The resilience of tourism and land resourceconflicts:

Stakeholder analysis of Halkidiki

Eirini Iasonidou

MSc Tourism Development and policy

University of Exeter ,UK

September 2013

This dissertation is an original piece of work, and Iacknowledge that I have read and understood the university

rules concerning plagiarism

1

Abstract

The research strives to investigate the resilience of tourism

and its related sectors in Greece, with special reference to

the Halkidiki peninsulas in view of the multiple crises,

specifically those brought on by the planned gold mining

initiatives. The research is in the form of a case study of

the Halkidiki region and the issues raised there on account of

the mining proposal in a heavily resources dependent mass

tourism model prevalent in the region. The case study included

a review of the literature on the co-existence of tourism and

mining, the impact of mining on the common pool resources and

the importance of collaborative policy making with the

stakeholders. A survey of the stakeholders through semi-

structured interviews was conducted and the assessment was

based on the narrative analysis.

The study revealed that the stakeholders believed that there

is a serious threat to the common resources and tourism

2

activities from the proposed mining that had no collaborative

efforts between the business community, the company and the

policy makers. It is recommended that a thorough study of the

situation is conducted through cost benefit analysis and

collaborative planning with the stakeholders to reach an

amicable solution for sustainable tourism in Halkidiki.

Table of ContentsAbstract....................................................................................................................

............2

Chapter 1Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..8

1.1 Aim……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………8

1.2 Objectives…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………8

3

1.3 Projectstructure……………………………………………………………………………………………………..8

1.3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………….8

1.3.2 Literaturereview........................................................

..........................................9

1.3.3Methodology...................................................

.....................................................9

1.3.4 Findings andDiscussion……………………………………………………………………………………..9

1.3.5 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………….9

Chapter 2 Literaturereview ........................................................

.......................................10

2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….10

2.2 Researching resource conflicts in tourismresearch………………………………………………..11

2.3 The co-existence of mining andtourism………………………………………………………………….24

2.4 Tourism policy andstrategy…………………………………………………………………………………….24

2.5 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….25

Chapter 3 Background to the Halkidiki casestudy ………………………………………………………….25

3.1 The geography of theregion……………………………………………………………………………………25

3.2 The mine company………………………………………………………………………………………………….25

4

3.3 History of mining in thearea……………………………………………………………………………………25

3.4 Greek economicsituation.....................................................

......................................26

3.5 Tourism trends during the relevant time period(2004-2013)…………………………………26

Chapter 4 Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………………………….27

4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….29

4.2 Primary research………………………………………………………………………………………………………30

4.3 Interviews…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………30

4.4 Interview design…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…30

4.5 Ethical issues………………………………………………………………………………………………………...….34

4.6 Themes and analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………..….34

4.7 Interviewanalysis…………………………………………………………………………………………………....35

4.8 Research subjects………………………………………………………………………………………………….….36

Chapter5 Analysis and Findings ……………………………………………………………………………………. …36

5.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..38

5.2 Theme one: Impact of mining operations on tourismdestinations in Halkidiki……..38

5.2.1 ImpactAnalysis.......................................................

................................................41

5

5.2.2 ImpactDiscussion.....................................................

..............................................44

5.3 Theme two: Tourismstrategies………………………………………………………………………………..44

5.3.1 Strategy Analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………….…44

5.3.2 StrategyDiscussion……………………………………………………………………………………………...45

5.4 Opportunities and Challenges to tourism activities frommining…………………………….45

5.4.1 Opportunities and Challengesanalysis………………………………………………………………..47

5.4.2 Opportunities and Challengesdiscussion…………………………………………………………….48

5.5 Theme four: Policy coordination between operators and thegovernment...............48

5.5.1 Policy coordinationAnalysis………………………………………………………………………………...51

5.5.2 Policy coordinationDiscussion.....................................................

...........................52

5.6 Theme five: The Co-existence of mining and Tourism inHalkidiki……………………………52

5.6.1 The Co-existence of mining and tourismAnalysis..................................................55

5.6.2 The Co-existence of mining and tourismDiscussion……………………………………………56

5.7 Conclusions andRecommendations………………………………………………………………………….56

6

5.7.1 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………58

References………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….60

Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………….65

Table of tablesTable 1.1 Studies made on utilisation of environment

resources………………………………………14

Table 3.1 Travel and tourism employment 2004-2010……………………………………………………….26

Table 4.1 Objectives andMethds………………………………………………………………………………….…...30

Table 4.2 Research themepresentation…………………………………………………………………………..…34

Table 4.3 Respondents…………………………………………………………………………………….…………………36

Figures

Figure 1.................................................................24Figure 2.................................................................39

7

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my gratefulness to my academic

supervisor Dr Adrian Bailey, for his advice, great support and

guidance during the entire period of this project.

I would also like to acknowledge the help of many of myinterview participants in particular

Helen Briassoulis , Theocharis Zagkas and Spiros Avdimiotis ,who were all immensely

supportive and helpful, particularly during the datacollection stage. I am also

extremely grateful to all who participated in this study, andshared their time and

experiences so willingly.

8

9

Chapter 1: Introduction

Tourism is primarily dependent on resources that occur

naturally or are built in the destination. Natural resources

such as beaches, water, mountains, forests and wildlife are

the most important and popular resources for tourist

activities. Tourism also depends on the different stakeholders

such as the tourism operators, the tourists, local

communities, and the governments (Holden, 2005). For the

development of a resilient and sustainable tourism, the

sharing and allocation of these resources among the

stakeholders is important. It is only by the equitable

distribution and the constant improvement of the common pool

resources that tourism can be continued successfully. When the

resources become degraded or depleted or polluted, there is a

feeling of social injustice in the community, economic

security decreases and tourism also falls due to the

dissatisfaction experienced by the tourists (Briassoulis,

2002).

As we can see, how the threat on common pool resources can

impact on tourism. It is therefore necessary to explore this

problem further with a view to understanding the different10

forces that influence this impact and find solutions to

mitigate the problem. Thus, the aim of this research is to

study one such tourist destination, Halkidiki in northern

Greece through a case study and try to find out and understand

how the tourism in the area is affected by the plans to start

an open cast mining for gold and other minerals in the region,

and explore the possibilities of whether the mining and

tourism can co-exist in the same place and time.

It has been shown from previous research that each destination

has its own distinctiveness due to their geographical

location, historical importance, socio-cultural singularity

and their particular context. These are the characteristics

that attract tourism to that place and can include many

activities, sectors, spread out in space and time

(Briassoulis, 2000). Healy maintains that tourism destinations

as such could be dependent on two problems: that of over usage

and exploitation and as an investment incentive problem

(Healy, 1994).

This research seeks to explore the resilience of tourism

related sectors in Greece to multiple crises, by exploring a

specific example of how a destination has responded to threats

11

to the quality of natural common pool resources that are

essential to sustainable tourism. The research aims to

present a case study of Halkidiki, a region in northern Greece

where tourism is the major industry and the Greek government

has recently allowed a mining company ‘Hellas Gold’ to

exploit the mineral resources in the area in return for

employment opportunities. However, the sun and sea mass

tourism model as well as other nature-dependent industries

that are prevalent in the area seem to be threatened by the

imminent pollution and devastation of the environment and this

situation has led to widespread protests and social unrest.

Hence, this area and its people appear to be suitable location

and candidates to study this topic in detail.

1.1 Aim

The research seeks to explore the resilience of tourismrelated sectors in Greece to multiple

crises. by exploring a specific example of how a destinationhas responded to threats the

quality of natural common pool resources that are essential tosustainable tourism. The

research aims to present a case study of Halkidiki, a regionin northern Greece where tourism

is the major industry.

12

1.2 Objectives

Specifically this research thesis will:

1. explore the perceptions of business owners and managers

about the past, present and future impact of mining

operations on tourism destinations in Haldikiki

2. investigate strategies adopted by local business owners

and managers in response to proposed mining activities in

the Halkidiki region.

3. analyse the opportunities and challenges presented by

current and future mining activity in Halkidiki for

tourism development.

4. investigate the capacity for collective and co-ordinated

tourism development through the analysis of destination

marketing organisations (DMOs) and government agencies.

5. provide a series of recommendations about how tourism

businesses and agencies should respond to the development

of mining in Halkidiki.

1.3 Project structure

The thesis is divided into chapters, with chapter 1 dealing

with the Introduction and overview, chapter 2 being a review

of the literature on the subject, chapter 3 deals with the13

Background of the Halkidiki Case Study municipality of

Aristoteles, chapter 4 gives details the methodology of the

research, chapter 5 explains the Analysis and Findings,

including the Conclusion and Recommendations.

1.3.1 Introduction

The introduction chapter introduces the research question as

well as the aim and the objectives of the study, and it gives

an indication how they are going to be met.

1.3.2 Literature review

The literature review chapter will provide the theoreticalbackground of the study; it will

establish an understanding of conceptual framework that willfacilitate research into the

strategies embraced by the local tourism operators and otherbusiness in response to the

issues arising out of the planned mining activities inHalkidiki.

1.3.3 Methodology

The methodology chapter presents and justifies the methodsthat were used in the research

to collect data aimed at achieving its objectives. Thejustification of the research methods

applied in this study are necessary to indicate why and howthey were relevant to this type of

14

study

1.3.4 Findings and discussion

The findings chapter provide theme-wise analysis of the

interviews and the discussions that

included other similar studies from literature, in order to

fulfil the aims and objectives of this

case study.

1.3.5 Conclusion

The conclusion chapter summarises the key conclusion that

developed from this research

project, it provides recommendations that could mitigate the

conflicts between the

government members and stakeholders on the policy making and

implementation in

Halkidiki.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

This chapter aims to set up a conceptual framework that will

facilitate research into the strategies embraced by the local

tourism operators and other business in response to the issues

arising out of the planned mining activities in Halkidiki. The

15

key issues to explore include how these activities will affect

the future of tourism to the area and also the necessary

collaborative and corresponding efforts of the destination

marketing agencies and the government authorities in planning

and policy-making to achieve the co-existence of mining and

tourism. It is important to review the extant literature to

understand what has already been achieved with respect to

these issues and also the gaps and deficiencies in the

literature.

