Contents
04 Introduction
05 OurFirm
06 OurFootprintinAfrica
07 OurLitigationPractice
08 Botswana
14 DemocraticRepublicofCongo
20 Guinea
26 Kenya
36 Madagascar
42 SouthAfrica
54 Tanzania
60 Togo
66 Uganda
71 KeyContacts
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Introduction
This is the first edition of our Guide to Dispute Resolution in Africa. It is intended to provide a concise overview of issues relating to litigation and arbitration in certain key African jurisdictions.
Thereisalwaysariskthatcross-borderbusinessactivitieswillresultinadispute
thatgivesrisetolitigationorarbitrationinajurisdictionthatatleastonepartyisnotfamiliarwith.ThisguideprovidesanoverviewofthedifferencesindisputeresolutionproceedingsinvariousAfricancountries.
ItcoversnineAfricanjurisdictionsincludingthecountriesinwhichBowmanshasoffices.Theanswersdealwiththelawandrulesoftherelevantjurisdiction.
IthasbeenpreparedasacollaborationamonglawyersfromourofficesandbestfriendfirmsinvariousAfricanjurisdictions.
AdamAnderson
HeadofLitigation
The guide is not a substitute for advice. If you require further information,
please contact one of the key contacts listed at the end of this document.
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Our Firm
Bowmans is a leading Pan-African law firm. Our track record of providing specialist legal services, both domestic and cross-border, in the fields of corporate law, banking and finance law and dispute resolution, spans over a century.
WithsixofficesinfourAfricancountriesandover400specialisedlawyers,
wearedifferentiatedbyourgeographicalreach,independenceandthequalityoflegalservicesweprovide.
WedrawonouruniqueknowledgeoftheAfricanbusinessenvironmentandin-depthunderstandingofthesocio-politicalclimatetoadviseclientsonawiderangeoflegalissues.Ouraimistoassistourclientsinachievingtheirobjectivesassmoothlyandefficientlyaspossiblewhileminimisingthelegalandregulatoryrisks.
Ourclientsincludecorporates,multinationalsandstate-ownedenterprisesacrossarangeofindustrysectorsaswellasfinancialinstitutionsandgovernments.
Ourexpertiseisfrequentlyrecognisedbyindependentresearchorganisations.WehavebeennamedAfricanLegalAdviserbyDealMakersforthelastthreeconsecutiveyearsandSouthAfricanLawFirmoftheYearfor2016bytheWho’s Who Legal.Mostrecently,wewontheTechnology,MediaandTelecommunicationsTeamoftheYearAwardattheprestigiousAfricanLegalAwardshostedbyLegal WeekandtheCorporateCounselAssociationofSouthAfricain2017.Thefirmwasalso‘highlycommended’intheAfricanLawFirmoftheYear–LargePracticeandLitigationandDisputeResolutionTeamoftheYearcategories.
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Bowmans offices
Relationship firm
Significant transaction or advisory experience
Bowmans offices
Relationship firm
Significant transaction or advisory experience
SOUTH AFRICA MOZAMBIQUE
NIGERIA
KENYA
TANZANIA
UGANDA
Bowmans offices
Relationship firm
Significant transaction or advisory experience
SOUTH AFRICA MOZAMBIQUE
NIGERIA
KENYA
TANZANIA
UGANDA
Our Footprint in Africa
Bowmans offices
Relationship firm
Significant transaction or advisory experience
SOUTH AFRICA MOZAMBIQUE
NIGERIA
KENYA
TANZANIA
UGANDA
Bowmans offices
Relationship firm
Significant transaction or advisory experience
SOUTH AFRICA MOZAMBIQUE
NIGERIA
KENYA
TANZANIA
UGANDA
Bowmans offices
Relationship firm
Significant transaction or advisory experience
SOUTH AFRICA MOZAMBIQUE
NIGERIA
KENYA
TANZANIA
UGANDA
WeprovideintegratedlegalservicesthroughoutAfricafromsixoffices(Cape
Town,DaresSalaam,Durban,Johannesburg,KampalaandNairobi)infourcountries(Kenya,SouthAfrica,TanzaniaandUganda).
WeworkcloselywithleadingNigerianfirmUdoUdoma&Belo-Osagie,andMozambique-basedboutiquefirm,TacianaPeãoLopes&AdvogadosAssociados.WealsohavestrongrelationshipswithotherleadinglawfirmsacrosstherestofAfrica.
WearerepresentativesofLexMundi,aglobalassociation,withmorethan160independentlawfirmsinallthemajorcentresacrosstheglobe.Thisassociationgivesusaccesstothebestfirmsineachjurisdictionrepresented.
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OurLitigationPracticespecialisesincommercialdisputesandhasextensiveknowledgeofdisputesinthefollowingareasoflaw:
• Banking• Businessrescue• Commercial• Contract• Constitutional• Construction• Corporate• Corporaterecovery• Forensicandwhitecollarcrime• Insolvency• Insurance• Medico-legal• Regulatory• Riskassessment• Property• Tax
WeareabletoofferabroadscopeoflegalservicestosupportourdisputeresolutionandarbitrationlawyersinproceedingsacrossAfrica.
Our Litigation Practice
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DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatisthestructureofthelegalprofession?
TheBotswanalegalsystemcomprisesasplitbarofattorneys(akintoUKsolicitors)andadvocates(akintoUKbarristers).OursystemevolvedfromthemodelusedinSouthAfrica,butovertimeithascrystallisedintoapracticeofnolocaladvocatesbeingextant.Attorneyshaverightofappearancetothehighestcourtinthelandanddosoappearregularly.
SouthAfricanadmittedadvocatesmaybeadmittedonanadhocbasistoappearinBotswanacourtsandtheydosoappear,inparticularinmatterswhichareseentobeofacertainmagnitude.
2.Whatmethodsofdisputeresolutionare
availabletosettlecommercialdisputes?
TheHighCourtofBotswanaistheprimaryforumforadjudicatinglargecommercialdisputes.DisputeswithcommercialvalueslowerthanthethresholdofBWP40thousandaredealtwithintheMagistrates’Courts.
BotswanahasrecentlyseentheinceptionoftheSmallClaimsCourt,whichisopentonaturalpersonswithdisputesnotinexcessofBWP10thousand.Theproceedingsinthesecourtsaremostlyadversarial.
Alternativedisputemechanismsinthewayofarbitration,adjudicationandmediationarealsoavailableinBotswana.
3.Arethereanyrestrictionsontheroleof
foreignlawyersinlitigationproceedings?
ForeignattorneysarenotabletoconductcasesinBotswana,unlesstheyareenrolledtopractiseinaccordancewiththeLegalPractitioners’Act.However,foreignadvocatesinlitigationproceedingsmayapplytothecourtbypetitioninwritingtobeadmittedandenrolled.
4.Whatisthetimeperiodwithinwhichacivil
claimmustbebrought?
ThePrescriptionsActdetailsthetimeperiodswithinwhichcivilclaimscanberenderedunenforceablebylapseoftime.ThisActstipulatesthefollowingprescriptionperiods:
• oneyearforclaimsfordefamation;• threeyearsforclaimsfoundedonoral
contracts,claimsforremunerationdueinconnectionwithservicesrenderedandrentalsdueuponcontract;
• sixyearsforclaimsfoundedonwrittencontracts;and
• 30yearsforclaimsfoundedonmortgagebonds.
5.Whatisthelegalfeestructure?
Wherethereisnofixedrateforservices,theHighCourtRules(Rules)provideatarifffortimetaken.
Ratesmayvarydependingontheagreementmadebetweentheclientandattorney.Whatisimportanttonoteisthatthereisadisparitybetweencostsclaimableonaparty-and-partyscaleasprovidedforintheRules,andthecommercialrealityofattorneyandownclientfees,whichoftenarewellinexcessofthestatutoryrate.Thisdictatesthatlitigants’recoveriesoffeesarebetween50%and60%oftheiractualexpenditureintaxation.
6.Isitpossibleforlitigationtobefunded
byathirdparty?Canlawyersclaim
contingencyfees?
Itispossibleforlitigationtobefundedbyathirdparty,thoughtheRulesonlyenvisagethecostimplicationspartiesbeforecourtstandtoincur.Thirdpartyfundingisthereforeanissueofcontractbetweenthethirdpartyandthelitigant.
Botswanadoesnothavethenecessarylegalframeworkforcontingencyfees.
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THE COURT SYSTEM
1.Whatisthestructureofthecourtsystem?
ThesuperiorcourtinBotswanaistheCourtofAppeal,followedbytheHighCourt,whichstandssuperiortotheMagistrates’Court.TheHighCourtisacourtoffirstinstance,thoughithearsappealsfromlowercourts(exampletheMagistrates’Court)andtribunals(exampletheLandTribunal)aswellasreviewsofthedecisionsofthesame.
Mattersthatrequirespecialisedknowledgearerelegatedtospecialtribunals,forexample,theWorkman’sCompensationCommissioner,IncomeTaxAppealsCommitteeandtheIndustrialCourt.
Botswanahasadualsystemoflaw,aCustomaryCourtsystemco-existswiththeCommonLawsystem.CustomaryCourtsdealwithalltribalmattersandhavetheirownhierarchy,thoughappealsliewiththeMagistrates’Court,theHighCourtandtheCourtofAppeal.
2.Arecertaintypesofdisputesallocatedtoa
particularcourt?
Yes.Mattersthatrequirespecialisedknowledgearerelegatedtospecialtribunals,forexample,theWorkman’sCompensationCommissioner,IncomeTaxAppealsCommitteeandtheIndustrialCourt.
3.Arelowercourtsboundbythedecisionsof
highercourts?
Yes.
4.Whatarethedifferenttypesofcivil
proceedingsincourtavailabletoenforce
aclaim?
Therearetwotypesofcivilproceedingsavailabletoenforceaclaim:
• actionproceedings:commencewiththeserviceofawritofsummons,followingfurtherexchangesofdocumentsuntilthemattercomestotrial,whereoralevidenceisheardbythecourt.Intrialactionthepartiesarecalled‘plaintiff’and‘defendant’.
• motionproceedings:commencewiththeserviceofanoticeofmotionsupportedbyanaffidavitastothefactsuponwhichtheapplicantreliesforrelief.Ininstancesofmotionproceedingsthematterdoesnotgofortrialandoralevidenceisnotheard.
Thepotentialofmaterialdisputesoffactthatcannotberesolvedonpaper,withoutreferencetooralevidence,istheprimaryfactorthatdeterminesthechoiceofwhethertoproceedinactionoronmotion.
5.Arecourtproceedingsandcourt
documentsconfidential?
No.Courtproceedingsarenotconfidentialastheyareheldinpublic,unlessthepresidingjudgehasreasontoholdtheproceedingsincamera.
Courtdocumentsinrespectoffinalisedlitigiousmattersarepublicrecord.However,courtdocumentsinrespectofongoingproceedingsareonlyavailabletothepartieswithpersonalinterestinthelitigation,whichdeterminationiswithinthecompleteauthorityoftheregistrar.
6.Arethereanypre-trialproceedings
prescribedbytherulesofcourt?
Yes,inBotswanatherehasbeenadeparturefromthetraditionalstructureofRulesinRoman-Dutchjurisdictionswiththeintroductionofthejudicialcasemanagementoflitigation.
Judicialcasemanagementisasysteminwhichjudgesdirectconductoflitigation.Thereisaseriesofpre-trialprocessesinvolvingseveralmeetingsbetweenpartiesandtheircounsel,withStatusHearingsbeforecourtatwhichappropriatedirectionsarehandeddownforfutureconductofmatters.
Thejudicialcasemanagementsystemhasseriousimplicationsasfailuretoparticipateintheseproceedingscanresultinadverseorders.Inaddition,oncetheHighCourthandsdownafinalpre-trialorder,whichisthepenultimatehearingtotheactualtrialofamatter,suchordercannotbeunlessapartyisabletoprovemanifestinjustice.
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7.Whatistheroleofajudgein
civilproceedings?
JudgesinBotswanaplaymanyroles.Theyhaveallthetraditionaldutiesaccordedtojudicialofficers,inthattheyinterpretthelaw,assessevidencepresentedandcontrolhowhearingsandtrialsunfold.
Judgesremainabovethefrayoflitigation,andprovideanindependentandimpartialassessmentofthefactsandhowthelawappliestofactsinissue.
JudgesinBotswanaaretheprimarydriversoflitigation,makingthejudiciarymanagersofallaspectsofpre-trialprocesses.
8.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Apartyisobligedtomakeafullandpromptdisclosureofalldocumentscurrentlyorpreviouslyinitspossessionorinthepossessionofanagent,thatarerelevanttotheissuesofthecaseexceptforprivilegeddocuments.
9.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
Communicationsanddocumentationexchangedasbetweenalawyerandaclientareprivileged.
10.Howisevidencepresented?
Intrialproceedings,evidenceispresentedthroughthetestimonyofwitnesses,unlessaSummaryofEvidencedeliveredinthepre-trialprocesshasbeenadmittedbyaparty.Inmotionproceedings,partiespresenttheirevidenceintheaffidavitsfiledwiththecourt.
11.Areinterimremediesavailabletoaparty
beforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings?
Yes.Itisopentoapartytosecureinterimremediesthroughappropriateinterlocutoryapplicationsbeforeand/orduringcivilproceedings.
12.Howisacourtorderenforced?
Acourtorderisgenerallyenforcedthroughthedeputysheriff,intheeventthatapartyrefusestoabidebytheorder.ContemptproceedingsarealsoavailabletolitigantsinappropriatecircumstanceswherearecalcitrantpartyleavesthecounterpartynochoicebuttoseektheHighCourt’sintervention.
13.Whatistheestimateddurationof
courtproceedings?
Thedurationofcourtproceedingscannotbeestimated.Durationisbasedonseveralfactors:theefficiency,diaryandavailabilityofthepresidingjudgeandthecounterparty,aswellasthecomplexityofthecase.
14.Doesacourthavethepowerto
awardcosts?
Yes.CostsusuallyfollowtheeventofjudgmentinBotswana,saveinexceptionalcaseswherethecourtmakesnoorderastocosts.
15.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredtoprovide
securityforcosts?
Foreignlitigantsarenotrequiredtoprovidesecurityforcosts,thoughtheRulesallowanincoladesiringtodemandsecurityforcoststopursuethesame.
16.Isitpossibletorecoverlegalfees?
Yes.Intheabsenceofasuitabletenderforcosts,apartythathasbeenawardedcostsbythecourtcanrecoverlegalfeesbypreparingandtaxingaBillofCosts.
17.Onwhatgroundscanpartiesappeal
orreviewanordergrantedbyacourt?
Apartywhoisnotsatisfiedwiththefinaldecisionofacourtoffirstinstancemayappealagainstsuchdecisiontoahighercourt.Ontheotherhand,apartynotsatisfiedwiththedecision-makingprocessusedtoarriveataconclusion,mayinappropriatecircumstancesseektohavesuchdecisionreviewed.
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18.Doproceduresexistfortherecognition
andenforcementofforeignjudgmentsor
arbitralawards?
Yes.TheenforcementofforeignjudgmentsinBotswanaisprovidedforundertheJudgments(InternationalEnforcement)Act.Whereapartyhasobtainedafinalandconclusivejudgmentintheirhomejurisdiction,suchjudgmentisenforceableinBotswanaprovidedthatitscountryoforiginhasbeenrecognisedbythePresidentofBotswanainapublishedorderasacountrywhoseforeignjudgmentsmaybeenforcedbyourcourtsoncedulyregistered.InordertoeffectenforcementanapplicationmustbebroughtinourHighCourttohavetheforeignjudgmentmadeanorderofourcourt.
ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatarethemainalternative
disputeresolutionmethodsavailable
toresolvedisputes?
Arbitration,mediation,andadjudication.
2.Arepartiestocommerciallitigation
requiredtosubmittoalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
Unlessboundbyacontractcontainingaclauserequiringpartiestothecontracttosubmitthemselvestoalternativedisputeresolution,partiestocommerciallitigationarenotrequiredtosubmittoalternativedisputeresolutionproceedings.
3.Howcostsaredealtwithinalternative
disputeresolutionproceedings?
Intheabsenceofspecificagreementstothecontrary,costsinalternativedisputeresolutionproceedingsusuallyfollowtheevent.
4.Arealternativedisputeresolution
proceedingsconfidential?
Yes.Unlesspartiesotherwiseagree,theproceedingsandanyawardspublishedtherein
areconfidentialtotheextentthatdisclosuremayberequiredinordertoprotectorpursuealegalrightortoenforceorchallengeanawardinanylegalproceedings.
5.Whatarethemainbodiesthatoffer
andconductalternativedisputeresolution
proceedings?Arepartiesobligedtouse
thesebodiesforalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
TheBotswanaInstituteofArbitratorsisoneofthemainbodiesthatoffersandconductsalternativedisputeresolutionproceedings,althoughpartiesarenotobligatedtousethisorotherbodiesunlesstheyhaveagreedtodosobycontract.
ARBITRATION
1.Whatistheestimateddurationof
arbitrationproceedings?
Thedurationofarbitrationproceedingscannotbeestimated,asdurationisbasedonseveralfactors:theefficiency,diaryandavailabilityofthearbitratorandthecounterparty,aswellasthecomplexityofthecase.
2.Canacourtinterveneinarbitration
proceedings?
Yes.Inappropriatecircumstances,itisopentoapartytoarbitrationproceedingstoseekinjunctiverelieffromacourt.Inaddition,thecourtmayatanytime,uponmotion,removeanarbitratoragainstwhomagroundforrecusalisfoundtoexist,orwhohasmisconductedtheproceedingsinconnectionwithanarbitration.
3.Doesanarbitratorhavethepowerto
grantinterimrelief?
Thearbitrator’spowertograntinterimrelief dependsontherulesagreedbythepartiesthatdetermineconductofthearbitrationproceedings.
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4.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Despitetheagreedrules,partiesaregenerallyrequiredtodisclosealldocumentsthatarenotprivilegedthatshallassistindeterminationofthematterindispute.
5.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
Exchangesasbetweenattorneyandclientareprivileged.
6.Howisevidencepresented?
Generally,anydocumentsdeliveredwithparties’submissionsareadmittedintoevidencewithoutthenecessityfortheiridentificationorverificationbyanywitness,althoughanypartywillbeentitledtoleadevidenceonorigin,accuracy,meaningandrelevanceofthesame.Anypartymayapplytothearbitrator,orthearbitratormayathis/herowninstancedirectthepartiestodiscoverdocumentsandothermaterialrelatingtoanymatterinquestioninthearbitration,whichisinthepossessionandcontrolofsuchparty.
7.Howisanarbitrationawardenforced?
Anawardonasubmissionmay,byleaveoftheHighCourt,beenforcedinthesamemannerasajudgmentorordertothesameeffect,andwhereleaveisgiven,judgmentmaybeenteredintermsoftheaward.
8.Isitpossibletoappealan
arbitrationaward?
Yes.However,thepartiesmustinasignedwrittenagreementprovidethattheawardshallbesubjecttoappeal.Theabsenceofsuchagreementshallmeanthatanawardcannotbeappealed.
9.Canforeignjudgmentsorarbitralawards
berecognisedandenforcedbywayof
arbitrationproceedings?
Yes,theRecognitionandEnforcementofForeignArbitralAwardsActregulatesthe
recognitionandenforcementofarbitralawardsinBotswana.Inaddition,aforeignawardmaybeenforcedintermsoftheJudgements(InternationalEnforcement)Act.
AforeignawardcanberecognisedandenforcedinBotswana,providedthatthecountryinwhichtheawardwasmadeisadesignatedcountrybythePresidentafterbeingsatisfiedthat,‘substantialreciprocityoftreatment’isextendedtothejudgementsoftheHighCourtofBotswanainthatcountry,andthattheawardhasbeenregisteredwiththeHighCourt.
10.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredto
providesecurityforcosts?
Unlesspartiesagreetothecontrary,generallythearbitratormayonapplicationofadefendantinconventionorinreconvention,orderaclaimantinconventionorinreconventiontoprovideappropriatesecurityforcosts(includingadditionalsecurity)andmayinfactstaythearbitrationproceedingspendingcompliancewithsuchorder.
REFORM
1.Istherelikelytobeanyfuturereform
ofthecourtsystemoralternativedispute
resolutionsystem?
Reforminthecourtsystemoralternativedisputeresolutionsystemisnotlikely.TheLegislaturewillpassinstrumentsthatamendaspectsoftheRulesandtheArbitrationAct,butthesubstanceofthesystemislikelytoremainunchangedinthenearfuture.
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DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatisthestructureofthelegalprofession?
Lawyersarecalled‘Avocats’intheDemocraticRepublicofCongo(DRC).Theyhavetherighttoassistandrepresenttheirclientsandalsopleadontheirbehalfbeforethecourtsofthecountry.Furthermore,AvocatsareentitledtoactoutsideDRC’scourts.Forexample,theycanprovidelegaladvicetotheirclients.
Judicialdefenders(défenseurs judiciaires)arecourtofficerswhocanassistandrepresentpartiesaswellaspleadontheirbehalfbeforePeaceTribunalsandCountyCourts(TGI).AvocatsorcivilservantscanrepresenttheState.Thelatterarecalled‘mandataires de l’Etat’.
2.Whatmethodsofdisputeresolutionare
availabletosettlecommercialdisputes?
CommercialTribunalscansettlecommercialdisputesinDRC.Conciliation-mediationandarbitrationarealsoavailabletosettlecommercialdisputes.
