1

We Are the Stories We Tell Ourselves, Over and Over Again.

The Appropriation of Narrative to Communicate Personal Histories.

Suzy Sharpe

MAI 170 Extended Essay

6th July 2014

Word Count 5780

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Table of Contents

Page 3. Introduction

Page 5 Smuggling Stories and Harnessing Talent.

Page 13 In Search of Equality, Defining the Relationship.

Page 17 An Older Way of Knowing

Page 19 Own Story Animal Narrative

Page 24 When our Dreams Disappear

Page 26 Bibliography

Page 32 List of Illustrations

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Two years ago, when I began the MA I felt that my work had lost something. Mary Oliver describes

the essence of what I hoped I would find when talking about writing poetry in her book Wild

Geese, “Every poem I write must have a genuine body, it must have sincere energy and it must

have spiritual purpose”. My final project proposal was to create a contemporary bestiary, bringing

together a variety of elements of the multi-faceted human-animal relationship; intended for

display as an installation and catalogue entitled The Beautiful and The Damned. This body of work

is the culmination of a deepening understanding of my position in relation to this connection,

reflected through the lens of my creative practice. It draws on an array of narratives from

contemporary media, myth, fable and traditional storytelling.

My research has expanded to include traditional storytelling, animal rights, environmental

activism, bestiaries, species classification, art and illustration. Broadly speaking it encompasses a

variety of texts that look at our changing attitudes towards animals1, which have been read with

reference to my own work and that of a number of other artists. Aspects of my concerns resonate

in the work of Anna Maria Pacheco, Paula Rego and Sue Coe amongst others2. The devices used to

navigate the fine line between communication and repulsion will be explored, together with the

way in which other artists approach and use similar subject matter. The way artists collage

together personal narratives, socio-political interests, contemporary media commentary and

traditional storytelling within their work is of particular interest.

Within the contemporary human-animal, relationship there seems to be a paradox. On one hand

we are exploiting, destroying and persecuting animals on a scale never previously imagined, with

extinctions at an alarming rate and on the other, we hold them in high esteem, venerate, revere

and celebrate them3. This dichotomy, together with ideas around equality, categorisation,

animism and the changing view of the differentiation between humans and non-humans will be

considered.

Bestiaries from the 4th Century may have been the first form of the text and image combination

and have been repeatedly translated and reworked. They present an unfamiliar view of animals

that may help us to understand the importance of animals to our ancestors. They show that

1 I acknowledge here and throughout the essay that my output is skewed by my own perspective and my background and possibly a

touch of dreaming.

4

animals have been intrinsic to our language and omnipresent in our literature, history and

storytelling for a considerable length of time.

For the past 20 years the notions worked with in my creative practice and research remain

significant. I seem to creep slightly closer to a burning question, which remains just out of sight

but often feels further from any form of answer. Some of the possible reasons for this will be

reflected on in relation to traditional storytelling. However, it is also something discussed by Paula

Rego when speaking about her Slade sketchbooks. She says of her propensity to rework identical

ideas from a slightly different perspective that ‘Everything keeps turning up – again and again and

again and again.’4

4 John McEwan, Paula Rego, Behind the Scenes ( London, Phaidon Press Limited, 2008) p.10

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Smuggling Stories and Harnessing Talent.

Throughout the MA, my questioning of our attitudes to animals and the inconsistency in our

treatment of them has been of primary importance. Previous attempts to make work about this

relationship resulted in images of animals, painted enjoying a bucolic splendour or with a measure

of humour and did not succeed in communicating my particular concerns. This was an attempt to

portray animals in a positive light. Steve Baker in Picturing the Beast says that he no longer

believes in this type of positive construction, he refers to them as “romanticised images of nature

which imply political ends achieved by aesthetic means”.5 However, the way in which Nick Hayes,

illustrator and speaker at the Falmouth University school of Art lecture series 2013, described

communicating his environmental concerns as “smuggling stories”6. The Rhyme of the Modern

Mariner takes the narrative from the Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner published in 1798 by Samuel

Taylor Coleridge, as the basis for his retelling that communicates a contemporary environmental

message. This seems to offer an alternative method of creating relevant meaning and purpose

beyond propaganda or sentimentality.

iAna Maria Pacheco, Dark Night of the Soul

Ana Maria Pacheco uses stories from religion, myth and fable for their particular qualities, but also

to imply an underlying betrayal, cruelty, oppression and abuse with references to political and

5 BAKER, Steve, Picturing the Beast: Animals, Identity and Representation. (Manchester, Manchester University Press.) 2001

6 Nick Hayes Speaker Falmouth University School of Art lecture series, 2013

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moral corruption or to incidents she witnessed in her native Brazil7. When working with the

National Gallery on Dark Night of the Soul she was undeniably referencing St Sebastian8. However,

the title The Dark Night of the Soul is a quotation from the Spanish mystic Saint John of the Cross9

with images from contemporary photo journalism of a garrotted Brazilian bandit, seamlessly

collaged together to create a striking and poignant sculptural piece10.