This literature review focusses on three main perspectives of

the relevant research conducted in tourism: first, the general

view of researching resource conflicts in tourism research;

second, the co-existence of mining and tourism; and third,

tourism policy and strategy.

2.2 Researching resource conflicts in tourism research

The main conflicts that arise in tourism development are those

concerning Common Pool Resources, such as air, water, land,

minerals, and the biosphere. Of these, the resources that are

used for tourism include beaches, water, mountains, forests

and wildlife (Holden, 2005). Other resources that are lately

being added to this growing list are non-traditional common

16

resources, such as landscapes, transport and transportation

infrastructures such as ports, road networks and bridges, and

also the internet, genetic and intellectual data,

associations, budgets and so on (Briassoulis, 2002).

Two of the main conflict issues arising from common pool

resources sharing are listed by Manuel Junck (2011): The first

outcome of a tourism project would be an escalation in the

prices of properties within the area of the designated

development. The second is the anxiety experienced by the

local stakeholders regarding their access rights to the common

pool resources and whether the increase in visitors to the

area is sustainable. There is a lot of research being done on

the conflicts arising out of issues regarding common pool

resources and tourism: for example, literature regarding

heritage and archaeological tourism, and tourism that depend

on environmental resources. The following section aims to

review these sources.

As Briassoulis (2002) argues, sustainable development requires

the proper and efficient management of all resources in the

destination areas including those from the natural (e.g.

water), construction (buildings), and sociocultural fields

17

(e.g. knowledge). Resources that are generated mainly as

tourist attractions are equally utilised by the host

population and those resources from the common pool are shared

by the visitors also. In such circumstances, it is no wonder

that the resources are usually degraded and over-exploited.

Such degradation ultimately leads not only to the worsening of

the environmental resources but also to an economic slump and

social unrest over issues, such as who has more rights over

the resources (Ostrom et al., 1999). It is then inevitable

that tourist dissatisfaction with the destination also falls

to new lows leading to decreasing tourist footfalls

(Briassoulis, 2002).

The wealth of natural resources is often seen to impact on the

quality of the institutions because substantial resource rents

diverted for government consumption often lead to the

potential corruption of institutions (Salti, 2007). It is

evident all over the world that competition over environmental

resources is the first step towards conflict at the intrastate

level and can link itself to other social rifts to escalate

into interstate warfare (Ratner et al., 2010) caused by the

Natural Resource Curse (Frankel, 2012). Although the latter is

18

not so common nowadays, intrastate conflicts are still present

especially over the common pool resources including mineral

wealth (Ratner et al., 2010). The Halkidiki peninsula situated

in Greece is one such area. Not only is the peninsula rich in

mineral deposits of metallic ores such as gold, silver,

copper, lead, zinc and manganese, but is also distinguished as

a heritage site full of historic and religious significance:

Mount Athos, the birth place of Aristotle, the canal created

by Persia’s Xerxes, as well as the historical Ottoman mining

villages of Mademohoria. The gold mined in this region served

to finance Alexander’s quest for spreading the culture and

values of Greece throughout the world (Euromines, n.d.).

However, the recent plans of gold mining in the peninsula by

the Hellas mining company has drawn protests, demonstrations

and debates regarding the possible destruction of the

environment that could be caused by the mining activities and

also because the local agitators distrust the government and

believe that the licencing authorities are corrupt and self-

serving (Daley, 2013). This is consistent with the findings of

authors such as Leite and Weidmann (1999) and Salti (2007)

19

that the reliance on natural resources impact significantly on

institutional corruption.

The Report of the World Commission on Environment and

Development: Our Common Future, that is commonly known as

Brundtland’s report (WCED, 1987), gave the much needed support

and mandate to the earlier environmental activists or Green

advocacy lobby who were once considered as marginal. Nowadays,

sustainable development has become the watchword, not only in

environment conservation but also in activities such as

tourism and mining that are inextricably linked to the

environment and its resources (De Kadt, 1995). Brookfield

(1988), maintains that the antagonism towards developmental

activities exists even today and there are those who still

voice their protests over the destruction of anything in spite

of the more sedate and ecologically sound modern development

projects that take into consideration all aspects of the

project to make them sustainable and also bring benefits to

all the stakeholders concerned in the venture.

According to Buultjens et al. (2010), mining is considered as

one of those activities that bring in economic development to

areas that were previously not productive. In the same manner,

20

tourism is also another of those activities that would usher

economic development of areas previously considered

unproductive. Other authors support the argument that although

mining is viable for a limited amount of time, when the

resources are exhausted and mining is withdrawn from the area,

the negative impacts are felt not only on the economic state

but also on the people who live around that area as well as

those whose livelihood depended on the mining (Hamann and

Kapelus, 2004; Kapelus, 2002; Jenkins, 2004). The negative

externalities associated with mining can persist for long

periods of time and the risks are difficult to evaluate,

mitigate and price (Johnstone et al., 2008).This is one of the

reasons that the local population as well as other

stakeholders offer strong opposition when it comes to mining

activities in their district (Buultjens et al., 2010; Ratner

et al., 2010).

There have been a number of studies made on the utilisation of

environmental resources for tourism. Some of the more striking

examples:

Table 1.1 Studies made on the utilisation of environment resources

Author/s andDate of

Subject

21

Publication

(Romeril, 1985) preserving natural heritage of Channel Islands through 'green tourism'

(Mlinarić, 1985)underlines the need for regional cooperationwith regard to environmentally sustainable tourism in the Mediterranean area

(Shackleford, 1985)

stress on the importance of protection, enhancement and improvement of the physical environment for sustainable tourism at the global level with the aid of institutions such as the UN Environment Programme and theWTO

(Marcouiller, 1998)

explores the critical set of stakeholder interactions for creating policies for maximising benefits and minimising potentialconflicts

(Holden, 2005)

on creating and maintaining a sustainable relationship between tourism and common poolresources and the role of environmental ethics in this

(Carpenter, 2011)

about the absence of historical and heritagebackground of the gold fields of Otago in New Zealand and promoted merely for its photographic aesthetic qualities

(Buhalis, 1999)concerning issues of peripherality, competitiveness and development in tourism in the Greek islands

(Ashworth and Voogd, 1994)

how place promotion helps in marketing tourism destinations

As the perceptions of each individual or group of stakeholders

are coloured by their own experiences and value systems, one

cannot expect that they would agree over the sharing of common

pool resources. And because of this, a win-win situation may

not be achievable in all cases. However, by acknowledging and

22

accepting the differences, and giving due hearing to their

opinions would go a long way in smoothening the path toward

some consensus through collective actions and analysing the

management of the common pool resources in terms of economic

considerations and the benefits of collaboration (Adams et

al., 2003).

2.3 The Co-existence of Mining and Tourism

As previously mentioned, large scale mining activities not

only result in the devastation of the natural environment, but

also affects the livelihood and cultural identity of the

people in the community and ultimately results in economic

decline, once the exploitation of the mineral deposits is no

longer economically viable to the mining company. For example,

many of the social, economic and environmental issues facing

Cornwall, a tourist dependent economy, result from the legacy

and demise of mining industry (Oakley, 2009). The negative

effects of mining can be offset to a certain extent if tourism

activities are able to convert the place as a heritage or

archaeological tourism site. For instance, Edwards and

Llurdés, (1996) conducted case studies of Wales and Spain in

converting the mining and quarry areas into heritage tourism

23

sites and offered a more positive post-mining evaluation of

the industrial heritage. Similarly, but from another

perspective, Stephen Wanhill, (2000) focussed on the Big Pit

Mining Museum in Blaenafon in South Wales that had earlier

been a failure as a museum but since the coal mining in the

area ceased, the site took on the mantle of a heritage site

and offers tourists an insight into the halcyon days of the

mines in the area. In these examples, the existing resources

were made use of for attracting tourists and thus revitalising

the area and make it economically more robust. (Orejas and

Reher, 2012). Perhaps the paradigmatic example of post-mining

regeneration is found in Cornwall, with the Eden Project and

the UNESCO World Heritage Site (Cornish Mining World Heritage,

2006; Digby, 2008)

According to Ballestros and Ramírez (2007), tourism in mining

areas consists of the conjunction of the host community, the

tourists and their activities, all of which centre on local

heritage. This heritage not only serves as the lynch-pin of

the local community’s identity, but also serves as the basis

for tourist activities in the area. Thus heritage tourism

24

involves the community at its central focus and must be so

studied.

There are a number of studies based on the recovery and

reclamation of abandoned or closed mining areas by introducing

sustainable activities such as tourism and environmental

revival. A few examples are reviewed here: Chon and Evans

(1989) describe a case study of Wise County in West Virginia,

USA, where they conducted a feasibility study of reviving the

economic development of a depressed coal mining community

through sustainable tourism. The authors were able to pinpoint

the potential resources as well as the opportunities and

threats with regard to tourism development and claim that

their study offered motivation and stimulation to the local

residents to carry on tourism development in their place.

Other authors such as Jonsen-Vebeke (1999) have also strongly

supported this idea of turning former industrial and mining

areas into revitalised and interesting landscapes that could

attract tourists and thus making the areas economically self-

sufficient once again. Usually these improvements are made by

wiping out all remnants of the past such as the landmarks and

the marks left behind by the mining activities, and bring the

25

area back to what it was before the mining or industries took

it over. However, the authors suggest that for sustainable

tourism to flourish in such areas, the remnants of the mining

or industry must be developed as a heritage site through an

integrated plan for regional development. They state the

example of the Limburg in Belgium where on-going debates and

discussions at the political level are paving the way for the

transformation of the derelict mining area into an attractive

and interesting destination for heritage tourism. Cole (2004)

also explores the sustainability of tourism development in the

areas of abandoned coal mines through the prevailing

perspectives on the social, environmental and economic fields.

