I'tllil l,,lll lr AtJ[Jtt/\t I r tti nil ( .1,,/\lrt t/\ ll ,r lt tlrl rJ I (-r lt,NCla

Iilitor.ft'rrtttltrl ,'\lt,.lr,,l,.l,lt,/,,rrrrrr,.ttt,,l llt..r,,t,,r,,/1,r,,,,/ \rrr,rr,l\,rr.rtt,r

Etlitoriirl llrlrrlArtgt'l;r ,^trr\ttont,, / ), 1arrtrrr,.rrt rr/ ( 11111/,,11,1111,.,ilr,1 li,.r,r,,||,tl \trr,lr,,r,

St ltool ,,/ Itttr,ttt,rlrrttt,I \r.r.r,rr r.

( )ylrtlrilr ll:rrr, I ),,lrrrtrrttttt rtl I rrr,r,rrlr,.. ( ,,11,.r,,,,,/ . \rrr,rr,l \, r,.rr,,,,I-irtrt'it'llr)'rrnl, / )r,/rrntrrr,,rrt,,/ I lrrr,,rr, ( ,,/1,,.r,,.,,/ .\rr.,,rrr,l \r rr.rrr r.rKtrstirs A. I\,rrl;rki,Lrr, I ),,y,,rrlrrr,.rrt t,l l,tlt.ntttttttl,tl l,,,lrtr,r,rrrrlI,.rr11,1,1,1; f

,1;1[,.1,,

.\chrxrl ry' /ntt,nrrrtrrrrr,r/ .\r,) r,rr r,()irrtly L. l{.ht.rts,rrr, / )(,1)(l,.t,r(,rl ,,1 I !r:1r,^,, ( ,,//,.,r,,, ,,/ . \rrr ,r,r,l \( rr,}r( (,\Rtrhen sirttkltirnr:rtr, / )t'rr,rrtrrr,'rrl ,tr rttr,'trr,ttrltt,tr r',,rrrt; ,rrrr/ Iir11,1,1,11 /)11f1,.1,

ScAool o/ 1rrtcrrrrrtrorrrr/ \r,).1,ir r,

The American [ /rritositr ( irirrlrrrrtt, I(,,r,it,rr l: l)ulrlislr(.(l :rrrrrrlrlly l,y rlrt.( irrrrlrtrtc Sttr-clent(]otrncil of Thc Anrerir.:ur I Jrrivt,rsity.. 1r,,, lr r,,,r,,,rt nlrl l1;qr lr(.(.n r.(.\.r(.u.(\l l.y 11.raEclitttrial B.ard.,tl iur irr-lr.rrse r.t,lt,r.t.r..I -l-lrt. ,Arrrt.ri, :rrr I Irrir.t.r.stl\,. .l.lrt./(,,r,it,r.r,tl,tr-ttrresoriginalsclrolarshipPr',tlttcc,l hy'urirthrrrrt.stu(h'nrs;rt Ilrr.,\nrr.r.i.,,,,t1,.,i,,"r.i,y.The Editor woulcl like r() express hcr: i11r1r11'1 ;i111.rr r. rlrt. ljtlir,r.i;rl ll,,;r*l:r.,1 tl.rc i^-hor,rse referees for their tilne alt(l

"ffi,rt.,,,., ht.hrrlf.ol rlris |ulrlit.rrtiorr. Slrt. rurtrltl alstrIike to thank the office .f the Pr.* rst firr thcir c..rir]rrir)g s.l)l)( )r.r .I r lrt. I(t,r,rt,u,. Any:orresponclence regarding this pul-rlicati.n miry lrc nr:ril,.rl r,,'/]rt,Arrr.,r.i..,ur [ /nit,ersirl

SradtnteRec.,iew, Mary Grayd.,n ce,rer 214, The Aurericir. t;,rir..rri,,,, +i0.;il;;achusetrs Avenlre, NW, Washington, I)C 20016.