In Behind the Scenes John McEwan writes that Rego found it difficult to speak her mind and so

turned to storytelling11. Rego describes all her paintings retrospectively referencing either her own

life or a pertinent socio-political discourse, overlaid with fairy tales, nursery rhymes and

mythology12. Rego grew up under Salazar's Catholic, right wing dictatorship13 she said it blighted

everything, “creating a whole mood, with secret police, lack of learning and idealisation of

poverty”14. Heavily imbued with familiar narrative, her work also takes everyday family life and

twists it into something disquieting or sometimes shocking.

ii Paula Rego, Untitled Abortion Series, left Panel Triptych

7 Ana Maria Pacheco, Sculpture Drawings, Paintings and Prints 1980-89 (Kent, Pratt Contemporary Art 1989)p.8

8 Antinio and Piero del Pallauidld, The Martydom of Saint Sabastian (The National Gallery, 1474)

9 Dark Night of the Soul is the title of a poem written by 16th-century Spanish poet and Roman Catholic mystic Saint John of the

Cross 10

Szirtes, George, Exercises in Power , (Lund Humphreys, Aldershot), 2001 11

McEwan 2008 12 Paula Rego: Telling Tales. 2009. Jake Auerbach Films DVD. 13

António de Oliveira Salazar,(born April 28, 1889,Vimieiro, Port.—died July 27, 1970, Lisbon), Portuguese economist, who served as prime minister of Portugal for 36 years (1932–68). Salazar’s rule was strongly influenced by Catholic, papal, and nationalist thought.

14 McEwan 2008

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Occasionally, she makes political work as propaganda; the Abortion Series ii, in which women are

doubled up after illegal abortions, responded to a badly supported referendum to legalise abortion

in Portugal15.

In 2009, she also completed a series of graphic etchings to highlight and make visible the plight of

girls subjected to female genital mutilation iii.

iii Paula Rego, Circumcision

Her images are complex and multi layered often describing emotions in polar opposition. Victor

Willing16 saw Rego’s paintings communicating divergent expressions of freedom and oppression,

domination and rebellion, suffocation and escape, resentment and affection. Rego says that she

paints to give terror a face; many stories come from childhood fears of the dark and the devil.

“An idea comes to you, you make the first one (painting) then the picture tells you what has

happened, it takes you into the darkness, it is a journey sometimes a painful one,

sometimes a dangerous one, where you are in danger of revealing the unspeakable.”17

15

In the June 1998 referendum, Portuguese voters rejected a bid to introduce abortion on demand. Only 31% of registered voters took part in the referendum; of those, 51% voted against a change in the law. http://www.lifesitenews.com/news/abortion-referendum-planned-for-portugal-by-new-socialist-government [accessed 2nd July 2014]

16 Artist and Paula Regos husband.

17 Paula Rego, interview with John Tusa BBC Radio 4 01/08/2012 http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00nc49f [accessed 2nd July

2014]

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However, this is not always her intention; she describes her work in terms of her own history. Of

The Dog Women series iv, painted after the death of her husband she says “I was able to work

through all of my love for him, they are the closest I came to telling him how much I loved him”18.

iv

Paula Rego, Dog Woman Series

Recent practice based research has allowed the boundaries between my animals and humans to

shift; the distinction becoming more ambiguous, offering more scope for questioning and

communicating areas of thought. Baker draws a distinction between the types of animals

contained in art, stating that there are two categories, theriomorphic19 and anthropomorphic20.

Baker considers that humans dressed in animal costumes may seem more problematic than

animals dressed as humans but that this anomalous identity offers valuable opportunities to

destabilise anthropocentric meanings.21 In a poster campaign, The World Society for the

Protection of Animals (WSPA) used theriomorphic imagery in an anti-bullfighting campaign,

showing a man with a large bullring through his nose staring passively toward the viewer. The

directors of the airport where it was to be displayed would not allow the use of what they termed

disturbing images. In this campaign, animal suffering was not shown, but evoked by implication

and carried the caption “bullfights would stop if tourists weren’t led there”22. It allowed

holidaymakers to read without repulsion and question their stance.

18

McEwan, 2008 p.26 19

animals used to identify humans 20

images of animals showing human characteristics 21

BAKER, Picturing the Beast, 2001 22

Ibid

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As editor of the weekly animal rights magazine Turning Point23, Tim Phillips explains that he was

continually required to strike a balance between the responsibility to reproduce gruesome images

of animal abuse and awareness that this would be counterproductive, turning readers away24.

However, this turning away may be attributed to our own feelings of impotence; no amount of

looking at horrific images of abuse will in itself change anything. If we feel, we have no agency our

only option is to turn away. An advertisement used by the International League for the Protection

of Horses (ILPH) addresses this, showing a photograph of a horse being slaughtered; moments

before its death with the caption “If you can’t look at this picture, please help us to face the

problem”25. Making work that strikes the balance mentioned by Phillips is at the root of my

creative enquiry; my intention is to make images that remain ambiguous enough to entice the

viewer to contemplate their own perspective without being repelled.

Sue Coe is said to want her artwork to be an agent for change and stated at the 2014 Falmouth

Illustration Forum Witness that the world only needs 10% of the people to change, the rest will

follow and change will happen26. However, she says “before art can be a tool for change it has to

be art”27. Coe is very clear about the purpose of her work "When I started, I thought, 'Oh, it won't

change a thing' but then I realised I could empower people with it", "I think the best that can

happen is that you open up a dialogue. I believe most people are open-minded"28, “Please see for

yourself, go to a slaughterhouse, see what occurs and if you can't, ask yourself why”29. Derrick

Jensen, environmental activist and author, states that the only thing that we can do in the battle

against industrialised civilisation, “is to harness our talents in service of our land-base”30.