3.Arethereanyrestrictionsontheroleof
foreignlawyersinlitigationproceedings?
Inprinciple,onlyCongoleseAvocatsareallowedtointerveneinlitigationproceedingsinDRC.However,foreignlawyerscanalsointerveneinthetwofollowingcases:
• aninternationalconventionenteredintobetweentheircountryoforiginandDRCallowsthemtoactasAvocatsinDRC;and
• inreciprocationforCongoleseAvocatsbeingallowedtointerveneinlitigationproceedingsabroad(exampleifCongoleseAvocatsareallowedtointerveneinlitigationproceedingsinFrance,FrenchlawyerswillbeauthorisedtointerveneinlitigationproceedingshappeninginDRC).
4.Whatisthetimeperiodwithinwhichacivil
claimmustbebrought?
Inprinciple,acivilclaimmustbebroughtwithinaperiodof30years.Insomespecificcases,thistimeperiodisshorter(exampleaworkerwishingtorecoverhis/hersalarymustbringaclaimwithinaperiodofoneyear).
5.Whatisthelegalfeestructure?
OnceanAvocatagreestohandleacase,his/herclienthastopayhim/heraretainingfee(provision),whichcannotbelessthan20%oftheamountoftheAvocat’sfees.
Forextra-judicialinterventionsthereisaminimumaswellasamaximumamountofmoneythatmustbepaidtotheAvocats.Thus,thelegalfeescanvaryonacase-by-casebasis,aslongastheyarewithintheabovementionedrange.Extra-judicialinterventionsinclude,interalia,consultations,conciliationsanddraftingwills.
Avocatsarepaidinthesamewaywhenitcomestojudicialinterventions(examplepleadingonbehalfoftheirclientsbeforethecourts).However,thereisaslightdifferencebecausefromtimetotime,theirlegalfeescanbeincreasedbyapercentageofacertainamountofmoney(exampleincaseofreviewofajudgmenthandeddownbyaPeaceTribunal,anAvocatwillreceiveapercentageoftheamountofmoneyawardedtohis/herclient).Furthermore,ifacaseinvolvesrecoveringmoney,Avocatswillbepaidwithapercentageoftheamountoftherecoveredmoney.
AnAvocat andhis/herclientcanalsoenterintoasubscriptioncontract,whichcontainsaminimumaswellasamaximumamountofmoneythatmustbepaid,onamonthlybasis,totheAvocat.Thesaidamountofmoneyvariesonacase-by-casebasis(dependingonwhethertheclientisanindividualoracompany),butitmustbewithintherangeoftheabovementionedminimalandmaximalmonthlylegalfees.
ContingencyfeesareforbiddeninDRC.
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6.Isitpossibleforlitigationtobefunded
byathirdparty?Canlawyersclaim
contingencyfees?
Yes.Litigationcanbefundedbyathirdparty.Avocatscannotclaimcontingencyfees.
THE COURT SYSTEM
1.Whatisthestructureofthecourtsystem?
ThecourtsysteminDRChasthefollowingstructure:
• atthebottomofthecourtsystemarePeaceTribunals,MilitaryTribunals,CountyCourts(commonlyreferredtoasTGI),CommercialTribunalsandLabourTribunals;
• theseconddegreeofthecourtsysteminDRCismadeupofCourtsofAppealandMilitaryCourts.TherecanbeoneormoreCourtsofAppealineachprovinceandinKinshasa.DecisionsrenderedbyCountyCourts,CommercialTribunalsandLabourTribunalscanbecontestedbeforetheCourtsofAppeal;and
• thehighestcourtsinDRCaretheMilitaryHighCourtandtheCourtofCassation.TheCourtofCassationislocatedinthecapitalofDRC.Ithasjurisdictionovertheentireterritoryofthecountry.CivilandMilitaryTribunalsandcourtsareunderthecontroloftheCourtofCassation.
2.Arecertaintypesofdisputesallocated
toaparticularcourt?
Yes.Forexample,CommercialTribunalshavejurisdictionoverthefollowingmatters(thisisnotanexhaustivelist):
• disputesbetweenmerchantsrelatingtotheircommitmentsandtransactions;
• disputesbetweenindividualsrelatingtoactsofmerchant;
• disputesbetweenshareholders;and• insolvencymatters.
3.Arelowercourtsboundbythedecisions
ofhighercourts?
Yes.Lowercourtsareboundbythedecisionsofhighercourts.
4.Whatarethedifferenttypesof
civilproceedingsincourtavailableto
enforceaclaim?
Therearetwotypesofcivilproceedingsincourttoenforceaclaim.Apartycanaskforajudgmentonthemeritsor,incaseofanemergency,askforasummaryjudgmentalsocalled‘procédure de référé’.
5.Arecourtproceedingsandcourt
documentsconfidential?
Inprinciple,courtproceedingsareheldinpublic.However,ifsuchproceedingsaredeemedtobedangerous,confidentialproceedingswilltakeplace.Courtdocumentsarealwaysconfidential.
6.Arethereanypre-trialproceedings
prescribedbytherulesofcourt?
No.
7.Whatistheroleofajudgeincivil
proceedings?
Theroleofajudgeincivilproceedingsistosettledisputesbetweenthepartiesgenerallyandspecificallytosettledisputes
• arisingfromwedding,divorce,death,ordifficultyrelatingtoachild’seducation;
• relatingtoownershipissues,debtsnotrecovered,andbreachofacontract;and
• arisingfromlabourrelationships.
8.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Partiesarerequiredtodisclosealldocumentscurrentlyorpreviouslyintheirpossession,thatarerelevanttothecase.Apartyisrequiredtomakeaspontaneousdisclosureofthedocumentsrequired.Ifapartyfailstocomplywitharequestfordisclosure,theapplicantmayapplytocourttocompeldisclosure.Thecourtmayorderapenalty.
9.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
Thecivilprocedurecodedoesnotprovidealistofdocumentsregardedasprivileged,butinpractice,thecommunicationsbetweenanAvocatandhis/herclientarestrictlyprivileged.Anin-houseAvocat’slegaladvicetohis/hercompanywouldberegardedasprivileged.Documentsprepared
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incontemplationof,orinpreparationfor,litigationarealsoprivileged.
10.Howisevidencepresented?
Evidencecanbepresentedinwritingororally.However,forcivilmatters,evidencemustbeinwriting.Itisworthnoting,though,thatthejudgecouldorderaninquirymeasure,ifrequired,forthedisclosureofevidence.
11.Areinterimremediesavailabletoaparty
beforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings?
Yes,interimremediessuchasaprotectiveseizureofassetsandfreezingofbankaccountsareavailabletoapartybeforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings.Protectiveseizureisalsousedincaseofemergencyoriftheenforcementoftheclaimmaybeendangeredorimperilled.Furthermore,theaimofinterimremediesistoprevent
• theriskofthedefendantdissipatingmonetaryassets;or
• thedestructionofevidence.
Thepartyseekinginterimremediesmustlodgeaformalrequestwiththecourtpresident.
12.Howisacourtorderenforced?
Acourtorderalwaysmentionsthatthejudgmentisenforcedandimplementedbythebailiffwiththeassistanceofthepoliceforceifrequired.
13.Whatistheestimateddurationofcourt
proceedings?
Theestimateddurationofcourtproceedingsvariesonacase-by-casebasis.
14.Doesacourthavethepowerto
awardcosts?
Yes.Thejudgmentrenderedbythetribunalcontainsdamagesaskedbytheclaimant.However,beforetheinscriptionofthecaseatthecourt,theclaimantmustdepositasufficientfundtopaythecourtcosts.Ajudgmentcontainsfeesandcosts(whichrepresentcourtcosts).Itisworthnotingthatthelosingpartymustpaythefeesandcostsoftheproceedings.
15.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredtoprovide
securityforcosts?
Yes,foreignclaimantsarerequiredtoprovidesecurityforcosts,unlessotherwiseprovidedbyatreaty.
16.Isitpossibletorecoverlegalfees?
Yes.Thefeethatisrecoverablewillbesetoutinthejudgment.
17.Onwhatgroundscanpartiesappeal
orreviewanordergrantedbyacourt?
Inprinciple,iftheClaimantorthedefendantisnotsatisfiedwiththejudgmentrenderedbythecourtoffirstinstance,eachonecanlodgeanappealagainstthejudgment.IfoneofthepartiesisnotsatisfiedwiththeCourtofAppeal’sdecision,eachoneisentitledtocontestthesaiddecisionbeforetheSupremeCourt.
18.Doproceduresexistfortherecognition
andenforcementofforeignjudgmentsor
arbitralawards?
Itisnecessarytorequestanexequaturofaforeignjudgmentoraforeignarbitralaward,inorderforforeignjudgmentstobeenforceableinDRC.
ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatarethemainalternativedispute
resolutionmethodsavailableto
resolvedisputes?
ThefollowingtypesofalternativedisputeresolutionareavailableinDRC:
• Mediation/Conciliation:thismechanismconsistsofamicablyseekingasolutiontoadisputewiththeassistanceofaconciliator/mediatorchosenbythepartieswhoactsasaneutralthirdparty.Thesolutionbroughtbythemediator/conciliatorisnotbindingontheparties.Theproceedingendsbythesigningofanagreementbetweenthepartiesprovidingthesolutionofthedisputeorbythedraftingofanon-conciliationminutes(procès-verbal de non-conciliation).
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• Arbitration:thisisaprivateprocessfortheresolutionofadispute,inwhichpartieschooseonethirdpartyormore(iearbitrator/s)tohelpthemexamineandsolvetheirdispute.Arbitrationprovisionsareinsertedincontractsbywayofanarbitrationclause(clause compromissoire)oraseparateagreement(convention
d’arbitrage)concludedbetweentheparties.
Thesaiddisputeendsuponthepronunciationofadecision(iearbitralaward)bythearbitrator.Thatdecisionisbindingontheparties.
Arbitrationandconciliation-mediationarevoluntaryproceedings,whichoffertothepartiestheopportunitytosettletheirdisputewithoutgoingthroughcourtasthesemechanismsarequick,effectiveandcost-efficient.
2.Arepartiestocommerciallitigation
requiredtosubmittoalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
No.Partiesarenotrequiredtosubmittoalternativedisputeresolutionproceedingsbecauseitdependsonthewilloftheparties.
3.Howarecostsdealtwithinalternative
disputeresolutionproceedings?
Costsincludehonoraryfeesofthearbitrator/conciliator/mediatorandadministrativefeesoftheCentre National d’Arbitrage, de Conciliation
et de Médiation(CENACOM).ThesecostsaredetermineduponsubmissionofthedossieratCENACOM.Additionalcostsmaybeinvolvedduringtheproceedingsuchashonoraryfeesofexpertsappointedbythearbitrator/conciliator/mediator.Inpractice,thesecostsdependontheamountatstakeinthedisputeandthecomplexityofthecase.
4.Arealternativedisputeresolution
proceedingsconfidential?
Alternativedisputeresolutionproceedingsareconfidential.
5.Whatarethemainbodiesthatoffer
andconductalternativedisputeresolution
proceedings?Arepartiesobligedtouse
thesebodiesforalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
CENACOMisthemainbodythatoffersandconductsalternativedisputeresolutioninDRC.PartiesarenotobligedtouseCENACOMforalternativeresolutionproceedings.
ARBITRATION
1.Whatistheestimateddurationof
arbitrationproceedings?
Thedurationofarbitrationproceedingsvariesonacase-by-casebasisbuttakeslesstimethancourtproceedings.Thearbitrator’sauthorityisfixedinthearbitrationagreementandcannotexceedsixmonthsfromthedateoftheappointmentofthelastarbitrator.However,theperiodcanbeextendedeitherbyparties’consentorupononeparty’srequest.
2.Canacourtinterveneinarbitration
proceedings?
Acourtwilldeclareitsincompetencetosettleadisputeinarbitrationproceedings.Itcanonlyinterveneinarbitrationproceedingsbyvirtueofaparty’srequesttoobtainaninterimrelieforprotectivemeasureincaseofmotivatedandjustifiedemergency.Thisisontheconditionthatthesemeasuresdonotinvolveexaminationofthemeritsofthedispute,asonlythearbitraltribunaliscompetenttodothis.
Thearbitraltribunalisalsoentitledtorequesttheassistanceofthelocaljudgeintheeventthatsuchassistanceisrequiredforthemanagementofevidences.
3.Doesanarbitratorhavethepowertogrant
interimrelief?
No.Onlythecourthasthepowertograntinterimrelief.
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4.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Thearbitraltribunalcanrequestfromtheparties,explanations,argumentationandevidencesitdeemsnecessaryforthesettlementofthedispute.Thedocumentationincludes,inter aliastatementsandexpertreports.
5.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
No.Therearenodocumentsregardedasprivileged.Alldocumentsthatthearbitraltribunalmayrelyoninordertorenderadecisionmustbecommunicated.
6.Howisevidencepresented?
Partiesarefreetoagreeontheproceduretobefollowedbythearbitraltribunal.Failingsuchagreement,thearbitraltribunalmayconductthearbitrationasitconsidersappropriate.Thearbitraltribunalhasthepowertodeterminetheadmissibility,relevanceandthesignificanceofanyevidencepresented.
Theclaimant,insupportofhis/herrequest,shallstatetheevidence,themattersindisputeandfindings.Thedefendantmustsubmithis/herdefenceinrespectofthesematters.
7.Howisanarbitrationawardenforced?
AnarbitrationawardisenforcedbyvirtueofanexequaturgrantedbythepresidentofthecompetentcourtinDRC.Apresidentialordinancedefinesthewordingoftheenforcementthatshouldbeaffixedtothecertifiedtruecopyofthearbitrationaward.
8.Isitpossibletoappealanarbitrationaward?
No.Anarbitrationawardisnotsubjecttoanappeal.However,itissubjectonlytoanactionforcancellation.Theactionforcancellationisadmissibleonly:
• ifthearbitraltribunalhasruledwithoutanarbitrationagreementorunderavoidorexpiredagreement;
• thearbitraltribunalwasirregularlyconstituted;
• ifthearbitraltribunalruledwithoutcomplyingwiththemissionentrustedtoit;
• iftheadversarialprinciplehasnotbeenrespected;and
• intheeventofbreachoftheinternationalpublicorder.
Theactionforcancellationisopenfromtheissuanceofthearbitralawardandremainsvalidwithinonemonthupontheaffixationoftheexequaturtothearbitralaward.
9.Canforeignjudgmentsorarbitralawards
berecognisedandenforcedbywayof
arbitrationproceedings?
No.ForeignjudgementsandarbitrationawardscanberecognisedandenforcedonlybyvirtueofanexequaturgrantedbythepresidentofthecompetentcourtinDRC.
10.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredtoprovide
securityforcosts?
Itdependsontheclauseofpaymentinsertedbythepartiesinthearbitrationagreement.
REFORM
1.Istherelikelytobeanyfuturereformof
thecourtsystemoralternativedispute
resolutionsystem?
No.
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DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatisthestructureofthelegalprofession?
InGuinea,attorneyscalled‘Avocats’(similartobarristers)aretheonlylegalpractitionersentitledtopleadbeforeGuineancourts.Avocatscanacceptworkdirectlyfromthepublic.ThereisalsoamandatorynominationofAvocatscalled‘commission d’office’inspecificcasessuchasinacriminalcaseinvolvingadefendantthatisdestitute.
2.Whatmethodsofdisputeresolutionare
availabletosettlecommercialdisputes?
Tribunalsoffirstinstancecansettlecommercialdisputes.Theyhavejurisdictionovercommercialmatters.Conciliation,mediationandarbitrationarealsoavailabletosettlecommercialdisputes.
3.Arethereanyrestrictionsontheroleof
foreignlawyersinlitigationproceedings?
Yes.Avocatscalledtothe(Guinean)bararetheonlyonesallowedtopracticeasAvocatsinGuinea.Asaconsequence,inprinciple,foreignlawyersdonothavetherighttointerveneinlitigationproceedingsinGuinea.
However,foreignlawyersmayinterveneinlitigationproceedingsinGuineaifaninternationalconventionenteredintobetweentheircountryoforiginandGuineaallowsit.
4.Whatisthetimeperiodwithinwhichacivil
claimmustbebrought?
Inprinciple,aclaimmustbebroughtwithin30years.However,thisperiodvariesdependingonthenatureofthepersoninvolved(forexampleworkersmustbringtheirclaimsrelatingtothepaymentoftheirsalarieswithinoneyear).
5.Whatisthelegalfeestructure?
TheAvocat’sfeesarenegotiatedbetweentheAvocatandhis/herclient.Avocatsgenerallychargetheirclientonarateperdaybasisoronarateperhourbasis.Theymayalsochargeafixedamountforafile.
ContingencyfeesareforbiddeninGuinea.
6.Isitpossibleforlitigationtobefundedbya
thirdparty?Canlawyersclaimcontingencyfees?
Litigationcanbefundedbyathirdparty.Avocatsarenotallowedtoclaimcontingencyfees.
THE COURT SYSTEM
1.Whatisthestructureofthecourtsystem?
AtthebottomoftheGuineancourtsystemstructurearethetribunalsoffirstinstance.Theyhavejurisdictionovercivil,administrative,commercial,socialandcriminalmatters.TheseconddegreeoftheGuineancourtsystemismadeupofCourtsofAppeal.DecisionsrenderedbythetribunalsoffirstinstancecanbebroughtbeforetheCourtsofAppealandthehighestcourtinGuineaiscalledtheSupremeCourt.
Apartfromtheabovecourts,Guinea’scourtsystemalsohasspecialisedcourts,notablytheCourtofAuditorsandtheMilitaryTribunal.
2.Arecertaintypesofdisputesallocatedtoa
particularcourt?
Yes.Forexample,commercialsectionsofthetribunalsoffirstinstancehavejurisdictionovercommercialdisputes.MilitarydisputesareallocatedtotheMilitaryTribunal.
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3.Arelowercourtsboundbythedecisionsof
highercourts?
Yes.
4.Whatarethedifferenttypesofcivil
proceedingsincourtavailabletoenforce
aclaim?
Therearetwotypesofcivilproceedingsincourttoenforceaclaim.ApartycanaskforajudgmentonthemeritsoraskforasummaryjudgmentalsoknowninFrenchas‘ordonnance
de référé’.
5.Arecourtproceedingsandcourt
documentsconfidential?
Inprinciple,courtproceedingsareheldinpublicunlessotherwiseprovidedbylaw.Thejudgemaydecidethatthecourtproceedingsshouldbeconfidentialincircumstanceswhere,ifthecourtproceedingswereheldinpublic,itwouldviolateprivatelifeandifsomethingmaytroubletheserenityofjustice.
Courtdocumentsareconfidential.However,ifapartytolitigationusesadocumenttobolsteritsclaim,thesaidpartymustcommunicatethedocumenttotheotherparty/parties.
6.Arethereanypre-trialproceedings
prescribedbytherulesofcourt?
No.
7.Whatistheroleofajudgeincivil
proceedings?
Therolesofajudgeincivilproceedingsaresettling:
• disputesbetweentheparties;• familydisputesarisingfromwedding,
divorce,death,ordifficultyrelatingtoachild’seducation;
• disputesrelatingtoownershipissues,debtsnotrecovered,andbreachofacontract;and
• disputesarisingfromlabourrelationships.
8.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Partiesarerequiredtodisclosealldocumentscurrentlyorpreviouslyintheirpossessionthatarerelevanttothecase.Apartyisrequiredtomakeaspontaneousdisclosureofthedocumentsrequired.Ifapartyfailstocomplywitharequestfordisclosure,theapplicantmayapplytocourttocompeldisclosure.Thecourtmayorderapenaltypayment.
9.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
TheGuineanlawdoesnotprovidealistofdocumentsregardedasprivileged,butinpracticethecommunicationsbetweenanAvocatandhis/herclientarestrictlyprivileged.Anin-houseAvocat’slegaladvicetohis/hercompanyisregardedasprivileged.Documentspreparedincontemplationoforinpreparationforlitigationarealsoprivileged.
10.Howisevidencepresented?
Evidencecanbepresentedinwritingororally.However,forcivilmatters,evidencemustbeinwriting.Pleasenotethatthejudgecouldorderanecessarymeasureofinquiryforthedisclosureofevidence.
11.Areinterimremediesavailabletoaparty
beforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings?
Yes,interimremedies,suchasaprotectiveseizureofassetsandfreezingofbankaccounts,areavailabletoapartybeforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings.Protectiveseizureisalsousedincaseofemergencyoriftheenforcementoftheclaimmaybeendangeredorimperilled.
Theaimofinterimremediesistopreventtheriskofthedefendantdissipatingmonetaryassetsorthedestructionofevidence.
Thepartyseekingtheinterimremediesmustlodgeaformalrequestwiththecourtpresident.
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12.Howisacourtorderenforced?
Acourtorderalwaysmentionsthatthejudgmentisenforcedandimplementedbythebailiffwiththeassistanceofthepoliceforceifrequired.
Enforcementofjudgmentsmaynotbemadebefore6:00andafter21:00,duringSundays,officialholidaysornon-workingdays.
13.Whatistheestimateddurationof
courtproceedings?
Theestimateddurationofcourtproceedingsvariesonacase-by-casebasis.
14.Doesacourthavethepowerto
awardcosts?