Thc A trlL'ricit tt LJn i vcrsityGraduate Review

ENTEN NIAL EDITIoN

CoNTENTS

\ Attitudes Toward A Neq, World Order

I I Yellow Papers, Yellow Peril:The American Image of JapanDuring the 1907 War Scare

25 Los t Boy

)b (lodson Day

)7 A Space for Change:

Free Spaces in the Slaqte CommunitJ

i 6 E^", at o " :;:ffe:,:ff ;T;;,J"?:Ti *,

F ederal Theatre Project as Social

Theatre

55 I'nnnotmg Pluralism in the Performing Arus:

PoetrJ or Pandora's Box?

Slrcrrking in Tongtes:Fcmhrism and the Female Voice

7-lrt' (\tburt Elmomy in Transition

'l'lrt' Strtrc ,l'My Discontent

I)t,stirry/

\Vh,,sr' I(cn(ti.\sa?l ce Was it Really:

lllrrc/i Art Putnntage of the

I()2()s rutd I t)30.s

'l'lr.' liq,,,httiorr tl' thc Sr rciul Sratus r.rf

W/r,tnr'tr in Mt'ric'o

/ ' .\ . Ir liot 's l)lrrls :

,'\ .\trrrh irr I lis I /s,' rl I )r'tulrrrtit' Vt'?'.\t'

l"\,', t,f tt,(' llr i,'/nt,ri .\lrlr'nt /ot l/tr'Nrtll(,,t(rl \r tr'ttr r' I Ii,ri/rt(trtYttt 11L ' \\'lttt'' I l'rll\t'

(t()

t()

t))

() .i

r )-l

Ir)l

lli

I it )

James Frueh

Joseph M. Henning

Stuart Coleman

Stuart Coleman

Sarah Hayden

Scott L. Walter

Marie A. Longo

dAvid pAddy

Brian \7. Hill

Virginia lTebster

Virginia lTebster

Rodney Trapp

Dennis G. Berenschot

I{ichar,l (1. Washcr

WnoSE RENAISSANcE Wns IT REALLY:

Buacrc Anr PeTRoNAGE oF THE I92Os AND I93Os

Rodney TraPP

uRING rHE 1920s AND 30s, in a period better known as the HarlemRenaissance (HR) o. New Negro Movement, there was anirnprecedented surge in private patronage of black artists. Many

fluent white Americans, not unlike their European cousins, graciously

sumed the role of cultured elite in their support of artistic endeavors. The'st Americans to patronize the visual arts were wealthy businessmen whose

milies maintained strong European ties. These men modeled themselvester the cultivated European gentleman whose paternal sense of noblesse

>lige could, when directed at another race of people, support either a vi-ous racism or an imperialistic benevolence.l

The artists of the Harlem Renaissance found themselves indentured tois atmosphere of patronage. Since there were only a few affluent Africanmericans then, black artists had to rely on the benevolence of white pa-

lns. Historical research shows that there were two types of patrons:imitivists and humanists. Primitivists such as Mabel Dodge Luhao, Car[rn Vechten and Charlotte Osgood Mason had a fascination with theirit and perceived exoticism of the darker race. Humanists, on the othernd, primarily concerned themselves with edifying African Americans as

vhole. William E. Harmon, 'W.E.B. DuBois, Alain Locke, Mary White,zington and A*y Spingarn were among this class of patrons.

tron As PrimitivistPopular jazz venues like the "Cotton Club" stzzled with activiry as white

ks flocked to Harlem to enjoy the exciting night life. Among the rnost dy-

mic disciples of Harlem's night life were a circle of artists and intellectuals

Mr. Tral>p is a Mostcr.s calulitlatc m tha I)cpurtnr(,?rI rl l't'r|orrrrirrg Arts, Arts'.nagcmctrl , (\ilbgc rf Arts uvl St'it'nr't's. I It'htts s('?'t,('(l rts rr lr'll,ru, irr Mirrr n'it^l A.l'-

s rtttrl rts I'rrxltrctiort ( )oortlittrtt rr .l'ot'lht' l)rfin'trlr('lrI rl Itn'lolrrrirrl3 Arts. ( ]rrrl'rrll^y,

s r{,(,rkirrg ott Itis Mrtslt't's tltt'sis, "A ( lrrsr'Sttrrh,/,rr lfir'l"rfrforirliorr o/ t[,'l',rrrrrlrgrrr)issif xrtrt,,' S,'ll-( )tgrtttilrttiott itt Artr ( )rl3rtttilrtlion\, " rnt{l n t[,' l l,'t,r'lolrrrr,'rrl l )ilr'r