Baker considers that although animals first enter the consciousness as possibilities and

messengers, by the 18th century their status became no more than automata providing meat,

leather and horn. Baker is partially referring to the perspective of the 17th Century French

23

no longer in print 24

Interview Jan Creamer with Tim Philips, www.lasplash.com/publish/Los_Angeles_Charities_188/jan-creamer-and-tim-phillips-interview [accessed 2nd July 2014]

25 ILPH advertisement 1991, referenced in Baker, Picturing the Beast 2001

26 Sue Coe Speaker at Witness Falmouth Illustration Forum 2014

27 Sue Coe, quoted in Susan Vaughn, Staying True to a Unique Vision of Art, (Los Angeles Times April 2001)

http://graphicwitness.org/coe/latimes.htm [accessed 2nd July 2014] 28

Vaughn, 2001 29

Ibid 30

JENSEN, Derrick, Listening to the Land : Conversations about Nature, Culture, and Eros.. White River Junction, Vt.: Chelsea Green Pub. Co. 2011 & JENSEN, Derrick and Aric McBay.. What we Leave Behind (New York: Seven Stories Press) 2009. JENSEN, Derrick, Kieth, Lierre and McBay, Aric. Deep Green Resistance (Seven Stories Press, New York) 2011

10

philosopher, mathematician and writer Rene Descartes31. Descartes considered animals as mere

machines, natural but lacking a soul32. However, by complete contrast, contemporary writer

Timothy Morton in Ecological Thought states, “we shall soon regard the phrase, ‘the animal

question’, with as much queasy horror as, ‘the Jewish question’ and for the same reasons”33.

Jacques Derrida in The Animal Therefore I am speaks of the change in our treatment and attitude

towards animals34. He suggests that the root cause of this change is the regimentation of animal

husbandry seen in industrialised farming practices, genetic experimentation, crossbreeding and

artificial insemination to satisfy our own needs. Derrida draws comparisons with Nazi style

regimes, breeding minorities to be exploited, experimented on and killed.

“everybody knows what terrifying and intolerable pictures a realist painter would make in

light of the many types of violence to which man has been submitting animal life, for the

past two centuries.” 35

Coe’s work predominantly stems from personal experience or media commentary, inevitably

drawing in broader political or societal concerns. Coe’s drawings, paintings and prints explore

subjects such as AIDS, war, vivisection, animal rights, and the American meat industry. In the 1980s

and 90s she visited slaughterhouses in the United States where she was allowed to take only her

sketch book, the resulting images being published in Dead Meat.

Baker says that Coe gives graphic countenance to the idea of humans and animals bound together

by their circumstances36. In one slaughterhouse, she noticed that the skinners hands had each

finger severed at the joint v; in her drawing, she seems to draw a parallel with his hand with the

stumps of the carcass. 37

31

Baker, 2001 32

Non-human animals, in Descartes's view, are complex organic machines, all of whose actions can be fully explained without any reference to the operation of mind in thinking.

33 Morton, Timothy Ecological Thought

https://www.academia.edu/934516/Thinking_Ecology_The_Mesh_the_Strange_Stranger_and_the_Beautiful_Soul; p280 [accessed 2

nd July 2001]

34 I have referred to this in my previous essay but feel that it must be restated here, as it is vital in my discussion of the change in the

treatment of animals and the echoes of Derridas words in the work of Sue Coe 35

Derrida, Jacques. Animal that therefore I Am. (Ashland, Ohio: Fordham University Press.) 2008, p26. 36

Baker, Steve, Aritst|Animal (Minneapolis, University of Minesota Press) 2013 37

COE, Sue and Alexander COCKBURN. 1995. Dead Meat. (New York, Four Walls Eight Windows Publishing Co.,U.S.)1996 p. 127

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v Sue Coe, Jimmy Carrying the Veal, 1991, etching and aquatint.

Juxtapositions of humans and animals are used throughout Coe’s work to draw attention to

tragedies such as 9/11and incarceration likened to concentration camps vi. Coe regularly balances

cruelty and horror in one image, with care and sympathy in another, Baker says that she hopes to

convey neutrality in her depictions of the humans38. Coe talks about recording the “humanity of

the workers juxtaposed against the inhumanity with which the work obliges them to treat

animals”39.

vi

Sue Coe, Goats before Sheep vii

Sue Coe, Feed Lot

38

Baker, 2013 39Coe and Cockburn, 1995.

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The work sympathises with the suffering of both human and animal and does not entirely

demonise humanity40viii. The cycle depicted in Coe’s book entitled Pit's Letter pays homage to the

series by William Hogarth made in 1751 entitled The Four Stages of Cruelty x.

viii Sue Coe, Vivisection, from Second Millennium

ixSue Coe, Infects

William Hogarth, the Four Stages of Cruelty, Stage 4, 1751x

40

Baker, 2013

13

In Search of Equality – Defining the Relationship.