Yes.Thejudgmentrenderedbythetribunalcontainsdamagesaskedbytheclaimant.However,beforetheinscriptionofthecase,theclaimantmustdepositsufficientfundstopaythecourtcosts.
Ajudgmentcontainsfeesandcosts(whichrepresentcourtcosts).Costsinclude:
• feesandtaxesreceivedbythecourt’sclerkorthetaxagent;
• compensationfortechnicians(forexampleexpert,translator);
• disbursements;and• feesofthepublicandministerialofficials.
Theunsuccessfulpartymustpaythefeesandcostsoftheproceedings.
15.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredto
providesecurityforcosts?
Yes,foreignclaimantsarerequiredtoprovidesecurityforcosts,exceptifatreatyprovidesotherwise.
16.Isitpossibletorecoverlegalfees?
Yes,legalfeesarerecoverablefromtheunsuccessfulpartyandarestipulatedinthejudgment.
17.Onwhatgroundscanpartiesappeal
orreviewanordergrantedbyacourt?
Inprinciple,iftheclaimantorthedefendantisnotsatisfiedwiththejudgmentrenderedbythecourtoffirstinstance,eachonecanlodgeanappealagainstthejudgment.IfoneofthepartiesisnotsatisfiedwiththeCourtofAppeal’sdecision,eachonewillbeentitledtocontestthesaiddecisionbeforetheSupremeCourt.
18.Doproceduresexistfortherecognitionandenforcementofforeignjudgmentsor
arbitralawards?
ItisnecessarytorequestanexequaturofaforeignjudgmentoraforeignarbitralawardinorderforforeignjudgmentstobeenforceableinGuinea.
ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatarethemainalternativedispute
resolutionmethodsavailableto
resolvedisputes?
ThefollowingtypesofalternativedisputeresolutionareavailableinGuinea:conciliation,mediationandarbitration.However,arbitrationisthemostusedinGuinea.
Arbitrationisaprivateprocessfortheresolutionofadispute,inwhichpartieschooseonethirdpartyormore(ie arbitrator/s)tohelpthemexamineandsolvetheirdispute.Arbitrationprovisionsareinsertedincontractsbywayofanarbitrationclause(clause
compromissoire)oraseparateagreement(compromis)concludedbetweentheparties.Thesaiddisputeendsuponthepronunciationofadecisionbythearbitrator/s.Thatdecisionisbindingbetweentheparties.
Arbitrationprovidesanopportunityforpartiestosettletheirdisputewithoutgoingthroughcourtasthismechanismisquick,flexible,confidentialandcost-efficient.
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2.Arepartiestocommerciallitigation
requiredtosubmittoalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
No.Partiesarenotrequiredtosubmittoalternativedisputeresolutionproceedingsbecauseitdependsonthewilloftheparties.
3.Howarecostsdealtwithinalternative
disputeresolutionproceedings?
Inpractice,thepartiespayfortheirowncosts.However,thearbitratorcanalsodecidetoallocatethepaymentofthefeesbetweenthepartiesoronlytooneparty.
4.Arealternativedisputeresolution
proceedingsconfidential?
Alternativedisputeresolutionproceedingsareconfidential.
5.Whatarethemainbodiesthatoffer
andconductalternativedisputeresolution
proceedings?Arepartiesobligedtouse
thesebodiesforalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
TheChambre d’Abitrage de Guinée(CAG)isthemainbodythatoffersandconductsalternativedisputeresolutioninGuineaConakry.PartiesarenotobligedtouseCAGforalternativedisputeresolutionproceedings.
ARBITRATION
1.Whatistheestimateddurationof
arbitrationproceedings?
Thedurationofarbitrationproceedingsvariesonacase-by-casebasisbuttakeslesstimethancourtproceedings.However,itisworthnotingthatthearbitrator’smissionisfixedinthearbitrationagreement.Itcannotexceedsixmonthsfromthedateoftheappointmentofthelastarbitrator.However,theperiodcanbeextendedeitherbyparties’consentorupononeparty’srequest.
2.Canacourtinterveneinarbitration
proceedings?
Acourtwilldeclareitsincompetencetosettleadisputeinarbitrationproceedings.Itcanonlyinterveneinarbitrationproceedingsbyvirtueofaparty’srequesttoobtainaninterimrelieforprotectivemeasureincaseofmotivatedandjustifiedemergency.Thisisontheconditionthatthesemeasuresdonotinvolveexaminationofthemeritsofthedispute,asonlytheArbitralTribunaliscompetenttodothis.
Thearbitraltribunalisalsoentitledtorequesttheassistanceofthelocaljudgeintheeventthatsuchassistanceisrequiredforthemanagementofevidences.
3.Doesanarbitratorhavethepowerto
grantinterimrelief?
No.Onlythecourthasthepowertograntinterimrelief.
4.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Thearbitraltribunalcanrequestfromtheparties,explanations,argumentationandevidencesitdeemsnecessaryforthesettlementofthedispute.Thedocumentationincludesinteraliastatementsandexpertreports.
5.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
No.Therearenodocumentsregardedasprivileged.Alldocumentsthatthearbitraltribunalmayrelyoninordertorenderadecisionmustbecommunicated.
6.Howisevidencepresented?
Partiesarefreetoagreeontheproceduretobefollowedbythearbitraltribunal.Failingsuchagreement,thearbitraltribunalmayconductthearbitrationasitconsidersappropriate.Thearbitraltribunalhasthepowertodeterminetheadmissibility,relevanceandthesignificanceofanyevidencepresented.
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Theclaimant,insupportofhis/herrequest,shallstatetheevidence,themattersindisputeandfindings.Thedefendantmustsubmithis/herdefenceinrespectofthesematters.
7.Howisanarbitrationawardenforced?
AnarbitrationawardisenforcedbyvirtueofanexequaturgrantedbythecompetentCourtofAppealinGuinea.Thearbitralawardhasres
judicatainGuineanterritoryifitsatisfiesthefollowingconditions:
• thedecisionisenforceable;and• thedecisionisnotcontrarytopublic
policyinGuinea.
8.Isitpossibletoappealan
arbitrationaward?
No.Anarbitrationawardisnotsubjecttoanappeal.However,itissubjectonlytoanactionforcancellation.Theactionforcancellationisadmissibleonly:
• ifthearbitraltribunalhasruledwithoutanarbitrationagreementorunderavoidorexpiredagreement;
• thearbitraltribunalwasirregularlyconstituted;
• ifthearbitraltribunalruledwithoutcomplyingwiththemissionentrustedtoit;
• iftheadversarialprinciplehasnotbeen• respected;and• intheeventofbreachoftheinternational
publicorder.
Theactionforcancellationisopenfromtheissuanceofthearbitralawardandremainsvalidwithinonemonthupontheaffixationoftheexequaturtothearbitralaward.
9.Canforeignjudgmentsorarbitralawards
berecognisedandenforcedbywayof
arbitrationproceedings?
No.ForeignjudgementsandarbitrationawardscanberecognisedandenforcedonlybyvirtueofanexequaturgrantedbythecompetentCourtofAppealinGuinea.
10.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredto
providesecurityforcosts?
Itdependsontheclauseofpaymentinsertedbythepartiesinthearbitrationagreement.
REFORM
1.Istherelikelytobeanyfuturereform
ofthecourtsystemoralternative
disputeresolutionsystem?
No.
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DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatisthestructureofthelegalprofession?
ThelegalprofessioninKenyaisfused.Anadvocateisentitledtocarryoutanylegalworkandappearinanycourtwithoutlimitation(exceptwhereaminimumnumberofyearsofpost-qualificationexperienceisexpresslyrequired).
2.Whatmethodsofdisputeresolutionare
availabletosettlecommercialdisputes?
LitigationistheprimarymethodofsettlingcommercialdisputesinKenya.Othermethodsinorderofpriorityare(1)negotiation;(2)arbitration;(3)mediation;and(4)conciliation.
3.Arethereanyrestrictionsontheroleof
foreignlawyersinlitigationproceedings?
ForeignlawyersarenotpermittedtorepresentpartiesandconductlitigationproceedingsinKenyaunlesstheyhavefirstqualifiedtopracticeasadvocatesinKenyaandhaveobtainedpractisingcertificates.
However,theAttorney-Generalmay,inhis/herabsolutediscretion,permitaforeignpractitionertopracticeasanadvocateinKenyaifsuchperson:
• isentitledtoappearbeforethesuperiorcourtsofaCommonwealthcountry;
• hascomeorintendstocometoKenyaforthepurposeofappearing,actingoradvisinginaspecifiedsuitormatter;
• hasbeensoinstructedbytheAttorney-Generaloranadvocate;and
• isnotdisqualifiedorsuspendedfromactingasanadvocate.
Aforeignlawyerpermittedtopracticeasanadvocate:
• cannotpracticeuntilhe/shehaspaidaprescribedadmissionfeetotheregistraroftheHighCourt;
• isnotentitledtopracticeunlesshe/sheisinstructedby,andifappearingincourtappearswith,anadvocateoranofficerentitledtoactasanadvocate;and
• isnotentitledtosignorfileanypleadingsincourt.
4.Whatisthetimeperiodwithinwhichacivil
claimmustbebrought?
TheLimitationofActionsActsetsthefollowingtimeperiods(fromthedateonwhichthecauseofactionaccrued)withinwhichcivilclaimsmustbebrought:
• threeyearsforanactionfoundedontort;• sixyearsforanactionbasedoncontract;• 12monthsforactionsfoundedonlibeland• slander;and• 12yearsforactionsfortherecoveryofland.
IntermsoftheEmploymentAct,2007,anactionarisingoutofanemploymentcontractortheActitselfmustbeinstitutedwithinthreeyearsaftertheact,neglectordefaultcomplained.Alternatively,inthecaseofcontinuinginjuryordamage,actionmustbeinstitutedwithin12monthsafterthecessationthereof.
5.Whatisthelegalfeestructure?
TheAdvocatesRemunerationOrdercontainsschedulesthatprescribetheminimumfeeschargeablebyanadvocatefordifferenttypesofwork.Whereadvocatesandclientsdonotexpresslyagreeonadifferentbasisforfees,theAdvocatesRemunerationOrderapplies.
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Advocatesandtheirclientsareatlibertytoagreeonthefeechargeableforlegalworkcarriedout.However,thefeechargedbyanadvocatemustnotbelowerthanthatfixedintheAdvocatesRemunerationOrder(asrevisedandamendedfromtimetotime).
6.Isitpossibleforlitigationtobefundedbya
thirdparty?Canlawyersclaimcontingencyfees?
InKenya,fundingoflitigation(iechamperty)andcontingencyfeearrangementsarenotlawful.
THE COURT SYSTEM
1.Whatisthestructureofthecourtsystem?
TheKenyancourtsystemisdividedintosuperiorcourtsandsubordinatecourts.
ThesuperiorcourtscomprisetheSupremeCourt,theCourtofAppeal,theHighCourt,theEmploymentandLabourRelationsCourtandtheEnvironmentandLandCourt.
TheSupremeCourtisthehighestcourtinKenya.TheCourtofAppealisthesecondhighestcourt.TheHighCourt,theEmploymentandLabourRelationsCourtandtheEnvironmentalandLandCourthavethesamestatusandtheyarethethirdhighestcourtsinKenya.
ThesubordinatecourtscomprisetheMagistrates’Courts,theKadhis’Courts,theCourtsMartialandallothercourtsandtribunalsestablishedbyanyActofParliament.
2.Arecertaintypesofdisputesallocatedtoa
particularcourt?
Yes,certaindisputesareallocatedtospecificcourts.Forexample:
• disputesrelatingtoelectionstotheofficeofPresidentcanonlybeheardanddeterminedbytheSupremeCourt;
• appealsfromtheHighCourt(wherearightofappealexistsorleavetoappealhasbeengranted)canonlybeheardanddeterminedbytheCourtofAppeal;
• disputesarisingoutofanemploymentcontractoranemploymentrelationship
canonlybeheardanddeterminedbytheEmploymentandLabourRelationsCourt;
• theHighCourthassupervisoryjurisdictionoversubordinatecourtsoranypersonorbodyperformingquasi-judicialfunctions(butnotoveranysuperiorcourt);
• thejurisdictionofMagistrates’Courtsislimitedtospecificsubjectmattervalues.Themaximumpecuniaryjurisdictionofcertainmagistratesandthecourtsthattheypresideoverisassetoutbelow:
•chiefmagistrate–KES7million; •seniorprincipalmagistrate–KES5million; •principalmagistrate–KES4million; •seniorresidentmagistrate–
KES3million;and •residentmagistrate–KES2million.
3.Arelowercourtsboundbythedecisions
ofhighercourts?
Yes.
4.Whatarethedifferenttypesofcivil
proceedingsincourtavailabletoenforce
aclaim?
• Bankruptcycauses:thesearecivilproceedingsthatrelatetobankruptpersonsandtheirestates.
• Constitutionalpetitions:thesearecivilproceedingsthatrelatetotheinfringementorthreatenedinfringementofconstitutionalrightsprotectedundertheConstitutionofKenya,2010.
• Divorcecauses:thesearecivilproceedingsthatrelatetodissolutionofmarriages,therightsofdivorcingordivorcedpersonsasagainsteachotherandthedivisionofmatrimonialproperty.
• Industrial/employmentandlabourrelations
causes:thesearecivilproceedingsthatrelatetotherightsandobligationsofpartiestoemploymentcontractsandpersonswhoaredeemedtohaverightsandobligationsunderKenyanlabourlaw.
• Interpleaderproceedings:theseareproceedingscommencedbypersonsholdingpropertythatisbeingclaimedbytwoormorepeoplewithintereststhatareadversetoeachother.
• Judicialreviewcases:thesearecivilproceedingsthroughwhichtheactions
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anddecisionsofsubordinatecourtsandtribunals,administrativebodiesandquasi-judicialtribunalsmaybechallengedwithaviewtogettingtheHighCourttoexerciseitssupervisoryjurisdiction.Theadministrativebodiesinvolvedareusuallygovernmentdepartments,administrativetribunalsandotherpublicbodiessetupunderActsofParliamenttocarryoutspecificmandates.
• Ordinarycivilcases:thesearecivilproceedingsusuallyrelatingtoclaimsundercontractortort.Suchproceedingsarecommonlyinstitutedbywayofplaint(ororiginatingsummonsinsomecases).
• Successioncauses:thesearecivilproceedingsthatrelatetotheadministrationoftheestatesofdeceasedpersonsandtheresolutionofclaimsanddisputesrelatingtotheestatesofdeceasedpersons.
• Windingupcauses:thesearecivilproceedingsthatrelatetothewindingupandliquidationofcompaniesincorporatedundertheCompaniesAct.
5.Arecourtproceedingsandcourt
documentsconfidential?
Allproceedingsinthecourtareopentothepublicexceptinrespectofdivorcemattersandmatterswherechildrenareinvolved,wherethecourtmaydirectthatproceedingsshouldbeheldincamera.
Courtdocumentsarepublicdocumentsandtheyareinvariablyavailabletothepublic.
6.Arethereanypre-trialproceedings
prescribedbytherulesofcourt?
Yes,therearepre-trialproceedingsprescribedundertheCivilProcedureRules,2010(CivilProcedureRules).ThesearemodifiedfromtimetotimethroughpracticedirectionsissuedbytheChiefJustice.
Thecurrentpre-trialproceedingsintheHighCourtincludethefollowing:
• filingofpre-trialquestionnaires;• caseconferences:theseareconvened
within30daysafterthecloseofpleadingstodeterminethepertinentissues;
• filingoftrialconferencequestionnaire
forms;and• trialconferences:theseareconvenedat
least30daysbeforethehearingdateofasuittodeterminewaysofproducingevidence,allocatingsufficienttimefortrial,grantingleavetoamendpleadings,ifneed,beamongothers.ThepartiesthereaftersignamemorandumasprescribedundertheCivilProcedureRules.
7.Whatistheroleofajudgeincivil
proceedings?
CourtproceedingsinKenyaareadversarialinnature.Thejudgeisrequiredtobeneutralinthecontestunfoldingbeforehim/her.Theroleofthejudgeistoensurethetrialproceedsaccordingtotheproceduralrulesoftrialordueprocessoflawandthatevidenceenteredisdonesoaccordingtoestablishedrulesandguidelines.Oncethepartieshavefinalisedpresentingtheircases,thejudgeissuesajudgmentoranorderbasedonthelawandtheevidenceadduced.
8.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
TheCivilProcedureRulesrequirepartiestofurnishtheirevidenceinadvancebeforethecommencementofthetrial.Theseprovisionsarecouchedinmandatoryterms.Apartyinasuitisobligedtomakeafullandpromptdisclosureofalldocumentscurrentlyorpreviouslyinitspossessionthatarerelevanttotheissuesraisedinthecase(exceptlegallyprivilegeddocumentsasdiscussedbelow).
Duringacaseconference,thecourtisentitledtoconsidertheparties’compliancewiththerequirementsondisclosure.
9.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
Certaindocumentsareprivileged.Communicationsbetweenalawyerandhis/herclientarestrictlyprivileged.However,thereisanexceptionwhenitcomestomattersofillegalacts.
Medicalrecordsmustalsonotbedisclosedwithouttheconsentofthepatientconcernedunlessdisclosureisrequiredbylaw.
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Itisalsocommonpracticebyopposingpartiestoenterintonegotiationsinanefforttosettlependingmatterswithoutfearofprejudicingtheirclient’sclaim.Anydocumentand/orstatementmadewiththeintentofsettlingadisputeisnotadmissibleincourtproceedings.Inpracticesuchdocumentsaremarked‘withoutprejudice’.
Documentsemanatingfromtheofficialstatusofapersonarealsoprivilege.Suchprivilegeincludestheprivilegeofjudgesandmagistrates,publicofficersinconnectionwithofficialinformation.
10.Howisevidencepresented?
InKenyancourts,evidenceispredominantlypresentedthroughtheoralevidence(viva-voceevidence)ofwitnesses.Documentaryevidencemayalsobeproducedbywitnesses.Witnessesareusuallysubjectedtocrossexamination.However,ininterlocutoryproceedingsevidenceismainlypresentedtothecourtbywayofaffidavits.
11.Areinterimremediesavailabletoaparty
beforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings?
Yes,interimremediesareavailabletoapartybeforeandduringcivilcourtproceedings.Suchinterimremediesinclude:
• injunctions;• arrestand/orattachmentbeforejudgment;• appointmentofreceivers;• orderforacommission;and• securityforcosts.
Oftheabove,injunctionsarethemostcommoninterlocutoryremediessoughtbylitigantsinKenya.
Aninterlocutory/interim/temporaryinjunctionislimitedsoastoapplyonlypendingthehearinganddeterminationofthemainsuit.Theinjunctioniscommonlygrantedasandwhenitisbroughttothecourt’sattentionthatthesubjectmatterinquestionisinimminentdangerofdestructionordisposalsoastoprotecttheplaintiff’sinterestinit.
Suchapplicationsmaybemadeandgrantedex parteiftheyarefoundbythecourttobeofanurgentnature.
Forapartytobeentitledtoaninterlocutory/interim/temporaryinjunction,heorshemustsatisfythreeconditions,that:
• itisaprimafaciecasewithahighprobabilityofsuccess;
• thereisirreparableinjurythatcannotbecompensatedwithdamages;and
• thebalanceofconveniencefavoursthepartymakinganapplicationforinterimrelief.
12.Howisacourtorderenforced?
TheenforcementofcourtordersandjudgmentsinKenyaisgovernedtheCivilProcedureRules.Apartyinwhosefavourajudgmenthasbeengiven(iethedecreeholder)willberequiredtoextractadecreefromthecourtinordertoensureitisenforced.
Thecourtmayontheapplicationofthedecreeholder,ordertheexecutionofanorderby:
• deliveryofanypropertydecreedagainst;• attachmentandsale,orsalewithout
attachment;• attachmentofdebts;• arrestanddetentioninprisonofanyperson;• appointingareceiver;or• insuchothermannerasthenatureofthe
reliefmayrequire.
13.Whatistheestimateddurationof
courtproceedings?
InKenya,theestimatedaveragedurationofcourtproceedingsisthreetofiveyears.However,acasecouldtakeashorterorlongerperiodasthefactorsinvolvedarenumerous.
TheCivilProcedureRuleshaveattemptedtoclassifycasesinthreecategoriesbasedonthelikelydurationofproceedings(andinonecase,basedonthevalueofthesubjectmatter)asfollows:
• Smallclaims:referstoasimpleclaim,involvingnotmorethantwopartiesandwhosemonetaryvaluedoesnotexceedKES49,999.Suchclaimswilllikelybeconcludedwithin100daysafterthepre-trialdirectionsaregiven;
• Fasttrack:referstoacasewithundisputedfactsandlegalissues;relativelyfewparties;
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andwouldlikelybeconcludedwithin180daysafterthepretrialdirectionsaregiven;and
• Multi-track:referstoacasewithcomplexfactsandlegalissuesorseveralpartiesandwhichwouldlikelybeconcludedwithin240days.
Thedurationsreferredtoaboveare,inpractice,notusuallyachievable.
14.Doesacourthavethepowerto
awardcosts?
Yes,thecourthaspowertoawardcostsatitsdiscretion.
Asageneralrule,costswillfollowtheevent,meaningthatthesuccessfulpartywillbeawardedcosts.However,thecourtmay,forgoodreason,refusetoawardcostsorlimittheamountofcostsrecoverablebythesuccessfulparty.
15.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredto
providesecurityforcosts?