Rodney TraPP 95

from Greenwich Village. Drawn to the New Negro Movement (salon fashion),

these arts and entertainment enthusiasts reveled to the music of Bessie Smith,

Paul Robeson and Eubie Blake.z According to author David Driskell, this white

avant-garde never intended to provide an open doorof acceptance for the black

artist. Rather, they made black a symbol of white America's search for personal

freedom, an escape from conventional standards of behavior.3 Driskell believes

*rat the white avant-garde noticed something in black culture that reminded

them of the vital and unspoiled remnants of basic values that had dissipated

in American society. The underwriting of black art, therefore, was as much a

matter of lost generation sentiment for things primitive and natural as it was

an open acknowledgment of black creativity.

The early commercial success of Archibald John Motley, Jr. is a prime

example of the kind of work white patrons encouraged. Motley abandoned

intemational styles of experimental painting to explore genre scenes of

black people. He is known for his meticulously rendered caricatures of black

night life. Motley's "neo-primitive" stylization received approval and rec-

ognition from the mainstream in the form of a solo exhibition in New York

in 1928. Since Motley was the second African American to present a one-

man show in a commercial New York Gallery, he undoubtedly helped set

the stage for the plethora of primitive or neo-primitive art that was to

come.4

The Harmon Foundation, established ro create playgrounds for un-

derprivileged youth and foster creative expression among black artists, also

succumbed to the primitivism mystique. Jury members of the foundation

often counseled artists to exploit the racial concept' and to strive for racial

feeling.s This type of encouragement led William H. Johnson to abandon

his European stylization for a neo-primitive study of black culture.6 \07ith

a tendency toward intense paternalism and conservatism, the Harmon

Foundation sustained a well-defined social order in its philanthropic ap-

proach. As long as the artists remained "good darkies" (\yilliam E. Harmon,

Jr.'s reference to prize winners), they received many honors and awards. In

an addition to mounting exhibitions, the Foundation assisted a select group

of artists with the srrerching, framing, shipping, photographing and even

selling of their work.? This peculiar sense of noblesse oblige did much to

reinforce the lowly social status of African Americans in America. Yet, in

spite of itseli the Harmon Foundation was successful in furthering the ca-

reers of blirck ttrtists.n

Wlrilc thc lllrrsron [irrrrrtlirtion wirs vcry prrl',lic itr its sttl'rport of hlirt'k

rrrlists, s()11(. w(.irltlry irrtlivirhurls g,rt'li'rrt'tl lutonyttrily irr tlrt'ir tlrirritlrl,lt'

e4

WNOSE RENAISSANCE WES IT REALLY:

Blacx Anr PaTRoNAGE oF THE l92Os AND l93Os

Rodney TraPP

URING rHE 1920s AND 30s, in a period better known as the HarlemRenaissance (HR) o. New Negro Movement, there was anirnprecedented surge in private patronage of black artists. Many

affluent white Americans, not unlike their European cousins, graciously

assumed the role of cultured elite in their support of artistic endeavors. Thefirst Americans to patronize the visual arts were wealthy businessmen whose

families maintained strong European ties. These men modeled themselvesafter the cultivated European gentleman whose paternal sense of noblesse

oblige could, when directed at another race of people, support either a vi-cious racism or an imperialistic benevolence.r

The artists of the Harlem Renaissance found themselves indentured tothis atmosphere of patronage. Since there were only a few affluent AfricanAmericans then, black artists had to rely on the benevolence of white pa-

trons. Historical research shows that there were two types of patrons:primitivists and humanists. Primitivists such as Mabel Dodge Luhan, CarlVan Vechten and Charlotte Osgood Mason had a fascination with thespirit and perceived exoticism of the darker race. Humanists, on the otherhand, primarily concemed themselves with edifiring African Americans as

a whole. William E. Harmon, \Y.E.B. DuBois, Alain Locke, Mary WhiteOvington and Amy Spingarn were among this class of patrons.