The way in which we view animals is at the root of our treatment of them. Many of the texts read

see the relationship as a symbiotic one in which, there should be no hierarchy. They identify that a

large part of the problem is intrinsic to the use of species categorisation at any level, the terms

‘Human’ and ‘Animal’ place us in binary opposition41 and due to our need for identification with

our own species, this system will always place the animal in the negative. Barbara Noske Dutch,

cultural anthropologist and philosopher, when defining her perspective on the human-animal

relationship says

“As I grew up I became more bewildered by the way people used to speak and think about

animals and I began to wonder…how on earth our society had arrived at its subject object

attitude towards animals. I never once felt myself a superior human subject dealing with

an inferior and passive animal object.” 42

In trying to delineate the distinction between human and animal Bruno Bettelheim the 20th

Century Austrian-born American child psychologist and writer said

“To the child there is no clear line separating objects from living things and whatever has

life, has a life very much like our own…If we do not understand what rocks, trees and

animals have to tell us, it is because we are not sufficiently attuned to them.”43

This partially forms an argument that the sophisticated adult has progressed beyond childish or

primitive ignorance. Baker suggests that this is in fact an avoidance of identification with anything

other than the dominant culture, due to fear of the consequences of alienation and our obsessive

need for a clearly defined and secure identity44.

There have been many turning points in the relationship between humans and animals. Roy Willis

in his book Signifying Animals discusses the point of separation between humans, animals and

41

Binary Opposition being defined as, the principle of contrast between two mutually exclusive terms: on/off, up/down, left/right etc; an important concept of structuralism, in language and thought, two theoretical opposites are strictly defined and set off against one another

42Barbara Noske, Humans and Other Animals: Beyond Boundaries of Anthropology. (London: Pluto Press, 1989) pvii

43 Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment, the Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales (London: Thames & Hudson. 1976) p46

44 Baker, 2001

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nature. Setting this point at the assertion in the Book of Genesis, when God gave man “dominion

over the fish of the sea and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle all over the earth”45.

However, he says that the religious legitimisation of the domination of the natural world is

contrasted with a non-hierarchical bond of interdependence in the period. As seen in the

interconnection between nature and culture, human and animal, social and religious institutions of

the time. Victorian anthropology saw this interconnection as “a fascinating error of primitive

man”46 . Willis goes on to say that, western scholarly thought has since been rehabilitated; humans

are now seen as part of nature and everything in the universe is connected with everything else47.

Tim Ingold, author and British anthropologist, identifies another point of separation around the

time of the Protestant Reformation in the 1500s, when classification of the natural world became

more widespread48. The categorisation of all living things is inherently problematic, according to

Derrida, the name ‘animal’ is a category and by categorising, we reflect the human need to

differentiate and distance the human from the animal49. However, at the time of the reformation

this kind of categorisation was a new way of knowing and learning by direct observation. At this

time, the importance of the spirit or mythical creatures of the Medieval Bestiaries began to recede,

as they became less tangible and more unreal50. Dominique Lestel, French philosopher, who is

opposed to conventional representations of the animal, says we should define the animal not by a

defensive autonomy but as an open-ended heterogamy; not as a closed self-contained animal but

as an existence reliant on other things and the relationship it has with those things51. Ingold says

that the animacy of the animal relies on how it breaks out of our systems of classification, stating

that it may be more useful if we are to understand the animal, to tell it as a story instead of

classifying it. This may be considered from the perspective of a hunter; by adding one story to

another to track the animal, he develops a taxonomy of knowledge which enables him to fully

understand it and build a complete picture52.

In trying to establish a definition for ‘equality’ between humans and non-humans, Ingold describes

45

The biblical book of Genesis 1:26 46

Willis, Roy, Signifying Animals, London, Routledge 1994 p.6 47

Willis 1994 48

Ingold, Tim http://www.britishanimalstudiesnetwork.org.uk accessed 27/06/2014 49

Derrida. 2008 p32 50

Ingold, Tim http://www.britishanimalstudiesnetwork.org.uk accessed 27/06/2014 51

Ibid 52

Ibid

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three ways to see an animal – with particular reference to Deluze and Guattari – Becoming

Animal53. Firstly, a quasi-human, an anthropomorphic named individual such as a pet. Secondly, by

species controlled by classification; listing its particular attributes (which separate it from all other

species and everything around it) and categorising it by its intrinsic specific characteristics. Finally,

treated as an activity of spirit, in continual creation, “so a wolf would be wolfing, instead of saying

you have seen a wolf, you will say that you have seen wolfing going on here and wolfing there”54.

Ingold says that the spirit of an animal is not an abstraction; it is integral to the animal55.

In his book Animism, Graham Harvey states, "Animists are people who recognise that the world is

full of persons, only some of whom are human and that life is always lived in relationship with

others”56. Animism takes the view that people (humans) seek to respectfully and properly engage

with other peoples (humans and non-humans). An animistic perspective challenges ideas of

selfhood and the dominant anthropocentric point of view. It proposes that intelligence;

consciousness, rationality, language, desire etc. are not solely human characteristics. When placed

within a community of human and non-human ‘persons’ the human uniqueness in social, religious

and scientific arenas are challenged. Animistic thinking requires humans to consider themselves

not as cultures surrounded by nature and resources, but within a universe of beings that form the

community of life.

