69
Ele
na M
ihas
A G
RA
MM
AR
OF
ALT
O P
ER
EN
É (A
RA
WA
K)
Elena Mihas
A GRAMMAR OF ALTO PERENÉ (ARAWAK)THE SERIES: MOUTON GRAMMAR LIBRARY
The series builds an extensive collection of high quality descriptions of languages
around the world. Each volume offers a comprehensive grammatical description of a
single language together with fully analyzed sample texts and, if appropriate, a word
list and other relevant information which is available on the language in question.
There are no restrictions as to language family or area, and although special attention
is paid to hitherto undescribed languages, new and valuable treatments of better
known languages are also included. No theoretical model is imposed on the authors;
the only criterion is a high standard of scientific quality.
www.degruyter.com
ISSN 0933-7636ISBN 978-3-11-041932-0
MGL
MOUTON GRAMMAR LIBRARY
Alto Perené belongs to the Kampa group of the Arawak family, located in the central
Peruvian Amazon in the foothills of the Andes mountains. While limited grammatical
studies of Kampa languages exist, this grammar is by far the most comprehensive
study of any language of this sub-family.
Table of contents
Acknowledgements — v
Table of contents — vii
List of tables and figures — xix
Abbreviations — xxiii
Part I: Introduction
1 The language and its speakers — 1
1.1 Geographical location and speaker numbers — 1
1.2 Linguistic profile of Alto Perené — 2
1.3 Alto Perené within the Kampa subgroup and the Arawak language
family — 7
1.4 Prior research on the language — 8
1.5 Language ecologies — 9
1.5.1 Economy — 9
1.5.2 Kinship — 13
1.5.3 Socio-political structure — 14
1.5.4 Contact with other indigenous groups and non-indigenous
outsiders — 15
1.5.5 Beliefs — 19
1.6 Current socio-linguistic status of the language — 20
1.7 Research methods, fieldwork materials, and consultants — 22
1.8 Summary of chapter 1 — 32
Part II: The sound system
2 Phonology — 35
2.1 Vowels — 35
2.1.1 Short vowels — 36
2.1.2 Long vowels and diphthongs — 39
2.2 Consonants — 43
2.2.1 Phoneme inventory — 43
2.2.2 Stops /p/, /t/, /tʲ/, and /k/ — 44
2.2.2.1 The phoneme /p/— 44
2.2.2.2 The phonemes /t/ and /tʲ/ — 45
viii | Table of contents
2.2.2.3 The phoneme /k/ — 46
2.2.3 Affricates ts /tsʰ/, tz /ts/, and ch /ʧ/ — 47
2.2.4 Fricatives s/s/, sh /ʃ/, and j /h/ — 48
2.2.5 Nasals m /m/, n /n/, ñ /ɲ/, and the archiphoneme N — 49
2.2.6 Liquid r/ɾ/ — 50
2.2.7 Glides v /w/ and y /j/ — 50
2.3 Phonotactics — 53
2.3.1 Syllable structure — 54
2.3.2 The minimal phonological word — 55
2.3.3 Stress — 56
2.4 Intonation — 58
2.5 Sounds in Spanish loanwords — 61
2.6 Phonological differences among Alto Perené speech
communities — 63 2.7 Variation — 64
2.8 Orthography — 65
2.9 Summary of chapter 2 — 67
3 Morphophonemics — 69
3.1 Lenition — 69
3.2 Epenthesis — 72
3.3 Gliding in diphthongs — 73
3.4 Vowel deletion and vowel shortening — 74
3.5 Vowel lengthening — 77
3.6 Intervocalic gliding and glide insertion in irrealis marking — 78
3.7 Palatalization — 79
3.7.1 Place-changing palatalization — 80
3.7.2 Expressive palatalization — 83
3.8 Metathesis — 84
3.9 Syllable omission — 85
3.10 Reduplication — 86