The author’s findings also support the view that these

previously mined areas in the United Kingdom could be

developed as sustainable heritage tourism sites.

Buultjens et al.’s (2010) study of tourism in mining areas

offers another perspective on the subject: they argue that

since the mining industry is responsible for degradation of

the environment, it is the responsibility of such industries

to provide or support the tourism activities in the area

through infrastructure development as a part of its Corporate

26

Social Responsibilities. The authors state the case of the

Comalco mine in the Weipa region situated in Queensland,

Australia that has been instrumental in the development of

indigenous tourism by providing significant infrastructural

facilities for the same. However, this study revealed that the

company in question did not encourage other organisations to

participate in this venture and thus limited the scope and

diversity of the indigenous tourism development in the area,

although they did improve its economic viability.

While all these research papers are about the restoring of

derelict and degraded mine sites that are enhanced to playing

the role of heritage tourism sites, Benard, Sugarman, and Rehm

(2012) of the Central Asia-Caucasus Institute and Silk Road

Studies program are looking into the ways and means of

preserving the heritage and archaeological sites at Mes Aynak

in Afghanistan where the government and other agencies are

planning to begin mining activities as the area is rich in

copper. As Afghanistan desperately needs to exploit the copper

to boost its economy from the war-ravaged low levels at the

present time, experts from all over the world are trying to

find out how they can save the ruins of the five hundred year

27

old city found in the same area. As the mining work is to

begin at the end of this year, there is a race to preserve,

shift or otherwise save the city ruins and other Buddhist and

historical sites that are found in the region. The authors

have framed a series of recommendations that include the

assessment of the site by expert archaeologists, a convention

of technical and engineering experts to discuss and develop

options for the preservation and documentation of these

efforts to serve as models for other such places. Mes Aynak

could well become a model destination where heritage tourism

and mining co-exist at the same time and both at economically

viable levels. To draw a parallel with the projected

mining/tourism plans in Halkidiki, it would be definitely

easier to market the Greek mining town than attracting

tourists to the still insecure Afghanistan region.

On the other hand, the conflicts regarding tourism activities

in the mining areas of the Greek island of Milos paint a

different picture. Lichrou and O’malley (2006) found that the

mining company there have provided the infrastructure and

facilities such as a port for promoting the island as a mining

heritage and conference destination. However, the local

28

tourism entrepreneurs lean more towards the sun-and-sea type

of tourism and do not think that many tourists would be

interested in the company’s ideas. Moreover, the authors found

that the tourist agencies are not cooperative even with each

other, so there is no consensus on the concepts for improving

tourism in the island.

Oakley (2009) presents a report on three mining sites and the

heritage tourism activities that make use of the resources

from the mining remnants. The report sheds light on the good

and bad practices of these efforts that could serve as lessons

for such projects at other places. The author found that the

heritage tourism efforts at Geevor in Cornwall had all the

requirements such as funding, interests of the local community

and the closed mine as the resources and with photographs and

workers’ implements and personal artefacts left behind by the

workers, the working life of the miners was displayed for the

tourists’ viewing. Although the exceptional physical

exhibitions of the technical and industrial achievements of

the mine and the miners were highlighted, the social and

physical life of the people was ignored. On the other hand,

the Kennecott mining heritage tourism project in Alaska was a

29

selective interpretation of the miners and their social lives

as seen through the eyes and from the memories of the children

of the management seventy years after the closure of the

mines. The children of the workforce were not allowed to

contribute and the topics of the discussions were selective

and controlled by the management. The third mining site at No

8 Gold Dredge in Fairbanks has selective access for the

visitors and concentrates only on the technological aspects

while completely ignoring the environmental, human and social

aspects of the site and the people who lived and worked there.

To quote (Coupland, Garrett and Bishop, 2005: 199),

‘Authenticity and heritage tourism are locked in a treacly

critical antagonism’ as heritage tourism is a repacked version

of history for the consumption of the tourists and issues of

authenticity define the distinctiveness of the design,

implementation and experiencing of some types of heritage

tourism.

Nevertheless, the Euromine, the recognised representative of

large and small European metals and minerals companies, where

members can assess the impact of policies and legislations

30

related to mining and allied industries made by European as

well as international bodies, assert that:

Moving beyond our self-evident obligations, it

is our goal to develop tourism in parallel

with mining so that both sectors serve as

driving forces for development in the area,

for both to co-exist, interact and reach a

balance so that NE Halkidiki can become a

model for the development of the rest of the

country (Euromines, n.d.).

This perspective demonstrates the approach of the mining

industry in the Halkidiki region to developing a sustainable

tourism destination that incorporates the best practices of

both the industries to make it succeed and last.

2.4 Tourism Policy and Strategy

Hall (Hall, 2000) observes that strategic planning for tourism

is related in many ways to strategic place marketing. Also the

tourism industry and the government tourism agencies are

intricately connected in many ways. Because of these factors,

the policy processes for building sustainable tourism, and

31

communities to foster it, have to cater to the public interest

and not narrowed down to please certain sectorial interests

(Hall, 1999). In the present situation where the government

agencies are entering into more collaboration and partnerships

ensure the overall sustainability of both the tourism as well

as the community it is important that there is first of all a

clear understanding of which stakeholders should be involved

in the policy making process (Hall, 1999). In other words, the

government agencies have to take care to see that there is an

equitable distribution of access among all the stakeholders in

an appropriate manner. Then again, it should be noted that not

all the stakeholders would have the same amount of authority

in the policy making decisions despite the proportion and

magnitude of their individual outlay in the venture (Hall,

1994).

It is important for policy making and planning for the

conversion to heritage tourism project should not only include

but also integrate a host of interrelated subjects such as

planning for the effective utilisation of the land;

environment management; providing the necessary infrastructure

facilities as well as incorporating factors such as the

32

welfare and servicing of the community (Dredge, 2006).

According to Davis et al. (1993) there are three main economic

reasons for the government agencies for inviting

collaboration: enhancing the technical efficiencies of the

project, trimming down public enterprise dependence on public

budgets, and the reduction of public debt through the sale of

state assets.

For instance, (Williams, Penrose and Hawkes, 1998) explore the

Canadian government’s approach to dealing with environmental

issues that involves collaborative and innovative methods of

decision making - in the areas of planning land use in the

central region of British Columbia. The authors appreciated

the inclusion of stakeholders in the process and examines the

effectiveness of the collaborative effort from the perspective

of the stakeholders from the tourism industry who were part of

the decision making process and recommend that other

governments should include all stakeholders in future land use

planning strategies.

Regarding the tourism development in Greece, (Tsartas, 2003)

argues that the socioeconomic and cultural changes in the

insular and coastal areas of Greece have led to the burgeoning

33

of unplanned tourism development and the impractical and

inefficient mass tourism model that has been adopted at the

local, regional and national level, leading to uneven and

uneconomic use of the infrastructure because of the seasonal

tourist arrivals and the progressive reduction in the economic

benefits due to the life cycles of the products and stiff

competition in the same type of tourist attractions. The

authors also blame the disregard for land use planning or

urban planning policies in most of these sites.

In addition, the mass tourism model has led to the degrading

of the natural as well as the built environment and fast

becoming unsustainable. The authors recommend a progressive

shift towards the more positive and beneficial locally

integrated tourism models in place of the fragmented and

uncoordinated tourism policies at all the three levels of

government and making use of the competencies developed by the

professional and institutional bodies in both the protection

of the environment as well as in the promotion of heritage

tourism as are noticed in other areas in Greece that follow

the integrated model for sustained tourism. Transfer of know-

how, training and education of unemployed people in tourism

34

related occupations, financing of completed projects at the

local level have resulted in building sustainable tourism,

empowerment of the local community with remunerative

employment opportunities as well as preservation of the

environment are the main advantages reaped by those regions

that follow the collaborative and integrated policy making

model.

Holden (2005) maintains that the creation of a central

Resource Management Regime at the private, public and common

levels for the utilisation of common pool resources and

coercive policy implementation are important to establish

responsible conserving behaviour in the stakeholders to

prevent the degradation of the heritage tourism regions.

On examining Canada’s Resource-Based Tourism Policy for the

Ontario region, Bennett and Lemelin (2010) recommend that the

policy should be updated with the help of collaboration of all

the stakeholders with a more equitable representation of each

group, mainly from those belonging to the resource-based

tourism industry. The authors expect improved objectives and

unambiguous and quantifiable results, as well as a transparent

approach that allows verification by the governmental as well

35

as the critics. This would be made possible only through the

blending of research from the natural and socio-scientific

milieus, the knowledge of the local community, as well as the

government.

2.5 Conclusion

The reviewed literature has brought to light certain gaps in

the knowledge about the resilience of tourism in land resource

conflicts. For instance, the conflicts for the use of the

resources in the heritage tourism areas are seen to stem

mainly from the lack of proper policy making and

implementation. The models reviewed on tourism in mining areas

mainly brought up research on developing derelict and

abandoned mine areas into heritage tourism sites. And even

these sites had a lot of disparities in their approach.

Landscaping the degraded heritage site, or making use of the

mines and their environments to provide archaeological

heritage insights to the tourists were the main approaches

seen. What is needed for developing the Halkidiki region is a

model that integrates the activities of the mining and tourism

so that they exist at the same time. This raises some critical

questions, such as what arrangements now exist to synchronise

36

tourism development along with the mining activities and the

impact that this would have on the mining proposals as they

are now. Furthermore, there is a need to find out the

individual response of owner-managers to these proposals and

their strategies if and when mining begins.

