Download - PARAGRAF ARTIKEL JURNAL INTERNASIONAL

PARAGRAFARTIKEL JURNAL INTERNASIONAL

Klinik Jurnal PPSUB 28 Maret 2013

PARAGRAF DALAM TULISAN ILMIAH

Sifat bahasa ilmiah yang khusus dan spesifik tampak pada pemilihan dan pemakaian kata, serta sintaksisnya.

Kata-kata yang lazim digunakan dalam bahasa ilmiah bersifat denotative.

Setiap kata hanya mempunyai satu makna yang paling sesuai dengan konsep atau fakta yang disampaikan.

Kalimat-kalimat yang digunakan dalam bahasa ilmiah seyogyanya bersifat logis.

Hubungan antara bagian-bagian kalimat dalam kalimat tunggal atau hubungan antara klausa-klausa dalam kalimat majemuk (kompleks) mengikuti pola-pola bentuk hubungan yang logis.


Sintaksis adalah ilmu mengenai prinsip dan peraturan untuk membuat kalimat dalam bahasa alami.

Kata “sintaksis” juga digunakan untuk merujuk langsung pada peraturan dan prinsip yang mencakup struktur kalimat dalam suatu

bahasa.

“Kata” merupakan kesatuan bahasa terkecil yang membentuk kalimat. Kata dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu “kata” yang mengandung makna leksikal dan “kata” yang mengandung makna gramatikal atau makna struktural. Jenis pertama dapat dikenal melalui arti

atau maknanya seperti “orang, rumah”. Makna leksikalnya suatu kata dapat dicari dalam kamus. Dalam tata bahasa tradisional, “kata” adalah kesatuan bahasa terkecil

yang mengandung arti atau makna.


“Kalimat” merupakan satuan bahasa terkecil yang merupakan kesatuan pikiran.

Dalam bahasa tulis, kalimat merupakan satuan bahasa yang diawali oleh huruf kapital, diselingi atau tidak diselingi tanda koma (,), titik dua (:), atau titik koma

(;), dan diakhiri dengan tanda titik (.), tanda tanya (?), atau tanda seru (!).


“Kalimat” dalam bahasa Indinesia mempunyai beberapa cirri:1. “Kalimat“ diawali dengan huruf kapital dan diakhiri dengan

tanda titik, tanda tanya, atau tanda seru.2. “Kalimat” miimal terdiri dari atas subjek dan predikat.3. Predikat transitif disertai objek, predikat intransitif dapat

disertai pelengkap.4. “Kalimat” mengandung suatu pemikiran yang utuh, makna, ide,

atau pesan yang jelas.5. Mengandung urutan logis, setiap kata atau kelompok kata yang

mendukung fungsi (subjek, predikat, objek, dan keterangan) disusun dalam satuan menurut fungsinya.

6. Dalam suatu “paragraph” yang terdiri dari dua kalimat atau lebih, kalimat-kalimat disusun dalam satuan makna yang saling berhubungan.


Subjek dalam Kalimat:

Fungsi subjek merupakan pokok dalam sebuah kalimat. Pokok kalimat itu dibicarakan atau dijelaskan oleh fungsi sintaksis lain,

yaitu predikat. Ciri-ciri subjek adalah:

1. Jawaban terhadap pertanyaan apa atau siapa,2. Dapat didahului oleh kata bahwa,3. Berupa kata atau frasa benda (nomina)4. Dapat disertai kata ini atau itu,5. Dapat disertai kata yang,6. Tidak didahului preposisi di, dalam, pada, kepada, bagi, untuk,

dan lain-lain,


Predikat dalam Kalimat

Predikat berfungsi menjelaskan pokok kalimat atau subjek. Predikat mempunyai ciri-ciri:

1. Bagian kalimat yang menjelaskan pokok kalimat,2. Dalam kalimat biasa, predikat berada langsung di belakang

subjek,3. Prediket umumnya diisi oleh verba atau frasa verba,4. Prediket dapat merupakan jawaban dari pertanyaan apa yang

dilakukan (pokok kalimat) atau bagaimana (pokok kalimat).


Objek dalam Kalimat

Obyek adalah unsur kalimat yang kehadirannya dituntut oleh verba transitif pengisi predikat dalam kalimat aktif.

Objek dapat dikenali dengan melihat verba transitif pengisi predikat yang mendahuluinya.


Tata Paragraf dalam Bahasa Indonesia

Paragraf adalah bagian dari suatu Bab pada sebuah karya ilmiah, cara penulisannya harus dimulai dengan baris baru.

Paragraf dikenal juga dengan nama lain “alinea”.

Paragraf dibuat dengan membuat kata pertama pada baris pertama masuk ke dalam (geser ke sebelah kanan) beberapa

ketukan atau spasi.

Demikian pula dengan paragraf berikutnya mengikuti penyajian seperti paragraf pertama.


Dalam suatu paragraf harus memuat dua bagian penting, yakni :

1. Kalimat Pokok, biasanya diletakkan pada awal paragraf, tetapi dapat juga diletakkan pada bagian tengah maupun akhir paragraf. Kalimat pokok adalah kalimat yang menjadi “inti” dari ide atau gagasan dari sebuah paragraf. Biasanya berisi suatu pernyataan yang dijelaskan lebih lanjut oleh kalimat-kalimat lainnya dalam bentuk kalimat penjelas.

2. Kalimat Penjelas, adalah kalimat yang memberikan penjelasan tambahan atau detail rincian dari kalimat pokok dalam suatu paragraf.


Bagian-Bagian Suatu Paragraf yang Baik

1. Ada ide atau gagasan yang “spesifik” dan diperlukan untuk merangkai keseluruhan tulisan (Bab).

2. Dalam suatu paragraph, kalimat yang satu dengan kalimat lainnya saling berkaitan dan berhubungan dengan wajar.


Paragraf Narasi:

Paragraf yang menceritakan suatu kejadian atau peristiwa.

Ciri-cirinya :

Ada peristiwa, ada pelaku peristiwa, ada waktu dan tempat berlangsungnya peristiwa.


Paragraf Deskripsi:

Paragraf yang menggambarkan suatu objek sehingga pembaca seakan bisa melihat, mendengar, atau merasa objek yang

digambarkan itu.

Objek yang dideskripsikan dapat berupa orang, benda, atau tempat.

Ciri-cirinya : Ada objek yang dijelaskan.


Paragraf Eksposisi:

Paragraf yang menginformasikan suatu teori, teknik, kiat, atau petunjuk sehingga orang yang membacanya akan bertambah

wawasannya.

Ciri-cirinya: Ada informasi.


Paragraf Argumentasi:

Paragraf yang mengemukakan suatu pendapat beserta alasannya.

Ciri-cirinya : Ada pendapat dan ada alasannya.


Paragraf Persuasi: Paragraf yang mengajak, membujuk, atau mempengaruhi

pembaca agar melakukan sesuatu.

Ciri- cirinya : Ada bujukan atau ajakan untuk berbuat sesuatu.