Patron As PrimitivistPopular jazz venues like the "Cotton Club" sizzled with activity as white

folla flocked to Harlem to enjoy the exciting night life. Among the most dy-

namic disciples of Harlem's night life were a circle of artists and intellectuals

Mr. Trapp is a Masters candidate in the Departmutt of I'u.l'onnnry Art.s, Art.s

Monagement, College of Arts and Sciencc.s. Hc hrr.s scrucrl rn u lclkw, irr Minoritr Al-fairs utdasPxtductionOoordhvttor for rhc I)cprrrlnrort ry' lhlinlrirrg Arts. ( llmrrth,he is working on his Mastcrs thcsis, "A ( irsr' .\trrrh lirr t[r' lirlrlrnrrtiorr ry' tfir' llnrrrligrrrrf l)i.s.rifxrrdor'.Scf-( )rgrnrilrrtiorr ir Artr ( )rgrrrri?rrtiorrs," rorrl ir th, l)rvr,lrrf rrrrr'rrt I )irrr

Rodney Trapp 95

from Greenwich Vil|age. Drawn to the New Negro Movement (salon fashign),

these arts and entertainment enthusiasts reveled to the music of Bessie Smith,

Paul Robeson and Eubie Blake.2 According to author David Diskell, this whitc

avant-garde never intended to provide an open door ofacceptance for the black

artist. Rather, they made black a symbol of white America's search for permnal

freedom, an escape from conventional standards of behavior.s Diskell believes

that the white avant-garde noticed something in black culture that remindcd

them of the vital and unspoiled remnants of basic values that had dissipated

in American society. The urrderwriting of black aft, therefore, was as much a

matter of lost generation sentiment for things primitive and natural as it was

an open acknowledgment of black creativity.

The early commercial success of Archibald John Motley, Jr. is a prinrc

example of the kind of work white patrons encouraged. Motley abandt,nctl

international styles of experimental painting to explore genre scenes of

black people. He is known for his meticulously rendered caricatures of l'rlrrck

night life. Motley's "neo-primitive" stylization received approval ancl rec'

ognition from the mainstream in the form of a solo exhibition in Ncw York

in1928. Since Motley was the second African American to present ir ()llc-

man show in a commercial New York Gallery, he undoubtedly helpcd sct

the stage for the plethora of primitive or neo-primitive art that wrts trr

come.4

The Harmon Foundation, established to create playgrounds firr tttr-

derprivileged youth and foster creative expression among black artists, rtlso

succumbed to the primitivism mystique. Jury members of the ftrtttrtlirt iotr

often counseled artists to exploit the racial concept, and to strive tor ritciitl

feeling.s This type of encouragement led William H. Johnson to ithrttrtkrtt

his European stylization for a neo-primitive study of black culttrre ." Witlr

a tendency toward intense paternalism and conservatistn, thc Ilirrtltott

Foundation sustained a well-defined social order in its philanthropit rtp-

proach. As long as the artists remained "good darkies" ('$Uilliam E. I lrrrtlxrtt,

Jr.'s reference to prize winners), they received many hontlrs aud itwirr.ls. ltt

an addition to mounting exhibitions, the Foundation assisted a sclcct grorrp

of artists with the stretching, framing, shipping, phgtographitlg irtrtl t'vt'tt

selling of their work.? This peculiar sense of noblesse obligc clid rntrclr to

reinfrrrce the lowly social status of African Ame ricans in Anrcricrt. Ycl , itt

spite ef itsclf, the Harmrln Founclation was succcssftrl in tirrthcrillg I lx' ('ll-

rccrs ()f blltck irrtists.s

W[ilc tlre llirrnron lirrrntllrtion wrs vcry prrhlic in ils sttplxrt'l ol hllrt k

ltrtists, s,,tttt' wt'ltlllly itltlivithtirls p11'11'11r''r1 ltttotlytttity itt tlrt'ir t lrllrillrltlt'