Some of these ideas maybe visually communicated in the work of artist Kate Walters, who recently

exhibited a body of work entitled The Secret worth a Thousand. The title taken from Goethe relates

to man’s kinship with animals as explored in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, where Gods change into

Swans and hunters transform in to their quarry. 57

53

Deluze and Guatarri Becoming Animal, Animal Philosophy : Ethics and Identity (London, Continuum,) 2004 54

Ingold, 2005 55

Deluze and Guatarri, 2004 56

Harvey, Graham, Animism: Respecting the Living World. (London: Hurst & Co, )2005 p. xi:1 57

These stories have also inspired Rego, Pacheco and as well as some of my own paintings.

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xi Kate Walters, In the Belly of a Mare

xii Kate Walters Sharing the Animal Eye

Walters’ animals and humans often inhabit the same physical space on the canvas, the point

where human ends and animal begins is uncertain, they are often one and the same, completely

interconnected and inseparable.

By placing humans in the shoes of animals my work, attempts to communicate the notion that

whatever we do to animals (others and the environment) we ultimately do to ourselves. Lierre

Keith former vegan, environmental activist and author of The Vegan Myth and Derrick Jensen

discuss this idea at great length in various publications5859. Coe’s book Pits Letter tells a fictional

story about the life of a Pit Bull terrier that graphically describes various kinds of abuse,

experimentation and incarceration endured by the dog60. However, as the story unfolds we find

that a parallel narrative is being told of the equally tragic and intense suffering in the lives of the

human protagonists. Pacheco’s animals are often mutilated, dismembered heads of animals used

often as metaphor to enable her to accentuate ideas of powerlessness, abuse, torture and violence

mostly with reference to human suffering and oppression.

58

Keith, Lierre, The Vegitarian Myth,( Oakland, USA, PM PRESS,) 2010 59

Jensen, Derrick, Listening to the Land : Conversations about Nature, Culture, and Eros.. White River Junction, Vt.: Chelsea Green Pub. Co. 2011 & JENSEN, Derrick and Aric McBay.. What we Leave Behind (New York: Seven Stories Press) 2009. JENSEN, Derrick, Kieth, Lierre and McBay, Aric. Deep Green Resistance (Seven Stories Press, New York) 2011

60 Coe, Sue. Pit's Letter (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows),2000.

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An Older Way of Knowing

Medieval Bestiaries seem to act as a kind of portal, allowing us to see remnants of a different way

of knowing animals. The animal did not mean a specific thing “it was a node or a knot in the

tapestry of interwoven sightings and experiences”61 and referred to a place where all the different

happenings relating to a particular creature are pooled. The behaviour, medicinal cures,

observations, superstitions, calls, stories, habitat, skin, bone and meat uses unite to form the

animal.

xiii

Aberdeen Bestiary

Bestiaries have their roots in pre-history and the Palaeolithic caves which represent the known

beginnings of the human representation of animals. It is also possible that the oral tradition

incorporating words and imagery began here xiii6263. In all aspects of life, practical or sacred,

mystical or profane, animals have been co-opted and represented in a variety of forms. According

to Neil Cox in a Picasso Bestiary, the popularity of Bestiaries is due to their simplicity, “they are

ultimately reducible to those most fundamental of human concerns, birth, sex, food and death

those concerns which in short, humans share with animals” 64.

The first bestiary known to have been written is the Physiologus written in Greek during the 4th

61

Ingold, 2005 62

Werner Herzog, Film, Cave of Forgotten Dreams , 2010 63

Williams, David Lewis, The mind in the Cave (London, Thames & Hudson) 2002 64

Cox, Neil, A Picasso Bestiary, (London, Academy Group Ltd) 1995 p.11

18

Century. The descriptions of a variety of animals, both real and mythical, derive from various

sources including Hebrew, Indian, Greek and Egyptian. Bestiaries were most popular in Europe,

especially England in the Middle Ages. According to Annela Twitchin in an essay about Pacheco65,

this is possibly due to the “Medieval belief that all God’s creation, including animals were intended

to provide examples to humanity of the correct way to live”66. Medieval Bestiaries were created by

scribes, scholars and monastic painters for wealthy patrons, with the intention of conveying the

Christian message. They were also a catalogue of the wonders of the animal kingdom, relying on a

plethora of existing knowledge, stories, superstitions and beliefs. They are considered a moralising

encyclopaedia of animals bringing together both pagan and Christian, factual and symbolic beliefs

regarding animals. They tend not to be written from personal experience or first-hand

observation, but either hereditary knowledge or an account of an authority on the subject67.

According to Richard Barber in Bestiary68, they aimed to focus the reader’s attentions on the moral

and spiritual lessons that could be learned from the characters “the scribes knew that everything

had a purpose and in these books their purpose was the edification and instruction of the sinful

man”69. Bestiaries tend not to be arranged alphabetically but in order of moral or spiritual

importance. Each creature represented a kind of moral entity conveying a message to the reader.

The relationship between morality, nature and spirituality are all explored in the Bestiary. However,

the connection to spirituality posed the most challenging, because many animals represented both

good and evil. According to Barber, the Physiologus has been more widely translated and

disseminated than any other book except the Bible and was predominantly an attempt to redefine

the natural world in Christian terms. The idea of the Bestiary has been reworked and co-opted by

a host of artists and writers. Pacheco illustrated the poems of Szirtes' in the form of A Modern

Bestiary, not strictly a Bestiary in traditional terms but a collection of text and image relating to

animals, and similar to my intention.