However, some insights can be gained from the research on

Milos and Mes Aynak as contrasting evidences of creating

heritage tourism. Through the concerted and collaborative

efforts of all stakeholders (local, national and

international) for creating and implementing sustainable

heritage preservation that would attract visitors

consistently, as well as continuing with the mining operations

in an environmentally conscious manner, the Mes Aynak project

gives a positive outlook to a similar development of heritage

tourism at Halkidiki. On the other hand, the Milos Tourism

efforts are in contention, with the management of the mine and

the local community have conflicting ideas of the type and

scope of the tourism they want. This again raises some

questions about what plans of the mining companies regarding

their will to coordinate with the tourism industry rather than

against it and whether there is any evidence that mining in

37

Halkidiki will be emblematic of a resource curse given the

current state of local, regional and national institutions.

This study of the literature has provided some knowledge of

the strategies adopted by the local tourism operators and

other business to tackle the issues such as the access to and

sharing of the common resources that would arise out of the

planned mining activities and how these activities would

impact on the future of tourism in the area. Some ideas on the

necessity of collaborative and parallel efforts of the

destination marketing agencies and the government authorities

in the planning and policy-making to achieve sustainable

heritage tourism as well as a few insights into the policy

issues on resource utilisation for the co-existence of mining

and tourism at the same time, were gained. However, it is

necessary to investigate the capacity of the Halkidiki DMOs

and the government agencies for collective and co-ordinated

tourism development by an analysis of their efforts in this

direction.

The answers to these questions can only be obtained by placing

them in front of the stakeholders and analysing their replies.

This would not only help us gain a proper understanding of the

38

field situation and the realities at Halkidiki, but also

provide a base from which it would be possible to study the

resilience of tourism in the mining districts and whether

these two industries can co-exist and operate successfully.

Chapter 3: Background to the Halkidiki Case Study

3.1 The Geography of the Region

Halkidiki is a peninsular region, located in Macedonia in

northern Greece. The peninsulars are three in number:

Kassandra, Sithonia and Mount Athos and divided by the four

gulfs of the Aegean Sea: the Thermaic Gulf in the west, the

Strymonic Gulf in the east and the Kassandra Gulf and Mount

Athos Gulf on the south. (Greeka, n.d.)

39

Figure 1 Geographical Map of Halkidiki (fromhttp://1.bp.blogspot.com/-wNYpbt8F7QI/TjqgHH7RBGI/AAAAAAAAAJI/BGSEnEzdUMo/s320/

Halkidiki_Map_Geographic+City.gif)

The coastline of Halkidiki stretches to more than 500 km and

contains some of the most visited beaches in Europe. The

beaches of Halkidiki in Kassandra Peninsula are sandy, while

the beaches in the middle foot, Sithonia Peninsula are rockier

but still very clean.

The Halkidiki land is made up of mountains, plains and beaches

with a total land surface of 2,886 sq. km. The highest peak

Holomontas, reaching up to 1,165 metres above sea level. The

regions in Halkidiki are fertile with ancient forests in some

areas. There are also caves in Petralona with stalactites and

stalagmites.

40

3.2 The Mine Company

The major mining company in Greece is Hellas Gold with mining

licenses for an area covering 317 square kilometers of

reserves of lead, zinc, silver, gold and copper. Right after

ratification from the parliament, the company started selling

lots of Cassandra Mines to other organisations at huge profits

for shareholders but with no benefits for Greece. By end of

2007 the mines were 95% owned by the Canadian “European

Goldfields” and 5% by the Greek construction company AKTOR. In

February 2012, European Goldfields was absorbed by Eldorado

Gold Corp with a value 2.4 billion dollars. The value of the

minerals in Halkidiki is estimated at 15.5 billion euros.

The mining plans of for Halkidiki include: the existing mine

in “Mavres Petres”; a new open pit and underground mine in

“Skouries”; an underground mine in “Olympiada”; a 8.5

kilometer underground tunnel for the transport of ore

(Olympiada – Madem Lakkos); a copper-gold metallurgy plant, a

sulfuric acid plant (1000 t / d); four tailing disposal and

storage sites; and an industrial port, storage tanks and

exploration of 14 other potential mining areas (Hellenic

Mining Watch, 2013).

41

3.3 History of Mining in the Area

With rich reserves of gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc,

mining in the Halkidiki region has been carrying on

intermittently since the time of Philip of Macedon, father of

Alexander the Great. In recent times, the mining was stopped

after its owner Alexander Athanasiadis was killed in 1980s,

and sold to Canada TVX Gold 1995 who abandoned it as

unprofitable in 2002. The state then sold the mines to Hellas

Gold which was found to be in breach of European Union state

aid rules because it was well below market value (Reguly,

2013).

42

3.4 The Greek Economic Situation

In 2012, Eurozone ministers agreed to further cancel Greece's

debts 40bn euros and released 44bn as bailout fund and aid.

Two more years have been given for regulating its economy by

cutting reckless spending. Even before it adopted the euro,

public spending way beyond European limits, with public sector

wages rising 50% between 1999 and 2007 with the 2004 Athens

Olympics adding to the debt crisis. The global financial

crisis brought out the inability of Greece to stick to the 3%-

of-GDP cap on borrowing that is required of members of the

euro and massive borrowings from European countries and the

IMF have added to the problem (BBC News: Business, 2012).

3.5 Tourism Trends during the Relevant Time Period (2004-

2013)

Taking 2010 as an example, tourism in Greece contributed to

15.3% of the GDP, 17.9% of the national employment, €9.6 bn in

international tourism receipts, with 15 million arrivals, with

an average of €640 in per capita tourism expenditure. Market

share is 1.60% World and 3.15% European. The hotel capacity:

9.732 hotels with 763.407 beds. As seen from the table below,

43

the employment numbers in the sector showing a downward trend

2009 and continues till the present (Kapiki, 2012).

Table 3.1 Travel and Tourism Employment 2000-2010 (from: (Kapiki, 2012))

Due to the serious recession the is being faced all over the

world and especially in Greece, tourism seems to one of the

most lucrative of all the other industries for the country as

well as the tourism operators. However, there seem to be a

number of challenges in the path of sustainable tourism in the

country due a combination of factors like the recession, the

threat from the open cast mining, the fear of safety in the

minds of the tourists due to the recent unrest in the

Halkidiki area and surroundings. However, with careful

planning and analysis of the current and future trends in the

industry, making the appropriate adaptations, Greek tourism

can once again rise to the fore.

44

Chapter 4: Methodology

4.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to present and justify the methods

that were used in the research to collect data aimed at

achieving its objectives. Appropriate methods will ensure

reliable results are achieved and the goals of the

dissertation fulfilled. In this chapter, the data collection

tools, the research design, procedure and data collection

procedure and analysis approach used are mentioned and

justified. The justification of the research methods applied

in this study are necessary to indicate why and how they were

relevant to this type of study. Choice of sample size and

sampling frame are also explained to justify the role of each

stakeholder in arriving at the solutions to the objectives.

Hence, this can be said to be the most important chapter of a

dissertation as it connects theoretical literature to the

current situation on the ground that is on focus.

The objectives of the research determined the choice of data

collection methods. Each objective was addressed using the

methods explained below.

45

Table 4.1 Objectives and method

Objectives Data sources

1. Explore the perceptions of business owners and managers about the past, present and future impact of mining operations on tourism destinations in Haldikiki

Interview hotel managers, community members and council officials

2. Investigate strategies adopted by local business owners and managersin response to proposed mining activities in the Halkidiki region.

Local business owners and managers

3. Analyse the opportunities and challenges presented by current and future mining activity in Halkidiki for tourism development.

Community membersMembers from academia

5. Investigate the capacity for collective and co-ordinated tourism development through the analysis of destination marketing organisations (DMOs) and government agencies.

Community officialsGovernment officials

6. Provide a series of recommendations about how tourism businesses and agencies should respond to the development of mining in Halkidiki

Academic staff, local members, local developers and hotel managers and secondary data from similar researches

4.2 Primary Data Collection

Primary data collection was necessary to understand what the

current views of the stakeholders were vis-à-vis the mining

and development plans in the Haldikiki region. Primary

research is essential in complementing the secondary research

46

that was conducted in literature review, because no previous

study of the thesis objectives has been undertaken. The

methods that were used needed to be related directly to the

research questions such that objectives are achieved

effectively (Rys, et al., 2011). The authors also noted

several factors that determine the direction that primary

research should take. They include the type of assignment,

course of discipline of the researcher, time available,

audience and topic that is being studied.

Whenever possible, secondary research is preferred as a

supplement to primary research and most universities require

some element of this for a dissertation. There are few cases

where only secondary data suffice sufficient to address the

objectives of a research project, particularly where access to

primary data sources is not possible. In this case, the

researcher had aims that were pertinent to the research

problem in the region of Haldikiki. These involved varying

views and competing interests on resource utilisation in the

area. Although there are plenty of research done with regard

to resource utilisation and impact on environmental

sustainability, few if any are dedicated to the Haldikiki

47

region. The proposed mine development plans motivated the

researcher to find out how SME owner-manager views about the

development varied and whether they perceived that there was a

chance of marrying tourism and mining for collaborative gain

in the same region. As such, primary research was necessary to

achieve the aim of collecting views and opinions. Primary data

was essential in addressing the specific concerns of the

researcher adequately, despite there being objections such as

cost and time of carrying out the whole procedure.

Application of descriptive research design also is not

restricted to either of research approaches i.e. qualitative

or quantitative methodology. It can be used in either of two

and they aim at finding at questions that ask about what and

why a situation is as observed (Anon., 2001).

4.3 Research design

Descriptive research design was used to guide the process of

this research. Rivera & Rivera, (2007) noted that a

descriptive research design is used in cases where the

researcher aims to analyse the situation as it is on the

ground by giving it deep analytical attention. The methods

used in this design are “description, recording, analysis and

48

interpretation” of what is observed on the ground. Nebuker

(n.d.) observed that in descriptive research, the environment

on which the study is done is not manipulated in any way but

rather, the data is collected using either a cross-sectional

or longitudinal sample. They are therefore undertaken to

explain a given phenomena as is it, or underpin a given

theoretical framework. Since this method required

understanding the perceptions of the stakeholders with regard

to the development plans in the Haldikiki region, this design

was best executed using interviews and to some extent surveys.