Thereisnoabsoluterulethatrequiresforeignplaintiffstoprovidesecurityforcosts.However,thecourthasdiscretiontoordersecurityforcostsinappropriatecaseswhereaplaintiffresidesoutsideKenyaorwheretheplaintiffdoesnothavesufficientimmoveablepropertywithinKenya.Thepurposeofthisruleistoprovideprotectiontothedefendantwhereitappearsverylikelythathe/shewillhavedifficultyrealisingthecostsincurredinlitigation.
16.Isitpossibletorecoverlegalfees?
Legalfeesareonlyrecoverabletotheextentoftheamountofcostsawardedbythecourt.Therecoverableamountisalmostalwaysasmallfractionofthelegalfeesactuallyincurred.Ifcostsareawardedbythecourttheamountofcostsrecoverablebythepartytowhomtheawardhasbeengivenisusuallydeterminedthroughaprocesscalledtaxation.
17.Onwhatgroundscanpartiesappealor
reviewanordergrantedbyacourt?
Anypersonwhoisdissatisfiedwithanordergrantedbyacourtmayappealagainstthe
orderaslongasthelawexpresslypermitsthis.Wherethelawdoesnotexpresslypermitthefilingofanappealagainstsuchanorder,anappealcanonlybefiledifthecourthasgrantedleavetoappeal.
Anypersonwhoisaggrievedbyanordergrantedbyacourtmayapplyforareviewofthatorderonthefollowinggrounds:
• wherethereisamistakeorerrorapparentonthefaceoftherecord;
• wheretherehasbeendiscoveryofanewandimportantmatterorevidence(suchamatterorevidencemustbeonewhich,aftertheexerciseofduediligence,wasnotwithintheperson’sknowledgeorcouldnotbeproducedbyhim/heratthetimewhentheorderwasmade);and/or
• wherethereisasufficientreason.
18.Doproceduresexistfortherecognition
andenforcementofforeignjudgmentsor
arbitralawards?
Yes,thereareproceduresforrecognitionandenforcementofforeignjudgmentsandarbitralawards.
• Enforcementofforeignjudgments:theenforcementofforeignjudgmentsinKenyaisgovernedbytheForeignJudgments(ReciprocalEnforcement)Act(ForeignJudgmentsAct).UnderthisAct,judgmentsforadefinitesumgivenbycourtsofreciprocatingjurisdictions,orawardsinarbitrationproceedingsheldinreciprocatingjurisdictionswheresuchawardshavebecomeenforceableinthesamemannerasajudgment(anapplicabledecision),willberecognisedandenforcedbytheHighCourtofKenyawithoutre-trialorexaminationofthemeritsofthecaseprovidedthat:•theapplicabledecisionhasbeenregistered
atthecourtwithinsixyearsofthedateoftheapplicabledecisionor,wheretherehavebeenproceedingsbywayofappealagainsttheapplicabledecision,withinsixyearsofthedateoflastjudgmentorawardintheproceedings;
•thecourtissatisfiedthatpapersrelatingtosuchproceedingshavebeenproperlyserved;
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•thecourtissatisfiedthatthedefendantreceivednoticeofsuchproceedingsinsufficienttimetoenablethedefendanttodefendtheproceedings;
•theapplicabledecisionisnotcontrarytothepublicpolicyofKenya;
•theapplicabledecisiondoesnotrelatetotherecoveryofanypenaltyorpenaltyinterest(albeitthatamountsmayberecoverabletotheextentthattheydonotrelatetoanypenaltyorpenaltyinterest);and
•theapplicabledecisionwasnotobtainedbyfraud.
TheForeignJudgmentsAct,however,doesnotapplytojudgmentsofcourtsorarbitralawardsobtainedinanystateswhichhavenotenteredintoreciprocalenforcementagreementswithKenya.
• Enforcementofforeignarbitralawards:aforeignarbitralawardmadeinacountrythatisacontractingstatetotheNewYorkConventiononRecognitionandEnforcementofForeignArbitralAwardsisenforceableinKenya.
TheenforcementprocessinvolvesfilingthearbitralwardintheHighCourtofKenyaandfilinganexparteapplicationundertheArbitrationActforitsenforcement.
ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatarethemainalternativedispute
resolutionmethodsavailableto
resolvedisputes?
ThemainalternativedisputeresolutionmethodsavailableinKenyaare:
• Negotiation:thisisaninformalprocessandoneofthemostfundamentalmethodsofconflictresolution,offeringpartiesmaximumcontrolovertheprocess.Itoffersamutuallyacceptablesolutionwithoutthehelpofathirdpartyandthemainfocusofnegotiationsisthecommoninterestsofthepartiesratherthantheirrelativepowerorposition.
• Conciliation:Inconciliationathirdparty,calledaconciliator,restoresdamagedrelationshipsbetweendisputingpartiesbybringingthemtogether,clarifyingperceptionsandpointingoutmisperceptions.Thismethodofalternativedisputeresolutioniscommonlyusedtoresolveemploymentandlabourrelationsdisputes.
• Mediation:Thisisavoluntary,informal,consensual,strictlyconfidentialandnonbindingdisputeresolutionprocesswhereaneutralthirdpartyhelpsthepartiestoreachanegotiatedsolution.
• Arbitration.
2.Arepartiestocommerciallitigation
requiredtosubmittoalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
Thereisnomandatoryrequirementforpartiestocommerciallitigationtosubmittoalternativedisputeresolutionproceedings.However,intermsoftheCivilProcedureAct,thecourtsmay,eitherontheapplicationofthepartiesoronitsownmotion,referacommercialdisputetoalternativedisputeresolutionmechanisms.
3.Howarecostsdealtwithinalternative
disputeresolutionproceedings?
Inalternativedisputeresolutionproceedingspartiesgenerallyagreethateachpartywillbeartheirowncostsandexpensesandthepartieswillsharethecostsofanythirdpartyinvolvedinfacilitatingtheresolutionofthedispute(example,conciliatorormediator).
Inarbitration,thecostsofarbitrationmaybe:
• agreeduponbytheparties;• fixedbythearbitratoraspartofthearbitral
awardintheabsenceofanagreement;or• shared,witheachpartybearingitsownlegal
andotherexpensesandthepartiesequallysharingthefeesandexpensesofthearbitraltribunalandanyotherexpensesrelatingtothearbitration.
4.Arealternativedisputeresolution
proceedingsconfidential?
Yes,alternativedisputeresolutionproceedingsareconfidential.
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5.Whatarethemainbodiesthatoffer
andconductalternativedisputeresolution
proceedings?Arepartiesobligedtouse
thesebodiesforalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
TheCharteredInstituteofArbitrators,DisputeResolutionCentreandMediationTrainingInstitutearecurrentlythemainbodiesthatofferalternativedisputeresolutioninKenya.Partiesarenotobligedtousethesebodies.Theyarefreetostateintheiragreementshowthealternativedisputeresolutionproceedingswillbecarriedoutandwhichbodywilloverseetheproceedings.Thepartiesarealsofreetochooseindividualqualifiedarbitrators.
ARBITRATION
1.Whatistheestimateddurationof
arbitrationproceedings?
ThedurationofarbitrationproceedingsinKenyavariesdependingonthecomplexityofthesubjectmatter,theefficiencyandenthusiasmoftheparties,therespectiveschedulesofthepartiesandthearbitratorandhis/herefficiency.
ArbitrationproceedingsinKenyagenerallytakebetweensixmonthsandthreeyears.
2.Canacourtinterveneinarbitration
proceedings?
Yes,acourtcaninterveneinarbitrationproceedingsbutthelevelandinstancesofinterventionarelimited.
UndertheArbitrationActtheinstancesinwhichacourtmayinterveneinarbitrationproceedingsinclude:
• determinationoftheenforceabilityofarbitrationagreements;
• grantinginterimmeasuresofprotection;• settingasidetheappointmentofanarbitrator;• appointinganarbitratorwherenonehas
beenappointed;• assistingintakingofevidence;• removinganarbitrator;• settingasideofarbitralawards;
• enforcementofarbitralawards;and• hearinganddeterminingappeals,wherea
rightofappealfromthedecisionofanarbitraltribunalliestothecourt.
3.Doesanarbitratorhavethepowertogrant
interimrelief?
Yes,anarbitratorhaspowertograntinterimreliefandmeasuresofprotectionashemayconsidernecessary.
4.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Thereisnomandatoryrequirementtodiscloseanydocuments.Partiesdisclosedocumentsthatarerelevanttotheircases.Thedisclosureandexchangeofdocumentsandotherinformationisagreeduponbythepartiesandthearbitratorduringthepreliminaryarbitrationschedulingmeetings.
5.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
Certaindocumentsareprivileged.Communicationsbetweenalawyerandhis/herclientarestrictlyprivileged.
Medicalrecordsmustalsonotbedisclosedwithouttheconsentofthepatientconcernedunlessdisclosureisrequiredbylaw.
Itisalsocommonpracticebyopposingpartiestoenterintonegotiationsinanefforttosettlependingmatterswithoutfearofprejudicingtheirclients’claims.Anydocumentand/orstatementmadewiththeintentofsettlingadisputeisnotadmissibleincourtproceedings.Inpracticesuchdocumentsaremarked‘withoutprejudice’.
Documentsemanatingfromtheofficialstatusofapersonarealsoprivileged.Suchprivilegeincludestheprivilegeofjudgesandmagistratesandpublicofficersinconnectionwithofficialinformation.
6.Howisevidencepresented?
Inarbitrationproceedings,evidencemaybepresentedinanymanneragreedbytheparties.Intheabsenceofanagreement,thearbitral
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tribunalisentitledtodecidewhethertoholdanoralhearingforthepresentationofevidenceorrequirethattheproceedingsshallbeconductedonthebasisofdocuments.
Theoralhearingandthepresentationoforalevidenceatthehearingusuallyfollowsthesameformatusedincourts.
7.Howisanarbitrationawardenforced?
AnarbitrationawardmaybeenforcedinthesamemannerasadecreeororderissuedbytheHighCourtonlyifitsenforcementispermittedbytheHighCourt.
Thearbitrationawardsoughttobeenforcedmustfirstbefiledincourtandanapplicationforenforcementfiled.OncetheHighCourtgrantstheapplicationforenforcement,thearbitrationawardbecomesenforceableasajudgmentoftheHighCourtandthemethodsofexecutiondiscussedabovebecomeavailable.8.Isitpossibletoappealanarbitrationaward?
Itispossibletoappealanawardgiveninadomesticarbitrationifthepartieshaveexpresslyagreedthatanappealmaybemadetoacourt.Wherenorightofappealhasbeenexpresslyreservedbythepartiesinthearbitrationagreement,thearbitrationawardcanonlybechallengedthroughanapplicationforsettingaside.
TheHighCourtwillsetasideanarbitralawardifthepartymakingtheapplicationfurnishesproofthat:
• apartytothearbitrationagreementwasundersomeincapacity;
• thearbitrationagreementisinvalidunderthelawtowhichthepartieshavesubjecteditor,failinganyindicationofthatlaw,thelawsofKenya;
• thepartymakingtheapplicationwasnotgivenpropernoticeoftheappointmentofanarbitratororthearbitralproceedingsorwasotherwiseunabletopresentitscase;
• thearbitralawarddealswithadisputenotcontemplatedbyornotfallingwithinthetermsofthereferencetothearbitration,
orcontainsdecisionsonmattersbeyondthescopeofthereferencetoarbitration;
• thecompositionofthetribunalortheconductofthearbitralproceedingsdidnotaccordwiththeagreementofthepartiesortheact;or
• themakingoftheawardwasinducedoraffectedbyfraud,bribery,undueinfluenceorcorruption.
Additionally,theHighCourtwillsetasideanarbitralawardifitfindsthatthesubjectmatterofthedisputeisincapableofsettlementbyarbitrationunderthelawsofKenyaortheawardconflictswiththepublicpolicyofKenya.
9.Canforeignjudgmentsorarbitralawards
berecognisedandenforcedbywayof
arbitrationproceedings?Foreignjudgmentsandarbitralawardscannotbeenforcedbywayofarbitrationproceedings.
10.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredtoprovide
securityforcosts?
Thereisnorulethatrequiresforeignclaimantstoprovidesecurityforcosts.Ifthepartiestoanarbitrationdonotexpresslyrestrictanarbitrator’spowertoordersecurityforcosts,anarbitratormayontheapplicationofapartyorderaclaimanttoprovidesecurityforcosts.
REFORM
1.Istherelikelytobeanyfuturereform
ofthecourtsystemoralternativedispute
resolutionsystem?
Therearenoproposedreformstothecourtsystemorthealternativedisputeresolutionsystem.
TheKenyanjudiciaryhasproposedplansforreformoftheKenyanjudiciarybytheintroductionofvariousmeasuresincludingtheuseofautomationsystemswithinthecourts.Theprocessofjudicialreformsison-going.
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DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatisthestructureofthelegalprofession?
InMadagascar,attorneyscalled‘Avocats’(similartobarristers),aretheonlylegalpractitionersentitledtopleadbeforeMalagasycourts. Avocatscanacceptworkdirectlyfromthepublic.ThereisalsoamandatorynominationofAvocats called‘commission d’office’inspecificcasessuchasinacriminalcaseinvolvingadefendantthatisdestitute.
2.Whatmethodsofdisputeresolutionare
availabletosettlecommercialdisputes?
Commercialcourtshavejurisdictionovercommercialdisputes.Commercialdisputescanalsobesettledbyarbitration.TherearetwotypesofarbitrationinMadagascar–localarbitrationandinternationalarbitration.
3.Arethereanyrestrictionsontheroleof
foreignlawyersinlitigationproceedings?
OnlyFrenchAvocats areentitledtoconductcasesintheMalagasycourts.ThisisasaresultofacooperationagreementbetweenMadagascarandFrance.
4.Whatisthetimeperiodwithinwhichacivil
claimmustbebrought?
Allcivilclaimsmustbebroughtwithinaperiodof30years.
5.Whatisthelegalfeestructure?
Avocat’sfeesarenegotiatedbetweentheAvocatandhis/herclient.
Avocatsgenerallychargetheirclientsonarateperdaybasisoronarateperhourbasis.Theymayalsochargeafixedamountforafile.
Avocatsmayalsochargetheirclientsforeachstepoftheproceedings(forexample,afixedfeeforthefirstinstanceproceedings,anotherfixedfeeforhandlinganappealifanyandafixedfeefortheproceedingsbeforetheCourtofCassationifany).
6.Isitpossibleforlitigationtobefunded
byathirdparty?Canlawyersclaim
contingencyfees?
Litigationcanbefundedbyathirdparty.ContingencyfeesareforbiddeninMadagascar.
THE COURT SYSTEM
1.Whatisthestructureofthecourtsystem?
TheMalagasycourtsystemhasthefollowingstructure:
• atthebottomofthecourtsystemare39courtsoffirstinstance.Amongthese,thereareCommercialCourtsandLabourCourts.TherearecourtsoffirstinstanceinmajorareasincludingAmbatondrazaka,Antsirabe,AntananarivoandToamasina;
• theseconddegreeoftheMalagasycourtsystemistheCourtofAppeal.Anappealcanbelodgedagainstadecisionofanyofthecourtsoffirstinstance.TherearesixCourtsofAppealinMadagascarwhicharebasedinAntananarivo,Diego,Fianarantsoa,Majunga,TamataveandTulear;and
• theCourtofCassationisthehighestcourtinMadagascar.ItcontrolsthelegalityofthedecisionshandeddownbytheCourtsofAppealandthecourtsoffirstinstance.IthasjurisdictionovertheentireterritoryofMadagascar.
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2.Arecertaintypesofdisputesallocatedto
aparticularcourt?
Yes.Forexample,CommercialCourtshavejurisdictionoverthefollowingdisputes:
• disputesthataretheresultofanactofmerchant;
• disputesinvolvingshareholdersinacommercialcompany;
• insolvencycases;and• hybridactsifthesaidactshavea
commercialnaturefromthedefendant’sperspective.
3.Arelowercourtsboundbythedecisionsof
highercourts?
Decisionsrenderedbyhighercourtsarebindingonthelowercourts.
4.Whatarethedifferenttypesofcivil
proceedingsincourtavailabletoenforce
aclaim?
Therearetwotypesofcivilproceedingsincourttoenforceaclaim.Apartycanaskforajudgmentonthemeritsor,incaseofanemergency,askforasummaryjudgmentalsocalled‘procédure de référé’.
5.Arecourtproceedingsandcourt
documentsconfidential?
Inprinciple,courtproceedingsareheldinpublic.However,ifsuchproceedingsaredeemedtobedangerous,confidentialproceedingswilltakeplace.Courtdocumentsarealwaysconfidential.
6.Arethereanypre-trialproceedings
prescribedbytherulesofcourt?
No.
7.Whatistheroleofajudgein
civilproceedings?
Therolesofajudgeincivilproceedingsaresettling:
• litigationbetweentheparties;• familylitigationsarisingfromthewedding,
divorce,death,ordifficultyrelatingtoachild’seducation;
• litigationrelatingtoownershipissues,debtsnotrecovered,andbreachofacontract;and
• litigationarisingfromlabourrelationships.
8.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Partiesarerequiredtodisclosealldocumentscurrentlyorpreviouslyintheirpossession,thatarerelevanttothecase.Apartyisrequiredtomakeadisclosurewithinthreeworkingdaysifthecommunicationsperiodisnotprovidedbyajudgment.
9.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
Yes,communicationsbetweenan Avocatandhis/herclientarestrictlyprivileged.Anin-houseAvocat’slegaladvicetohis/hercompanywouldberegardedasprivileged.Documentspreparedincontemplationoforinpreparationforlitigationarealsoprivileged.
10.Howisevidencepresented?
Evidencecanbepresentedinwritingororally.However,forcivilmatters,evidencemustbeinwriting.
11.Areinterimremediesavailabletoaparty
beforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings?
Yes,interimremediessuchasaprotectiveseizureofassetsandfreezingaccounts,areavailabletoapartybeforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings.Theaimofinterimremediesistopreventtheriskofthedefendantdissipatingmonetaryassetsorthedestructionofevidence.
Thepartyseekinginterimremediesmustlodgeaformalrequestwiththecourtpresident.
12.Howisacourtorderenforced?
Acourtorderisenforcedandimplementedbythebailiffwiththeassistanceofthepoliceforceifrequired.
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13.Whatistheestimateddurationof
courtproceedings?
Theestimateddurationofcourtproceedingsvariesonacase-by-casebasis.Typically,thedurationofcourtproceedingsis:
• 12monthsifthecaseisinthecourtoffirstinstance;
• 24monthsifthecaseisinanAppealCourt;and
• fourtofiveyearsifthecaseisinaCourtofCassation.
14.Doesacourthavethepowertoawardcosts?
Yes,ifthejudgmentincludesdamagesaskedbytheclaimant.Italsocontainsfeesandcosts(whichrepresentcourtcosts).Thelosingpartymustpaythefeesandcosts.
15.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredtoprovide
securityforcosts?
Yes,ifaMalagasydefenderrequeststhattheforeignclaimantsprovidesecurityforcosts.Thesecurityforcostsiscalled‘cautio
judicatum solvi’.
16.Isitpossibletorecoverlegalfees?
Yes.Thelosingpartymustpayallcourtcosts.17.Onwhatgroundscanpartiesappealor
reviewanordergrantedbyacourt?
Inprinciple,iftheclaimantorthedefendantisnotsatisfiedwiththejudgmentrenderedbythecourtoffirstinstance,eachonecanlodgeanappealagainstthejudgment.IfoneofthepartiesisnotsatisfiedwiththeCourtofAppeal’sdecision,eachoneisentitledtocontestthesaiddecisionbeforetheCourtofCassation.
18.Doproceduresexistfortherecognition
andenforcementofforeignjudgmentsor
arbitralawards?
FortheforeignjudgmentorarbitralawardtobeenforceableinMadagascaritisnecessarytorequestanexequaturofaforeignjudgmentoraforeignarbitralaward.ThepartyrequestingsuchanexequaturmustmakeanapplicationattheAppealCourtofAntananarivo.
ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatarethemainalternativedispute
resolutionmethodsavailabletoresolvedisputes?
ThefollowingtypesofalternativedisputeresolutionareavailableinMadagascar:
• Conciliation:thisconsistsofpartiestoadisputeamicablyseekingasolutiontothedisputewiththeassistanceofaconciliator,whoischosenbythepartiesandactsasaneutralthirdparty.Themaindutiesofaconciliatorincludehearingtheargumentsofthepartiesandsuggestingasolutiontothem.Thepartiesmayormaynotfollowthesuggestedsolutionormayamendit.
• Transaction:thisisanagreement,whichintendstoendorpreventacurrent/futuredisputerelatingtoabreachofacontract.Thetransactionmustbeinwrittenform.Theexistenceofthetransactionmeansthatthedisputeendsandthereisnoneedtobringthecasetocourt.
• Mediation:thisisadisputeresolutionprocessthroughwhichathirdparty(amediator)chosenbythepartieshelpsthepartiestofindanagreedsolution.
• Arbitration:thisisaprivateprocessfortheresolutionofadispute.Adisputeissubmittedtooneormorearbitrators,whicharechosenbythepartiestorenderabindingdecisiononthedispute(iethearbitralaward).Arbitrationprovisionsareinsertedincontractsbywayofarbitrationclauses(clause compromissoire)orseparateagreements(compromis)concludedbetweentheparties.