65

Pratt, Susan, Collected Essays: Texts on the Work of Ana Maria Pacheco, selected Texts 1983-2004, (London, Pratt Contemporary Art,) 2004, p15

66 Pratt, p.15

67 Barber, Richard, Bestiary (London, The Folio Society) 1992

68 Barber, 1992

69 Barber, 1992, p7

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Own Story Animal Narrative

Stories stemming from personal accounts are referred to by Marie Louise Franz in The

Interpretation of Fairy Tales as the ‘local saga’; she says that Plato wrote about old women who

told symbolic stories to their children70. Franz terms these stories ‘local sagas’71 co-opted then

retold with a symbolic or didactic meaning and could be thought of as the forerunner of a fairy

tale, folk tale, legend or myth72. Coe, Pacheco and Rego find contemporary versions of the ‘local

saga’ within their own experience but also originating from newspaper reports, magazines,

television and the internet. In the accompanying essay to The Uncanny Tales 73 exhibition it is

noted that Pacheco and Rego have the ability to move, at will between the self, mythology, fairy

tale and legend. Pacheco’s work seems to have an otherworldliness and reflects the richness of the

multi layered Brazilian culture. A long tradition of Catholicism is intertwined with a history of

superstition, ritual and the dark arts in Brazil.

xiv

Ana Maria Pacheco, Luz Eternal

70

Franz, 1970 71

Local Saga: referencing to a personally experience event pass on from person to person, village to village and down through generations, changing as it does so. Franz says the point at which local saga becomes fairy tale is when the characters are no longer referred to as ‘John the miller down the road’ and become pure ‘A miller’ losing the reference to the known person from the original encounter.

72Franz, 1970

73Foundation for Women's Art Uncanny Tales. (London: Foundation for Women's Art.) 2005

20

This polarity is explored in much of her work, in the Metamorphoses series she also emphasises

the commonality of all things by collaging together personal history, contemporary journalism,

myth, folklore, and religious narratives. In “Luz Eternal”, whilst referencing The Temptation of St

Anthony74 Pacheco includes images of helicopters inspired by a closing scene of the Ingmar

Bergman film Through the Glass Darkly75 and media photographs of refugee camps76.

Shekhaar Kapur Writer and Film Director, states that elaborate visual storytelling must have a

strong narrative on psychological, political and mythological levels. Continuing that these can

contradict each other and when evolving stories from our own histories, inconsistencies should not

necessarily be resolved but harmonised, creating a question for the viewer to take away. Kapurs

words have a particular resonance when he says, “the stories we tell ourselves hold our

potentiality and define our existence”.77

According to Franz, myths and legends offer the structure of the human psyche with an elaborate

overlay of cultural material. The Interpretation of Fairy Tales is opened with “Fairy tales are the

purest form of expression of the collective unconscious psychic process”78 stating that they

represent the archetypes in their simplest forms. “All fairy tales endeavour to describe one and the

same psychic fact, but a fact so complex, far reaching and difficult for us to grasp that hundreds of

stories and thousands of repetitions are needed”79. This unknown fact is what Carl Jung would call

the ‘Self’, signifying the unification of consciousness and unconsciousness and representing the

psyche as a whole, or the psychic totality of an individual80. Clarrissa Pinkola Estes supports this in

Women Who Run with the Wolves stating, “tales of creatures with mysterious human kinship are

told across the world, for such represent an archetype, a universal knowing about an issue of the

soul”81.

Franz boldly states that stories from all cultures acknowledge, celebrate and hold sacred the

connection between the animal world and the human world82. Marina Warner in Six Myths of our

Time says as attitudes and differences between humans and animals change, sympathy towards

74

Hieronymus Bosch , The Temptation of St Anthony, (National Gallery,) 1510 75

Bergmans, Ingmar Writer/Director, Through the glass darkly, (Sweden, Svensk Filmindustri)1961 76

Szirtes, 2001 77

TED talk, Shekhar Kapur https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZxLsDkvkVQ [accesses 09.12.2013] 78

Franz, 1970 p.1 79

Ibid 80

Franz, 1970 81

Estes,Clarissa Pinkola, Women Who Run with the Wolves, (New York; Ballentine Books,) 1992, p277 82

Franz, Marie-Louise von, Archetypal Patterns in Fairy Tales Toronto: Inner City Books, 1997

21

them grows stronger. The warrior and the wild creature remain intertwined, continuous and

inseparable but simultaneously opposed to one another. It is interesting to note that she

comments on the way in which the closeness of human proximity to apes horrified many

Victorians, who generally believed that Adam had been lord of creation in the Bible and named the

beasts; new scientific knowledge83 had reduced him merely to one of their kind84. Warner states,