4.4 Interviews

Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data through

interaction with specific stakeholders of the natural

resource, including developers in the region. This method was

chosen because of the in-depth nature of the study that was

required to address the research objectives. Interviews are

preferred because of the interactivity they permit between

researcher and respondent, which facilitates the immediate

feedback of information and makes it possible to avoid factual

errors in recollection or transfer of data for analysis or

compilation. There are also advantages of manipulating

49

questions in the manner they are presented (Wilson, 2010).

Explanations from different stakeholders were needed, because

of competing and diverging views on resource utilisation at

Haldikiki. However, there were challenges to this approach in

that setting up the process and time involved between

different stakeholders was a lot with respect to time allowed

for the project.

Design of semi-structured questionnaires was done in a manner

that allowed process of discussing issues to be approached

thematically. This was also a good way to ask question and

manipulate each theme depending on how the respondent chose to

discuss the issues. There was no fixed method of approaching

issues but it all depended on the respondent and the issue

that was introduced or seen to be most “pressing”. At some

point, it was possible to combine questions under one theme to

shorten time for the exercise. It was for this reason that

this instrument was selected.

Semi-structured interviews were preferred for this exercise

because of possibility to gain more information about the

subject matter. In this case, it was more than just gleaning

information about their attitudes and concerns about resource

50

utilisation in Haldikiki. There was need for exploration into

how resource utilisation fits into their economic livelihood

and particularly how they thought the development in the area

would influence their quality of life. Whereas it was possible

to get this information quantitatively, it was better that

stakeholders who were knowledgeable about resource utilisation

and that which had also carried extensive research into this

to give their in-depth explanation. Semi-structured interviews

were preferred because of possibility to expand on the

questions posed by making the respondents to proffer

information exhaustively (Schensul, et al., 1999).

A qualitative approach was chosen for the purpose of

generating more views from respondents especially given that

the issues those different groups were conflicting about.

Whereas facts about effects of mining and development in a

rich ecotourism site can be extrapolated from past works, each

area is unique in terms of resources and how they utilised to

earn the inhabitants a living. These are some of the issues

that could not be brought out without engaging relevant

stakeholders. Quantitative methods that are explorative could

not be used as it would gloss over issues. It is better

51

applied where issues to be addressed are already known and can

be responded easily by many people (Nykiel, 2007). This is

because they are not interactive and do not give researcher a

chance to get more from respondents.

4.4 Interview design

Despite the differences between qualitative and quantitative

research, they are both systematic. In this case, the research

was designed such that issues were classified in under several

themes that were addressed by different respondents. The type

of interview that was done was one-shot case study which is

the simplest form of interview. It was done in such as a way

that questions under different themes were identified and

posed to different respondents. Friesen (2010) noted that they

are easier to use them as they are used once and the

researcher does not have to worry about what happens later in

the field of study. It was suitable in this case because of

the purpose of the research which was to assess the state of

the developemt and ecotourism utlisation needs of Haldikiki

inhabitants. Thus, it was justified to design the interview in

such as manner so that the aims are achieved in a one-off

event.

52

Though the themes were separated by different questions, they

remained open to invite or generate further discussion with

the respondents. They were strucured in because of the manner

in which same questions were posed to stakeholders that were

to reppond to certain themes. However, the questions were not

necessarily posed similarly and it is what makes this

apporoach to be semi-structured (Reis & Judd, 2000). The

questions remained only reminded the interview on what was to

be discsused and there was no particular order of posing and

discussing among various respondents. Most of the questions

and points arose along the way during the interview process.

Deductive approach was used where the topic through the

questions was introduced and later specifics delved into

stealthily. Experience has showed that successful interviews

are dependent on the design process and require the interview

to move gradually from “lightly structured to strongly

structured” (Wengraf, 2001, p. 60)

4.5 Ethical issues

The researcher faced issues that are usual with interviewers.

There was a possibility that the respondents would develop

some fears with regard to intent of carrying out the research.

53

As such, they would not yield data that was reliable and

accurate. Where the aims are misunderstood, there is a

possibility of the stakeholders (informants) being changed as

if the aim of the exercise was to bring any change (Wengraf,

2001). This could result where goal of the interview process

if not fully appreciated. In this case, the interviewer was

required to present an introductory letter from an

authoritative source. On the other hand, there would arise

issues that would touch on the morality of interviewees and to

which they would not be free to respond to. Therefore, it

would be hard to divert the process to what the interviewer

wants to be achieved and what interviewees would be willing to

discuss. There was also a possibility of interviewees walking

out or even refusing to proceed if they change their mind

along the way (Oliver, 2010). Resource conflict is a touchy

issue and as such, the interviewer should not force or

manipulate the process against the wishes of the respondents.

The researcher relied on introductory letter from the college

for identification and also explains aim of the exercise to

all the respondents. .

54

4.6 Procedure of data collection

This was the actual process of collecting data from the

respondents where interaction between the researcher and

interviewees was planned to aid in achieving objectives of the

project. Interview guide (questionnaire) was prepared and

structured in a manner that stimulated the respondents to give

answers to the questions as they were presented although there

was no fixed manner of ordering or posing the questions. There

was a pilot study that was facilitated by three members of the

class who posed as respondents to various questions under the

subject discussion. This mock interview exercise was

preparatory to the actual process and through the responses

from class colleagues, the researcher fine-tuned questions to

remove ambiguities and irrelevance or just to frame them

better for the respondents to understand the questions and

give a reliable feedback.

Through various themes such as “benefit of development in the

region” were discussed where various questions were fielded to

elicit perceptions from different respondents. Systematic

ordering of themes under which were contained various

questions helped exhaust the objectives of the research.

55

4.7 Themes and analysis

The main themes were organised according to the objectives of

the research. Under each theme, various respondents gave in

their reliable perceptions which were recorded on the

interview sheet of the interviewer. Noting down all responses

from the respondents was necessary to ensure all feedback were

recorded and each of the questions was posed and an answer

given to the same.

Table 4.2 Research themes presentation

Themes Titles PurposeTheme 1 Direct impact To examine the

Impact of miningoperations ontourism destinationsin Halkidiki

Theme 2 Strategies To examine the Tourism strategies in order to address the impact of mining

Theme 3 Opportunities and Challenges

To examine opportunities and challenges to tourism activities from mining

Theme 4 Policy Coordination To examine the policy coordination between tourism operators and government

Theme 5 Co-existence To examine the co-existence of mining and tourism analysis

56

4.8 Interview analysis

Thematic analysis was used to analyse feedback from the 8

respondents in the field. Themes are described as patterns of

responses that were observed of recorded from the respondents.

Thematic analysis, on the other hand is the “process of

encoding qualitative information” (Boyatzis, 1998, pg. vi).

The method involved counting presense of certain responses,

their intensity and fequency from various respondents and then

analysis the emerging sequence or conflictng views.

A three stage was developed during thematic analysis process

to analyse the collected data. According to (King & Horrocks,

2010), the three stages start with descripive coding where

all comments and descripive notes are coded and all

transcripts are read. The second stage involves interpretation

of the codes where descriprive clusters are formed, all

clusters are interpreted and related to the research question

or objectives. The final stage is deriving overarching themes

and interpreted according to the theoretical foundation.

Relationships are interpreted at this step between variables

as identified in the themes.

57

The process was followed in understanding of responses from

the research process and to satisfy the objectives of the

research. Since the research used semi-structured data

collection method, the themes were easy to organise and encode

as per the stated objectives.

4.9 Research subjects

The aim and objectives of this research could be achieved ifprimary data was provided by

people whose opinion is essential for this study and peoplewith extensive knowledge on

subject area. The target group of the study was hotel ownersin order to understand how SME

owner-manager views about the development varied and whetherthey perceived that there

was a chance of marrying tourism and mining for collaborativegain in the same region.

Academicians were also high profile participants as theyusually have a clear view of the

resource conflicts and the sustainable development.

Table 4.3 Respondents

Respondents

Description

RespondentA

Hotel owner (3 star hotel ,20 rooms located in Ammouliani island)

RespondentB

Hotel owner (3 star hotel, 20 rooms located in Olympiada )

RespondentC

Hotel owner (4 star hotel, 10 luxury apartments located in Ierissos )

58

RespondentD

Hotel owner (2 complexes 3 star hotel locatedin Ierissos)

RespondentX

Professor of Forestry and Natural Environment

RespondentY

Professor of Tourism and management

RespondentZ

Professor of Geography

RespondentP

Congressman , Parliament member ,Local resident

Chapter 5: Tourism and Mining in Halkidiki - Analysisand Findings

5.1 Introduction

The participants in this research consisted of 8 respondents

spread over the three areas of tourism operators such as hotel

owners or managers; academicians and people connected to the

local policy making body. They have been given identifying

numbers to retain their confidentiality and to encourage them

to be more forthcoming and avoid any later repercussions for

expressing their frank opinions.

Among the eight respondents of this research are four hotel

managers/owners from in and around the Halkidiki area, one

local councillor and three academicians. One of the

59

academicians is also a member of the local council for

environmental protection from the mining activities proposed

and existing. Another academician is a well-known researcher

in the field of sustainable tourism. For easier reference and

identification, the hotel managers are named A, B, C and D;

the academicians as X, Y and Z and the councillor as P. To

give a general idea of the background of the participants, a

few questions were asked regarding their experience, interest

and objectives in the field of mining/tourism.

While the hotel owner A had established his hotel two years

ago, and expressed plans for expansion in the near future with

heavy investment, the reason for setting up in this business

was previous unemployment. Hotel owner B had the hotel as a

family run business for three generations running and in spite

of having a degree in environmental sciences, altered his

profession to hotel-keeping and also has plans for more

investment and expansion in the future. The hotel owner C also

runs a three generation old hotel and finds it lucrative and

interesting enough despite his civil engineering degree

background. Hotel owner D jointly runs the business with his

60

brother but feels that his ideas for expansion may not pan out

if the mining is allowed to continue.

