grave goods buried with the

deceased. Two ceramic drums with picot chalets were recovered at

the site. The style of these objects has been linked to a

cultural influence from Central Germany63. One of the excavated

was buried in a gallery grave, without reference to age or gender.”61 Fernandes, R., Rinne, C., Grootes, P., Josée-Nadeau, M. (2012). Revisiting the Chronology of Northern German Monumentality Sites: Preliminary Results. Leibniz Labor for Isotopic and Radiometric Dating and Isotope Research. Institute of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology. Kiel University, Germany.62 Fernandes, R., Rinne, C., Grootes, P., Josée-Nadeau, M. (2012). Revisiting the Chronology of Northern German Monumentality Sites: Preliminary Results. Leibniz Labor for Isotopic and Radiometric Dating and Isotope Research. Institute of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology. Kiel University, Germany.63 Fernandes, R., Rinne, C., Grootes, P., Josée-Nadeau, M. (2012). Revisiting the Chronology of Northern German Monumentality Sites: Preliminary Results. Leibniz Labor for Isotopic and Radiometric Dating and Isotope Research. Institute of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology. Kiel University, Germany.

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bowls features typical TRB ornaments adorned with cross

patterns64. The discovery of these burial objects indicates that

somewhat long-distance connections were being made, and that

cultural influences were impacting WBC/TRB society in a new and

profound way.

Pertaining to the presence of grave goods at Calden I, the

dead were buried only with their personal garments and

accessories65. It is worth noting that pottery has never been

found at this cite. It remains unclear whether the clothing and

accessories are the last items the deceased were wearing or if

they were purposefully dressed with some ceremonious regard.

Various pierced animal teeth66 were placed on the deceased as

clothing accessories. Flint blades, and a large quantity of arrow

reinforcements comprised of chert and flint were recovered,

64 Fernandes, R., Rinne, C., Grootes, P., Josée-Nadeau, M. (2012). Revisiting the Chronology of Northern German Monumentality Sites: Preliminary Results. Leibniz Labor for Isotopic and Radiometric Dating and Isotope Research. Institute of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology. Kiel University, Germany.65 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.66 Pierced animal teeth used in clothing accessories have been derived from such species as, but not limited to: dog, rare wild cat, pig, cattle, brown bear, and red deer. Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.

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likely related to hunting equipment67. On the bottom of the

grave chamber, pierced amber beads and green patina have been

found68. This indicates that there were previously copper objects

in conjunction with the grave goods69. Other finds at the site

include a single small, ceramic funnel cup, an undecorated strap

handle, and shards of simple dishware70. Roughly 34m northeast of

the Calden enclosure, there has been speculation of the presence

of a menhir71 based on dark discoloration shown through a trough

in a field. Though this has not been proven, as a whole in

context, it could indicate that these are the remains of, or a

component of a ‘religious’ or ‘ritualistic’ district72.

The Züschen I gallery grave was first discovered in 1894

between Lohne and Züschen in the Hesse region of Germany.

67 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.68 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.69 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Monumentality and Communication: Neolithic Enclosures and Long Distance Tracks in West Central Europe. jungsteinSITE.de.70 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.71 The dimensions for the possible menhir are (4.0 x 0.6 x 0.6 m). Similar structures have been found an associated with such sites as Odagsen & Groβenrode I & II. 72 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Monumentality and Communication: Neolithic Enclosures and Long Distance Tracks in West Central Europe. jungsteinSITE.de.

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Arguably one of the most important discoveries pertaining to the

Wartberg culture, this late Neolithic tomb contains striking

features such as the presence of incised carvings, comparable to

prehistoric European rock art73. This feature of the WBC group is

unique to and only known so far from the Züschen megalithic

monument and tomb I at Warburg74. The grave is set in the ground

and is approximately 19 m long and 3.5 m wide75. The construction

of this grave can be safely categorized in line with the Wartberg

culture, with its antechamber being separated by a port-hole slab

in the east76. Among depictions of fork-like figured bovines,

Züschen I contains wagon like structures, which may be the oldest

representation of carts ever discovered in Europe77. Also, this 73 This grave has become particularly famous for its depictions of bovines andcart-like symbols. Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3D Measurements Techniques. CAAconference.74 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.75 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.76 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.77 The authors continue a description of the grave features: “Apart from the ornamented wall stones, a red sandstone plate was salvaged from the inside of the grave, showing bovine and wagon representations. In addition, geometrical motifs like single or double zigzag lines and herringbone patterns could be distinguished.” Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne,

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tomb contains a famous motif referred to as the “Eye Goddess,”

which has linked it to other sites in the Paris basin which

contain the same image78.