CARA MENYUSUN PARAGRAF

Ada enam tahapan yang lazim dilakukan dalam menulis paragraf deskripsi, yaitu:

(1) menentukan tema; (2) menetapkan tujuan penulisan; (3) mengumpulkan bahan; (4) membuat kerangka tulisan; (5) mengembangkan kerangka tulisan; dan (6) merevisi tulian.

1. Langkah yang pertama adalah menentukan tema bagi paragraph yang akan ditulis. Hal ini berarti bahwa harus ditentukan apa yang dibahas dalam paragraf. Tema adalah gagasan pokok yang hendak disampaikan di dalam penulisan paragraf. Gagasan atau ide pokok dapat diperoleh dari pengalaman, hasil penelitian, beberapa sumber, pendapat, dan pengamatan.


Langkah ke dua adalah menetapkan tujuan penulisan paragraf.

Pada langkah ini setiap penulis harus mengungkapkan dengan jelas tujuan penulisan paragraph yang akan dilaksanakannya.

Perumusan tujuan penulisan sangat penting dan harus ditentukan lebih dahulu karena hal ini merupakan titik tolak

dalam seluruh kegiatan menulis selanjutnya. Dengan menentukan tujuan penulisan, akan diketahui apa

yang harus dilakukan pada tahap penulisan, bahan-bahan apa saja yang diperlukan, macam organisasi tulisan yang akan

diterapkan, atau mungkin sudut pandang yang akan dipilih.


Langkah ke tiga adalah mengumpulkan bahan-bahan referensi.

Pada waktu memilihdan membatasi topik paragraph hendaknya sudah diperkirakan kemungkinan mendapatkan

bahan. Dengan membatasi topik, maka sebetulnya telah memusatkan perhatian pada topik yang terbatas itu, serta

mengumpulkan bahan yang khusus pula. Bahan penulisan ini dapat dikumpulkan pada tahap prapenulisan dan dapat pula pada waktu penulisan

berlangsung. Untuk masalah yang tujuannya sudah jelas dalam pikiran kita

maka penetapan dan pengumpulan bahan dapat dilakukan pada waktu penulisan.

CARA MENYUSUN PARAGRAFLangkah ke empat adalah membuat kerangka tulisan (outline)

paragraph.

Menyusun kerangka tulisan merupakan satu cara untuk menyusun suatu rangkaian yang jelas dan terstruktur

yang teratur dari tulisan yang akan dibuat. Kerangka tulisan merupakan suatu rencana kerja yang dapat

digunakan sebagai garis besarnya dalam menulis. Kerangka tulisan juga menjamin penulis dalam ide secara logis

dan teratur. Penyusunan kerangka tulisan sangat dianjurkan karena dapat menghindarkan penulis dari kesalahan-kesalahan yang tidak

perlu terjadi.


Langkah yang ke lima adalah mengembangkan kerangka tulisan.

Pada langkah ini penulis mengembangkan kerangka tulisan menjadi suatu tulisan paragraph yang utuh.


Tahapan ke enam adalah merevisi dan memperbaiki tulisan.

Pada langkah ini penulis melakukan penelitian secara meyeluruh mengenai ejaan

baku Bahasa Indonesia.

Membuat Paragraf Argumentasi

Paragraf argumentasi mengungkapkan ide, gagasan, atau pendapat penulis dengan disertai bukti dan fakta.

Dalam argumentasi ini penulis menyampaikan pendapat yang disertai penjelasan dan alasan yang kuat dengan maksud agar

pembaca dapat terpengaruh. Dasar tulisan argumentasi adalah berpikir kritis dan logis, oleh

karena itu harus berdasarkan pada fakta-fakta yang dapat dipertanggungjawabkan.

Fakta-fakta tersebut dapat diperoleh dengan berbagai cara, antara lain:

(1) bahan bacaan (jurnal, textbook, dan lainnya); (2) wawancara atau angket; (3) penelitian atau pengamatan

langsung melalui observasi.

BEBERAPA CONTOH PARAGRAF

Dalam

JURNAL ILMIAH

Emission of organic compounds from mould and core binders used for casting iron, aluminium and bronze in sand moulds

NIELS TIEDJE, RUDOLF CREPAZ, TORBEN EGGERT and NIKI BEY Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part A (2010) 45, 1866–1876

………….

Only very few investigations distinguish between emission of fumes and toxic gasses in the different parts of the cooling line, such as: in the

pouring area where liquid metal is cast in the moulds, in the cooling area where the castings sit in the moulds while they cool before they are

extracted, and at the shake out where the moulds are opened. [12−14]…………

1. [12] Kauffmann, P.; Voigt, R. Modeling foundry air emissions. Mod. Cast. 1997, 87, 53–55.2. [13] Rarick, T.R.; Crandell, G.R. Grasping the impact of emission factors. Mod. Cast. 2003, 93,

35–37.3. [14] Westberg, H.; Lofstedt, H.; Selden, A.; Lilja, B.G.; Naystrom, P. Exposure to low molecular

weight isocyanates and formaldehyde in foundries using hot box core binders. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2005, 49, 719–725.

……………

Over the past 10 years new binders have been developed that improve the working environment on the moulding line and in the core shop. Serious improvements have been achieved in the later years with regard to toxicity and smell of binders in the part of the foundry where moulds and cores are produced. [3−7] However, it is not clear from these investigations whether the use of new binder systems have reduced the type and level of emissions in the pouring, cooling or shake out areas in the foundry.

………….

1. [3] Ladegourdie, G.; Loechte, K.; Schuh, W. Cold Box 96 — the new environmentally friendly cold box binder system. Foundry Trade J. 1997, October, 434–436.

2. [4] L¨ ochte, K.; Clarke, C. Don’t Cold Shoulder Cold Box Process. Foundry Trade J. 1999, January, 46–49.3. [5] Berthelet, M; Vargas, M. Nouvelles possibilit´ es pour les fonderies, grˆ ace l’emploi du syst` eme liant polysialate pour

l’agglorm´ eration de mat´ eriaux de moulage. Hommes et fonderie 1999, 297, 22–25.4. [6] Siak, J.-S.; Whited, W.T.; Schreck, R.M.; Ferrero, A.; Badiali, M. A green core sand binder facilitating easy core

removal from complex aluminium castings. In CIATF Technical Forum 1999; Verein Deutsche Geissereifachleute, D¨ usseldorf, June 10–11, 1999.

5. [7] Hendershot, G.; Werner, A. Eine neue Cold-Box-Technologie. In CIATF Technical Forum 1999; Verein Deutsche Geissereifachleute, D¨ usseldorf, June 10–11, 1999.



…………

From previous investigations a few general conclusions can be drawn: Serebro et al. finds that water evaporates from core sand at 130 to 140◦ C and that the organic material degenerates from 350 to 480◦C.[9] This is confirmed by Wang et al.[11] who compares three phenolic urethane resins and among other show how binders degrade at different temperatures. They describe and quantify the degradation products of the binders they investigate. And they find that emissions are very different fromcore shop to production line. They also conclude that more comprehensive studies are necessary to compare the many binder systems available.

……..

1. [9] Serebro, V. S.; Rits, B. A.; Sergeeva, T. E. Curing and Thermal Degradation of Phenol-Formaldehyde Binders. Russ. Cast. Prod. 1974, 2, 55–56.