3.11 Suppletion — 91
3.12 Summary of chapter 3 — 92
Part III: Word structure and word classes
4 Word structure — 94
4.1 Grammatical word vs. phonological word — 94
4.2 Morphological typology — 97
4.3 Formative classes — 98
Table of contents | ix
4.3.1 Types of morphemes — 98
4.3.2 Core formatives: affixes — 100
4.3.3 Peripheral formatives: clitics and particles — 108
4.4 Morphological operations — 111
4.5 Summary of chapter 4 — 115
5 Word classes — 116
5.1 Nouns — 116
5.2 Verbs — 117
5.3 Adjectives — 118
5.3.1 Underived and Derived adjectives — 118
5.3.2 Morphosyntactic properties of adjectives — 120
5.4 Adverbs — 122
5.4.1 Time adverbs — 123
5.4.2 Place adverbs — 124
5.4.3 Other types of adverbs — 127
5.5 Pronouns — 128
5.5.1 Personal pronouns — 128
5.5.1.1 Continuous topic pronouns — 129
5.5.1.2 Contrastive additive focus pronouns — 130
5.5.1.3 Contrastive exhaustive focus pronouns — 131
5.5.1.4 Contrastive topic pronouns — 134
5.5.2 Bound pronominal forms — 134
5.5.3 Possessive pronouns — 136
5.5.4 Demonstrative pronouns — 138
5.6 Interrogative and indefinite forms — 139
5.7 Numerals — 143
5.8 Ideophones — 145
5.9 Interjections — 147
5.10 Discourse particles — 148
5.11 Summary of chapter 5 — 151
Part IV: The verb
6 Verbal predicate structure — 154
6.1 Verb formation — 154
6.1.1 Denominal, deadjectival, and deadverbial verbs — 154
6.1.2 Compound verbs — 158
6.2 Simple verbal predicates — 160
6.3 Multi-verb predicates — 162
x | Table of contents
6.3.1 Primary and Secondary verbs in serial verb constructions — 163
6.3.1.1 Motion verbs — 164
6.3.1.2 Verbs of speaking — 165
6.3.1.3 Posture verbs — 166
6.3.1.4 Phasal verbs — 167
6.3.1.5 Other verbs — 167
6.3.2 Auxiliary verbs — 170
6.4 Other types of verbal predicates — 172
6.4.1 Stative and non-stative predicates — 172
6.4.2 Existential-locational predicate saik ‘be at’ — 175
6.4.3 Existential-possessive predicates — 176
6.4.4 Possessive predicates — 178
6.4.4.1 Predicates headed by the verb v ‘have’ — 178
6.4.4.2 Predicates formed with the Possessive Relation suffix –nta — 179
6.4.4.3 Constructions formed with free possessive pronouns — 181
6.4.5 Constructions with the unfilled verbal predicate slot — 183
6.4.6 Ideophone predicates — 185
6.5 Summary of chapter 6 — 187
7 Verb classes — 189
7.1 A-Conjugation and I-Conjugation verbs — 189
7.2 Transitivity — 193
7.2.1 Intransitive verbs — 195
7.2.2 Transitive verbs — 197
7.2.3 Ditransitive verbs — 200
7.3 Modal verbs — 205
7.4 Copula verbs — 206
7.4.1 Expression of inclusion and attribution via the existential
copula na ‘be’ — 207
7.4.2 Expression of equation and attribution via the existential
copula kant ‘be this way’ — 208
7.4.3 Negative existential copula kaari — 209
7.4.4 Expression of equation, attribution, and possession
by juxtaposition — 210
7.5 Summary of chapter 7 — 211
8 Verbal categories — 214
8.1 Aspect — 214
8.1.1 Perfective -ak and Terminative -aj — 214
8.1.2 Completive -ite — 216
8.1.3 Habitual -apint and Customary -ant — 218
8.1.4 Progressive -aty~-atz and Prospective -aty — 218
Table of contents | xi
8.1.5 Durative -vai and Delimitative -vintsa~-mintsa — 219