Academician X, as an environmental scientist and professor,

has his main interests in the development of forests and

restoration of the damaged environment after the mining

activities are completed. In order to provide another

perspective, academician Y was selected from those studying

tourism and management, especially in the present

circumstances when open cast mining has been planned for the

region of Halkidiki with wide ranging repercussions to the

tourism industry. Academician Z, a well-known researcher and

scientist with published studies on sustainable tourism with

reference to commons (common resources).

The councillor who was interviewed is a member of the

opposition and thus not in favour of the investments to start

the mining activities.

With interviews involving a wide and inclusive range of

stakeholders from different perspectives, the unstructured

questionnaire with 18 questions, covering the five objectives

61

of the research was administered in the local language (Greek)

and later translated into English by the researcher.

The five themes of this data analysis, based on the five

objectives are:

1. Impact of mining operations on tourism destinations in

Halkidiki;

2. Tourism strategies to address the impact of mining;

3. Opportunities and Challenges to Tourism Activities from

Mining;

4. Policy Coordination between Tourism Operators and the

Government; and

5. Co-existence of Mining and Tourism Analysis

Each of these themes are analysed from the interview data of

the participants and then discussed with reference with

existing data from literature to find out the main aim of this

research: The Resilience of Tourism in Land Resource

Conflicts: A Stakeholder Analysis of Halkidiki. The recent

plans to reopen gold mining activities in the region,

especially of the open cast method, has raised doubts and

unrest in the community regarding the viability of tourism and

the effect on the common resources because of the mining.

62

5.2 Theme one: Impact of mining operations on tourism

destinations in Halkidiki

5.2.1 Impact Analysis

Regarding the issues in the local area that caused most

conflicts between the businesses and organisations, all the

hotel owners unanimously pointed to the main problems as being

caused by the mining in the area. Even when the mining was of

the underground type in the past, there were problems

regarding the environmental impact of the mining through water

and air pollution. Hotel owner A feared that the aquifer would

be affected once again after the water problems in Ammouliani

Island have been solved only recently. Although the mining is

supposed to begin at Lerissos, the hotel owner worries that

the common sea that it shares with Ammouliani would become

polluted and the tourists will not be attracted to the area

anymore. Since the area to be mined is larger than earlier,

there would be more pollution problems, according to hotel

owner B. In the same way, the larger businesses in

Ouranoupolis would also be more affected by the mining issues.

63

Figure 2 Map of Halkidiki showing the areas discussed (from GoogleMaps)

According to the hotel owner D, the earlier underground mining

had not much destructive effects of the water and air in

Lerissos, though the water and air did turn toxic with the

mineral wastes at Stratoni when there was a heavy rain or the

dam broke down. However, as the Stratoni area is not tourism

oriented and the mining was underground, the foreign tourists

were hardly even aware of the mining activities, he said and

the other hotel owners also agreed that to be the truth.

According to hotel owner C, even before the mining has

started, the mining company has cut down a lot of thick

forests that were being used for recreation purposes by the

local community and these areas are not accessible to them

64

anymore with the added pollution. Added to that the protests

about the deforestations roused doubts about the safety of

visiting these areas and have diverted the tourists to other

safer areas. Hotel owner B also agrees with this opinion,

while hotel owner D pointed out that there have been ten

cancellations of bookings in his hotel this season due to the

safety factors.

Academician X was of the view that the impact of mining in

Greece would be much more than that in Finland or Canada

mainly because the areas that are planned to be mined are

close to populated areas and the population in these regions

is very dense. Added to this are the common resources like

water, air and land that have to be shared with the mining

company’s demands on them. Moreover, the professor felt that

the water and land environment is more important for the

future development of the area as well as Greece and the

exploitation of gold would leave the country devastated and

impact on the society adversely. Academician Y felt that

allowing the mining company to destroy the present environment

is “like allowing (someone) to shoot your legs” or in other

65

words, destroy the mainstays and livelihoods of the country

and its people.

According to academician Z, unlike in the past, Greece with

its present economic crisis is looking for boosting its

economy with the mining and not thinking about the harmful

environmental impact it would have on the country or the

businesses that would be adversely affected by it. The

government fobs the protestors with assurances that the

environment can be restored and the original businesses can

begin again. However, academician Z agrees with the other

academician Y that restoration of environment is a very

expensive affair and unthinkable for Greece in its present

economic situation. Moreover, the original services of

regulation, resource and culture can be restored completely.

For instance, Academician Z gives the example of bee-keeping

that is the main industry in the Halkidiki region, and has co-

existed with the tourism in the area. Destruction of this

environment by open-cast mining would definitely impact on the

environment, the resources, the culture and the people in a

drastic way and beekeeping as well as tourism would both

become impractical and unviable. Hotel owner D already feels

66

the pinch of local middle class tourists because of the

economic situation in Greece and fears that if the mining

starts it would only get worse.

The future impacts, according to hotel owner C could have

devastating effects on the businesses as well as on the common

resources. He is concerned that the sea would be heavily

polluted as happened in Stratoni and put an end to tourist

activities. Moreover the demonstrations and protests of the

local community against the mining would also influence the

tourists in the selection of a safer destination.

5.2.2 Impact Discussion

As sustainable development in any field requires the proper

management of the common pool resources, In tourism, the

existing common pool resources as well as those created for

the tourists will have to be shared (Briassoulis, 2002). When

there is a degradation of the resources due to over-

exploitation, there is a direct impact on the economic, social

and cultural fields also, thus leading to social unrest and

conflicts with the government policies. In the tourism sectors

there is also an added handicap such as the decrease in

67

footfalls (Briassoulis, 2002; Junck, 2011). The

dissatisfaction of the tourist operators in the Halkidiki

region against the high-handed policies of the government in

allotting the mining rights to the Hellas mining company

through alleged corruption and bribe-taking is borne out by

the opinions from literature (Daley, 2013) and from the

stakeholders’ interviews conducted for this research.

However, such vigorous opinions against developmental

activities are always present in any place and time

(Brookfield, 1988). Granting that mining and tourism are two

sectors that bring economic development to areas that were

previously unproductive, it would be advisable to collaborate

with the stakeholders and give due consideration for their

problems before launching a drastic venture such as open-cast

mining in an area that would definitely impact on the

environment as well as the livelihoods of the people residing

in the region (Buultjens et al., 2010; Hamann and Kapelus,

2004; Kapelus, 2002; Jenkins, 2004; Ratner et al., 2010).

68

5.3 Tourism strategies to address the impact of mining

5.3.1 Strategy Analysis

When asked about the strategies adopted by the local business

community to address the problems caused by the previous

mining activities, hotel owner B admitted that generally, the

tourist operators in the region did not participate in any

overt protests or demonstrations but tried to downplay the

situation (“we tried to cover that topic”). He explained that

this was because the state council had assured them that the

mining would not be allowed in Olympiada to spoil the

environment. However, since then, a new council has been

elected and they have decided to go ahead with the mining. The

hotel owners of the area are downplaying the references to the

mining issues in order to protect the image of the region as

an attractive destination for prospective tourists. Hotel

owner C added that since the people of Stratoni, where the

previous underground mining operated, had not protested in

anyway, the tourist operators from other regions had not taken

any actions against the mining either. This was substantiated

by academician Y. Moreover, as the economy of Stratoni had

depended on the mining and there was only minimum

69

environmental damage from the underground mining, the other

people from other regions respected the stance of the Stratoni

people to allow the mining to go ahead.

However, hotel owner D had tried to join the local community

in the demonstrations against the Canadian company and even

communicated with the Canadian government to look into the

matter. He thinks that this resulted in the visit of

parliament members to the region thus laying the way to the

spread the awareness of the problem to the rest of the world.

Representing the academicians, X reported that, for their part

in the resistance to the mining by expressing their concerns,

they had been labelled as “romantic rebels” by the people.

All the hotel owners invariably agreed that they would do all

they can to stop the mining from going ahead for, “we are not

only businessmen we are also residents here” said A. However,

if the mining does go ahead in spite of all the protests, C

suggests that there should be “intense supervision” on the

effects of mining on the water and the environment. He added

that he would not be making the proposed renovation of the

hotel if the mining is allowed to continue as “the future is

uncertain”. D was more categorical in stating that, “I prefer

70

to close and sell my business” rather than face the

consequences of the mining devastation and its effect on the

tourism business.

Academician Z is of the view that this attitude of the tourism

operators is because, “(the) local people don’t know how to

develop tourism in Halkidiki and they are oriented to the mass

tourism”. They don’t understand that for developing the right

type of tourism, everything has to be interdependent and plan

for how they can carry on with tourism after the 20 year

mining phase is over. However, hotel owner B makes a point

when he questions whether the company operating the mines

would continue with it in unexpected eventualities such as a

further fall in the price of gold. He further queries whether

the promised compensations and restorations would then take

place or be abandoned “in the middle…with no restoration, no

compensation and with a destroyed environment”.

On being asked if they had any ideas how tourism can be

improved if the mining is restarted, hotel owner A stated

emphatically that there was no alternative to the sun-and sea

tourism of the present as there were no other attractions to

the region right now. However, if some good projects were

71

planned for some additional tourism attractions to the ones

already existing, then it would be ideal. However, hotel owner

B was more pessimistic as there were no reports of tourism and

open mining at the same place and time. And, he had no plans

or predictions about could happen to tourism after the mining

was completed, say in 40 years’ time. The target group of

tourists in Halkidiki were families with children and there

was infrastructure for even some night life entertainment. It

goes without saying that as the environment would become

devastated by the mining, tourism would also come to an end.

5.3.2 Strategy Discussion

Most of the literature on sustainable tourism in mining areas

focuses on the development of the derelict mines and how these

can be utilized as alternative tourist attractions such as in

the case of mining heritage tourism in Southern Spain

(Ballesteros and Ramírez, 2007), Wise County in West Virginia

(Chon and Evans, 1989), landscaping abandoned mining areas

(Jonsen-Verbeke, 1999), through the prevailing perspectives on

the economic, social and environmental themes (Cole, 2004) and

so on.