2. [11] Wang, Y.; Cannon, F. S.; Salama, M.; Goudzwaard, J.; Furness, A. J. Characterization of hydrocarbon emissions from green sand foundry core binders by analytical pyrolysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 7922–7927.



Ambient levels of air pollution induce clinical worsening of blepharitisFernando Korn Malerbi, Lourdes Conceicao Martins , Paulo Hilario Nascimento Saldiva, Alfesio Luıs Ferreira Braga

Environmental Research 112 (2012) 199–203

…….Environmental conditions have always been considered important elements in the

exacerbations and remissions of blepharitis. Even though adverse impacts of air pollution on ocular mucosa (Novaes et al., 2007, 2010 ), tear film and ocular surface (Novaes et al., 2010; Gupta et al., 2002; Saxena et al., 2003), have been demonstrated, as well as increased rates of ocular symptoms in areas with high concentrations of pollutants (Versura et al., 1999; Wolkoff et al., 2005) , to our knowledge there has never been a measurement of the correlation between environmental pollutants and the clinical course of blepharitis.

………

1. Gupta, S.K., Gupta, V., Joshi, S., Tandon, R., 2002. Subclinically dry eyes in urban Delhi: an impact of air pollution? Ophthalmologica 216, 368–371.

2. Novaes, P., Saldiva, P.H.N., Kara-Jose, N., Macchione, M., Matsuda, M., Racca, L., Berra, A., 2007. Ambient levels of air pollution induce goblet–cell hyperplasia in human conjunctival epithelium. Environ. Health Perspect. 115, 1753–1756.

3. Novaes, P., Saldiva, P.H.N., Matsuda, M., Macchione, M., Rangel, M., Kara-Jose ´ , N., Berra, A., 2010. The effects of chronic exposure to traffic derived air pollution on the ocular surface. Environ. Res. 110, 372–374.

4. Saxena, R., Srivastava, S., Trivedi, D., Anand, E., Joshi, S., Gupta, S.K., 2003. Impact of environmental pollution on the eye. Acta Ophthalmol. Scand. 81, 491–494.

5. Versura, P., Profazio, V., Cellini, M., Torreggiani, A., Caramazza, R., 1999. Eye discomfort and air pollution. Ophthalmologica 213, 103–109.

6. Wolkoff, P., Nøjgaard, J.K., Troiano, P., Piccoli, B., 2005. Eye complaints in the office environment: precorneal tear film integrity influenced by eye blinking efficiency. Occup. Environ. Med. 62, 4–12.

…………Acute adverse health effects of ambient levels of air pollution have been demonstrated in

humans, mostly in terms of respiratory and cardiovascular events (Martins et al., 2006; Cendon et al., 2006; Souza et al., 1998), and also in terms of ocular mucosa and ocular surface (Chen et al., 2009; Novaes et al., 2007, 2010; Wolkoff, 2010).

……….

1. Cendon, S., Pereira, L.A.A., Braga, A.L.F., Conceic - ~ ao, G.M.S., Junior, A.C., Romaldini, H., Lopes, A.C., Saldiva, P.H.N., 2006. Air pollution effects on myocardial infarction. Rev. Sau ´ de Pu ´ b. 40, 414–419.

2. Martins, L.C., Pereira, L.A.A., Lin, C.A., Santos, U.P., Prioli, G., Luiz, O.C., Saldiva, P.H.N., Braga, A.L.F., 2006. The effects of air pollution on cardiovascular diseases: lag structures. Rev. Sau de Pu b. 40, 677–683.

3. Souza, M.B., Saldiva, P.H.N., Pope III, A., Capelozzi, V.L., 1998. Respiratory changes due to long-term exposure to urban levels of air pollution. Chest 113, 1312–1318.

4. Chen, Y., Mehta, G., Vasiliou, V., 2009. Antioxidant defenses in the ocular surface. Ocul. Surf. 7, 176–185.5. Novaes, P., Saldiva, P.H.N., Kara-Jose, N., Macchione, M., Matsuda, M., Racca, L., Berra, A., 2007. Ambient

levels of air pollution induce goblet–cell hyperplasia in human conjunctival epithelium. Environ. Health Perspect. 115, 1753–1756.

6. Novaes, P., Saldiva, P.H.N., Matsuda, M., Macchione, M., Rangel, M., Kara-Jose ´ , N., Berra, A., 2010. The effects of chronic exposure to traffic derived air pollution on the ocular surface. Environ. Res. 110, 372–374.

7. Wolkoff, P., 2010. Ocular discomfort by environmental and personal risk factors altering the precorneal tear film. Toxicol. Lett. 199, 203–212.

Ambient levels of air pollution induce clinical worsening of blepharitisFernando Korn Malerbi, Lourdes Conceicao Martins , Paulo Hilario Nascimento Saldiva, Alfesio Luıs Ferreira Braga

Environmental Research 112 (2012) 199–203

Climate change and health: Indoor heat exposure in vulnerable populationsJalonne L. White-Newsome, Brisa N. Sa´nchez , Olivier Jolliet , Zhenzhen Zhang Edith A. Parker, J. Timothy Dvonch ,

Marie S. O’Neill. Environmental Research 112 (2012) 20–27

Epidemiological studies of heat-related illness and death commonly use a time-series or case-crossover design to determine the association between ambient heat exposure and illness or deaths, recorded in vital statistics data and hospital records. Heat exposure is often estimated using an airport monitoring station and applied to residents of an entire community. Measuring ambient temperature exposure at this city/county scale likely misclassifies heat exposure that is more variable at the home or neighborhood scale (Basu, 2009). Additionally, elderly people spend approximately 90% of their time indoors (Environmental Protection Agency, 2009), especially older people who have been shown to be more vulnerable to heat (Kovats and Hajat, 2008). Thus, indoor temperatures are likely to better represent heat exposure of such vulnerable individuals (Smargiassi et al., 2008). However, few studies have addressed how indoor temperatures, housing, environmental characteristics, and ambient temperature measures are related in residences occupied by the elderly.

………………………………1. Basu, R., 2009. High ambient temperature and mortality: a review of epidemiologic studies from 2001 to 2008. Environ.

Health 8.2. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 2009. The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality. Available at:

http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/insidest.html (accessed 1 April 2009).3. Kovats, R.S., Hajat, S., 2008. Heat stress and public health: a critical review. Annu. Rev. Public Health 29.4. Smargiassi, A., Fournier, M., Griot, C., Baudouin, Y., Kosatsky, T., 2008. Prediction of the indoor temperatures of an urban

area with an in-time regression mapping approach. J. Exp. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 18.

http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/insidest.html

. Improving the Natural and Built Ecological Systems in an Urban EnvironmentAminzadeh, B. and Khansefid, M.

Int. J. Environ. Res., 4(2):361-372,Spring 2010

In the recent years ample attention is paid to the ecological system in urban areas (Aminzadeh & Ghorashi, 2007; Bahraini & Aminzadeh, 2007; Micarelli, et al., 2007; Vahadj et al., 2007; Yavari, et al., 2007; Micarelli & Pizzioli, 2008). System refers to a regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming a unified whole, a group of interacting bodies under the influence of related forces, an organized or established procedure and harmonious arrangement or pattern. These meanings provide a good basis to use the term system for a more holistic approach towards urban environment. The urban ecological systems can bridge the conflict between reserve conservation, fixing nature in space and time and development. They help to focus on an effective spatial scale as well.