8.1.6 Repetitive -a, Punctual -apaint ‘once’, and Iterative -apanant
‘one more time’ — 220
8.1.7 Inchoative -imai — 221
8.1.8 Stative Imperfective -atsi~-acha and Stative Perfective -aintsi~
-aincha — 222
8.2 Directionals — 224
8.2.1 Directional Source -an and Directional Goal -ap — 224
8.2.2 Directional O-oriented Goal -av — 226
8.3 Mood — 227
8.4 Modality — 228
8.4.1 Optative =ta — 228
8.4.2 Dubitative =ma — 232
8.4.3 Possible Condition =rika — 235
8.4.4 Counterfactual Condition =mi — 238
8.4.5 Assumptive =ratya — 239
8.4.6 Expectational =tyami — 240
8.4.7 Apprehensive =kari — 241
8.4.8 Compassion -matsi — 242
8.4.9 Premonition -amampi — 244
8.4.10 Involuntary -mache — 246
8.4.11 New Discovery -atai — 247
8.4.12 Frustrative -ve~-vi — 249
8.4.13 Incompletive -i — 250
8.4.14 Other modal operators — 252
8.4.14.1 Multifunctional =ra — 252
8.4.14.2 Affect =tya — 254
8.4.14.3 Fury =po — 255
8.4.14.4 Assertive =kia — 255
8.4.14.5 Exclamative =ve — 257
8.5 Reality status — 258
8.6 Tense — 260
8.6.1 Remote Past tense -ni — 261
8.6.2 Anterior -it — 263
8.6.3 Generic Anterior =ranki — 264
8.7 Plural number — 266
8.7.1 Group Plural -aiy (…-ni) — 266
8.7.2 Generic Plural -jee (…-ni) — 268
8.7.3 Distributive -ye — 270
8.8 Summary of chapter 8 — 272
xii | Table of contents
9 Valence-adjusting mechanisms — 274
9.1 Valence-increasing derivation — 274
9.1.1 Overview of applicatives — 274
9.1.1.1 Generalized -ako — 278
9.1.1.2 Sociative-Causative -aka — 284
9.1.1.3 Beneficiary -vent~-vint — 287
9.1.1.4 Beneficiary-Recipient -ront~-nont — 292
9.1.1.5 Intent -ashi — 293
9.1.1.6 Instrument/Reason -ant — 295
9.1.1.7 Presential -imo — 298
9.1.1.8 Separative -apitsa — 300
9.1.2 Causatives — 302
9.2 Valence-preserving derivation — 306
9.2.1 Impersonal/Generalized subject -ai — 306
9.2.2 Reversative -ri — 308
9.3 Valence-reducing derivation — 309
9.3.1 Customary -ant — 309
9.3.2 Noun incorporation — 310
9.3.2.1 Functions of noun incorporation — 310
9.3.2.2 External possession construction — 311
9.3.2.3 Characteristics of incorporated nouns — 312
9.3.3 Reflexive and reciprocal marking — 315
9.4 Summary of chapter 9 — 318
Part V: The noun
10 Noun classes and nominal categories — 321
10.1 Types of nouns — 321
10.1.1 Simple and complex nouns — 321
10.1.2 Possessable and non-possessable nouns — 324
10.1.3 Count and mass nouns — 326
10.2 Gender — 328
10.3 Possession — 334
10.4 Plural number — 339
10.4.1 Plural marking of personal pronouns and person indexes — 340
10.4.2 Plural marking of human nouns — 342
10.4.3 Plural marking of inanimate nouns — 344
10.4.4 Plural marking of discrete animates and inanimates — 345
10.4.5 Associatives and collectives — 346
10.4.6 Distributive -ye — 349
Table of contents | xiii
10.5 Definiteness — 350
10.6 Spatial case -ki — 352
10.7 Tense — 355
10.7.1 Nominal Ceased Existence -ni — 356
10.7.2 Nominal Temporal enclitic =ranki — 359
10.8 Summary of chapter 10 — 365
11 Noun phrase syntax — 368
11.1 The structure of the noun phrase — 368
11.2 Modifying adjectives, nominal demonstratives, and deverbal
gender-specific nouns — 371
11.3 Possessive modifiers — 375
11.4 Numerals, ordinals, and quantifiers — 376