Conciliationandtransactionarethemostusedmethodsofamicablysettlingdisputes.Theprocessesareflexible,allowingpartiestodefinethetime,structureandcontentoftheconciliationproceedings.Thealsodonotinvolveanycosts.
Mediationandarbitrationproceedingsaremainlyusedifthedisputeinvolvesaninternationaltransaction.Theyarequickerthancourtproceedings.
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2.Arepartiestocommerciallitigationrequired
tosubmittoalternativedisputeresolution
proceedings?
No.Partiesarenotrequiredtosubmittoalternativedisputeresolutionproceedingsbecauseitdependsonthewilloftheparties.
3.Howarecostsdealtwithinalternative
disputeresolutionproceedings?
Thereisnochargeregardingconciliationandtransaction.Thefeesregardingmediationandarbitrationproceedingsdependonthequantumofthedisputeandthecomplexityofthecase.Inpractice,partiespayfortheirowncostsandsharethemediatorandarbitrator’sfeesbetweenthemunlessotherwisedecided.
4.Arealternativedisputeresolution
proceedingsconfidential?
Yes.
5.Whatarethemainbodiesthatoffer
andconductalternativedisputeresolution
proceedings?Arepartiesobligedtouse
thesebodiesforalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
The Centre d’Arbitrage et de Mediation de
Madagascar(CAMM)isthemainbodythatoffersandconductsalternativedisputeresolutioninMadagascar.
PartiesarenotobligedtouseCAMMforalternativeresolutionproceedings.
ARBITRATION
1.Whatistheestimateddurationof
arbitrationproceedings?
Thedurationofarbitrationproceedingsvariesonacase-by-casebasisandthereisnospecificestimatedduration.
2.Canacourtinterveneinarbitration
proceedings?
Acourtcanonlyinterveneinarbitrationproceedingsbyvirtueofaparty’srequesttoobtaininterimreliefbeforeorduringthearbitrationproceedings.TherequestislodgedwiththeFirstPresidentoftheAppealCourtofAntananarivo.
3.Doesanarbitratorhavethepowertogrant
interimrelief?
Yes.Thearbitrator,appointedbythepartiestosettlethedispute,hasthepower,attherequestofaparty,tograntaninterimmeasure.Thearbitratorwillrequireapartytoprovidetheappropriatefeesforthis.
4.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Alldocumentsrequiredbythearbitraltribunalmustbedisclosed.Allstatements,documents,anyexpertreportorinformationthatapartyprovidestothearbitraltribunalshallbedisclosedandcommunicatedtotheotherparty.
5.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
No.Therearenodocumentsregardedasprivileged.Alldocumentsthatthearbitraltribunalmayrelyontorenderadecisionmustbecommunicated.
6.Howisevidencepresented?
Partiesarefreetoagreeontheproceduretobefollowedbythearbitraltribunal.Failingsuchagreement,thearbitraltribunalmayconductthearbitrationasitconsidersappropriate.Thearbitraltribunalhasthepowertodeterminetheadmissibility,relevanceandsignificanceofanyevidencepresented.
Theclaimant,insupportofhis/herrequest,shallstatetheevidence,themattersindisputeandfindings.Thedefendantmustsubmithis/herdefenceinrespectofthesematters.
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Unlessotherwiseagreedbytheparties,thearbitraltribunalshalldeterminewhethertheproceedingsmustcontainoralhearingsforpresentationofevidenceorfororalargument.Inthisregard,thearbitraltribunalshallholdsuchhearingsatanappropriatestageoftheproceedings.
7.Howisanarbitrationawardenforced?
AnarbitrationawardisenforcedbyvirtueofanexequaturgrantedbytheAppealCourtofAntananarivo.
8.Isitpossibletoappealanarbitrationaward?
No,anarbitrationisnotsubjecttoanappeal.ItissubjectonlytoanactionforacancellationattheAppealCourtofAntananarivo.Anarbitrationawardcanonlybecancelledwhentheapplicantforthecancellationprovesthat:
• oneofthepartieswasundersomeincapacityorthearbitralagreementisnotvalidunderthelawchosenbythepartiesor,intheabsenceofchoiceofapplicablelaw,underprivateinternationallawrules;
• oneofthepartieswasnotdulyinformedoftheappointmentofanarbitratororofthearbitralproceedingsorhe/shewasnotabletoasserthis/herrights;
• thearbitralawarddealswithadisputenotprovidedbythearbitralagreementornotfallingintheprovisionsofthearbitrationclauseoritcontainsdecisionswhicharebeyondthescopeoftheprovisionoftheagreementorthearbitrationclause.However,iftheprovisionsoftheawardcanbeseparatedfromthoserelatingtonon-arbitralissues,onlythepartoftheawardthatcontainsdecisionsonmattersnotsubmittedtoarbitrationmaybecancelled;
• theconstitutionofthearbitralcourtorthearbitralprocedurewasnotmadeinaccordancewiththearbitralagreement,withthechosenarbitrationrules,withthelawofacountrychosenbythepartiesorrulesrelatingtotheconstitutionofthearbitralcourt;or
• wherethecourtfindsthatthedisputedoesnotfallwithinthescopeofanarbitrationsettlementorthearbitralawardiscontrarytotheinternationalpublicorder.
9.Canforeignjudgmentsorarbitralawards
berecognisedandenforcedbywayof
arbitrationproceedings?
No.ForeignjudgementsandarbitrationawardscanberecognisedandenforcedonlybyvirtueofanexequaturgrantedbytheAppealCourtofAntananarivo.
10.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredto
providesecurityforcosts?
Whetherornotaforeignclaimantwillberequiredtopaysecurityforcostsdependsontheclauseofpaymentincludedbythepartiesinthearbitrationagreement.
REFORM
1.Istherelikelytobeanyfuturereformof
thecourtsystemoralternativedispute
resolutionsystem?
No.
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DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatisthestructureofthelegalprofession?
TheSouthAfricanlegalprofessionissimilartotheEnglishlegalprofessioninthatthereisasplitbarandlegalpractitionerspracticeaseitherattorneys(solicitors)oradvocates(barristers).Advocatesarebriefedbyattorneysandcannotacceptinstructionsdirectlyfromthepublic.
Generally,advocatesappearandarguemattersincourtalthoughanattorneymayapplyforarightofappearancetobeheardincourt.TheLegalPracticeActwasrecentlyenactedandaimstoprovidealegislativeframeworkforthetransformationandrestructuringofthelegalprofession.Theintentionofthislegislationisforattorneysandadvocatestoberegulatedbyoneprofessionalbody.
2.Whatmethodsofdisputeresolutionare
availabletosettlecommercialdisputes?
CommercialdisputesaregenerallysettledintheHighCourtofSouthAfrica.TheHighCourthasjurisdictiontoheardisputeswithaclaimvalueofmorethanZAR400000andtheMagistratesCourtshavejurisdictiontoheardisputeswithaclaimvaluelowerthanZAR400000.
Disputeresolutionproceedingsincourtaretypicallyadversarial.Incommercialdisputes,apartyisrequiredtoproveitsclaimonabalanceofprobabilitiesinorderforacourttofindinitsfavour.
AlternativedisputeresolutionisfastbecomingamorecommonmethodofresolvingcommercialdisputesinSouthAfrica.Alternativedisputeresolutionmethodsareusedoutside,orinadditionto,formalcourtproceedingsandareperceivedtobebeneficialinthatproceedingsareconfidential,
expeditedandcosteffective.Partiesarealsoabletoappointthemediatororarbitrator.Mediationandarbitrationarethemostcommonformsofalternativedisputeresolution.
3.Arethereanyrestrictionsontheroleof
foreignlawyersinlitigationproceedings?
Foreignlawyersareprohibitedfromappearingonbehalfofpartiesinlitigationproceedings.
4.Whatisthetimeperiodwithinwhichacivil
claimmustbebrought?
InSouthAfricanlaw,thelimitationonthetimeperiodwithinwhichaclaimmaybeinstitutedisdeterminedbythePrescriptionAct.Thelimitationisknownasextinctiveprescriptionandarighttoenforceaclaimisextinguishedbyoperationoflawafterthelapseofaprescribedtimeperiod.Theperiodsofprescriptionare:
• 30yearsforanydebtsecuredbyamortgagebond;judgmentdebt;anydebtinrespectofanytaxationimposedorleviedbyorunderanylaw;anydebtowedtotheStateinrespectofanyshareofroyalties,profitsorsimilarconsiderationpayableinrespectoftherighttominemineralsorothersubstances;
• 15yearsforanydebtowedtotheStateandwhicharoseoutofanadvanceloanofmoney,saleorleaseoflandbytheStatetothedebtor(unlessalongerprescriptionperiodisapplicableinregardtothisdebt);
• sixyearsforanydebtarisingoutofbillsofexchangeorothernegotiableinstrumentssuchascheques;andanydebtarisingfromnotarialcontracts(unlessalongerprescriptionperiodisapplicable);and
• threeyearsforanydebtnotmentionedaboveorspecificallymentionedinotherlegislation.
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Prescriptioniscalculatedfromthedateonwhichthedebtbecamedue.Adebtisduewhenthecauseofactioniscomplete.Thismeansthat:
• thecreditormustbeabletoclaimpaymentimmediately;and
• thedebtordoesnothaveadefencetothecreditor’sclaimforimmediatepayment.
Thecauseofactionmustbecompleteatthetimesummonsisissued.Therunningofprescriptionisinterruptedbythevalidissueandserviceofasummonsorothercourtprocess.
5.Whatisthelegalfeestructure?
Thefeechargedbyattorneysandadvocatesisbasedonarateperdayorperhour.AlthoughtheHighCourtandMagistrates’Courteachhaveasettariffoffees,theratesaregenerallydeterminedbytheattorneyoradvocate.
Thereisalongstandingpracticeinwhichattorneysguaranteepaymentofanadvocate’sfeeeventhoughanadvocateisbriefedonbehalfofaclient.
6.Isitpossibleforlitigationtobefunded
byathirdparty?Canlawyersclaim
contingencyfees?
Litigationistypicallyfundedbythepartiesthemselves,howeverthirdpartyfundingisbecomingmorefrequent.
Thirdpartyfundersareatriskasathirdpartyfundermaybejoined,againstitswill,toproceedingsinordertoallowasuccessfulopposingpartytoobtaincostsdirectlyfromthefunder.
ContingencyfeescanbearrangedprovidedthatthestrictrequirementsimposedbytheLawSocietyandtheContingencyFeesActrelatingtocontingencyfeesaremet.Intermsoftheserules,alegalpractitionerisentitledtochargedoublehis/hernormalfeeor25%oftheamountawardedinfavourofhis/herclient(whicheverislower).
Acontingencyfeearrangementthatdoesnotcomplywiththerequirementsrelatingtocontingencyfeesisinvalidandunenforceable.
THE COURT SYSTEM
1.Whatisthestructureofthecourtsystem?
ThereisahierarchyofcourtsinSouthAfrica–theConstitutionalCourt,SupremeCourtofAppeal,HighCourtsandMagistrates’Courts.LocalandinternationallitigationistypicallyheardintheHighCourts.
DisputesthatareofamonetaryvaluegreaterthanZAR400,000areheardintheappropriatedivisionoftheHighCourtconcerned.TheHighCourtsareseatedinvariousmajorcommercialcentressuchasCapeTown,Durban,JohannesburgandPretoria.
Thecourtwheretheactionorapplicationisinstitutedisrequiredtohavejurisdictionoverthematterinordertohearit.Thisisestablishedwhenthecauseofactionaroseintheareaofthespecificseatofcourtand/orthedefendantresidesorisdomiciledwithintheareaofthatseatofcourt.
DecisionsofaMagistrates’CourtcanbetakenonrevieworappealtotheHighCourt.AdecisionbytheHighCourtcanbetakenonappealbeforeafullbenchofthesamecourtortheSupremeCourtofAppealand,inlimitedinstances,theConstitutionalCourt.
TheSupremeCourtofAppealsitsinBloemfonteinandisthehighestappellatecourtforcommercialdisputeswhichdonotraiseconstitutionalissuesandwhicharenotdeemedtoraisepointsoflawwhichareofgeneralpublicimportancebytheConstitutionalCourt.
2.Arecertaintypesofdisputesallocatedtoa
particularcourt?
Apartfromtheprescribedmonetarylimitsformatters,certaintypesofdisputesarealsoallocatedtoparticularspecialisedcourtsandtribunalsasaresultofthenatureofthedispute.
AlthoughnotformallyseparatedivisionsoftheHighCourt,thefollowingcourtsandtribunals(notanexhaustivelist)hearsomespecificdisputes:
• AdmiraltyCourt:eachprovincialandlocaldivisionoftheHighCourthasjurisdiction
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toadjudicateonanymaritimeclaim,irrespectiveofthe:
•placewheretheclaimarose; •placeofregistrationoftheship
concerned;or •residence,domicileornationalityof
theowneroftheship.
• LabourCourt:thiscourthasexclusivejurisdictioninrespectofallmattersintermsoftheLabourRelationsActoranyotherlawrelevanttotheLabourCourt.
• LandClaimsCourt:thiscourthasexclusivejurisdictiontodetermine,interalia,arighttorestitutionofanylandinaccordancewiththeRestitutionofLandRightsAct,titletosuchlandandissuesofcompensationinrespectofappropriationofland.
• EqualityCourt:thiscourthearscomplaintsofunfairdiscrimination.
• SpecialIncomeTaxCourt:thiscourthearsappealsbypersonsdissatisfiedwiththedecisionsmadebythecommissionerfortheSouthAfricanRevenueServices.
• TheCommissionerofPatents:theCommissionerofPatentsisaHighCourtjudgewhohasbeendesignatedtohearpatentdisputesunderthePatentsAct.
• TheCopyrightTribunal:theCommissionerofPatentsalsohearscopyrightlicensingdisputesintheCopyrightTribunal.
• TheCompetitionTribunal:thistribunaldealswithcompetitionlawissues.
• TheCompaniesTribunal:thisisanewlyestablishedbodyundertheCompaniesAct.ItsfunctionsincludeadjudicatinginrelationtoanyapplicationthatmaybemadetoitintermsoftheCompaniesActandservingasaforumforthevoluntaryresolutionsofdisputes.
• TheNationalConsumerTribunal:theNationalConsumerTribunalisanadjudicativebodyestablishedintermsoftheNationalCreditAct.
3.Arelowercourtsboundbythedecisions
ofhighercourts?
Yes,SouthAfricahaswhatiscalledthedoctrineofprecedent.Intermsofthisdoctrine,thelowercourtsareboundbythedecisionsofthehighercourts.TheMagistrates’Courtsareboundby
thedecisionsofallthehighercourts.AllcourtsareboundbythedecisionsoftheSupremeCourtofAppeal,beingthehighestcourtforcommercialmatters,andthedecisionsoftheConstitutionalCourt,beingthehighestcourtinSouthAfrica.
4.Whatarethedifferenttypesofcivil
proceedingsincourtavailabletoenforce
aclaim?
Proceedingsusuallybeginwithaletterofdemandsettingouttheclaimant'sclaimandprovidingadatebywhichtheotherpartyistoadheretosuchclaim.Iftheotherpartydoesnotcomplywiththisdemand,theclaimantcanstartcivilproceedingseitherby:
• Bringinganaction:thisprocedureisusedinmattersinvolvingafactualdispute.Itinvolvesboththeplaintiffandthedefendantmakingsubmissionstocourt,producingevidence(bywayofexchangeofrelevantdocumentsandinvolvingwitnessesgivingoralevidence)andculminatesinatrial.Theactionisbegunwhenasummonswithparticularsofclaim(essentiallyastatementoftheclaimant’sclaim)hasbeenissuedoutofthecourtandservedonthedefendant.
• Launchinganapplication:thisprocedureisgenerallyquicker,butcanonlybeusedwherethereisnofactualdispute(ieinmattersinvolvingonlytheapplicationoftherelevantlaw).Thereisnooralevidencetothecourt,allthedocumentaryevidenceonwhichapartywantstorelymustbeannexedtotheaffidavitsitsubmitstothecourt.Thisprocessisstartedoncethefollowingdocumentshavebeenissuedoutofthecourtandservedontherespondent:
•anoticeofmotionsettingoutthereliefthattheapplicantseeks;and
•anaccompanyingwitnessstatement,intheformofanaffidavit.
5.Arecourtproceedingsandcourt
documentsconfidential?
Courtproceedingsareopentothepublic.Howeverthecourtshavethediscretiontoorderthatproceedingsbeconfidential.Confidentialcourtproceedingshappenonlyinlimitedcircumstances,wherethepresidingofficer
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considersittobeintheinterestsoftheproperadministrationofjustice(thatis,apublichearingwouldmateriallyhamperormakeimpracticaltheadministrationofjustice).Thisdiscretionisrarelyexercisedand,inpractice,partiesshouldexpectcasestobeheardinpublic.Theexceptiontothisisinmattersinwhichthecourtseekstoprotecttheidentityofaminor.
6.Arethereanypre-trialproceedingsprescribedbytherulesofcourt?
Thecourtrulesprovideforvariouspre-trialproceedingsandtimelimitsforthecompletionofeachstageoftheproceedings.Thepartiesmaygranteachothertimeextensionswithinwhichtofulfiltheseobligations.Ifthepartiescannotagreeanextensionoftimetocomplywithanyoftherules,aninterimapplicationcanbebroughtbyanyoneofthepartiestorequestthatthecourtgrantssuchextensionoftime(bearinginmindthatthecourthasdiscretioninthisregardandisnotrequiredtoallowanyextensions).Themainrequirementsareasfollows:
• Exchangeofdiscovereddocuments:
eachpartyisrequiredtoprepare,onaffidavit,ascheduleofalldocumentswhichithasinhandorunderitscontrolwhicharerelevanttotheissuesindispute(whetherthedocumentbenefitsthepartyorisadversetotheparty,ifitisrelevantitmustbedisclosed).Thepartiesthencallforandexchangetheitemslistedintheirrespectivediscoveryaffidavits.Thedocumentsarethencompiledintoabundleforpurposesoftrial.
• Applicationforatrialdate:aftercloseofpleadings(thatiswhenallpartieshavesubmittedtheirrespectivepleadings),anypartycanapplyforatrialdatetobeallocatedbytheregistrar.Onreceiptofthedatefromtheregistrar,anypartycanserveanoticeofset-downontheother(s),formallyconfirmingthedateofthetrial.
• Requestforfurtherparticulars:theparties’pleadingsoftenrequireclarificationinrespectofcertainfactsandlegalargumentsinordertoallowtheotherpartytoproperlypreparefortrial.Priortothetrialthepartiesthereforeexchangerequestsforfurtherparticularsandtheirresponsestosuch
requests.Theexchangeofthesedocumentsisintendedtoassistthepartiestounderstandeachother'spleadedissuesandtocurtailissuestoberaisedatthehearing.
• Pre-trialmeeting:oncethepartieshaveexchangeddocumentationandareinapositiontohaveameaningfuldiscussiononthehearingofthematterandpossiblesettlement,andatleastsixweeksbeforethehearingofthematter,thepartiesmustholdapre-trialconference,atwhichtheymustdiscusscertainissueswiththeaimofcurtailingtheissuestobedealtwithatthehearing.TheseissuesaredealtwithintheUniformRulesofCourtandinclude,amongothers:
•thepossibilityofsettlement;admissionsmadebyeachparty(ieagreedfacts);theonusordutytobeginatthehearingofthematter(thegeneralprincipleisapartythatmakesanassertionhasthedutytoprovethatassertion,andacorrespondingdutytobeginproceedings).
•Expertwitnessstatements:somedisputesmayrequiretheevidenceofanexpertinregardstoanissueofaspecificspecialisednature.Insuchevent,thepartiesarerequiredtosubmitexpertwitnessstatementswithin10daysofthetrial.
•Preparationofbundles:thepartiesarerequiredtopreparebundlesforthecourtandforthemselvesforpurposesofthehearing.Thesebundlesarepaginated,indexedandpreparedaccordingtotherelevantcourt’spracticedirectives(thesedifferforeachseatofthecourt).
If,atanystage,apartydoesnotcomplywiththeHighCourtRulestimeouslyoratall,theaggrievedpartymayapplytotherelevantcourtforanordercompellingtheotherpartytocomply,failingwhichthatparty'sclaimordefencemaybedismissedatthediscretionofthecourt.
7.Whatistheroleofajudgein
civilproceedings?
TheadversarialprocedureprevailsinSouthAfrica,althoughitdoeshavesome
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inquisitorialtraits.Thepartiesarethefactfindersandthejudgedoesnot,saveinexceptionalcircumstances,playanactiveroleintheproceedings.
Thejudgemay,however,andinfactdoesmoreoftenthannot,playaninquisitorialrolebyseekingclarificationfromtheparties’legalrepresentativearguingthematteroritswitnessestestifyingsoastobetterunderstandtheparties’cases.
8.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Apartyisobligedtomakeafullandpromptdisclosureofalldocumentscurrentlyorpreviouslyinitspossessionorunderitscontrolorinthepossessionofanagent,thatarerelevanttotheissuesindispute(exceptlegallyprivilegeddocuments).Ifapartyfailstocomplywitharequestfordisclosure,theapplicantmayapplytocourttocompeldisclosure,failingwhichthecourtmaystrikeoutthedefence,dismisstheclaimorgranttheapplicantfurtherreliefwithinitsdiscretion.