…………1. Aminzadeh, B. and Ghorashi, S. (2007). Scenic landscape quality and recreational activities in natural forest parks, Iran. Int. J. Environ. Res.,

1(1), 5-13.2. Bahraini, H. and Aminzadeh, B. (2007). Evaluation of Navab regeneration project in central Tehran, Iran. Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2), 114-127.3. Micarelli, R., Irani Behbahani, H. and Shafie, B. (2007). River-valleys as intra-city natural feature. Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(3), 204-213.4. Micarelli, R. and Pizzioli, G. (2008). Metropolitan and rural areas: interscapes and interfaces. Int. J. Environ. Res., 2(1), 1-12.5. Vahadj, R., Karimi, S., Adl, M., Ghafari, A. R., Onagh, A. and Mohammadnejad, Sh. (2007). Evaluation of landscape structure in Eram park

using GIS. Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(3), 258-263.6. Yavari, A. R., Sotoudeh, A., Parivar, P. (2007). Urban Environmental Quality and Landscape Structure in Arid Mountain Environment. Int. J.

Environ. Res., 1 (4), 325-340.

Recreation Value of Hara Biosphere Reserve using Willingness-to-pay methodDehghani, M. , Farshchi, P. , Danekar, A., Karami, M.and Aleshikh, A. A.


Economic value is a measure to determine the maximum amount an individual is

willing to forego in other goods and/or services in order to obtain some other goods and/or services (Arrow et al., 2000). For goods and services that can be sold at the market, the relevant value is easily referred from its price in the competitive market (Heal, 2000). However, in term of environmental goods and services that are not traded in the market such as amenity, watershed services, etc. market prices are unavailable for measuring their economic value. Economic evaluation techniques are therefore employed to estimate the economic value of these non-marketed environmental goods and services (Pagiola et al., 2004; Heal, 2000). In fact, natural systems are being converted to other land uses mostly on the basis of short term financial gain rather than their long term value to society. In natural resource use decision-making process, non-marketed values of nature’s services assigned too little or zero value to the cost benefit analysis of the resource use decision due to absence of market data and their public good nature (Turner et al., 1998).

……….1. Arrow, K., Daily G. C., Dasgupta P., Levin S., Mäler K-G., Maskin E., Starrett D., Sterner T., and Tietenberg T., (2000).

Managing ecosystem resources. Environmental Science and Technology, 34, 1401-1406.2. Heal, G., (2000). Valuing Ecosystem Services. Ecosystems, 3, 24-30.3. Pagiola, S., von Ritter, K. and Bishop J. T. (2004). Assessing the economic value of ecosystem conservation. Environment

Department Paper No.101. Washington: World Bank.4. Turner, R. K., Adger, W. N. and Brouwer, R. (1998). Ecosystem services value, research needs and policy relevance: A

commentary. Ecological Economics, 25(1), 61-65.

NILAI EKONOMI – KESEDIAAN MEMBAYAR/ Berkorban

Managing ecosystem resources: Economic value.

(Arrow, Daily , Dasgupta , Levin , Mäler , Maskin , Starrett , Sterner , and Tietenberg , 2000).

Valuing Ecosystem Services. (Heal, 2000).

Assessing the economic value of ecosystem conservation.

(Pagiola, von Ritter, and Bishop , 2004).

Ecosystem services value: Research needs and policy relevance.

(Turner, Adger, and Brouwer, 1998).

MATERIALS & METHODS

Among the most widespread economic evaluation methods of the forests and coastal areas is Contingent Method of evaluation which can be considered as one of the Existence Value methods. For this purpose, Contingent Valuation Method, Contingent Choice Method and referendum are widely used (De Groot et al., 2002) among which the Contingent Method is the most appropriate and important one (Walsh et al., 1984 and Vankatachalam, 2004). Generally, this method is used as one of the standard and flexible tools for Non-Use Value and No market Use Value of environmental resources (Hanemann, 1994).

………..De Groot R.S., Wilson M.A. and Boumans R.M.J. (2002), A typology for the classification, description and

valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services, EcolEcon. 41,393-408.

Recreation Value of Hara Biosphere Reserve using Willingness-to-pay methodDehghani, M. , Farshchi, P. , Danekar, A., Karami, M.and Aleshikh, A. A.


CHEMICALLY ASSISTED PHYTOEXTRACTION: A REVIEW OF POTENTIAL SOIL AMENDMENTS FOR INCREASING PLANT UPTAKE OF HEAVY METALS

E. Meers, F. M. G. Tack, S. Van Slycken, A. Ruttens, G. Du Laing, J. Vangronsveld, andM.G.Verloo1International Journal of Phytoremediation, 10:390–414, 2008

The idea of using plants to cleanup contaminated environments is very old and cannot be traced to any particular source (Blaylock and Huang, 2000). Chaney (1983) was the first to reintroduce it as a remediation technique on metal-contaminated soils. Initially, the concept was based on metal hyperaccumulating plants, which are able to uptake and tolerate extremely high levels of metals. In the past, extensive research has been conducted in the field of phytoextraction: searching for newphytoextractors (Baker and Brooks, 1989); providing more fundamental knowledge about metal uptake, translocation, and tolerance by plants (Rauser, 1995; Kramer et al., 1996; Lasat et al., 1998; Salt et al., 1999); as well as improving plant metal accumulation and tolerance by genetic transformations (Karenlampi et al., 2000; Clemens, Palmgren, and Kramer, 2002; Kramer, 2005). Another approach in the concept’s development was based on high biomass-producing plants used together with chemical agents to enhance metal solubility and uptake by plants (Huang et al., 1997; Blaylock et al., 1997).

………..1. Blaylock,M.J. and Huang, J.W. 2000. Phytoextraction of heavymetals. In: Phytoremediation of Toxic Metals: Using Plants to Clean Up the

Environment, pp. 53–69. (Raskin, I. and Ensley, B.D., Eds.). New York, John Wiley and Sons.2. Chaney, R.L. 1983. Plant uptake of inorganic waste. In: Land Treatment of Hazardous Wastes, pp. 50–76. (Parr, J.E., Marsh, P.B., and Kla, J.M.,

Eds.). Park Ridge, IL, Noyes Data.3. Baker, A.J.M. and Brooks, R.R. 1989. Terrestrial higher plants which hyperaccumulate metallic elements—A review of their distribution, ecology

and phytochemistry. Biorecovery 1, 81–126.4. Rauser, W.E. 1995. Phytochelatins and related peptides. Plant Physiol. 109, 1141–1149.5. K¨ arenlampi, S., Schat, H., Vangronsveld, J., Verkleij, J.A.C., Van Der Lelie, D., Mergeay, M., and Tervahauta, A.I. 2000. Genetic engineering in

the improvement of plants for phytoremediation of metal polluted soil. Environ. Pollut. 107, 225–231.