11.5 Relative clauses and nominalized stative verbs — 377
11.6 Appositional nominals — 379
11.7 Coordination of NPs — 381
11.8 Summary of chapter 11 — 384
Part VI: Word formation
12 Word formation — 385
12.1 Derivation of degree, time, and distance — 385
12.1.1 Intensifier -pero~-piro — 385
12.1.2 Intensifier -ni — 387
12.1.3 Intensifier -a — 387
12.1.4 Excessive degree -ki and -tzii — 388
12.1.5 Augmentative -ite — 390
12.1.6 Superlative -taki and Simulative -tanaki — 391
12.1.7 Diminutive -nint — 393
12.1.8 Diminutives -patsaini, -aniki, -ini — 394
12.1.9 -aman ‘early morning’ — 396
12.1.10 Distance -ai — 397
12.2 Compounding — 398
12.2.1 Properties of a compound — 398
12.2.2 Types and internal structure of compounds — 398
12.2.3 Nominal compounds — 401
12.2.4 Evaluative morphology of compounds — 403
12.3 Classifying forms — 404
12.3.1 Overview — 404
12.3.2 Class terms — 409
xiv | Table of contents
12.3.3 Classifiers — 414
12.3.3.1 Multiple classifiers — 415
12.3.3.2 Noun classifiers — 421
12.3.3.3 Verbal classifiers? — 423
12.4 Nominalization — 425
12.4.1 Realis nominalizations — 425
12.4.1.1 Agent nominalizations — 426
12.4.1.2 Non-Agent nominalizations — 429
12.4.1.3 Morphosyntactic properties of realis nominalizations — 431
12.4.2 Irrealis nominalizations — 433
12.5 Reduplication — 434
12.6 Expressive palatalization — 436
12.7 Summary of chapter 12 — 438
Part VII: Main clause structure
13 Syntactic functions and word order — 440
13.1 Expression of arguments in A, S, and O functions — 440
13.1.1 Subjects — 441
13.1.2 Objects — 449
13.2 Patterns of indexation of arguments in S function — 454
13.2.1 Restrictions on the fluid intransitive marking — 455
13.2.2 Motivating factors of the fluid intransitive marking — 459
13.3 Expression of peripheral arguments — 463
13.4 Constituent order — 470
13.5 Summary of chapter 13 — 475
Part VIII: Special sentence types
14 Speech act distinctions — 478
14.1 Declarative clauses — 478
14.2 Interrogatives — 480
14.2.1 Content questions — 480
14.2.1.1 Questions about participants — 481
14.2.1.2 Questions about activities — 484
14.2.1.3 Questions about locations — 485
14.2.1.4 Questions about causes — 486
14.2.1.5 Questions about quantities — 487
Table of contents | xv
14.2.1.6 Questions about time — 488
14.2.1.7 Questions about manner — 490
14.2.2 Polar questions — 491
14.2.3 Question tag tema ari — 492
14.2.4 Alternative questions — 493
14.2.5 Prosody of questions — 493
14.2.6 Negated questions — 495
14.2.7 Functions of questions — 496
14.2.8 Response types — 497
14.3 Imperatives — 499
14.3.1 Second person-directed imperative construction — 499
14.3.2 Other person-directed imperative constructions — 504
14.3.3 Negative imperatives — 506
14.3.4 Related constructions — 508
14.3.4.1 Warnings — 508
14.3.4.2 Advice and obligatives — 509
14.4 Exclamatives — 511
14.5 Summary of chapter 14 — 513
15 Negation — 516
15.1 Overview of clausal and constituent negation — 516
15.2 Standard negation strategy — 517
15.2.1 Realis negator te — 517
15.2.2 Irrealis negator airo — 520
15.3 Other negation strategies — 523
15.3.1 Negative polarity verb tekatsi — 523
15.3.2 Negative polarity verb kaari — 526