72

Buultjens et al. (2010) further stress that the onus of

restoration and revitalization of the environment must be

placed on the shoulders of the mining corporation as part of

its CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility). The Mes Aynak

program of finding alternative sites for the existing

archaeological and cultural tourist artefacts and buildings

before the mining could start in the area would protect the

historical sites for the tourists and also allow the mineral

wealth to be exploited. However, it can be seen from the

responses of the participants, these alternatives would not

work or come too late to preserve the sun and sea tourism that

is now prevalent in the region. As one of the participants

said, “how many people would come to see a mining museum?” and

his customers would not spend 15 days to visit a mining museum

that would take them only 2 hours to go through. Moreover,

“like tourism in Chernobyl”, people would only come to see

what happened there, not to stay on for extended holidays.

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5.4 Opportunities and Challenges to Tourism Activities

from Mining

5.4.1 Opportunities and Challenges Analysis

All the hotel owner participants felt that the investments for

the mining cannot being any benefits to the tourism industry.

This is because, as owner C explained, any alternative tourism

efforts would fail because the tourists to the region were

mainly from the land-locked countries with colder climates

such as Russia, Bulgaria and Serbia. Not many tourists even

visited the already existing archaeological sites in the area

and the mining areas will definitely offer no attractions to

them. Short term bookings and more customer turnover would

mean less assured occupancies for the rooms unlike the present

circumstances, says owner D.

As regards any monetary compensation, owner D added that the

mining company had only plans to compensate for the

environmental damage and no one had of any compensation for

the tourism businessmen and its workers. Moreover, asking for

or getting compensation would imply that the tourism operators

agreed for the mining operations, which they don’t want to do.

74

Academician Y fears that the Greek public sector would receive

hardly anything from the company going on previous

experiences. Earlier Greece had sold gold reserves worth 10

billion euros to the company for just 11 million euros that

was paid into the pension accounts of the employees. Although

the European Union recommended a price of 15 million euros,

the Greek public sector strangely agreed against it even in

the present economic crisis that is one of the worst in

Greece. The government’s argument for allowing the investment

by the mining company was that the taxation benefits that

could accrue from the employees. However, with an estimated

1,200 employees, the taxes collected would be much less than

that at present with tourism and other sectors facing

unemployment due the problems created by the mining. A cost

versus benefit analysis is important before taking any drastic

decisions like allowing open cast mining, says Y.

With reference to the risks that the mining would cause in the

region, hotel owner A felt that one of the main problems would

be the proposed dam at Megali Panagia area to hold the mining

residues as not only is the site seismic, but also marked by

heavy rains and flooding. Quoting the example of the toxic dam

75

disaster in Finland, owner A feels that this could also lead

to a similar calamity.

Moreover, owner A points out that other closely related

professions to tourism such as fishing would also be affected

and the loss of jobs and livelihood could lead to an economic

downturn because not all these people can be accommodated by

the mining company. Owner D adds other professions that would

be affected such as woodcutters, hunters, and shepherds in the

villages like Stavros, Ammouliani, Asprovalta, Ierissos, and

Olympiada. These people are not protesting against the mining

for the ecological disaster it could bring in but for the loss

of their health and livelihood.

Hotel owner C thinks that if tourism and the mining are

somehow combined in Halkidiki, “…I think if we will achieve

that Greece will be the first place where pure natural seaside

resort will co-exist with heavy chemical industry.” The 1,200

jobs promised by the mining company will not be enough to

compensate for the heavy loss to nature and to the other

industries. Moreover, these jobs will be for a short time,

whereas the damage caused to the environment would be

permanent. As far as the tourism is concerned, as the

76

employees would be locals, they would not contribute to the

hotel industry by way of room rentals.

Regarding the short and long term effects of mining activities

on tourism in the region, hotel owner B thought that the

neither the tourism businessmen nor the government would reap

any benefits from the mining. Owner D thought that though the

people of the affected villages like Ammouliani, Asprovalta,

Ierissos and Olympiada would suffer more than the others who

come from further inland for employment in the mining. The

traditional professions would be lost forever along with the

present environment.

Academician X fears that conditions will become worse than the

“mud rain” that bows into Greece every spring from the Sahara.

The whole of the northern Greece will be affected by the

pollution and the all the beaches nearby and even Thessaloniki

that is 60 kilometres from Halkidiki will be polluted. As the

densely populated areas are close to one another in Greece, a

large population will be affected by the heavy metal pollution

“in geometric progression”. Academician Y makes a point that

Stratoni does have some tourists coming in to see the mining,

but they are those with special interests in mining. He added

77

that in Stratoni with its underground mining and polluted sea,

tourism is based on a different model that is not possible to

emulate in Halkidiki because of the open cast mining method

planned and also the destruction of the sun and sea tourism

model on which it is dependent.

5.4.2 Opportunities and Challenges Discussion

According to Junck (Pro-poor tourism needs sustainable land

use, 2011), the first consequence any tourism project would be

the appreciation in the prices of the properties within the

area of the designated development and the second would be the

anxiety shown by the local stakeholders regarding their access

rights and needs of the common pool resources because of the

increase in the visitors to the area. However, in the case of

Halkidiki, it is not the case of tourism replacing the mining

but the other way about. The investments in properties would

decrease because of the mining and the common pool resources

destroyed. This could also be one of the reasons for the

unianimous rejection of the mining proposals.

Although Euromines (NE Halkidiki: Sustainable development via

mining and tourism, n.d.) asserts their goal to develop

78

tourism side by side with the mining in Halkidiki, there has

been no concrete evidence to prove this statement. None of the

participants had come across any plans or policies to

encourage or keep up the tourism in the region, although there

were a lot of evidences for the starting of the mining. Helen

Brissoulis, one of the participant academicians, enumerated a

few reasons for the present standoff between the mining and

tourism operators: the investors (or the mining company, in

this case) ” try to guide and turn the view of the local

community just to one direction in order to hinder them from

seeing the other direction. So they accept the idea that they

will destroy the environment but on the other hand they will

boost the local economy.” Secondly, she points out the fault

in the development models followed by Greece in the matter of

tourism. Thirdly, the tourism operators and the community look

at development as being concrete structures and buildings and

not interested in improving the existing historical and

cultural resources as tourism centres.

However, as stated by Lichrou and O’malley (2006) in their

study of tourism activities in the mining areas of Milos

island, the local tourism operators not only rejected the

79

proposed plans of the mining company to promote the island as

a mining heritage and conference destination, they were also

not interested in changing their sun and sea oriented tourism

ventures. Another reason given by the authors is the lack of

cooperation among the different tourist operators in the

region to create and introduce new concepts in tourism

promotion.

5.5 Policy Coordination between Tourism Operators and the

Government

5.5.1 Policy Collaboration Analysis

In answer to the questions regarding the participation of the

respondents in the policy making and decisions for the

exploitation of the region for the mining, hotel owner A

recalls that although there was no personal participation, he

is however aware that the developmental plans for Thessalonki

definitely prohibits tourism in the mining area. In fact he

remembers that the chief council member of Amouliani Island

assured them that new parks would be created for tourism

purposes. He feels that these parks may not attract the sun

and sea tourists who are the main visitors to the area. Owner

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B explains this further, saying that, “First of all the civil

code supports that mining cannot co-exist with other

activities… According to the law if one region has been

characterized as a mining (area) then the mining company has

the right for expropriation.” So tourism cannot exist along

with mining.

Highlighting another point of view, academician Y disclosed

that he had personally proposed a cost versus benefit analysis

to the region and sent it to the municipality of Thessaloniki.

This was a methodological approach regarding “how far mining

can be developed without impeding tourism” by taking the

indicators of carrying capacity and calculate the stage that

can balance both mining and tourism together and at the same

time period. “We are actually against the company because this

investment will last for some years they will do what they

have to do and then they will leave that place in zero. In the

long term the damages will exceed the benefits. Mr Samaras and

Mr Pahtas (Greek political leaders) have a different plan of

development of the area but we are opposing the investment

with the argument that this kind of investment is not suitable

for Greece and especially for Halkidiki”.

81

According to hotel owner B, the mining company was carrying

out the initial steps to mining like the deforestation with

valid licences or official permission. He feels that this may

have been the result of unofficial support from the

government. However, with the new government in place with new

policies and their implementation, the mining company may find

conditions will not be so easy to circumvent the urban

planning. The company’s plans were in contraposition to the

urban plans and many clauses in the urban planning have to be

changed for allowing the mining to continue with their plans.

Owner B agrees with the view of academician Y that a proper

cost versus benefit analysis is important right now to point

out the huge costs in terms of economic, environment and

livelihood impact that would bring in few benefits to the

region through the few employment opportunities offered by the

company.

Hotel owner A has a suggestion that instead of the proposed

open cast mining for gold, the company could exploit the water

resources available in the area for manufacturing bottled

water. This would provide employment and not destroy the

environment as the gold mining would. In fact, he points out

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to the answer made by an official from the mining company at a

publicised video interview: “when someone asked in a

conference what benefits Greece will accrue from that

investment, the executive manager said that Greece never asked

anything from us.” This clearly demonstrates the attitude of

the mining company.

Hotel owner D thinks that the chief policy makers support the

open mining at present. However, because many of the local

people are against this project, they may not get re-elected.

If that does not happen then the tourist operators in the area

will not have much choice, because the present plans of the

mining company show a change of the tourism oriented economic

form of the region to one that is mining oriented.

According to Academician Z, the chief council members are in

charge of planning for strategies and point out that it is not

sure whether any type of strategies or plans have been made

with regard to the tourism in the area. Frankly speaking,

academician Z joins other participants in alleging that there

have been some underhand deals in letting the mining go

through. This has happened often in Greece, where even big

83

hotel projects were allowed through the collusion between the

owners and investors with the local council members.