PARAGRAF FITOREMEDIASI

using plants to cleanup contaminated environments

Phytoextraction of heavy metals

(Blaylock and Huang, 2000).

Plant uptake of inorganic waste (Chaney, 1983).

Higher plants which hyperaccumulate metallic

elements(Baker and Brooks, 1989).

Phytochelatins and related peptides. (Rauser, 1995).

Genetic engineering in the improvement of plants for phytoremediation.

(Karenlampi, Schat, Vangronsveld, Verkleij, Van Der Lelie, Mergeay, and Tervahauta, 2000).

Qi et al. (2004) proposed pretreatment of soils with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to increase heavy metal “phytoavailability” for phytoextraction purposes. Solubility of Zn and Cu was observed to increase following treatment with 0.17–0.35 mL H2O2 per kilogram of soil. Dissolved organic carbon also increased, suggesting that metal solubility was caused by organic matter dissolution. The elevated solubility resulted in enhanced accumulation of the metals by ryegrass, although growth depression was observed and Cu exhibited risks for leaching. Lestan, Hane, and Finzgar (2005) also observed that ozonation before soil washing with EDTA significantly increased removal rates of Pb but not Zn.

…………

1. Qi, L., Xu, C.Y., Wei, W.Z., and Peng, W.Y. 2004. Study on the possibility of hydrogen peroxide pre-treatment and plant system to remediate soil pollution. Chemosphere 57, 1439–1447.

2. Lestan, D., Hanc, A., and Finzgar, N. 2005. Influence of ozonation on extractability of Pb and Zn from contaminated soils. Chemosphere 61, 1012–1019.

CHEMICALLY ASSISTED PHYTOEXTRACTION: A REVIEW OF POTENTIAL SOIL AMENDMENTS FOR INCREASING PLANT UPTAKE OF HEAVY METALS

E. Meers, F. M. G. Tack, S. Van Slycken, A. Ruttens, G. Du Laing, J. Vangronsveld, andM.G.Verloo1International Journal of Phytoremediation, 10:390–414, 2008

Chaney et al. (1997) acknowledged the potential of synthetic chelants for the removal of toxic metals from the soil by enhanced phytoextraction, yet cautioned regarding the necessity of methods to prevent leaching of mobilized pollutants. The risks involved for leaching of both contaminants and macronutrients have also been underlined by other authors (Cooper et al., 1999; Barona, Aranguiz, and Elias 2001; Grcman et al., 2001; Meers et al., 2004).

……….

1. Chaney, R.L., Malik, M., Li, Y.M., Brown, S.L., Angle, J.S., and Baker, A.J.M. 1997. Phytoremediation of soil metals. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 8, 279–284.

2. Cooper, E.M., Sims, J.T., Cunningham, S.D., Huang, J.W., and Berti, W.R. 1999. Chelate-assisted phytoextraction of lead from contaminated soils. J. Environ. Qual. 28, 1709–1719.

3. Barona, A., Aranguiz, I., and Elias, A. 2001. Metal associations in soils before and after EDTA extractive decontamination: Implications for the effectiveness of further clean-up procedures. Environ. Pollut. 113, 79–85.

4. Grcman, H., Velikonja-Bolta, S., Vodnik, D., Kos, B., and Lestan, D. 2001. EDTA enhanced heavy metal phytoextraction: Metal accumulation, leaching and toxicity. Plant Soil 235, 105–114.

5. Meers, E., Hopgood, M., Lesage, E., Vervaeke, P., Tack, F.M.G., and Verloo, M. 2004. Enhanced phytoextraction: In search for EDTA alternatives. Int. J. Phytoremed. 6, 95–109.

PERAGRAF KHELATE UNTUK FITOREMEDIASI

the potential of synthetic chelants(Chaney et al., 1997)

Chelate-assisted phytoextraction

of lead(Cooper, Sims, Cunningham, Huang, and

Berti, 1999).

Metal associations in

soils before and after EDTA extractive(Barona,

Aranguiz and Elias, 2001).

EDTA enhanced heavy metal

phytoextraction(Greman,

Velikonja-Bolta, Vodnik, Kos and

Lestan, 2001).

Enhanced phytoextraction

(Meers, Hopgood, Lesage, Vervaeke, Tack and Verloo,

2004).

George Litwin (1968) dalam Harini Agustina (2002) mendefinisikan iklim organisasi sebagai suatu set dari sifat-sifat yang dapat diukur dari suatu lingkungan organisasi yang didasarkan pada persepsi secara kolektif dari orang-orang yang hidup dan bekerja (………. ref lainnya). Pentingnya iklim organisasi yang mendukung dalam meningkatkan kinerja organisasi ditekankan oleh Redding (1986), mengemukakan bahwa iklim organisasi adalah lebih krusial daripada keterampilan atau teknik berkomunikasi dalam menciptakan suatu organisasi yang efektif (………. ref lainnya). Penguatan yang positif dapat membantu mengembangkan respon yang diinginkan dan lebih memungkinkan mempengaruhi hubungan yang bersifat organisasi yang lebih menyenangkan daripada tidak menye-nangkan (………. ref lainnya).

1. Harini Agustina. 2002. Analisis Hubungan Antara Komitmen Karyawan Dengan Iklim Organisasi dan Performasi Kerja Karyawan. Jurnal Riset Ekonomi dan Manajemen, Vol 2, Hal 24-33.

2. Redding (1986) tidak ada di daftar pustaka

PARAGRAF IKLIM ORGANISASI

PARAGRAF LINGKUNGAN PEMASARAN

Dalam lingkungan pemasaran, perusahaan dapat digolongkan menjadi dua, yaitu lingkungan pemasaran mikro dan lingkungan pemasaran makro (….. Ref). Lingkungan pemasaran mikro terdiri atas pelaku-pelaku dan lingkungan pemasaran yang langsung berkaitan dengan perusahaan dan mempengaruhi dalam pelayanan pasar, yang terdiri atas pemasok bahan mentah, perantara pemasaran, konsumen, pesaing dan anggota masyarakat lain (….. Ref). Lingkungan pemasaran makro terdiri atas kekuatan-kekuatan yang mempengaruhi semua pelaku di dalam lingkungan pemasaran mikro yaitu, faktor demografi, ekonomi, politik, sosial dan budaya, hukum dan lain-lainnya (Ujang, 2002, ….. Ref). ).

1. Ujang, S. 2002, Perilaku Konsumen, Teori dan Penerapan-nya Dalam Pemasaran, Penerbit Ghalia Indonesia, Jakarta.

. Development of Environmental Thresholds for Streamsin Agricultural Watersheds

P. A. Chambers,* J. M. Culp, E. S. Roberts, and M. BowermanJ. Environ. Qual. 41:1–6 (2012)

Efforts to safeguard or improve environmental conditions of agroecosystems while maintaining agricultural and human food supply have traditionally focused on managing on-farm activities to reduce materials loss and conserve habitat (e.g., correct management of chemicals and manure, improved animal husbandry and crop production systems, and interception of materials leaving the agricultural setting). These onfarm activities, often known as beneficial management practices (BMPs), have had varied success. Many field and modeling studies indicate that implementation of various BMPs can have positive effects on surface and groundwater quality (Cook et al., 1996; Edwards et al., 1997; Chaplot et al., 2004; Thomas et al., 2007). However, ineffectual placement or timing of BMPs in watersheds, lag effects arising from legacy conditions (e.g., historic land management), and vagaries in weather can sometimes off set anticipated improvements (e.g., Tomer and Locke, 2011).