[Map of the Gallery Grave at Züschen I]79

The interior of the tomb contained a high number of

disarticulated bones, and the minimum number of buried dead at

Züschen has been estimated to be 2780. The discovery of a burial

from the Urnfield period above the original depositions indicates

that the bones must have been disturbed sometime after the 9th or

Germany, with Optical 3D Measurements Techniques. CAAconference.78 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.79 Photo courtesy of: Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3D Measurements Techniques. CAAconference.80 Megalithic.co.uk (14 September 2005). Chambered Tomb in Germany in Hesse. The Megalithic Portal.

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10th century BC81. The porthole slab of the tomb (1.4 m high, 2 m

wide) separating the main and antechamber sections of the tomb

contains zigzag lines, but more curiously it contains drawn

representations of oxcarts, which have been associated with other

stones in the grave82.

[Representation of Oxcarts found on the upper right corner of the porthole slab]83

81 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.82 The authors give a detailed description of these oxcarts: “There are two oxcarts, consisting of two forked signs and additional lines. The left figure consists of two forked signs linked through a cross-line beneath the half bows. From this line, usually interpreted as a yoke, another line comes off ata right angle. In its course it slightly arches to the left and meets an additional line. This latter line connects an ornament which can best be described as two almost complete rings. Another line comes off from the aforementioned line, running diagonally to the bottom right. Furthermore, there is one line between the forked signs and what has previously been interpreted as a kind of drawbar. Both lines originate from the link between the “yoke” and the forked signs… An almost identical figure can be seen to theright.” As seen in Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3D Measurements Techniques. CAAconference.83 Photo courtesy of: Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3D Measurements Techniques. CAAconference.

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The excavation of Züschen has been critical in further

understanding a fairly mysterious and unknown culture. The

discoveries of rare burial goods and rock carvings have provided

much needed insight on the WBC and what their societal values and

rituals may have been like at the time of their existence. One of

the more common symbols found at this gallery grave is a simple

line with an attached open semi-circle. This is usually

interpreted as a stylized portrayal of cattle84. Similar

depictions of cattle are known from Bronze and Iron Age carvings

at sites such as Valcamonica and Bégo, and have generally been

thought of as a reflection of Neolithic ideological or religious

ideas85. Symbols that overlap can probably be attributed to

individual signs and symbols accumulating over time, and they are

likely not connected in any form to one another.

84 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.85 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.

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Conclusions

With the rise of the Linearbandkeramik culture, agriculture

and communal cooperation become defining aspects of Neolithic

society. For the LBK, this is evident in the building of their

massive longhouses. Communal cooperation and the idea of team

work survived and prospered, evident again in the Wartberg

culture, with team work being applied to the creation of

megalithic tombs. LBK culture spread rapidly from east to west,

claiming a cultural uniformity seldom seen in archaeology. The

WBC however, is consistent predominantly by region, where certain

preferences throughout the Hesse, Thuringia and North Rhine-

Westphalia regions of Germany are expressed. Although it is

overall a heterogeneous culture, unlike the LBK, WBC experienced

periods of cultural and stylistic change during progressive

phases86. These subtle changes are evident in grave styles, body

orientation, and in some cases grave goods. A clear style and

regional distinction was found present with the separation of

Züschen style graves and the Rimbeck gallery graves.

86 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Absolute Chronology and Cultural Development of the Neolithic Wartberg Culture in Germany. Comparative Archaeology Web. jungsteinSITE.de.

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With regard to both cultures in their respective eras, grave

goods continue to remain limited and overall modest in content.

In some Wartberg group passage graves, very limited copper and

amber objects were recovered. Change is also evident in the

eventual transition to single-grave burials. Although little is

known or applicable so far for this burial transition, it can be

hypothesized that with the arrival of the Corded Ware people, or

Single Grave Culture (SGC), that there was a strong cultural

differentiation between the two. Although there is no data for

economic reactions to this successive culture, some religious and

ritual reaction such as: A conservative opposition or rejection,

attempts of integrating old and new cultural elements, and a

complete abandonment of the old religious concepts87. This

explanation is just one scenario describing how this change may

have come about. Looking at the LBK group, it is clear that they

were able to overcome previous hunter-gatherer opposition and

cultural traditions, while implementing their own style

simultaneously. Looking at these two cultures which existed for

87 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Absolute Chronology and Cultural Development of the Neolithic Wartberg Culture in Germany. Comparative Archaeology Web. jungsteinSITE.de.

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only brief periods in the Neolithic provide excellent grounds for

analyzing cultural trends, burial styles, and the transitions

that led up to them. There is clearly continuation overlap in

some cultural regards, but probably only by happenstance.

Progressive characteristics such as the arrival of rock carved

art in the WBC continued to grow and define each culture

separately.

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