96 Vlwse Rerwissonce Was it Really?

activities. Sponsorship of black artists was popular among the white upper-class in many urban areas. charlotte osgood Mason was among this classof patrons. Mrs. Mason, known to those she sponsored as "Godmother,,,wasthe rich widow of Dr. Rufus osgood Mason.e She aggressively embraced herhusband's belief that the greatest manifestations of the spirit are found inprimitive or child-like races.ro Mason's style of patronage consisred of domi-nance and control. She required strict obedience and was quick to cut offthose who did not obey her wishes. Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hursron,Richmond Barthe and Aaron Douglas were among her most celebratedbeneficiaries. These artists were required to read certain books, listen to aparticular kind of music, atrend specific plays and even escort Ms. Masonto certain social events. In fact, after Aaron Douglas refused to appear atMason's 399 Park Avenue address, she paid a personal visit to his studioand ordered Douglas down from his scaffolding. Much to his regret, Dou-glas became a loyal member of Mason's entourage. The patron/artistrelationship that followed included frequent requests, by Mrs. Mason, forDouglas to withdraw from major commissions that offended her sense ofwhat was proper Negro art. Luckily enough, a Bames Foundation fellow-ship a[owed Douglas to escape the clutches of "Godmother."lr

Alain Locke, a leading African American (HR) intellectual of that day,was Mason's trusted confidant and her personal procurer of the arts. Hesought out new talent with the aid of Mrs. Mason's seemingly bottomlessfinancial chest.r2 Their relationship was reminiscent of those anonymoussensak who worked for the Medici family in fifteenth and sixteenrh centuryFlorence, Italy. As a twentieth cenrury Paolo del sera, Locke was both dil-ettilte andprofessariand secured many works of art for Mason as did del Serafor Leopoldo de Medici.rr Mason and Locke's relationship was nor, how-ever, without strife. Locke repeatedly clashed with Mason on her notionof proper Negro art. Locke viewed artistic expression as an act of social pro-test-a vehicle for community attitudes and feelings that preserved the livesof a group of people.ra Mrs. Mason, on rhe other hand, believed that socialmessages interfered with true creativity.

Heiress Mabel Dodge Luhan and writer Carl Van Vechten sharedMason's fascination with the darker "child-like" race. Known for throwinglavish parties for the Greenwich Village crowd of arrists and intellectuals, ,

Dodge reportedly had an affair with African Arncricun wrircr, JcanToomer.l5 Like Mastln, Dtilgc also saw thc Ncgro as (.x()t ic irntl trnspoilcrl.t('Carl Van Vcchtt'n wrts tll()rc itrtrigrtt'tl witlr tlrc nrusit',,Lrrrt't. lrntl swing-ing lifi'stylc of tltc hl:r'k lrorrrgt'oisit' tlrrrrr ;rrrytlring t.lsr.. I Iis soin.t.'s lx..'r1r11

Rodney Trapp 97

regular socialite outings for both blacks and whites.rT Van Vechren was ir

permanent fixture at every major black event. He used his influencc r() gcrblack writers published and was particularly interested in william I l.Johnson's art.rE In a letter to H.L. Menicken in the summer of lL)24,vechten reveals an illuminating truth about his new fascination with Af-rican American culture. He writes, 'Jazz,theblues, and Negro spirituirls irllstimulate me enormously for rhe moment ... Doubtless, I shall discard rhcrrrtoo in time."le \Uhite patrons were not the only ones espousing primitiv.ism and exoticism. Several African American intellectuals fotrntlthemselves extolling Negro art as the art of the noble savage, thercfirrt.promoting even greater acceptance of this Neanderthal mentality.2o

Patron As Humanist\7hile the primitivist parrons were mosrly white, the humanisrs wcr.(.