1. Chaplot, V., A. Saleh, D.B. Jaynes, and J. Arnold. 2004. Predicting water, sediment and NO3–N loads under scenarios of land-use and management practices in a fl at watershed. Water Air Soil Pollut. 154:271–293.

2. Cook, M.G., P.G. Hunt, K.C. Stone, and J.H. Canterberry. 1996. Reducing diff use pollution through implementation of agricultural best management practices: A case study. Water Sci. Technol. 33:191–196.

3. Edwards, D.R., T.C. Daniel, H.D. Scott, P.A. Moore, J.F. Murdoch, and P.F. Vendrell. 1997. Eff ect of BMP implementation on storm fl ow quality of two northwestern Arkansas streams. Trans. ASAE 40:1311–1319.

4. Th omas, G.A., R.C. Dalal, and J. Standley. 2007. No-till eff ects on organic matter, pH, cation exchange capacity and nutrient distribution in a Luvisol in the semi-arid subtropics. Soil Tillage Res. 94:295–304.

5. Tomer, M.D., and M.A. Locke. 2011. Th e challenge of documenting water quality benefi ts of conservation practices: A review of USDA-ARDS’s conservation eff ects assessment project watershed studies. Water Sci. Technol. 64:300–310.

In coal, Sr is a trace element with an average concentration of ~100 mg/kg (Swaine, 1990). Coal utilization by-products are enriched in Sr relative to coal and many other geologic reservoirs with concentrations up to ~3,000 mg/kg (Hurst and Davis, 1981; Hurst et al., 1991). The Sr in CUB is also known to be readily mobilized and biogeochemically available (Hurst et al., 1991; 1993). Studies of trace element partitioning during coal combustion indicate that Sr is among the group of elements—including barium (Ba), beryllium (Be), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn)—that condense within coal-fired power plants, in contrast to volatile elements such as mercury (Hg) and selenium (Se) (Vejahati et al. [2010], and references therein).

1. Hurst, R.W., and T.E. Davis. 1981. Strontium isotopes as tracers of airborne fl y ash from coal-fi red power plants. Environ. Geol. 3:363–367.

2. Hurst, R.W., T.E. Davis, and A.A. Elseewi. 1991. Strontium isotopes as tracers of coal combustion residue in the environment. Environ. Geol. 30:59–77.

3. Hurst, R.W., T.E. Davis, A.A. Elseewi, and A.L. Page. 1993. Strontium and lead isotopes as monitors of fossil fuel dispersion. p. 99–118. In R.F. Keefer and K.S. Sajwan (ed.) Trace elements in coal and coal combustion residues. Lewis, Boca Raton, FL.

4. Swaine, D.J. 1990. Trace elements in coal. Butterworth, London.5. Vejahati, F., Z. Xu, and R. Gupta. 2010. Trace elements in coal: Associations with coal and minerals and their behavior

during coal utilization: A review. Fuel 89:904–911.

. Strontium Isotope Study of Coal Utilization By-ProductsInteracting with Environmental Waters

Lev J. Spivak-Birndorf, Brian W. Stewart,* Rosemary C. Capo, Elizabeth C. Chapman,Karl T. Schroeder, and Tonya M. Brubaker

J. Environ. Qual. 41:144–154 (2012)

. Strontium Isotope Study of Coal Utilization By-ProductsInteracting with Environmental Waters

Lev J. Spivak-Birndorf, Brian W. Stewart,* Rosemary C. Capo, Elizabeth C. Chapman,Karl T. Schroeder, and Tonya M. Brubaker

J. Environ. Qual. 41:144–154 (2012)

Sequential Leaching ProcedureA number of studies have examined the solubility and leaching potential of CUB

(Querol et al., 1996, 2001; Sheps-Pelleg and Cohen, 1999; Hassett et al., 2005). Current procedures include serial batch leaching (Kim and Hesbach, 2009), synthetic groundwater leaching (Hassett, 1998), and mine water leaching (Ziemkiewicz et al., 2003), as well as the USEPAdeveloped toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (USEPA Method 1311; USEPA, 1992). A review of these methods is provided by Kim and Hesbach (2009). However, these procedures often attempt to simulate specifi c environments to which the CUB may be subjected, in contrast to the procedure used here, which attempts to identify geochemical associations by targeting specifi c phases in the CUB.

1. Hassett, D.J. 1998. Synthetic groundwater leaching procedure. p. 4797–4803. In R.A. Meyers (ed.) Encyclopedia of environmental analysis and remediation. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ.

2. Hassett, D.J., D.F. Pfl ughoeft-Hassett, and L.V. Heebink. 2005. Leaching of CCBs: Observations from over 25 years of research. Fuel 84:1378–1383.3. Kim, A.G., and P. Hesbach. 2009. Comparison of fl y ash leaching methods. Fuel 88:926–937. 4. Querol, X., R. Juan, A. Lopez-Soler, J.L. Fernandez-Turiel, and C.R. Ruiz. 1996. Mobility of trace elements from coal and combustion wastes. Fuel 75:821–838. 5. Querol, X., J.C. Umaña, A. Alastuey, C. Ayora, A. Lopez-Soler, and F. Plana. 2001. Extraction of soluble major and trace elements from fl y ash in open and

closed leaching systems. Fuel 80:801–813. 6. Ziemkiewicz, P.F., J.S. Simmons, and A.S. Knox. 2003. Th e mine water leaching procedure: Evaluating the environmental risk of backfi lling mines with coal

ash. p. 75–90. In K.S. Sajwan et al. (ed.) Chemistry of trace elements in fl y ash. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York.

. Carbon Export from the Raccoon River, Iowa: Patterns, Processes, and Opportunities

Christopher S. Jones and Keith E. SchillingJ. Environ. Qual. 42:155–163 (2013)Carbon (C) is exchanged between the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, pedosphere, and hydrosphere in the global C

cycle. In one biogeochemical exchange, atmospheric CO2 is sequestered through chemical weathering of carbonate rock according to the reaction

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca2+ + 2HCO3 ......... [1]

where the resultant bicarbonate (2HCO3-) consists of C liberated from the rock and C contributed by CO2. Production of organic matter (OM) by photosynthesis is another sink for atmospheric CO2 (Stryer, 1981),

CO2 + 2H2O + light CH2O + O2 + H2O .......... [2]

Subsequent oxidation of OM (Amiotte-Suchet et al., 2003) via the reaction

CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O ..............[3]

liberates the CO2, which can then return to the atmosphere or react with rocks during chemical weathering (Eq. [1]). Photosynthesis links to rock weathering because the flux of CO2 from the oxidation of soil organic matter (SOM) is a major source of CO2 for carbonate rock dissolution (Ludwig et al., 1998; Amiotte-Suchet et al., 2003). Belowground plant respiration also contributes CO2 to the soil (Edwards et al., 1970).