“the myth of the wild calls into question the privilege of being human at all”85. Reflecting on the

many retellings of Beauty and the Beast, she considers the more recent ones an attempt to

negotiate the tricky ground of the female attraction to the male appetite. In Angela Carters

collection of variations of this story, The Bloody Chamber86 the idea of taming, civilising or

containing the beast is challenged. In the Tigers Bride, she turns the traditional ending upside

down, as beauty sheds her human skin to follow the beast. Whereas once the beast would have

been the undesirable part of our nature and the metamorphoses into a more beastly form used to

express a fall from grace, Warner says this wild nature now magnetically attracts the human

imagination.87

Blurring the boundaries between what is seen to be human and what is seen to be animal has

been very useful in my own work, it could at best provide the anomalous identity that Baker

suggests may destabilise anthropocentric meanings88. According to Laurens van der Post, in The

Heart of the Hunter, about 80% of bushman tales are animal tales89. Franz states that the word

animal is not very useful because although the characters are animals, it is obvious that they are

also anthropomorphic beings. This may not be specific, but often inferred by the metamorphosis

of animals into humans and back, or in the actions and terms used90. They are human beings in the

shape of animals or animals in the form of humans but they are not what we think of as animals

and maybe more easily described as animals and humans. Therefore, in a story about a deceitful

fox it is not the fox’s deceitfulness but our own fox-like deceitful nature being explored.

Franz says that children below a certain age understand animal stories more easily, because

concepts such as good and evil are more simply described in terms of the cat and the dog or the

83

Darwin, Charles,On the Origin of Species (London, John Murray)1859 84

Marina, Warner, Six Myths of our Time, (New York, Vintage Books) 1996 85

Warner, p.75 86

Carter, Angela, The Bloody Chamber (London, Vintage Classics) 1995 87

Warner, p. 63 88

Baker, 2001 89

Post, Laurens van der, The Heart of the Hunter, (London, Vintage Classics) 2002 90

such as the ‘wife of the animal’ or ‘the animal takes a bow/makes a boat etc.’

22

cat and the mouse 9192. However, this is not only applicable to children, Pablo Picasso when

addressing a challenging subject did so by using animals in Guernica, in which human suffering is

articulated around the looming presence of a bull and an impaled horse. Rego in an interview for

Radio 4, agrees with this exchange of human for animal stating, “the human gets in the way of

interpretation, animals make the reading easier”. Rego mentions that all her animals represent

people, because it is easier, “if it is done with people it seems like melodrama and sentiment,

when done with animals it is more poignant”93.

Our relationship with animals has changed drastically94; Berger considers that “animals have

gradually disappeared, today we live without them”95. He refers to contemporary urban society as

a place where the animal is no longer commonplace. Non-pet animals are now most commonly

seen from a distance or behind barriers. However, Baker suggests that it is not animals that have

been removed from our environment, but humans who are displaced96. Warner states, “It is not

that the boundary has been eroded between human and animal, rather the value given to each

side has changed”97. It may be that as the distance between humans and animals is increasing in

contemporary society there is an increasing need for that contact. Alain du Botton Swiss-British

writer and presenter in Points of View considers the need to spend time with animals,

“It seems we need regular encounters with the other that is why people get so much out of

wild animals, nature and the stars. To be made to feel small by something beautiful is to

have wisdom presented with a measure of delight. It can induce us to surrender our

egoism without in anyway humiliating us”98.

Du Bottons ‘other’ references encounters with animals in Zoos, but this could also be seen in the

increasing pet industry (particularly exotic pets) and the contemporary fascination for films in

which the main protagonist is in animal form99. Timothy Morton in Ecological Thought offers his

91

Franz, 1970, p.35 92

I noted at Royal Cornwall Show that children under the age of 4/5 greet animals as if they are human or the same as themselves, rushing up to the and saying “Hello !” with expectation of a response.

93 Paula Rego, Womans Hour BBC Radio 4 3 November 2004

94United Nations Population Fund:2008; http://www.unfpa.org/swp 17 March 2013, in the year 2008 for the first time in history,

over 50% of the world’s human population, 3.3 billion people, lived in cities or urban areas 95

Berger, John, Why Look at Animals? , (London; Penguin) 2000,P264 96

Baker: 2000, p159 97

Warner, p. 81 98

Du Botton,Alain, Points of View, BBC radio 4, http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b012942v/A_Point_of_View_In_Praise_of_the_Zoo/

99A long list but including Jaws, King Kong, Moby Dick, Born Free, Black Beauty, Free Willy, Sea Biscuit, Flipper, Lassie etc.

23

thoughts on this otherness when considering the Strange Stranger.

“The strange stranger is not only strange, but strangely so. They could be us. They are us.

Strange Strangers, our encounter with other beings – and with our being as other – is

strange strangeness. "100 “Strange strangers are uncanny in the precise Freudian sense that

they are familiar and strange simultaneously. Indeed, their familiarity is strange, and their

strangeness is familiar.” 101

If we see the ‘other’ as animal, this would seem to echo the ideas of Ingold and Warner in that we

are considering our human and animal selves and the other, together in union.

100

Timothy Morton, Ecological Thought (London: Harvard University Press) 2012 (re-printed) p. 275 101

Morton 2012 p. 277

24

When our Dreams Disappear

My research has confirmed a long held philosophy, which my work repeatedly and unceasingly

tries to communicate; that animals, as far as I am concerned are equal to humans, in the way that I

may be equal to a lion and that all living things are equal to each other. This perspective does not

prevent us from eating one another but allows for respect and compassion in all our interactions.