both African American and white. They focused their generosity ir.,l irr-volvement on issues of racial equality and the elimination of racisur. Wrirr.r.Zora Neale Hurston coined the title "Negrotarians" to refer to whirt.s wlrr r

specialized in the advancement of blacks.21

Mary White Ovingron, bom of whire abolitionist parenrs, was rlrt.t.l:rs.sic "Negrotarian." As a political activist and writer, she champi.nt.tl llrt.causes of the African-American through her involvement with rlrt' Nrr-tional Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAA( ll,)which she helped create. She condemned stereotyping propagirntl:r irr rrr.r

and helped provide positive black images in The Crisis magazinc./lThe celebrated African American sociologist, IUU.E.B. [)ul]ois, wrrs

editor of rhe cnsis when ovington was active with the NAAoI'. Mrrrryillustrators and writers who contributed their work ro Thc ori.sis,li.l s,,through the encouragemenr of DuBois. ln 1925, Edwin A. I l:rrlt'sr.rr,Albert A. Smith and Hale Woodruffreceived monetary awrrrtls .f st.vt.rrr y.

five, forty and ten dollars, respectively, for illustrati.ns. l)rrllriscommissioned the painting Lead,Kindly Lightby William E. sc.r r irr I 9ltJ.DuBois also purchased several paintings from Mr. Scort, R.hcrr I t. I l:rrrrg,-

ton and Richard Lonsdale for the offices of TheCrisi.s.2t Unlikc Alrrin l-r,t.kt.who favored social messages in art, f)uRois cmbraccd ?rrt its pr()pitglrrrtlrr :rrr.las a political method frlr exprcssing gr(xlp valrrcs. Folkrwing is lrn t.xr.t.r|rfrotn <lnc of [)uBois' cornrncntirrics rcglrrding irrt antl l]atr()l)rg(,:

Wc trtttst ttsc in this work rrll tlrt'nrt'th,xls tl)ll nlcl) Ir:rvc rrst.,l lrt.firrr'... it isrrot tlrt.grositivt.proP;qg;slltLrol lxrrPlt'wlrolx.lit.vt.wlritt.l'l.xxl tlivirrt', irrl:rllil,k'irtrrl lroly to wlrit lr I olrjt.t t. Ir is rlrt.rlt.rri:rlol;r sttrril:rr riglrt ol l)t()l)itl:iln(l:r lo llrosr.wlr,, Irt.lir.r,t'l,l:r. k l,l,,,xl

r98 Whose Renaiss ance Was it Really?

human, lovable and inspired with new ideals for the world... thewhite public today demands from its artist, literary and pictorial,racial pre-judgment which deliberately distorts Truth and Justice,as far as colored races are concemed and it will pay for no other...2a

Both Locke and DuBois were in agreement in their discernment of a double

consciousness (a knowledge of both black and white culture). This shared

understanding manifested in a challenge to black aftists to portray them-selves not through the eyes of white folks, but with their own eyes.

Amy Spingam, a white patroness who often took a back seat to her civilrights activist husband Joel Elias Spingarn, contributed significantly to thedevelopment of black artists. ln 1924, she provided The Cnsis with $300to establish a series of prizes for literary and artistic contributions by AfricanAmericans.z5 Opportunity, the magazine of the National Urban League,

established a literary contest that same year. Early issues of Opportunityfeatured works by Edwin Harleston, William E. Scott, William E. Braxton,Meta \07arrick Fuller and Albert A. Smith. Both magazines published ar-

ticles about individual artists and announced upcoming exhibitions in NewYork and in other parts of the county.26

Quiet CensorshipThough many black artists relied on the goodwill of white patrons for

their livelihood, there was much criticism regarding the effects of suchpatronage. Columnist Henry McBride of the New York Sun commentedthat "art patronage, until just recently, at least, had come from the aristoc-racy. Is there a sufficient Negro aristocracy to support Negro geniuses orshall the Negro adopt himself to white necessities and, so to speak, paintwhite?"27 David Driskell expressed an even more sinister condemnation inhis assertion that the vogue ofblackness during the 1920s encouraged blackartists to limit their creativity.zs Though Driskell directed his reprove to-ward white patrons, other African American art historians criticized theblack middle class for not supporting the arts. James A. Porter saw theNegro press as lax in its duty to provide constructive art criticism.ze DavidL. Lewis likened the patron of this era to a benevolent censor, pervasively

setting the outer limits of its creative boundaries.r0 V7hen black artists

agreed to a patron-artist financial relationship, they seemed to obligatethemselves to produce a certain kind of product that would mcct thcpatron's approval.