1. Amiotte-Suchet, P., J.L. Probst, and W. Ludwig. 2003. Worldwide distribution of continental rock lithology: Implications for the atmospheric/soil CO2 uptake by continental weathering and alkalinity river transport to the oceans. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 17:1038–1051.

2. Edwards, C.A., D.E. Reichle, and D.A. Crossley, Jr. 1970. The role of soil invertebrates in turnover of organic matter and nutrients. In: D.E. Reichle, editor, Analysis of temperate forest ecosystems. Springer-Verlag, New York. p. 12–172.

3. Ludwig, W., P. Amiotte-Suchet, G. Munhoven, and J.L. Probst. 1998. Atmospheric CO2 consumption by continental erosion: Present-day controls and implications for the last glacial maximum. Global Planet. Change 16–17:107–120.

4. Stryer, L. 1981. Biochemistry. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, CA.

Methods and MaterialsWater withdrawn from the river for irrigation is negligible because precipitation is

adequate for crop production. Withdrawals for industrial or municipal purposes are also insignificant upstream of the Van Meter gauge. A few km downstream of the gauge, the Des Moines Water Works (DMWW) uses the stream as its principal source of supply. Because its watershed is intensely agricultural and its water is a major source of municipal supply, the Raccoon River has been extensively characterized for nitrate N (Lucey and Goolsby, 1993; Schilling and Lutz, 2004; Schilling and Zhang, 2004; Hatfield et al., 2009; Jha et al., 2010), sediment ( Jones and Schilling, 2011), and bacteria (Schilling et al., 2009) loading.

1. Hatfield, J.L., L.D. McMullen, and C.S. Jones. 2009. Nitrate-nitrogen patterns in the Raccoon River Basin related to agricultural practices. J. Soil Water Conserv. 64:190–199. doi:10.2489/jswc.64.3.190

2. Jha, M.K., C.F. Wolter, K.E. Schilling, and P.W. Gassman. 2010. Assessment of TMDL implementation strategies for the Raccoon River, Iowa. J. Environ. Qual. 39:1317–1327.3. Jones, C.S., and K.E. Schilling. 2011. From agricultural intensification to conservation: Sediment transport in the Raccoon River, Iowa, 1916–2009. J. Environ. Qual. 40:1911–

1923.4. Lucey, K.J., and D.A. Goolsby. 1993. Effects of climatic variations over 11 years on nitrate-nitrogen concentrations in the Raccoon River, Iowa. J. Environ. Qual. 22:38–46.5. Schilling, K.E., and Y.K. Zhang. 2004. Baseflow contribution to nitrate-nitrogen export from a large, agricultural watershed, USA. J. Hydrol. 295:305–316.6. Schilling, K.E., and D.S. Lutz. 2004. Relation of nitrate concentrations to baseflow in the Raccoon River, Iowa. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 40:889–900.7. Schilling, K.E., Y.K. Zhang, D.R. Hill, C.S. Jones, and C.F. Wolter. 2009. Temporal variations of Escherichia coli in a large midwestern river. J. Hydrol. 365:79–85.

Carbon Export from the Raccoon River, Iowa: Patterns, Processes, and OpportunitiesChristopher S. Jones and Keith E. Schilling

J. Environ. Qual. 42:155–163 (2013)

DiscussionLand Use, Climate, and Alkalinity Export Although much of the focus on alkalinity fluxes has been on

discharge, other factors may be contributing. Fertilization is one such factor. An estimated 128,000 Mg yr−1 of N inputs enters the Raccoon watershed in the form of chemical fertilizers, animal manures, and legume fixation (Schilling et al., 2008). Nitrogen fertilizer can increase bicarbonate formation and transport through two mechanisms. First, the formation of nitric acid in the soil can result in dissolution of carbonate minerals without consuming atmospheric CO2 (Skiba et al., 1992; Amiotte- Suchet, 1995). This mechanism has been shown to generate 6% of the bicarbonate load in a carbonate-abundant farmed watershed (Semhi et al., 2000). Second, fertilization stimulates soil respiration and thus production of the source of CO2 for chemical weathering (Schlesinger and Andrews, 2000). On the other hand, research has shown that N fertilization can enhance sequestration of soil organic C (Halvorson et al., 2000), primarily through return of crop residues to the soil. Overall, the role of N fertilizer on bicarbonate formation and transport is complex and worthy of future research.

1. Amiotte-Suchet, P., and J.L. Probst. 1995. A global model for present day atmospheric/soil CO2 consumption by chemical erosion of continental rocks (GEM-CO2). Tellus B Chem. Phys. Meterol. 47:273–280.

2. Halvorson, A.D., C.A. Reule, and L.S. Murphy. 2000. No-tillage and N fertilization enhance soil carbon sequestration. Fluid J. 8:8–11.3. Schilling, K.E., C.F. Wolter, D.E. Christiansen, and D.J. Schnoebelen. 2008. Raccoon River, Iowa: Total maximum daily load for nitrate and

Escherichia coli. Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Iowa City, IA.4. Schlesinger, W., and J. Andrews. 2000. Soil respiration and the global carbon cycle. Biogeochemistry 48:7–20. 5. Semhi, K., P.A. Suchet, N. Clauer, and J.-L. Probst. 2000. Impact of nitrogen fertilizers on the natural weathering-erosion process and fluvial

transport in the Garonne basin. App. Geochem. 15:865–878.6. Skiba, U., K.J. Hargreaves, D. Fowler, and K.A. Smith. 1992. Fluxes of nitric and nitrous oxides from agricultural soils in a cool temperate climate.

Atmos. Environ. 26:2477–2488.

Carbon Export from the Raccoon River, Iowa: Patterns, Processes, and OpportunitiesChristopher S. Jones and Keith E. Schilling

J. Environ. Qual. 42:155–163 (2013)

Several studies pinpointed the significant influence of water management practices on pesticide loss from irrigated rice fields. The irrigation practices (continuous or intermittent automatic irrigation), water holding period (WHP), and excess water storage depth were found to control pesticide export from paddy fields in Asia, especially in monsoon rainy season (Inao et al., 2008; Phong et al., 2008; Watanabe et al., 2006, 2007). Other factors, such as solubility, hydrophobicity, and half-life, are related to pesticide properties. Only a few studies have been published on the fate of pesticides in paddy rice systems in Vietnam. They typically focus on pesticide occurrence and distribution in conventional paddy rice systems in the large lowland areas of the Mekong and Red River deltas (Giger et al., 2003; Hung and Thiemann, 2002; Minh et al., 2007; Toan et al., 2007). In contrast, little information is available about the behavior and transport processes of paddy rice pesticides.

1. Giger, W., M. Berg, H.V. Pham, H.A. Duong, H.C. Tran, T.H. Cao, and R. Schertenleib. 2003. Environmental analytical research in northern Vietnam: A Swiss-Vietnamese cooperation focusing on arsenic and organic contaminants in aquatic environments and drinking water. Chimia 57:529–536.