9.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
Certaincategoriesofdocumentsaredeemedtobeprivilegedinformationwhichisnotrequiredtobedisclosedtoanotherparty.Theseinclude,interalia,communicationsbetweenalawyerandhis/herclientandanin-houselawyer'slegaladvicetohis/hercompany(althoughthelawisnotsettledonthelatter).
ThegeneralprincipleinSouthAfricanlawisthatanydocumentpreparedincontemplationoforinpreparationforlitigationisprivilegedanddoesnothavetobedisclosed.Adocumentisnotprivilegedmerelybecauseitiswrittenanddeliveredonthebasisthatitisconfidential.
Thereareotherinstances,otherthanclaimingprivilege,wheredocumentsdonothavetobedisclosed.Theseincludemedicalrecordswhichmaynotbedisclosedwithouttheconsentofthepatientconcerned,unlessdisclosureisrequiredbylaw.Wheretheconsenttodisclosemedicalrecordscannotbeobtained,asubpoenamustbeissuedandacourtorder
mustbeobtainedforthedisclosureoftherecords.
Itiscommonpracticeforpartiestoenterintonegotiationsinanefforttosettlependingmattersandthepartiesshouldbeabletodosowithoutthefearofprejudicingtheirclaims.Anydocumentand/orstatementmadewiththebonafideintentofsettlingadisputeisnotadmissibleincourtproceedings.Itispracticethatsuchdocumentsaremarked‘withoutprejudice’althoughfailuretodosodoesnotrenderthedocumentsadmissible.Inthisregard,substancetakesprecedenceoverform.
10.Howisevidencepresented?
Witnessesoffactandexpertwitnessesinvariablygiveoralevidenceandaresubjecttocrossexaminationintrialproceedings.However,inapplicationproceedingsnooralevidenceisgivenandevidenceisplacedbeforetheHighCourtbywayofstatements,inaffidavitform.
11.Areinterimremediesavailabletoaparty
beforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings?
• Summaryjudgment:afterthedefendanthasservedanoticeofintentiontodefend,aclaimantcanapplyforsummaryjudgmentifitsclaimisoneofthefollowing:
•basedonaliquiddocument(suchasachequeoracknowledgmentofdebt);
•foraliquidatedamountofmoney(thatis,anamountcapableofobjectivedetermination);
•forthedeliveryofspecifiedmovableproperty;or
•forejectment(theevictionofatenantfromaproperty).
Toobtainsummaryjudgment,theclaimantmustsatisfytheHighCourtthatthedefendant:
•doesnothaveabonafidedefencetotheaction;and
•enteredanoticeofintentiontodefendsolelyforthepurposeofdelay.
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Summaryjudgmentallowsaplaintifftohavethewholeofthedefendant’sdefencedisposedofwithouthavingproceedingtotrial.Althoughthisisaninterimapplicationinthesensethatitismadewhiletheactionispending,theoutcomeofasummaryjudgmentisfinal.TheHighCourtviewssummaryjudgmentasaharshremedyandisgenerallyreluctanttograntitunlesstheplaintiffhasclearlyshowntheaboverequirements.
• Provisionalsentencesummons:whensuingonaliquiddocument,aprovisionalsentencesummonsmaybeissued.Thiscompelsthedefendanttoappearbeforecourttoadmitordenyliabilityinrelationtotheliquiddocument.
Ifthecourtissatisfiedthatthedefendantisliableinrelationtotheliquiddocument,thedefendant:
•willbeorderedtopaytheamountsetoutintheliquiddocument;and
•isnotpermittedtodefendthesummonsuntilpaymenthasbeenmade.
• Applicationtostrikeout:thereisnoprocedurethroughwhichthedefendantcanapplytohavetheclaimant'sclaimstruckoutinitself.However,thedefendantcan,incertaincircumstances,fileanexception,throughwhichitcanboth
•objecttoadefectinthepleadingoftheclaim;and
•requesttheplaintifftoamendtheclaim'swordingtoremovethisdefect(forexample,wherethesummonsdoesnotdiscloseacauseofaction).
Iftheplaintiffdoesnotcomplywiththedefendant'srequest,thedefendantcanapplytotheHighCourtforanordercompellingtheplaintifftodoso.IftheHighCourtbelievesthatthereismeritinthedefendant'srequest,itcangrantanordercompellingtheplaintifftoremovethedefect.Iftheplaintifffailstoremovethecauseofcomplaint,thedefendantcanapplytotheHighCourtforanorderdismissingtheclaim.Anidenticalprocedureisavailabletotheplaintifftoobjecttothewayinwhichthedefendant'spleaispleaded.
12.Howisacourtorderenforced?
Aplaintiffwhohasobtainedajudgmentforamonetaryclaimisentitledtorequesttheregistrartoissueawritofexecution.Thisallowstheplaintifftoinstructthesherifftoattendatthedefendant'spremisesanddemandpaymentofthejudgment.Ifthedefendantfailstopay,thesheriffcanattachmovablepropertytothevalueofthejudgment.Immovablepropertycanonlybeattachedbyaspecialcourtorder(whichisnotdifficulttoobtain).Afteranattachmentismade,theclaimantcaninstructthesherifftosellthepropertybyauction,toraisemoneyuptothevalueofthejudgment.
Certainformalitiesmustbecompliedwithbeforetheplaintiffcaninstructthesherifftomakeasale.
Ifaplaintiffobtainsajudgmentorderingadefendanttoperformorrefrainfromperformingacertainact,theplaintiffinstructsthesherifftoservethecourtorderonthedefendant,atwhichpointthedefendantmustperformorrefrainfromperformingtheact.
13.Whatistheestimateddurationof
courtproceedings?
Dependingonwhichcourtaplaintiffinstitutesproceedingsin,assomecourtshavelesscapacitythanothers,theestimateddurationoftrialproceedingsisbetween18and36monthsfromthedateofissuingofthesummonstothedateofthehearing.Inrespectofapplicationproceedings,theestimateddurationisbetweenthreeandninemonths.
14.Doesacourthavethepowerto
awardcosts?
Thecourthasthepowertoawardcostsandhasawidediscretioninrelationtocostorders.Theusualorderisthattheunsuccessfulpartyisliabletopaythesuccessfulparty'scosts,butonlythatpartofthesuccessfulparty'scostsprescribedbythetariff(task-basedtariffsthatdeterminetheamountrecoverablefromtheunsuccessfulparty).Thetariffsareoutoflinewithcostsactuallyincurredona‘lawyerandclient’basis,sothesuccessfulpartypaysasubstantialpartofitsowncosts.Inpractice,
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thesuccessfulpartyrarelyrecoversmorethan30%ofactualcostsincurred.
15.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredtoprovide
securityforcosts?
Iftheclaimantisforeign,adefendantresidentinSouthAfricacanapplytothecourtcompellingtheforeignclaimanttofilesecurityforcosts.Theregistrardeterminestheamountofsecurity,takingintoaccountthetariff-basedcoststhatarelikelytobeexpendedinthelitigation.Generally,securityforcostsisfurnishedintheformofabankguarantee.
16.Isitpossibletorecoverlegalfees?
Yes,itispossibletorecoverlegalfees.Oncethelegalfeeshavebeentaxedtheycanberecoveredinthesamemannerthatcourtordersareenforced.
17.Onwhatgroundscanpartiesappealor
reviewanordergrantedbyacourt?
• Appeal:apartycanappealanorderofthecourtonthebasisthattheorderisincorrectonthefactsorthelaw.ThereisnoautomaticrightofappealincivildisputesintheHighCourt.Adissatisfiedpartycanappealafirstinstancejudgment,butmusthaveappliedfor,andbeengranted,leavetoappealbytheHighCourt.Ifsuchapartyisnotgrantedleavetoappeal,itcanpetitiontheSupremeCourtofAppealor,ifapplicable,theConstitutionalCourttograntitleavetoappeal.ThesamealsoapplieswithregardstoappealingajudgmentoftheSupremeCourtofAppealtotheConstitutionalCourt.
• Review:areviewcanbeboughtonthebasisofanirregularityorillegalityintheproceedings.Areviewisconcernedwiththemethodatwhichalegalresultwasobtained.
18.Doproceduresexistfortherecognition
andenforcementofforeignjudgmentsor
arbitralawards?
• Enforcementofforeignjudgments:inmostinstances,aclaimantwishingtoenforceaforeignjudgmentinSouthAfricamustapplytoalocalcourtforanorderrecognisingthe
judgment.Followingthis,theclaimantcanobtainawritofexecutionandenforcethejudgment.
SouthAfricancourtswillenforceaforeignjudgmentwithoutre-examiningthemeritsofthedecisionaslongasthejudgmentsatisfiescertainrequirementswhichincludethatthe:
•judgmentisfinalandconclusive;•foreigncourtmusthavehadinternational
jurisdictionorcompetencetodecidethecase;and
•recognitionandenforcementofthejudgmentmustnotbeagainstpublicpolicy.
TheenforcementofcertainjudgmentswillrequiretheconsentoftheMinisterofTradeandIndustrywhoseconsentisrarelywithheld.
ForeignjudgmentsfromcertaincountriescanbeenforcedbyregisteringthejudgmentwithalocalcourtintermsoftheEnforcementofForeignCivilJudgmentsAct.Unfortunately,theonlycountythatthisactappliestoatpresentisNamibia.
• Enforcementofforeignarbitralawards:SouthAfricaispartytotheConventionontheRecognitionandEnforcementofForeignArbitralAwards(theNewYorkConvention).TheRecognitionandEnforcementofForeignArbitralAwardsActgiveseffecttotheprovisionsoftheNewYorkConventionwithinSouthAfrica.IntermsofthisAct,anyforeignarbitralawardmaybemadeanorderbyaSouthAfricancourtwithoutare-examinationofthemerits.Thegroundsuponwhichsuchanapplicationmayberefusedbyacourtincludethat:
•itwouldnotbepermissibleforthesubject-matteroftheawardtobesubmittedtoarbitrationinSouthAfrica(forexample,theliquidation/bankruptcy)ofanentityorsequestrationofanyperson);
•theenforcementoftheawardwouldbecontrarytopublicpolicyinSouthAfrica;or
•thearbitrationorawardwasinvalidinsomerespect.
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ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatarethemainalternativedispute
resolutionmethodsavailableto
resolvedisputes?
Themainalternativedisputeresolutionmethodsavailabletoresolvedisputesarearbitrationandmediation,aswellashybridformscombiningtheseprocessesincludingarb-med(arbitrationfollowedbymediation).
Mediationisaflexibleandconfidentialconsensus-basedprocessfacilitatedbyaneutralthirdpartyinwhichthepartiesremaininultimatecontrolofthedecisionwhethertosettleandonwhatterms.Themediationstylesemployedbyamediatorwillvarydependingonthenatureofthedisputeandtherequirementsoftheparties.Theprimarystyleisafacilitativeone–wherethemediatormanagesanegotiationprocessthatisdesignedtoassistthepartiesfindanagreedoutcome.Themediatoravoidsgivingadviceormakingrecommendationsonthesubstanceofthedispute.Inanevaluativemediationthemediatormaygiveadviceorrecommendationstothepartiesontheappropriateoutcomeaswellasevaluatingthestrengthsandweaknessesofparties’positions.
ArbitrationrunintheSouthAfricacontextwillberecognisabletoforeignparties.Itisanadjudicationprocessunderanagreementbetweenthepartiestoadispute.Thedisputeisreferredforfinaldeterminationtoanindependentandimpartialtribunalappointedbyoronbehalfoftheparties.TheArbitrationActregulatesarbitrationparticularlyinsituationswherethepartiestoanarbitrationhavenotrecordedallthetermsofthearbitrationinwriting.TheActishoweverfairlyoutdatedanddoesnotprovidesufficientguidanceforpartiestorelysolelyontheActtorunanarbitrationinpracticalterms.PartiesshouldinsteaddrafttheirownarbitrationagreementsincorporatingproceduralrulessuchastheUNCITRALArbitrationRules.
2.Arepartiestocommerciallitigation
requiredtosubmittoalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
SouthAfricahasnotyetenactedlegislationcompellingpartiestosubmittoalternativedisputeresolutionproceedings.Itishowevercommonpracticeforcommercialpartiestoincludealternativedisputeresolutionprovisionsintheircontractualarrangements.Thecourtswillgenerallycompeltheuseofalternativedisputeresolutionwherethepartieshaveagreedcontractuallytosubmittoalternativedisputeresolution.
3.Howarecostsdealtwithinalternative
disputeresolutionproceedings?
Costsaredeterminedintermsofthealternativedisputeresolutionagreementconcludedbetweentheparties.Itiscommonforpartiestoagreetopaytheirowncostsandsharethemediator’sfeesequallyinmediationwhilearbitrationagreementsgenerallyprovidethatcostsaredealtwithinthesamewayascostsinHighCourtlitigation(ietheunsuccessfulpartyisorderedtopaytheotherparty’scostsonapartyandpartybasis).
4.Arealternativedisputeresolution
proceedingsconfidential?
Astheconfidentialityofmediationisnotgovernedbystatute,itisvitalthatpartiesincludeconfidentialityprovisionsintheirmediationagreements.Whiledocumentsproducedoradmissionsmadeduringmediationproceedingsareusuallyprivilegedastheyformpartofasettlementprocess,inadditiontoagreeingtheconfidentialnatureofthemediationitself,partiesshouldconsiderincludingacontractualprovisionagreeingthatthemediatorcannotbecalledasawitnessinsubsequentlitigation.
Unlessthepartiesagreeotherwise,thearbitrationisconfidentialintermsofthecommonlawandstatuteunlessthearbitralawardismadeanorderoftheHighCourtundertheArbitrationActwhichresultsintheawardbeingamatterofpublicrecord.
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5.Whatarethemainbodiesthatoffer
andconductalternativedisputeresolution
proceedings?Arepartiesobligedtouse
thesebodiesforalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
• AssociationofArbitrators(Southern
Africa):hasanextensivepanelofarbitratorsallofwhomhavequalifiedasFellowsoftheAssociation.TheAssociationcanbereliedontoappointanappropriatearbitrator.TheAssociationofArbitratorsdoeshowevernotadministerarbitrationsandpartiesarenotrequiredtopayanyagencyadministrationfees.
• TokisoDisputeSettlement:offersarbitration,mediationandfacilitationservices.InadditiontoitspanelincludingmediatorsandarbitratorsinallprovincesofSouthAfrica,therearealsopanellistsinAustralia,Canada,MozambiqueandtheUK.AllofTokiso’smediatorsareCEDRandDiSACaccredited.
• ArbitrationFoundationofSouthernAfrica
(AFSA):offersarbitration,mediationandafullyadministereddisputeresolutionservicewithcostsbasedonthequantumofthedispute.AFSAmaintainspanelsofexpertsandoffersdisputantsachoiceofrulesdependingonthesizeandcomplexityofthematter.TheAlternativeDisputeResolutionAssociationofSouthAfricaisawhollyownedsubsidiaryofAFSA.
ARBITRATION
1.Whatistheestimateddurationof
arbitrationproceedings?
Ingeneral,arbitrationproceedingsaremoreexpeditiousthanproceedingsthroughthecourts.Importantly,thedurationofarbitrationsmayvarydependingupontheruleswhichgoverntheprocess.Suchrulesareagreedbetweenthepartiesandinclude,forexample,therulesofalocalarbitralbodyortheUniformRulesofCourt(whichregulateHighCourtproceedings).Somelocalarbitralrulesmakeprovisionforexpedited
arbitrationprocedureswhichcanservetolimitthedurationofproceedings.Havingsaidthis,partiesoftenselecttheUniformRulesofCourtastheapplicableruleswhichdeterminetheproceduresandprocessesfortheproceedings.
Aswithlitigationthroughthecourts,arbitrationproceedingswillvaryindurationdependingonvariousfactors,mostnotablywhetheranyinterlocutoryproceedingsarebroughtduringthecourseofthearbitration(ieapplicationsregardingsecondaryissueswhichneedtobedeterminedsuchasproceduralmatters).
Inlightofthefactthatthepartieshavesomecontrolinagreeingtimelines(forexample,hearingdates),arbitrationsaregenerallymoreexpeditiousthanproceedingsthroughthecourts.
Litigantsinarbitrationproceedingscouldexpectproceedingstobecomefinalisedwithinaperiodof12to18monthsalthoughtheprocesscouldbelongerorshorter.
2.Canacourtinterveneinarbitration
proceedings?
Ourcourtsdonotacceptacompleteousteroftheirjurisdictionandretainthepowertomakefindingsinrespectofmatterswhichfallwithintheirjurisdiction.Havingsaidthis,SouthAfricancourtsrespectarbitrationagreementsandwillonlyinterveneinextremelyrareinstances.Courtshavebeenatpainsnottointerveneindisputeswherethepartieshaveagreedthattheymustbedealtwithbyarbitration.
IntermsoftheArbitrationAct,thecourtretainsitspowerovercertainmattersincluding:
• applicationsforsecurityforcosts;• theexaminationofanywitnessbeforea
commissionerintheRepublicorabroadandtheissueofacommissionorarequestforsuchexamination;
• aninteriminterdictorsimilarrelief;and• securingtheamountindisputein
thereference.
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Ifapartywishestoavoidanarbitrationclauseitmay,intermsoftheArbitrationAct,makeanapplicationtocourtforanorder:
• settingasidethearbitrationagreement;• thatanyparticulardisputereferredtoin
thearbitrationagreementshallnotbereferredtoarbitration;or
• thatthearbitrationagreementshallceasetohaveeffectwithreferencetoanydisputereferred.
3.Doesanarbitratorhavethepowertogrant
interimrelief?
Anarbitratordoesnothavepowertograntinterimrelief.Forexample,whereapartyseeksanorderforaninterdict(orinjunction),acourtwillberequiredtomakesuchanorder.
IntermsoftheArbitrationAct,unlessthearbitrationagreementprovidesotherwiseanarbitratormaymakeaninterimaward(forexample,duringinterlocutoryproceedings).Similarly,theUniformRulesofCourt,whichareusuallyadoptedbytheparties,givesthearbitratorthepowertomakeinterimawards.
4.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
TherulesregardingthediscoveryofdocumentsinarbitrationproceedingswillbeasagreedbythepartiesastheArbitrationActdoesnotsetoutadiscoveryprocess.InSouthAfrica,itiscommonforthepartiestoagreethattheUniformRulesofCourtwillgovernthearbitrationprocess.Intermsoftheserules,partiesarerequiredtomakediscoveryofalldocumentsrelevanttothematter(whetherpotentiallysupportiveorharmfultotheirrespectivecases)andwhichareintheirpossessionorundertheircontrol.Legallyprivilegeddocumentsare,however,notdiscoverable.
5.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
Yes,communicationsbetweenclientsandtheirattorneysordocumentscreatedforthepurposeofobtaininglegaladviceorincontemplationoflitigationareprivilegedandarenotdiscoverable.
6.Howisevidencepresented?
Generallyspeaking,therulesagreedbythepartiesthatgovernthearbitrationproceedingswilldictatehowevidenceistobepresented.Someprocessesarelessformalthanothers.Forexample,partiesmaynotberequiredtofollowtheformalrulesofevidenceaswouldberequiredincourtproceedings.
WheretheUniformRulesofCourt(andvariouslocalarbitralrules)areadopted,evidencewillbepresentedinthesamemannerasincourt.Inthisregard,theplaintiffbearstheonusofproofandthedutytobegin.Witnesseswillbecalledbythepartieswhowillgiveevidenceunderoath.Awitnesswillfirstprovideevidenceinchief(direct)andthenbesubjectedtocross-examinationbytheopposingparty’slegalrepresentatives.Thewitnesswillthenhaveanopportunityforre-examination(re-direct)byhis/herorherlegalrepresentatives.
Inarbitrations,muchlikecourtcases,thearbitratormayposequestionsorseekclarityfromawitness.
Expertevidenceistypicallypresentedinareportpriortothehearing.Theexpertusuallythenconfirmsthecontentsofhis/herreportatthehearingbeforehe/sheiscross-examined.Thearbitratordoesnothavethepowertoappointhis/herorherownexpertforassistance.
Afteralloftheevidenceispresented,eachpartywillpresentlegalargumenttothearbitratorwhowillthendecidethematteronabalanceofprobabilities.
7.Howisanarbitrationawardenforced?
IntermsoftheArbitrationAct,anypartymayapplytoacourtofcompetentjurisdictiontohavethearbitrationawardmadeanorderofcourt.
Thecourtwillnotconsiderthemeritsofthecaseandtheapplicantonlyhastoprovethatthedisputewassubmittedtoarbitrationin
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termsofanarbitrationagreement,thatthearbitratorwasdulyappointedandthattherewasavalidawardintermsofthereference.
TheArbitrationActprovidesthatanawardwhichhasbeenmadeanorderofcourtmaybeenforcedinthesamemannerasanyjudgmentorordertothesameeffect.
8.Isitpossibletoappealan
arbitrationaward?
TheArbitrationActprovidesthatanawardwillbefinalandnotsubjecttoappealunlessotherwiseagreedbytheparties.
InSouthAfricathemajorityofarbitrationproceedingsdonotincludeamechanismforappeals.