15.3.3 Aspectual adverb tekira ‘not yet’ — 529
15.3.4 Lexical verb kov(ity) ‘lack’, ‘be needed’ — 530
15.3.5 Verb of vision ñ ‘see’ — 531
15.4 Morphological negation — 533
15.5 Summary of chapter 15 — 534
Part IX: Complex constructions
16 Clause linking — 536
16.1 Overview of subordination — 536
16.2 Relative clause — 539
16.2.1 Headed relative clause — 540
16.2.1.1 Canonical relative clause — 540
xvi | Table of contents
16.2.1.2 Intermediate heads — 543
16.2.2 Headless relative clause — 545
16.2.3 Other relative constructions — 546
16.2.3.1 Impersonal construction — 546
16.2.3.2 Construction with tsika ‘where’ — 547
16.2.3.3 Te-negated clause — 548
16.3 Complementation — 549
16.3.1 Juxtaposition strategy — 549
16.3.2 Nominalization strategy — 550
16.3.3 Grammatical profile of the juxtaposed complement clause — 551
16.3.4 Semantic types of complement-taking verbs — 555
16.3.4.1 Primary verbs — 557
16.3.4.2 Secondary verbs — 561
16.4 Adverbial clauses — 568
16.4.1 Adverbial linking strategies — 569
16.4.1.1 Paratactic linking strategy — 569
16.4.1.2 Linking by a free conjunction — 569
16.4.1.3 Linking by a bound subordinator — 570
16.4.2 Temporal clause linking — 571
16.4.2.1 Temporal succession — 571
16.4.2.2 Temporal overlap — 573
16.4.2.3 Temporal anteriority — 576
16.4.3 Conditional clause linking — 579
16.4.3.1 Possible conditional linking — 580
16.4.3.2 Counterfactual conditional linking — 583
16.4.4 Consequence clause linking — 585
16.4.4.1 Causal linking — 586
16.4.4.2 Purposive linking — 587
16.4.4.3 Resultative linking — 592
16.4.4.4 Undesirable possible consequence linking — 593
16.4.5 Converbial clauses — 593
16.5 Other types of clause linking — 595
16.5.1 Contrast — 595
16.5.2 Disjunction — 597
16.5.3 Manner — 597
16.6 Summary of chapter 16 — 599
Table of contents | xvii
Part X: Information structure
17 Topic, focus, and emphasis — 603
17.1 Overview of information structure — 603
17.2 Topic — 608
17.2.1 Topic in syntax — 608
17.2.1.1 Topic pronouns and lexical NPs — 608
17.2.1.2 Contrastive topic pronouns — 610
17.2.1.3 Topic marker irijatzi~irojatzi — 611
17.2.1.4 Presentational construction as a topic promotion strategy — 613
17.2.1.5 Dislocated topic NPs — 615
17.2.1.6 Noun incorporation as a topic demotion strategy — 616
17.2.2 Topic in morphosyntax — 618
17.2.2.1 Person indexes — 618
17.2.2.2 Impersonal/Generalized subject -ai — 619
17.2.2.3 Undergoer -av — 620
17.3 Focus — 622
17.3.1 Focus in syntax — 622
17.3.1.1 Pre-verbal placement of lexical NPs in declarative clauses — 622
17.3.1.2 Focus in content and polar questions and answers — 623
17.3.1.3 Sentence focus and predicate focus — 626
17.3.1.4 Contrastive additive focus — 627
17.3.1.5 Contrastive exhaustive focus — 629
17.3.1.6 Contrastive corrective focus function of the negative
copula kaari — 630
17.3.1.7 Polar focus — 631
17.3.2 Parallel focus in morphology — 632
17.4 Emphasis — 635
17.5 Summary of chapter 17 — 637
References — 640
Appendix A. Grammatical morphemes — 657
Appendix B. Noun categorization devices — 660
Appendix C. Ideophones — 663
Appendix D. Text samples — 668
Index — 677
Top Related