The Hannon Fountlution fircctl hirrsh criticisrrr by hrtlr lrrtists rrnr.l in-tcllcctrrirls filr its cxhihitirltr p1111'1i('('s. Il()lnlrt't' llt'irltlt'rr wrott' in rr

l )t't't'trrlrt'r, l () ){ i5;1;111' ()l ( )r)1,(,t'tr?tit),

Rodney Trapp 99

Its [Harmon Foundation] attitude from the beginning has been ofa coddling and patronizing nature. It has encouraged the artists t()exhibit long before he has mastered the technical equipment of hismedium. By its choice of the type of work it favors, it has allowedthe Negro artist to accept standards that are both artificial andcorrupt.ll

A letter from William E. Harmon, Jr. to Paul Kellogg thanking him firr,"space in your invaluable journal to tell the story of the prizes ftrr gootl

darkies," gives some credence to Bearden's suspicions of the foundirtion'sreal intent.l2

SummaryDavid L. Lewis best summarizes the nature of private philanthrt4ry in rlre

Harlern Renaisance in his book \X4EnHarletnWasInVogue.Lewis writcs, "tlrt.motives of WASP philanthropy were an amalgam of inherit abolir iorrisrrr,

Christian charity and guilt, social manipulation, political ecccntrit'ity, rrntl

a certain amount of persiflage."l3 Though differing in rnotive, r'nuny I lirrlr,.rrr

Renaissance patrons shared either a fascination for a perceivcd blirck grrirrri

tivenss or a sincere concern for social justice, equality ancl thc rr1r1111 ,,1

African Americans. V7hatever their motivations, these patr()r)s slrlrl,t..l tlr,.art of the period by using their moneyr pow€r and influencc to srrl)port t ltt.art that they felt was worthy of patronage. The inability of thc ('rir l( ) sus

tain itself suggests that such patronage is inherently flzrwccl, firr nn :rlt tlrrtis not widely embraced and supported by the community fi'orrr u,lrit lr itdraws its creative expression is doomed to failure.

-I Helen L. Horowitz,Cukure EThe Citl (Lexington, Kentrrcky: I lrriversity of Kentucky Press, 1976) 8-10.

2 David L. Lewis, WhenHarlemWaslnVoguc (Ncw Y,rrk: Allitrl A.Knopf, Inc., 1979)98.

r David C. Driskell, Two Centuries of Black Amcriccm Art (Nt.w Y,,r l.r :

Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1976) 56.4 Ibid., 6l-62.5

James A. Porter, Modem Negro Art (Ncw York: Tlrc I)rytlt.rr I'rt.ts,Inc., 1943) 107.

" Gary A. Rcynolds ancl Bcryl J. Wright Agtrirrst thc ( )rlrls: A/i'rr'rrrr

Atnericurt Arti.st.s tmtl the I lcrnton Fountlilirtrr (Nt'wrrrk, Nt,w f t.rs..y: 'l'lrt'

Nervitrk Mrrsctrtu, l9ll9) 97.; Willirrrrr l:. I lrrrnrorr to l)irrrl Kt'lk,gg, 7 .f lrrrrrrry, l9)7 ,l lrrnrr.rn I'rr.

pt'rs, l.ilrrruy ol ( irngrt'ss, M:rrrrrst rilrt l)ivisi()n, W:rslrirrgtorr l ).( ).