IntermsoftheArbitrationAct,anaggrievedpartymayapplytocourttosetasidethearbitrationaward.Thisisknownasanapplicationforreview.Reviewproceedingsaredistinguishablefromappealproceedings.Underreviewproceedings,acourtwillnotrevisitthemeritsofthemattertodeterminewhetherthearbitratorcametothecorrectdecisionwhetherinlaworinfact.Reviewproceedingsarelimitedandmayonlybebroughtwheretheaggrievedpartycontends,forexample,that:
• thearbitratorwasbiased;• thearbitratorcommittedagross
irregularity;• thearbitratorexceededhis/herpowers
whenhe/shemadetheaward;or• anawardhasbeenimproperlyobtained.
9.Canforeignjudgmentsorarbitralawards
berecognisedandenforcedbywayof
arbitrationproceedings?
Foreignjudgmentsorarbitralawardsmaynotbeenforcedbywayofarbitrationproceedings.However,thesejudgmentsorawardsmaybeenforcedbySouthAfricancourts.
10.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredtoprovide
securityforcosts?
Iftheclaimantisforeign,adefendantwhoisresidentinSouthAfricacanapplytothecourtforanordercompellingtheforeignclaimanttoprovidesecurityforcosts.ThecourtretainsitspowertomakeanysuchorderintermsoftheArbitrationAct.
REFORM
1.Istherelikelytobeanyfuturereformof
thecourtsystemoralternativedispute
resolutionsystem?
AsaresultoftherecognitionthattheArbitrationActdoesnotadequatelycaterfordevelopmentsininternationalarbitration,theinternationalArbitrationBillwasapprovedbycabinetin2016andisawaitingassentbythePresident.
Whenpassed,theInternationalArbitrationActwillalignSouthAfricanInternationalArbitrationlawwithinternationalbestpractice.
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DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatisthestructureofthelegalprofession?
ThelegalprofessioninTanzaniaisdividedintotheBenchandtheBar.
LawyersintheBencharejudicialofficersservingasjudgesoftheCourtofAppealortheHighCourt.MagistratesserveasResidentMagistrates,DistrictMagistratesorPrimaryCourtMagistratesandregistrars.
LawyerswithintheBararefurtherclassifiedasthoseinprivatepracticeandthoseservingintheAttorneyGeneral’soffice.
2.Whatmethodsofdisputeresolutionare
availabletosettlecommercialdisputes?
ThemaindisputeresolutionmethodsusedtosettlelargecommercialdisputeinTanzaniaarelitigationandarbitration.Othermethodsincludemediation,negotiationandreconciliation.
LitigationisgovernedbytheCivilProcedureCodeAct,theHighCourt(CommercialDivision)ProcedureRulesandtheEvidenceAct.
Theselawsprovideforthecourtproceduresincludingpreparationofstatements,evidence,trialandappeal.Thesystemisbroadlyadversarial.Theapplicablestandardofproofincommercialcasesisonthebalanceofprobabilities.TheprinciplestatutegoverningarbitrationistheArbitrationAct.
3.Arethereanyrestrictionsontheroleof
foreignlawyersinlitigationproceedings?
GenerallyforeignlawyersdonothavearighttoappearincourtunlesstheyareadmittedasadvocatesundertheAdvocatesAct.AforeignlawyermayobtainatemporarypermitfromtheChiefJusticetoappearincourtforaspecificmatter.
4.Whatisthetimeperiodwithinwhicha
civilclaimmustbebrought?
ThelimitationperiodsaregovernedbytheLawofLimitationAct.Limitationperiodsvarydependingonthetypeofclaim,forexample,aclaimtoenforceajudgmentmustbemadewithin12years.Theprescribedperiodtofileaclaimforbreachofcontractissixyears,whileclaimsbasedontortmustbefiledwithinthreeyears.
5.Whatisthelegalfeestructure?
Advocatesgenerallychargetheirclientsbasedonhourlyratesorenterintofixedfeearrangements.Ifanadvocateentersintoafixedfeeagreement,thefeeisgenerallyfixedbylawat3%ofthesubjectmatterbutcanbehigherdependingonthecomplexityofthematter.
6.Isitpossibleforlitigationtobefundedbya
thirdparty?Canlawyersclaimcontingencyfees?
Partiespaytheirownlegalcosts.Dependingontheoutcomeofthelitigation,aportionofthecostsmayberecoveredfromtheunsuccessfulparty.Thirdpartyfundingisnotprohibitedbylaw.ContingencyfeeagreementsarenotallowedinTanzania.
THE COURT SYSTEM
1.Whatisthestructureofthecourtsystem?
ThecourtsysteminTanzaniaisstructuredintothreetiersnamely:theCourtofAppeal,theHighCourt(includingspecialiseddivisions-CommercialDivision,LandDivisionandLabourDivision)andtheMagistrates'Courts.
TheMagistrates'CourtsareestablishedandgovernedbytheMagistrates’CourtsActandtheyarefurtherdividedintothreecategories:ResidentMagistrates’Courts,DistrictMagistrates'CourtsandPrimaryCourts.
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Therearealsotribunalsandboardswhicharevestedwithexclusivejurisdictionoverspecificmatters.ExamplesincludetheTaxAppealsBoardandtheFairCompetitionTribunal.
2.Arecertaintypesofdisputesallocatedto
aparticularcourt?
InTanzania,allocationofdisputestoaparticularcourtdependsonthreemajorfactors,namely:subjectmatter;territorialjurisdiction;andpecuniaryjurisdiction.
Certaindisputeshavetheirownresolutionmechanisms.Forexample,allemploymentdisputesareresolvedthroughtheCommissionforMediationandArbitrationandtheHighCourt(LabourDivision).
3.Arelowercourtsboundbythedecisions
ofhighercourts?
Yes,alllowercourtsareboundbythedecisionofthehighercourts.TheHighCourtandtheCourtofAppealareregardedascourtsofrecordsandjudgesofthesecourtsarenotboundbydecisionsmadebyotherjudgesofthesamecourt.
4.Whatarethedifferenttypesofcivil
proceedingsincourtavailabletoenforce
aclaim?
Mostcivilproceedingsareinitiatedbyfilingofaplaint.Otheravailableoptionsincludingseekingenforcementofaclaimbywayofasummarysuit;makinganapplicationforattachmentbeforejudgement;andapplyingfordepositofsecurityforcostsbeforethehearingofamatter.
5.Arecourtproceedingsandcourt
documentsconfidential?
Proceedingsaregenerallypublic,andjudgmentsarepronouncedinopencourt.Courtdocumentsarealsogenerallyconsideredtobepublicdocuments.Partiesmustdiscloseinformationrequestedbythecourt,includingconfidentialdocuments.Thecourtmay,however,determinethatdocumentscanbewithheldiftheycontaincommercialsecretsorforpublicinterestreasons.
6.Arethereanypre-trialproceedings
prescribedbytherulesofcourt?
Pre-trialproceedingsaregovernedbycertainordersoftheCivilProcedureCode.Pre-trialproceedingsincludethefirstschedulingandsettlementconferencewhichisattendedbythepartiesortheirrecognisedagentsoradvocates.
Thepurposeofthefirstpre-trialconferenceisto:
• ascertainthetimingofthecase;and• attempttoresolvethecasethrough
negotiation,mediation,arbitrationorsuchotherproceduresnotinvolvedinatrial.
Thisisthenfollowedbyacourtsupervisedmediationwheretheparties,withtheassistanceofthecourt,makeanattempttoresolvethematteramicablyfailingwhichthematterisreferredforfinalpre-trialconferencepriortocommencementoftrial.
7.Whatistheroleofajudgeincivil
proceedings?
TheTanzaniancivilsystemisanadversarialsystemwherebycasesarecontestsbetweenopposingsides.Thejudgeremainsabovethefray,providinganindependentandimpartialassessmentofthefactsandhowthelawappliestothosefacts.
8.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Atthefirsthearingpartiesmustproduceallthedocumentsthattheyintendtorelyonandwhichhavenotalreadybeenfiledincourt.Partiesarealsorequiredtoprovidedocumentswhichthecourthasorderedtobeproduced.
9.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
Generallydocumentsareregardedaspublicinformation.However,incertaincircumstances,documentsareregardedasprivilegedforinstance,professionalclient–attorneycommunicationorgovernmentcommunication(wheresuchinformationisintheopinionof
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theMinisterofJusticeprejudicialtothepublicinteresteitherbyreasonofthecontentthereoforongroundsofpublicpolicy).10.Howisevidencepresented?
EvidencemaybepresentedorallyandinsomecasesinwritingforinstanceintheCommercialDivisionoftheHighCourt.Witnessesarerequiredtofilewrittenwitnessstatementsandthisevidenceisfollowedbyoralcrossexamination.Wheredocumentsarereliedupon,originaldocumentsmustbeproduced.Incertaincircumstancesthecourtmayallowawitnesstoproduceacopyoracertifiedcopymadefromtheoriginalcopyofthedocument.
11.Areinterimremediesavailabletoaparty
beforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings?
Yes.Thelawallowsanypartyincivilproceedingstoseekinteriminjunctionsunderspecificcircumstances,forinstancewhere:
• theassetsindisputeareindangerofbeingdissipatedormaysufferlossofvaluebyreasonoftheircontinuedusebyadefendant,ormaybewronglysoldinexecutionofadecree;or
• wherethedefendantthreatens,orintendstoremoveordisposeof,itspropertywithaviewtodefrauditscreditors.
Insuchcircumstances,thecourtmaygrantatemporaryinjunctiontorestrainsuchactormakesuchotherorderforthepurposeofstayingandpreventingthewasting,damaging,alienation,sale,lossinvalue,removalordispositionofthepropertyasthecourtthinksfit,untilthedisposaloftheclaimoruntilfurtherorders.
12.Howisacourtorderenforced?
Apartywishingtoenforceacourtorderorjudgmentmustapplytothecourtwhichissuedthedecreeforexecutionoftheorder.Theapplicationmuststatethetypeofcourtassistancerequired.Thiscaninclude,forexample:
• deliveryofspecificproperty;• attachmentandsale,orsalewithout
attachment,ofanyproperty;
• arrestanddetentioninprisonofanyperson;or
• appointmentofareceiver.
13.Whatistheestimateddurationof
courtproceedings?
TheCivilProcedureCodeActprovidesforspecifictimeframesunderwhichcasesshallbedetermined.Thislawprovidesforfourtypesofspeedtracksrangingfrom10to24monthsfromcommencementofthecase.Inspiteofthisprovisioninthelaw,thecourtssufferahugeback-logindisposalofcasesinevitablyleadingtodelaysincompletionofcourtproceedings.
IntermsofCommercialCourtRules,commercialcasesinstitutedintheCommercialDivisionoftheHighCourtmustbecompletedwithinaperiodof12months.Mattersinthecommercialcourttendtobecompletedinreasonablyshortertime.
14.Doesacourthavethepowerto
awardcosts?
Yes.Thelawpermitspartiestobeawardedcostsandinmostcases,costsareawardedtothesuccessfulparty.
15.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredto
providesecurityforcosts?
Yes.ForeignclaimantswhodonothaveanyknownimmovableassetsinTanzaniaarerequiredtodepositsecurityforcosts.
16.Isitpossibletorecoverlegalfees?
Yes.Whereapartyisawardedcosts,suchcostswouldusuallyincludeanylegalfeespaidbytheparty.
17.Onwhatgroundscanpartiesappeal
orreviewanordergrantedbyacourt?
Anappealcanbebroughtonapointoflaworfact.Theappellantmustsubmitamemorandumofappealclearlystatingitsgroundsofobjectionstothedecreeappealed.
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Apartythatisaggrievedbyanorderfromwhichanappealisnotallowedmayapplyforreviewofsuchorderordecree.Generallythegroundsforreviewinclude:
• theexistenceofnewandimportantmattersorevidencewhich,aftertheexerciseofduediligence,werenotwithintheknowledgeoftheaggrievedpartyorcouldnotbeproducedatthetimewhenthedecreewaspassedorordermade;
• theexistenceofamistakeorapparenterroronthefaceofrecord;or
• wherethereisanyothersufficientreasondesirestoobtainareview.
18.Doproceduresexistfortherecognition
andenforcementofforeignjudgmentsor
arbitralawards?
Yes.TheReciprocalEnforcementofForeignJudgmentActprovidesfortheenforcementofforeignjudgments.ThemainjurisdictionswhosejudgmentscanbeenforcedinTanzaniaincludeBotswana,Lesotho,Mauritius,NewSouthWales,Seychelles,Somalia,SriLanka,theKingdomofSwaziland,theUnitedKingdom,ZambiaandZimbabwe.
ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatarethemainalternativedispute
resolutionmethodsavailabletoresolvedisputes?
ThealternativedisputeresolutionmechanismsavailableinTanzaniaincludenegotiation,mediation,reconciliation,andarbitration.
2.Arepartiestocommerciallitigation
requiredtosubmittoalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
Yes.TheHighCourt(CommercialDivision)ProcedureRulesrequirepartiestosubmittocourtsupervisedalternativedisputeresolutionintheformofmediationpriortocommencementoftrial.
3.Howarecostsdealtwithinalternative
disputeresolutionproceedings?
Theawardofcostsisusuallythediscretionofthemediator.Inmostcases,partiesbeartheir
owncosts.Theissueofcostscouldalsobeaddressedasonethetermsofsettlementwherepartiesreachanamicableresolution.
4.Arealternativedisputeresolution
proceedingsconfidential?
Yes.Proceedingsofthemediationsessionremainconfidentialanddonotformpartofthecourtrecords.Inmostcases,theseproceedingsarediscardedwheremediationfailsandpartiesproceedtofulltrial.
5.Whatarethemainbodiesthatoffer
andconductalternativedisputeresolution
proceedings?Arepartiesobligedtouse
thesebodiesforalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
Alternativedisputeresolutionincommerciallitigationisconductedbythecourt.Partiesarealsofreetoreferdisputestoanyotherlocalorinternationalforums(otherthancourtsoflaw).ExamplesoflocalalternativedisputeresolutionforumsincludearbitrationbodiessuchastheTanzaniaInstituteofArbitratorsandtheNationalConstructionCouncil.
ARBITRATION
1.Whatistheestimateddurationof
arbitrationproceedings?
Inmostcasespartiesagreeonthetimingforarbitrationproceedingsinwhichcasetheyhavecontrolofvariousaspectsoftheprocesssuchastheduration.Therearenohardandfastrulesonthisandpartiesarefreetoagreeonreasonabletimelinesbasedonseveralfactorsincludingtheavailabilityofthepartiesinvolved.
2.Canacourtinterveneinarbitration
proceedings?
Yes.Thelawpermitspartiestoseekinterimreliefpendingdeterminationofarbitrationproceedings.
3.Doesanarbitratorhavethepowertogrant
interimrelief?
Yes.Thelawpermitsarbitratorstograntinterimrelief.
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4.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Partiesarerequiredtodisclosealldocumentsthatmayberelevanttodeterminethedispute.
5.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
Yes.Arbitrationproceedingsincludingdocumentssubmittedduringsuchproceedingsareregardedasprivileged.
6.Howisevidencepresented?
Evidencemaybepresentedorallyorinwriting.Inthecaseofthelatter,partiesarerequiredtofilewitnessstatements.
7.Howisanarbitrationawardenforced?
AnarbitralawardmustfirstberegisteredwiththeHighCourtafterwhichitbecomesenforceableasifitwereadecreeofthecourt.
8.Isitpossibletoappealanarbitrationaward?
Generallyanarbitrationawardisnotappealableunlesstheagreementbetweenthepartiesprovidesforanappealprocedure.Howeverapartymayaskthecourttosetasideanarbitrationawardoncertaingroundsincludingwhereanawardisobtainedbyfraudorwherethereismisconductonthepartofthearbitrator.
9.Canforeignjudgmentsorarbitralawards
berecognisedandenforcedbywayof
arbitrationproceedings?
ForeignjudgementscanonlybeenforcediftheyarejudgementsissuedbyspecificcourtsofcountrieswithwhichTanzaniahasanarrangementforreciprocalenforcementofjudgements.
ArbitralawardscanberecognisedandenforcedinTanzania.Inboththeseinstances,theforeignjudgmentandarbitralawardmustberegisteredbytheHighCourtofTanzaniaforittobeenforceable.
10.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredtoprovide
securityforcosts?
No.Thelawdoesnotprovideforanyrequirementforforeignclaimantsinarbitrationproceedingstoprovideforsecurityforcosts.
REFORM
1.Istherelikelytobeanyfuturereform
ofthecourtsystemoralternativedispute
resolutionsystem?
InanefforttobringmoreefficiencytotheadministrationofjusticethegovernmentisexpectedtorevamptheperformanceofPrimaryCourts.ThisexercisehasstartedwiththerecruitmentofmagistrateswhichnowinvolvesstipulatedminimumqualificationsthatmustbemetinordertobeappointedasamagistrateinthePrimaryCourt.
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DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatisthestructureofthelegalprofession?
TogoleselawyersarecalledAvocats.TheyhaveamonopolywhenitcomestorepresentingandassistingpartiesaswellaspleadingforthebenefitofthesepartiesbeforetheTogolesecourts.TogoleseAvocatsarealsoentitledtorepresentapartybeforetheTogolesepublicadministration.
2.Whatmethodsofdisputeresolutionare
availabletosettlecommercialdisputes?
Tribunalsoffirstinstance(sittingincommercialmatters)cansettlecommercialdisputes.Partiestoacommercialdisputecanalsorelyonconciliationmediationandarbitrationtosettletheirdispute.
3.Arethereanyrestrictionsontheroleof
foreignlawyersinlitigationproceedings?
Yes.AvocatscalledtotheTogolesebararetheonlyonesallowedtopracticeasAvocatsinTogo.Asaconsequence,inprinciple,foreignlawyersdonothavetherighttointerveneinlitigationproceedingsinTogo.However,foreignlawyersmayinterveneinlitigationproceedingsinTogoifaninternationalconventionenteredintobetweentheircountryoforiginandTogoallowsit.
4.Whatisthetimeperiodwithinwhichacivil
claimmustbebrought?
Althoughexceptionsdoexist,acivilclaimmustgenerallybebroughtwithin30years.
5.Whatisthelegalfeestructure?
Ingeneral,incaseofajudicialintervention,TogoleseAvocatsarepaidonafixedfeebasis,increasedbyapercentageofthequantumofthedispute.Thisamountrepresentstheamountoftheclaimbroughtbeforeacourt.ThismethodofcalculationisvalidwhenanAvocatactsbeforeacourtoffirstinstanceandbeforetheCourt
ofAppeal.However,thereisanhourlyrateforAvocatspleadingbeforetheSupremeCourt.Avocatsarealsopaidonafixedfeebasis(withoutthepercentageoftheamountatstake)forspecificcases,examplewhenanAvocatisinvolvedinsummaryproceedings(référé).
Forextra-judicialinterventions,Avocat’sfeesarefreelynegotiatedbetweenhim/herandhis/herclient(forexample,feesrelatingtoasimpleconsultation).
6.Isitpossibleforlitigationtobefundedbya
thirdparty?Canlawyersclaimcontingencyfees?
Yes.Athirdpartycanfundlitigation.However,Avocatscannotclaimcontingencyfees.
THE COURT SYSTEM
1.Whatisthestructureofthecourtsystem?
TheTogolesecourtsystemisstructuredasfollows:
• atthebottomofthecourtsystemarethetribunalsoffirstinstancewhichsitincommercial,civilorcriminalmatters;
• thesecondleveloftheTogolesecourtsystemismadeupofCourtsofAppealwhichsitincivil,commercial,social,andcriminalmattersetc.;and
• thehighestcourtinTogoistheSupremeCourt.Ithasjurisdictionoveralljudicialandadministrativematters.ThisisduetothefactthattheSupremeCourthastwochambers–ajudicialchamberandanadministrativechamber.
2.Arecertaintypesofdisputesallocated
toaparticularcourt?
Yes.Forexample,commercialdisputesareallocatedtotribunalsoffirstinstancesittingincommercialmatters.LabourTribunalshavejurisdictionoverlabourdisputes.
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3.Arelowercourtsboundbythedecisionsof
highercourts?
Yes.Lowercourtsareboundbythedecisionsofhighercourts.
4.Whatarethedifferenttypesofcivil
proceedingsincourtavailabletoenforce
aclaim?
Therearetwotypesofcivilproceedingsincourttoenforceaclaim.Apartycanaskforajudgmentonthemeritsofitscaseor,inanemergency,askforasummaryjudgmentalsoknownas‘référé’.
5.Arecourtproceedingsandcourt
documentsconfidential?
Inprinciple,courtproceedingsareheldinpublic.However,thetribunalcanorderproceedingstobeheldincamera(huis clos)inthefollowingcases:
• ifthecourtproceedingswereheldinpublic,itwouldviolateprivatelife;
• ifapartyasksfortheproceedingstobeheldincamera;
• ifsomethingtroublestheserenityofjustice;and
• ifallthepartiesaskfortheproceedingstobeheldincamera.
Courtdocumentsareconfidential.However,ifapartytolitigationusesadocumenttosupportitsclaim,thesaidpartymustcommunicatethedocumenttotheotherparty.
6.Arethereanypre-trialproceedingsprescribed
bytherulesofcourt?
No.
7.Whatistheroleofajudgeincivil
proceedings?
Theroleofajudgeincivilproceedingsistoattempttosettledisputesbetweenparties.
8.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Partiesarerequiredtodisclosealldocumentscurrentlyorpreviouslyintheirpossession,that
arerelevanttothecase.Apartyisrequiredtomakeaspontaneousdisclosureofthedocumentsrequired.Ifapartyfailstocomplywitharequestfordisclosure,theapplicantmayapplytocourttocompeldisclosure.Thecourtmayorderapenalty.