We are all food for something and intrinsic parts of a symbiotic, seamlessly interconnected

existence. We are not truly equal; we are all endowed with a range of unique attributes. I realise

how slow I am as I watch a bumblebee overtake me on a walk. I realise how lacking in

communication skills I am when one horse tips her ear to the other and the conversation is

complete and how shackled I am when I watch a buzzard enjoying rising thermals or hovering on a

breeze. Drawing on stories from a range of literary genres and personal experience, the intention

of my work is to raise a question in the mind of the viewer. I am endeavouring to find a way of

making art and articulating my concerns or as Jensen suggests, harnessing my talents in service of

my land-base or at least my concerns102.

In contemporary society, the challenge is not only to consider the ways in which animals are

currently treated and represented, but also to propose new ways of thinking about them. Baker

says “the idea that civilisation is founded on a disregard for animals, a denial of their pain…comes

as no surprise. The challenge is to devise those ways of looking which will most effectively bring

the animal into the visibility that it is currently denied”103. It maybe that a type of Bestiary remains

a useful model in gathering together all of the happenings relating to a particular creature, uniting

them to form one unique, multi-faceted and precious entity. Representations of animals are

ubiquitous in our culture; they offer a relationship in which we are accepted exactly as we present

ourselves. When Derrida referred to “the gaze of the animal”104 he was discussing an encounter

with his own cat, he proposed that when “the animal looks at us; we are naked before it”105, free

of the social constructs we use as a disguise or to form our personalities.

102

Derrick Jensen , Orion Magazine http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/5240/ accessed 28/06/2014 103

Baker, Picturing the Beast, 2001 p.217 104 Derrida, 2008, p12 specifically his cat when he meets it one morning naked in his bathroom 105

Derrida, 2008, p29

25

xv Photograph of Martha, last Passenger Pigeon

Responding to the idea, that climate change will push half the creatures in our world into

extinction. The authors of the Unreliable Bestiary’s Ark of stories say “the lions tigers and bears of

our ancient stories will be long gone, central to our myths, embedded in our language and rooted

in our imaginations” posing the question “What will we do when our dreams disappear?”106. In the

year of the 100th anniversary of the death of Martha the last passenger pigeon107, it seems

poignant to continue my search for the question, even if the answer remains elusive, and to tell

the same story over and over again until at least I have grasped it.

106

The Unreliable Bestiary, http://unreliablebestiary.org/about ,[accessed 09.12.2013] 107

Schorger, A.W. The Passenger Pigeon: Its Natural History and Extinction. (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press),1955. Martha DOB c1885-died at 1 p.m. on September 1, 1914 of old age, she was the last known living Passenger Pigeon; named "Martha" in honour of the first First Lady Martha Washington. Prior to the arrival of Europeans in the Americas there were thought to be in excess of 5 billion.

26

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32

List of Illustrations in order of appearance

i Ana Maria Pacheco Dark Night of the Soul, 1999, Sculpture, polychromed wood, gold leaf, slate

base, 228.6 x 540 x 660 cm | 7.5 x 17.5 x 21.75 ft , http://www.prattcontemporaryart.co.uk/dark-

night-of-the-soul-full/ [accessed 2nd July 2014]

ii Paula Rego Untitled Abortion Series Triptych, Left Panel, 1998, Pastel on paper, mounted on

aluminium, 110 x 100cm,

iii Paula Rego, Circumsision 2009, etching and aquatint, 119.5 x 108 cm, From Paula Rego: New

Etchings 2009 (London, Marlborough Graphics).

iv Paula Rego, Dog Woman Series, Pastel on Paper, Available at

http://www.mml.cam.ac.uk/spanish/resources/rego/index.html, [accessed 2nd July 2014]

v Sue Coe, Jimmy Carrying the Veal, 1991, etching and aquatint. from Dead Meat (: Four Walls Eight

Windows Publishing Co.,U.S.)1995

vi Sue Coe, "Goats Before Sheep," from Sheep Of Fools (Fantagraphics; 1st Fantagraphics Books,

Seattle) 2005

vii Sue Coe, Feed Lot from Dead Meat (: Four Walls Eight Windows Publishing Co.,U.S.)1995

viii Sue Coe, Vivisection, from The Second Millennium series, Galerie St. Etienne

http://www.gseart.com/Artists-Gallery/Coe-Sue/Artworks/Coe-Sue-Second-Millennium-3496.php

[Accessed 3rd July 2014]

ix Sue Coe, Infects, from Pits Letter Pit's Letter (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows) 2000

x Hogarth, William, the Four Stages of Cruelty: stage 4, etching, 1751

33

xi Kate Walters, In the Belly of a Mare, mixed media on paper, from the exhibition a Secret Worth a

Thousand at the Newlyn Gallery 2013

xii Kate Walters Sharing the Animal Eye, mixed media on paper, from the exhibition a Secret Worth

a Thousand at the Newlyn Gallery 2013

xiii Aberdeen Bestiary, Online resource http://www.abdn.ac.uk/bestiary/translat/2r.hti [accessed

2nd July 2014]

xiv Ana Maria Pacheco, Luz Eternal, Oil on Panel central image of triptych, 1999

xv Martha, the last passenger pigeon photograph Cincinnati Zoo