" l{r.yn,,hls, ,,\grrirrsl tfi,,( )rlrlr, 2ll 10.

r00 Whose Renaiss ance Was it Really?

e Bruce Kellner, TheHarlemRenaissutce: AHistoricalDictimary for the

ERA (New York: Methuen, Inc., 1984) 237.10 Faith Berry and Langston Hughes Before and Beyond Harlem

(Westport, Connecticut: Lawrence Hill, 1983) 87.rr Lewis, rYhenHarlemWas inVogue, p.I52.t2 Ralph D. Story, "Patronage And The Harlem Renaissance: You Get

What You Pay For," in CLAJomwl(March 1989) 285-286.1r See Edward L. Goldberg, Patterns in Late Medici Art Patronage

(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton lJniversity Press, 1983).ra Reynolds, Against the Odds, 19.t5 Lewis, Wlrcn Harlem Was in V ogwe, 167 .16 Ibid., 188.t7 Ibid.,36g.18 Reynolds, Against the Odds,94.re Lewis, When Harlzm Was in V ogue, 98.20 Porter, ModernNegro Art,99.2r Lewis, rYhen Harlem Was in V ogwe, 98.22 Kellner, The Harlem Rennissance, Z7 5.2r Reynolds, Against the Odds, 17 .

24 \(/.E.8. DuBois, "Criteria of Negro Art," The Crisis (October 1926)294.

25 \(/.E.8. DuBois, "Opinion of W.E.B DuBois: The May SpingarnPrizes," The Crisis (September 1924) 199.

26 Reynolds , Against the Odds, 14.27 "The Negro Annual," ArtDigest,15 May, 1934, 18.28 Driskell, Two Centuries, 7 4.2e Porter, ModernNegro Art,98.30 Lewis, When Harlem Wos in V ogu,e, 98.31 Romare Bearden, "The Negro Artist and Modern Art," Opportunity

(December 1934) 37 l-372.32 tVilliam E. Harmon to Paul Kellogg, 7 January, 1926, Harmon Pa-

pers, Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Washington D.C.r3 Lewis, When Harlzm W as in V ogue, 99.

Tne EvoLUTIoN oF THE SocIAL STATUS oFWoMEN IN MExIco

Dennis G. Berenschot

S oNE STUDIES THE HISTORY of Mexico, its culture and politicirlpower, many interesting aspects surface and attract interest.However, one particular facet strikes the observer more f()r its

remarkable absence than for its presence; women and their role in shlp-ing the history and culture of Mexico seem to have been completclyignored. Furthermore, one wonders if the role of women has been neglcctulor if there simply was no role of which to speak. Is the absence of suclr rr

role due to the machisn stereotype or a result of a complicated evoltrriorrthat has cultural, economic and social undertones?

This paper will illustrate the different phases of the evoluritxr ol tlrt.social status of women in Mexico by studying the root of Mexican crrlrrrrt.from its first native components through the Spanish influence, thc Mcxi-can revolution and life in the villages and in the cities. It will also t.xanrint,the powerful influences exercised upon the indigenous society (Anrcrin.dian) by the conquest culture (Spanish) thar was filtered through ir .lorrblt.screening process and originated when two disparate cultures ciunc in coll-tact. It is only through a careful analysis of these phenomenir rhirt irrrexplanation of the current social status of women in Mexico cirn lrt.

attempted. In order to best understand the Mexican psyche, it is vcry irn.portant to examine some crucial aspects of the cultural backgror,rntl of t lrt.native peoples in the territory now known as Mexico.

The Mayas, the Aztecs and the Pueblo IndiansBefore the Spanish imposed their world view with its str()ng l(onr:rrr

Apostolic and Catholic influence, civilizirtions cxistccl in tl-ris ncw w.,rl.lthat rivaled parallel civilizittions in thc Middlc East, Asiir irnrl Errropt. irr

Mr. lJcrorst'lrot rc.r'ilt'rl (t M(l\(('rs irr Slrrnrisl lr,r<l ltlirrAnrr,r'irrnr .\tlrrlir,s, I.rrrrgtt,tg,',ttt,l linligrr Sr'r'rrir'r's, ( i/lt'Xr'rl Arts rorrl .\r'irrrr'r,s (l)rrtrrrlrr,r' I()()/). lli,r,,rrthlt,, ir rr I )or'tolrll .,rrr,li,lrrl,,(tt lrt{, I /ni,t,(,r,\ilr ty' M,rrrlrurrl sll,t.irrlitirrg irr l.rrtrrr Arrr,,ri,irrrI il,'ritttni'.

TOI