9.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
TheTogoleselawdoesnotprovidealistofdocumentsthatareregardedasprivilegedbut,inpracticethecommunicationsbetweenanAvocatandhis/herclientarestrictlyprivileged.AninhouseAvocat’slegaladvicetohis/hercompanywouldberegardedasprivileged.Documentspreparedincontemplationof,orinpreparationfor,litigationarealsoprivileged.
10.Howisevidencepresented?
Evidencecanbepresentedinwritingororally.However,forcivilmatters,evidencemustbeinwriting.Itisworthnotingthatthejudgecouldorderaninquirymeasure,ifrequired,forthedisclosureofevidence.
11.Areinterimremediesavailabletoaparty
beforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings?
Yes,interimremediessuchasaprotectiveseizureofassetsandfreezingaccountsareavailabletoapartybeforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings.Protectiveseizureisalsousedincaseofemergencyoriftheenforcementoftheclaimmaybeendangeredorimperilled.
Theaimofinterimremediesistopreventtheriskofthedefendantdissipatingmonetaryassetandthedestructionofevidence.
Thepartyseekinginterimremediesmustlodgeaformalrequestwiththecourtpresident.
12.Howisacourtorderenforced?
Acourtorderisalwaysenforcedandimplementedbythebailiffwiththeassistanceofthepoliceforceifrequired.
Itisworthnotingthattheenforcementofajudgmentmaynotbemadebefore06:00andafter21:00,andduringtheofficialholidayoranonworkingday.
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13.Whatistheestimateddurationof
courtproceedings?
Theestimateddurationofcourtproceedingsvariesonacase-by-casebasis.
14.Doesacourthavethepowerto
awardcosts?
Yes.Thejudgmentrenderedbythetribunalcontainsdamagesaskedbytheclaimant.However,beforetheinscriptionofthecaseatthecourt,theclaimantmustdepositsufficientfundstopaythecourtcosts.Thejudgmentcontainsfeesandcosts(whichrepresentcourtcosts).Thelosingpartymustpaythefeesandcosts.
15.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredtoprovide
securityforcosts?
Yes.Foreignclaimantsarerequiredtoprovidesecurityforcosts,unlessotherwiseprovidedbyatreaty.
16.Isitpossibletorecoverlegalfees?
Yes.Asuccessfullitigantisentitledtorecovercostswhichwillbesetoutinthejudgement.
17.Onwhatgroundscanpartiesappealor
reviewanordergrantedbyacourt?
Inprinciple,iftheclaimantorthedefendantisnotsatisfiedwiththejudgmentrenderedbythecourtoffirstinstance,eachcanlodgeanappeal.IfoneofthepartiesisnotsatisfiedwiththeCourtofAppeal’sdecision,eachisentitledtocontestthesaiddecisionbeforetheSupremeCourt.
18.Doproceduresexistfortherecognition
andenforcementofforeignjudgmentsor
arbitralawards?
Itisnecessarytorequestanexequaturofaforeignjudgmentoraforeignarbitralaward,inorderforaforeignjudgmenttobeenforceableinTogo.
ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatarethemainalternativedispute
resolutionmethodsavailableto
resolvedisputes?
ThefollowingtypesofalternativedisputeresolutionareavailableinTogo:
Conciliation-mediation:thismechanismattemptstoresolveadisputeamicablywiththeassistanceofaconciliator.Theconciliatorischosenbythepartiesandactsasaneutralthirdparty.Theproceedingendsbythesigningofanagreement(protocole d’accord)betweenthepartiesprovidingthesolutionofthedisputeorbythedraftingofanon-conciliationminute(procès-verbal de non-conciliation);Arbitration:thisisaprivateprocessfortheresolutionofadispute,inwhichpartieschooseoneormorethirdparties(iearbitrator/s)tohelpthemresolvetheirdispute.Arbitrationprovisionsareinsertedincontractsbywayofarbitrationclauses(clause compromissoire)oraseparateagreement(compromis)concludedbetweentheparties.Inarbitrationproceedings,thedisputeisdeterminedbythearbitratorandthearbitrator’sdecisionisbindingontheparties.
Arbitrationandconciliation-mediationarevoluntaryproceedingswhichoffertothepartiestheopportunitytosettletheirdisputewithoutgoingthroughcourtsasthesemechanismsarequick,impartial,effective,confidentialandcost-efficient.
2.Arepartiestocommerciallitigation
requiredtosubmittoalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
No.Partiesarenotrequiredtosubmittoalternativedisputeresolutionproceedingsbecauseitdependsonthewilloftheparties.
3.Howarecostsdealtwithinalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
Inpractice,thepartiespayfortheirowncosts.However,thearbitratorortheconciliatorcanalsodecidetoallocatethepaymentofthefeesbetweentheparties.
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4.Arealternativedisputeresolution
proceedingsconfidential?
Yes.
5.Whatarethemainbodiesthatoffer
andconductalternativedisputeresolution
proceedings?Arepartiesobligedtouse
thesebodiesforalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
TheCour d’Arbitrage de Médiation et de
Conciliation du Togo(CATO)isthemainbodythatoffersandconductsalternativedisputeresolutioninTogo.PartiesarenotobligedtouseCATOforalternativeresolutionproceedings.
ARBITRATION
1.Whatistheestimateddurationof
arbitrationproceedings?
Thedurationofarbitrationproceedingsvariesonacase-by-casebasisbuttakeslesstimethancourtproceedings.
Thearbitrator’sauthorityisdeterminedinthearbitrationagreement.Itshallnotexceedsixmonthsfromthedateoftheappointmentofthelastarbitrator.However,theperiodcanbeextendedeitherbyparties’consentorupononeparty’srequest.
2.Canacourtinterveneinarbitration
proceedings?
Thecourtcanonlyinterveneinarbitrationproceedingsbyvirtueofaparty’srequesttoobtaininterimrelieforaprotectivemeasureincaseofmotivatedandjustifiedemergency,ontheconditionthatthesemeasuresdonotinvolveexaminationofthemeritsofthedispute,inwhichonlythearbitraltribunaliscompetent.Thearbitraltribunalisalsoentitledtorequesttheassistanceofthelocaljudgeintheeventthatsuchassistanceisrequiredforthemanagementofevidences.
3.Doesanarbitratorhavethepowertogrant
interimrelief?
No.Onlythecourthasthepowertograntinterimrelief.
4.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Thearbitraltribunalcanrequesttheexplanations,argumentsandevidenceitdeemsnecessaryfromthepartiesforthesettlementofthedispute.Thedocumentationincludesinteraliastatementsandexpertreports.
5.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
No.Therearenodocumentsregardedasprivileged.Alldocumentsthatthearbitraltribunalmayrelyoninordertorenderadecisionmustbecommunicated.
6.Howisevidencepresented?
Partiesarefreetoagreeontheproceduretobefollowedbythearbitraltribunal.Failingsuchagreement,thearbitraltribunalmayconductthearbitrationasitconsidersappropriate.Thearbitraltribunalhasthepowertodeterminetheadmissibility,relevanceandthesignificanceofanyevidencepresented.
Theclaimant,insupportofhis/herrequest,shallstatetheevidence,themattersindisputeandfindings.Thedefendantmustsubmithis/herdefenceinrespectofthesematters.
7.Howisanarbitrationawardenforced?
AnarbitrationawardisenforcedbyvirtueofanexequaturgrantedbythecompetentcourtinTogo.
8.Isitpossibletoappealanarbitrationaward?
No.Anarbitrationawardisnotsubjecttoanappeal.However,anarbitrationawardmaysubjecttoanactionforacancellation.Theactionforacancellationisadmissibleonly:
• ifthearbitraltribunalhasruledwithoutanarbitrationagreementorunderavoidorexpiredagreement;
• ifthearbitraltribunalwasirregularlyconstituted;
• ifthearbitraltribunalruledwithoutcomplyingwiththemissionentrustedtoit;
• iftheadversarialprinciplewasnotrespected;and/or
• intheeventofbreachoftheinternationalpublicorder.
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Theactionforcancellationisopenfromtheissuanceofthearbitralawardandremainsvalidforonemonthaftertheaffixationoftheexequaturtothearbitralaward.
9.Canforeignjudgmentsorarbitralawards
berecognisedandenforcedbywayof
arbitrationproceedings?
No.ForeignjudgementsandarbitrationawardscanonlyberecognisedandenforcedbyvirtueofanexequaturgrantedbythecompetentcourtinTogo.
10.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredtoprovide
securityforcosts?
Whetherornotaforeignclaimantwillberequiredtoprovidesecurityforcostsdependsontheclauseofpaymentinsertedbythepartiesinthearbitrationagreement.
REFORM
1.Istherelikelytobeanyfuturereformof
thecourtsystemoralternativedispute
resolutionsystem?
No.
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DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatisthestructureofthelegalprofession?
ThelegalprofessioninUgandaisnotfused.Theroleofanadvocatediffersfromthatofalawyer.Anadvocateisanenrolledlawyertothebarandcanaddresscourtwhereasalawyerdoesnothavearightofaudiencebeforethecourt.
2.Whatmethodsofdisputeresolutionare
availabletosettlecommercialdisputes?
Commercialdisputescanbesettledbynegotiation,mediation,conciliationorarbitration.Ifalloftheabovefail,partiesmayresorttolitigationwhichisadversarialinnature.
3.Arethereanyrestrictionsontheroleof
foreignlawyersinlitigationproceedings?
ForeignlawyerscurrentlyrequireauthorisationtotemporarilyparticipateinlitigationproceedingsinUganda.Thoseinactivepracticecanobtainaspecialcertificatetopracticewithinthejurisdiction.UndertheAdvocatesAct,aforeignlawyerisrequiredtoobtaina‘specialpractisingcertificate’whichadmitsthelawyertopracticeinUgandancourtsforthepurposeofanylegalmatter.
4.Whatisthetimeperiodwithinwhichacivil
claimmustbebrought?
TheLimitationActprovidesdifferentperiodsfordifferentclaims.Landmattersmustbebroughtwithin12years;aclaimbasedoncontractortortmustbebroughtwithinsixyears;andaclaimbasedonnuisanceornegligencemustbebroughtwithinthreeyears.
5.Whatisthelegalfeestructure?
ThelegalfeestructureforcontentiousandnoncontentiousmattersisprovidedforundertheAdvocates’RemunerationandTaxationofCosts
Act.Thereisaslidingscaleandfeesarecalculatedaccordingtopercentageofvalueofthesubjectmatter.Forhighercourts,namelytheCourtofAppealandSupremeCourt,theJudicatureCourtofAppealRulesandtheJudicatureSupremeCourtRulesapply.Complexity,noveltyofissuesinvolvedandamountofresearcharealsoconsideredwhenchargingafee.
6.Isitpossibleforlitigationtobefundedbya
thirdparty?Canlawyersclaimcontingencyfees?
IntermsofthecommonlawinUganda,itisillegalforlitigationtobefundedbyathirdparty.Advocatesareprohibitedfromenteringintocontingencyfeeagreements.Anadvocateshallnotenterintoanyagreementforthesharingofaproportionoftheproceedsofajudgementwhetherbywayofpercentageorotherwiseeitheraspartofortheentireamountofhis/herprofessionalfeesorinconsiderationofadvancingtoaclientfundsfordisbursements.
THE COURT SYSTEM
1.Whatisthestructureofthecourtsystem?
AccordingtotheConstitutionoftheRepublicofUgandaandtheJudicatureAct,thecourtstructurefromthehighestinhierarchyis:
• theSupremeCourt;• theCourtofAppeal;• theHighCourt;and• theMagistrates'Courts
TheMagistrates'CourtsstructureaccordingtotheMagistratesCourts’Actfromthehighestinhierarchyisasfollows:
• ChiefMagistrates'Courts;• MagistrateGradeICourts;and• Magistrates'GradeIICourts.
2.Arecertaintypesofdisputesallocatedtoa
particularcourt?
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Magistrates'Courtsadjudicatealltypesofdisputesindiscriminatelyunlessexpresslybarredbystatute,forexampleMagistrates'Courtsdonothavejurisdictioninemploymentmatters.
EmploymentmattersareexclusivelyhandledbytheIndustrialCourt.TaxmattersarehandledbytheTaxAppealsTribunal.
TheHighCourthasjurisdictioninallmatters.However,administratively,mattersarehandledbyspeciallysetupdivisionsoftheHighCourtforLand,Criminal,Civil,Family,WarCrimesandExecutionDivisions.ThisappliesinKampala(thecapitalcityofUganda).OutsideKampala,HighCourtcircuitshandleallmattersindiscriminately.MattersofconstitutionalinterpretationarehandledbytheCourtofAppealexclusively.
3.Arelowercourtsboundbythedecisionsof
highercourts?
Yes.Thedoctrineofprecedent(stare decisis)issalientinthejurisprudenceofUgandancourts.
4.Whatarethedifferenttypesofcivil
proceedingsincourtavailabletoenforce
aclaim?
Aclaimcanbeinstitutedbyordinaryplaint;noticeofmotion;chambersummons;originationssummons;orpetitiontoenforceaclaim.
5.Arecourtproceedingsandcourt
documentsconfidential?
Courtproceedingsarepublichearingsandcourtdocumentsareavailabletothepublicunlessthecourtmakesaspecificordertothecontrary.Anorderthattrialbeheldincameracanbemadeincertaincases.
6.Arethereanypre-trialproceedingsprescribed
bytherulesofcourt?
Yes.Therulesofcourtprescribediscoveryapplicationsandinterrogatoriesasandwhenapplicable.IntermsoftheCivilProcedureRules,beforeatrialcancommencepartiesarerequiredtoparticipateinaschedulingconferencetodeterminetheissuesofcontention,agreedissuesanddisputedissues.
7.Whatistheroleofajudgein
civilproceedings?
Thejudgeconciliatestheparties,guidesthemontheproceduralaspectsofpresentationoftheirrespectivecasesandfinallyadjudicatesthecaseonitslegalmerits.
8.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Documentsthatarerelevantandadmissiblearerequiredtobedisclosedbytheparties.Theseincludebutarenotlimitedtodocumentsoftitle,agreements,receiptsandthelike.
9.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
Yes.Certaindocumentsthatareclassifiedandpartofgovernmentrecordsareprivilegeddocuments.Thecourt,uponapplicationbyaparty,canhoweveradmittheprivilegeddocumentsiftodosowouldbeinthepublicinterestorforothersufficientcause.
10.Howisevidencepresented?
Evidenceispresentedbyoralanddocumentaryproofofthepartiesinvolved.Oralproofisbyexaminationinchief,crossexaminationandre-examinationofwitnessesonastandincourt.Documentaryproofisdonethroughtenderingofauthenticateddocumentsduringahearing.
11.Areinterimremediesavailabletoaparty
beforeorduringcivilcourtproceedings?
Interimremediesareavailablemainlybeforecivilcourtproceedingtopreservethestatusquoduringthehearingofthesuit.
12.Howisacourtorderenforced?
Acourtorderisenforcedthroughexecutionproceedings,byarrestanddetentionofthejudgementdebtororbyattachmentorsaleofthejudgementdebtor’sproperty.Garnisheeproceedings(attachmentofaccounts)canalsobetakenoutagainstthejudgementdebtor.
13.Whatistheestimateddurationof
courtproceedings?
Thedurationofcourtproceedingsisdependentonvariousfactorsandthespecificcircumstancesofaparticularcase.Administratively,afasttrialisonethatisconcludedinonecalendaryear.
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14.Doesacourthavethepowerto
awardcosts?
Yes.Courtscanawardcoststothesuccessfulparty.Generally,costsfollowtheevent.15.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredtoprovide
securityforcosts?
Ifaforeignclaimanthasnoassetsorpropertywithinthejurisdiction,thecourtnormallyrequirestheclaimanttofurnishsecurityforcosts.16.Isitpossibletorecoverlegalfees?
Legalfeesarerecoverableinthebillofcostsasistheinstructionfee.Thisisnormallythefirstitemontheitemisedbillofcostswhichissubjectedtotaxationproceedingsattheendofthetrial.17.Onwhatgroundscanpartiesappeal
orreviewanordergrantedbyacourt?
Thereisnosuchthingasaninherentrightofappeal.Anappealisacreatureofstatute.Thegroundsforreviewarealsoprovidedinstatutesuchasdiscoveryofnewandimportantevidence(whichwasnotwithintheapplicant’sknowledgeandcouldthereforenotbeproducedbyhim/her),somemistakeorerrorapparentonthefaceoftherecordoranyothersufficientreasonsanalogoustotheforegoing.
18.Doproceduresexistfortherecognition
andenforcementofforeignjudgmentsor
arbitralawards?
Yes.TheForeignJudgements(ReciprocalEnforcement)Actstipulatestheprocedurefortherecognitionandenforcementofaforeignjudgment.Therelevantprocedurewilldependonwhethertheforeignjudgementwasgrantedwithinoroutsidethecommonwealth.
TheArbitrationandConciliationActprovidesthesameprocedurefortherecognitionandenforcementofforeignarbitralawards.
ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION
1.Whatarethemainalternativedispute
resolutionmethodsavailabletoresolvedisputes?
Themainalternativedisputeresolutionmethodsavailablearenegotiation,mediation,conciliationorarbitration.
2.Arepartiestocommerciallitigation
requiredtosubmittoalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
Yes.ThereareHighCourtCommercialCourtMediationRulesthatrequireallpartiesincommercialdisputestosubmittoalternativedisputeresolutionproceedingsbeforetrialcancommence.
3.Howarecostsdealtwithinalternative
disputeresolutionproceedings?
Eachpartyisresponsibleforpayingtheirowncostsduringmediationproceedings.
4.Arealternativedisputeresolution
proceedingsconfidential?
Yes.
5.Whatarethemainbodiesthatoffer
andconductalternativedisputeresolution
proceedings?Arepartiesobligedtouse
thesebodiesforalternativedispute
resolutionproceedings?
Thecourtshavemediatorswhopresideoveralternativedisputeresolutionproceedings.Variousbodiesexistincluding:
• UgandaMediationChamberswhichisaprivatemediationbody;and
• CentreforArbitration&DisputeResolutionwhichisastatutorybodyvestedwiththemandatetoaccreditarbitrators.
Beforeanytrialcancommence,itismandatorythatpartiesusethesebodiesinanattempttoresolvethedisputeamicably.
ARBITRATION
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1.Whatistheestimateddurationof
arbitrationproceedings?
Thedurationofanarbitrationwilldependonthespecificcircumstancesofthecase.Aroughestimateissixmonths.
2.Canacourtinterveneinarbitration
proceedings?
IntermsoftheArbitrationandConciliationAct,nocourtcaninterveneinarbitrationproceedings.
3.Doesanarbitratorhavethepowerto
grantinterimrelief?
ThepartyhastoapplytotheHighCourtbeforeorduringarbitrationproceedingstogetinterimrelief.
4.Whatdocumentsarepartiesrequired
todisclose?
Relevantdocumentstothetransactioninissueshouldbedisclosedinarbitration.
5.Areanydocumentsregardedasprivileged?
ThenatureofarbitrationproceedingsinUgandaisthattheseproceedingsarealternativedisputeresolutionmechanisms.Arbitrationproceedingsarenotasadversarialaslitigationinthecourts.Consequently,thehardandfastrulesofcivilprocedureandlawofevidencearerelaxedduringarbitrationproceedings.
Themoreinformationthatapartyelectstodisclose,thegreaterthechancesareofthearbitrationsucceeding.PrivilegebetweenanadvocateandclientcouldbewaivedtofostermutualtrustandgoodfaithdespitethefactthatthistypeofprivilegeisstillavalidprincipleundertheUgandanlawofevidence.
6.Howisevidencepresented?
Evidencecanbepresentedeitherorallyorinwrittenform.
7.Howisanarbitrationawardenforced?
Anarbitrationawardcanbeenforcedinthesamemannerasadecreeofcourt.
8.Isitpossibletoappealanarbitrationaward?
Yes,ifpartiesagree,anappealcanbemadetotheHighCourtonaquestionoflaw.
9.Canforeignjudgmentsorarbitralawards
berecognisedandenforcedbywayof
arbitrationproceedings?
No.Foreignjudgementsandarbitrationawardscanonlyberecognisedandenforcedbywayofcourtproceedings.
10.Areforeignclaimantsrequiredtoprovide
securityforcosts?
ThepracticeisthatforeignclaimantswithoutassetsorpropertyinUgandaaretoprovidesecurityforcosts.
REFORM
1.Istherelikelytobeanyfuturereform
ofthecourtsystemoralternativedispute
resolutionsystem?
Thereisnoreformtothecourtsystemoralternativedisputeresolutionintheimmediatefuture.
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Key Contacts
Toviewprofilesofourlawyers,
pleasevisitwww.bowmanslaw.com
ADAMANDERSON
HeadofLitigationJohannesburg,SouthAfrica
T:+27116699000E:[email protected]
FREDERICKJ.MPANGA
PartnerKampala,Uganda
T:+256414254540E:[email protected]
EVANSMONARI
PartnerNairobi,Kenya
T:+254202899000E:[email protected]
WILBERTKAPINGA
ManagingPartner,TanzaniaDaresSalaam,Tanzania
T:+255768988640E:[email protected]
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T: +255768988640E: [email protected]
Durban
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Johannesburg
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