2. Hung, D.Q., and W. Th iemann. 2002. Contamination by selected chlorinated pesticides in surface waters in Hanoi, Vietnam. Chemosphere 47:357–367.3. Inao, K., H. Watanabe, D.G. Karpouzas, and E. Capri. 2008. Simulation models of pesticide fate and transport in paddy environment for ecological risk

assessment and management. Japan Agric. Res. Q. 42:13–21.4. Minh, N.H., T.B. Minh, N. Kajiwara, T. Kunisue, H. Iwata, P.H. Viet, Cam, N.P Tu, B.C. Tuyen, and S. Tanabe. 2007. Pollution sources and occurrences of

selected persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in sediments of the Mekong river delta, south Vietnam. Chemosphere 67:1794–1801.5. Phong, T.K., H. Watanabe, T. Nishimura, K. Toyoda, and T. Motobayashi. 2008. Behavior of simetryn and thiobencarb in rice paddy lysimeters and the effect of

excess water storage depth in controlling herbicide run–off . Weed Biol. Manage. 8:243–249.6. Toan, V.D., V.D. Th ao, J. Walder, H. Schmutz, and C.T. Ha. 2007. Contamination by selected organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in surface7. soils in Hanoi, Vietnam. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 78:195–200.8. Watanabe, H., M.H.T. Nguyen, S. Komany, S.H. Vu, Y. Asami, T.K Phong, and J. Tournebize. 2006. Applicability of ELISA in pesticide monitoring to control

runoff of bensulfuron–methyl and simetryn from paddy fi elds. J. Pestic. Sci. 31:123–129. 9. Watanabe, H., M.H.T. Nguyen, K. Souphasay, S.H. Vu, T.K. Phong, J. Tournebize, and S. Ishihara. 2007. Eff ect of water management practice on pesticide

behavior in paddy water. Agric. Water Manage. 88:132–140.

Fate of Pesticides in Combined Paddy Rice–Fish Pond Farming Systems in Northern Vietnam

Maria Anyusheva, Marc Lamers,* Nguyen La, Van Vien Nguyen, and Thilo StreckJ. Environ. Qual. 41:515–525 (2012)

Data ProcessingTo calculate pesticide loss from the paddy field and fish pond, the volume of

respective surface discharge in hourly resolution was multiplied by the corresponding pesticide concentration in the outflow. The hourly pesticide concentrations were estimated by a piecewise linear interpolation as described in Potter et al. (2003) and Shih et al. (1998). In a few cases, outflow concentration data were not available and field water concentrations were taken as a surrogate for field outlet concentrations, assuming homogeneous spatial distribution of pesticide concentrations. Regression analysis was performed with SPSS software V. 18 (PASW Statistics, 2009).

1. PASW Statistics. 2009. SPSS. Version 18. PASW Statistics, Chicago, IL.2. Potter, T.L., C.C. Truman, D.D. Bosch, and C.W. Bednarz. 2003. Organic compounds in the environment:

Cotton defoliant runoff as a function of active ingredient and tillage. J. Environ. Qual. 32:2180–2188.3. Shih, G., X. Wang, H.J Grimshaw, and J. Vanarman. 1998. Variance of load estimates derived by piecewise

linear interpolation. J. Environ. Eng. 124:1114–1120.

Fate of Pesticides in Combined Paddy Rice–Fish Pond Farming Systems in Northern VietnamMaria Anyusheva, Marc Lamers,* Nguyen La, Van Vien Nguyen, and Thilo Streck

J. Environ. Qual. 41:515–525 (2012)

Discussion

Water Balance of the Paddy FieldThe high irrigation rate ensured an adequate water supply to the paddy field and adjacent fish pond. The average irrigation rates to the paddy during SC and SAC were higher than those reported for continuous irrigation elsewhere (Neumann et al., 2009; Watanabe et al., 2007). In Japan, for example, Watanabe et al. (2007) measured an average rate of 1.6 cm d−1. The European Commission guidance document “MED–Rice” reports a value of 2.5 cm d−1 for Mediterranean conditions (MED-Rice, 2003). As a consequence of high irrigation rates, the water residence times in the Vietnamese paddy were short. Rainfall during the monitoring periods was slightly lower than (SC) or comparable to (SAC) the values recorded in Yen Chau during the respective periods of the years 2000 to 2006 (data not shown).

…………----------1. Neumann, R.B., M.L. Polizzotto, A.B.M. Badruzzaman, M.A. Ali, Z. Zhang, and C.F. Harvey. 2009. Hydrology of a

groundwater-irrigated rice field in Bangladesh: Seasonal and daily mechanisms of infi ltration. Water Resour. Res. 45.2. MED-Rice. 2003. Guidance document for environmental risk assessments of active substances used on rice in the EU for

Annex I inclusion. Document prepared by working group on MED-Rice, EU Document Reference SANCO/1090/2000–rev.1. Brussels, Belgium.

3. Watanabe, H., M.H.T. Nguyen, K. Souphasay, S.H. Vu, T.K. Phong, J. Tournebize, and S. Ishihara. 2007. Eff ect of water management practice on pesticide behavior in paddy water. Agric. Water Manage. 88:132–140.

Fate of Pesticides in Combined Paddy Rice–Fish Pond Farming Systems in Northern VietnamMaria Anyusheva, Marc Lamers,* Nguyen La, Van Vien Nguyen, and Thilo Streck

J. Environ. Qual. 41:515–525 (2012)

DISCUSSIONRisk AssessmentPesticide concentrations in fish ponds connected to paddy fields depend mainly on

pesticide solubility and water management scheme. In view of the second factor, the risk to species with relatively high PNEC (e.g., common carp, Table 2) can be signifi cantly reduced by extending the WHP. Cong et al. (2009) reported adverse effects for snakehead fish, a common fish species in paddy fields in Vietnam exposed to the organophosphorus pesticide diazinon. In their experiment, exposure to realistic environmental pesticide concentrations (16–350 μg L–1) resulted in long-term inhibition of brain cholinesterase. Moreover, exposure at the highest concentration level resulted in 30% growth inhibition. Klemick and Lichtenberg (2008) reported that fi sh harvests in the Mekong Delta were affected by pesticide use in the paddy fi elds, although the harvest losses were economically insignifi cant.

1. Cong, N.V., N.T. Phuong, and M. Bayley 2009. Eff ects of repeated exposure of diazinon on cholinesterase activity and growth in snakehead fish (Channa striata). Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 72:699–703.

2. Klemick H., and E.Lichtenberg. 2008. Pesticide use and fish harvests in Vietnamese rice agroecosystems. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 90:1–14.

Fate of Pesticides in Combined Paddy Rice–Fish Pond Farming Systems in Northern Vietnam

Maria Anyusheva, Marc Lamers,* Nguyen La, Van Vien Nguyen, and Thilo StreckJ. Environ. Qual. 41:515–525 (2012)

HASIL PENELITIAN

Konsentrasi pestisida di kolam ikan yang berhubungan dengan sawah, tergantung pada kelarutan pestisida dan tata air sawah; dan

ini menjadi risiko bagi ikan

Cong, N.V., N.T. Phuong, and M. Bayley. 2009.

Effects of repeated exposure of diazinon on cholinesterase

activity and growth in snakehead fish (Channa striata).

Klemick H., and E.Lichtenberg. 2008.

Pesticide use and fish harvests in Vietnamese rice agroecosystems.