Sustainable developments are difficult to envisage in Greece

with the corruption of the government right from the local

council level, continues Z. The examples for this are evident

from the number of projects that have been allowed to go

through in spite of stiff opposition from the people of the

local communities.

Parliamentarian P, being a member of the opposition, was

against the mining, especially of the open type and especially

in the tourist destination areas such as the municipality of

Aristoteles. He thinks that a better policy for development of

sustainable tourism would be to encourage the bee-keeping,

farming and breeding industries that support tourism. Such

industries would not be much affected by underground mining,

but the proposed open cast mining would destroy everything.

The government has to get the priorities right and not allow

the present plans for mining to go ahead as they are right

now.

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5.5.2 Policy Collaboration Discussion

According to Adams et al., (2003), the views and perceptions

of each individual stakeholder or group of them are influenced

by their own experiences and value systems. Because of this,

one cannot presume unanimous agreement when it comes to the

allocation of the common pool resources. As a result one

cannot always expect a win-win situation in such cases. The

authors suggest that collaboration with all the stakeholders

by providing a due hearing to their suggestions and views and

according suitable solutions to their problems would be the

only way forward. It is only consensus policies and collective

action for the management of the development and allocation of

the common pool resources through economic considerations and

benefits of collaboration would lead to sustainable tourism

projects (Adams et al., 2003).

According to Hall (Rethinking Collaboration and Partnership: A

Public Policy Perspective, 1999), sectorial interests should

not influence policy making for sustainable tourism. If the

government agencies do not enter into collaborative efforts

and partnerships with the tourism operators, the

sustainability of both: the tourism as well the community will

85

come under question. Similarly, it is also important to ensure

an equitable allocation of the available resources among all

stakeholders and to bestow them with the appropriate authority

and influence with the policy making and implementation

decisions (Hall, 1999). As sustainable tourism is dependent on

the policies for the efficient use of the land, management of

the environment, adequate infrastructure facilities as well as

effective community welfare and servicing programs (Dredge,

2006; Williams, Penrose and Hawkes, 1998), a one-sided

arrangement made with the investors of the mining, with no

consideration to the needs and wants of the tourism industry

and the community would lead to an adverse situation such as

the present impasse between the tourism operators and the

mining company.

The mushrooming of unplanned and inefficient mass tourism

model in Greece and the uneven development and implementation

of tourism and infrastructure policies in Greece have led to

unhealthy competition for the facilities and tourist numbers

with total disregard to the urban planning in most of these

areas. As a result more people will be affected if the sea and

86

sun tourism stops because of the effects of the mining

(Tsartas, 2003).

A clear and unambiguous updating of the relevant policies with

the collaboration of all the stakeholders, and with a more

equitable representation of each group, including those from

the resource-based tourism industry is necessary right now for

a more balanced approach to the tourism/mining development

(Bennett and Lemelin, 2010). A project plan with value-added

goals and explicit and measurable results, along with a

transparent approach that allows verification by the

governmental authorities as well as other stakeholders is what

is required. A collaborative effort from the community,

research and governmental agencies would make this possible

(Bennett and Lemelin, 2010).

5.6 Co-existence of Mining and Tourism in Halkidiki

5.6.1 Co-existence of Mining and Tourism Analysis

I response to the question of the viability of tourism/mining

coexistence in Halkidiki, hotel owner A was uncertain. He

argued that alternative types of tourism cannot work in the

area that has been based on the classic sun and sea tourism

87

model. Even if an alternative tourism was introduced, only

half of the present tourism operators would be employed and

usher in unemployment and a downward trend in the economy.

Hotel owner A was positive that even a mining museum or such

mining based tourism would not work in an environment that is

devastated completely by the mining. The mining-based tourist

attractions could be experienced in a short time and no

tourists would book in for a fortnight’s holiday for looking

at mining museums.

Most tourists to the area were booked for enjoying the sea and

the warm climate for a length of time because they had no such

things in their home countries. Owner C feared that the sea

would become polluted by the mining and no tourism activities

can take place there and refused to support or promote such

tourism that was located in environmentally damaged area. He

added that the massive open mining cannot co-exist with

tourism. Usually such mining activities took place far away

from human habitations and where there were no tourist

attractions.

Hotel owner D added that underground mining may be able to

support alternative tourism such as museums and the

88

archaeological sites and work as a boost to tourism, on the

other hand, open mining no type of tourism can exist. Owner D

compared the area after the mining to Chernobyl and added that

some people may pay a visit to the mines to see what happened

there in the past but they would not book rooms to stay in the

area. The comparison is apt not only for the devastation but

also for the type of tourism that could be expected in the

area spoilt by mining.

Academician X considers that: “…this investment (on the

mining) does not care about the environment does not care

about Greek economy or the Greek society. So in that case when

there is no balance between the economy, the society and the

environment we cannot talk about sustainable development”.

Academician Y points out the example of Stratoni where the

hotels were fully booked with tourists who came for different

attractions that were promoted by the businessmen there.

However, he concedes that compared to the mass of tourists who

come to the beach tourism in Halkidiki, these tourists were

very less. Another reason he gives for the impossibility of

tourism co-existing in Halkidiki, is the social disintegration

that the mining had brought in. The people who worked for the

89

mining company were segregated by those who worked in the

tourism sector and the mining company also seems unwilling to

collaborate with them, He believes that, “…for any economic

plan in order to succeed and survive there is a need for

social cohesion and in our case we don’t have it. So the

problem will not be solved easily.”

Only academician Z had some suggestions for developing tourism

and mining simultaneously: Her suggestions included those that

need to be carried out by the government, the mining company,

the local tourism operators, as well the community in the

area. She suggests that the government has to take into its

deliberations for alternative tourism and alternative

development consider what type of tourism can take place after

open mining activities in the region and the type of tourism

that can ensue if the mining is of the underground type such

as ecotourism and so on. The local community should consider

how they can cope after the mining is over in 20 years’ time.

The local tourism operators are not professional enough to

consider what kind of alternative tourism can be adopted to

utilise the existing resources, and not to confine their ideas

of development to concrete buildings. The mining company

90

should consider the cost of restoring the destroyed

environment along with its plans for the mining processes in a

more realistic and practical manner.

None of the hotel owners interviewed had any suggestions for

developing the mining and tourism simultaneously except for

saying that either the mining must stop completely or change

into the underground type so that the repercussions will not

be so severe on the environment, society and tourism.

5.6.2 Co-existence of Mining and Tourism Discussion

Most of the existing literature deals with heritage or nature

tourism where there is also mining involved, for example:

(Edwards and Llurdés, 1996; Wanhill, 2000; Ballesteros and

Ramírez, 2007; Chon and Evans, 1989), and so on. However, all

these efforts of introducing tourism in the mining areas are

after the mining has been completed. There is no co-existence

of mining and tourism such as being explored in this study is

discussed and none where there has been an open cast mining.

Some authors such as (Jonsen-Verbeke, 1999) strongly support

the idea of restored and revitalised landscapes as attractive

tourist destinations after the mining is completed like that

91

being contemplated in Limburg in Belgium. However, this would

involve a lot of planning and investment to make the area

self-sufficient. One of the participants, academician X also

specialises in the restoration and landscaping of the

environment after the mining is completed. This would involve

removing toxic wastes, re-cultivation and re-stocking of the

ecological environment to what it was before the mining.

However, he despairs that the open case mining would leave any

fertile surface for replanting and this idea would be almost

impossible to carry through in Halkidiki if the mining takes

place.

The Afghanistan Mes Aynak case study (Bernard, Sugarman and

Rehm, 2012) could become a model for Halkidiki too, in the

sense that the coming together of experts in many fields in

the conservation of the environment, culture and traditions,

economic interests as well the greater good of the national

development is necessary before the planning and

implementation of the mining takes place. Inclusion of

international agencies who are impartial, of experts from

different areas such as tourism; safe mining strategies;

environment restoration and revitalisation; public health

92

safety; and other supporting fields, in the policy making

process and ensuring a complete transparency in the

proceedings by dissemination of all relevant information to

the stakeholders, conducting feasibility studies to select the

plan with the least negative impact, acquiring funding for the

relocation of displaced communities, providing alternative

employment (Bernard, Sugarman and Rehm, 2012) are all the

ideas and strategies that can prove useful in the case of

Halkidiki also. And these strategies have to be carried out

before the mining is allowed to commence.

5.7 Conclusion and Recommendations

5.7.1 Conclusions

From the theme-wise analysis of the interviews and the

discussions that included other similar studies from

literature, the following conclusions have emerged:

Regarding the theme one, the impact of mining operations on

tourism destinations in Halkidiki, all the participants

invariable agreed that the impact of the previous mining in

the area, the present cutting down of the forest by the mining

company and the news of the proposed open cast mining in the

93

area as well as the safety considerations consequent to the

violent demonstrations and protests and the expected pollution

of land sea and air have all contributed to the decrease in

the tourist arrivals as well as in cancellation of bookings.

The participants also agree to the view that mass sun and sea

tourism as is the model now practised in the Halkidiki region

is unviable in face of the proposed open cast mining.

Expansion plans for the businesses have been put on hold until

a decision is reached regarding the commencement of the mining

operations. The literature also bears out the view of the

participants that the government’s partisan and high-handed

decision making, without consulting or taking the opinions of

the affected stakeholders, has created the dissatisfaction and

unrest among the community and businessmen.

Concerning theme two: tourism strategies to address the impact

of mining; most hotel owners in the region admitted to

downplaying the unrest and protests in the region and would

not participate in such activities for two reasons: because of

the bad publicity about demonstrations in the area would

decrease inflow of tourists due to safety reasons and because

the state council had assured them that the mining would not

94

be allowed to go ahead. However, some did adopt strategies

like writing to the Canadian government but it only served to

spread the news of the unrest. The tourism operators had no

ideas or plans about alternative tourism except for their

traditional brand of tourism and were not willing to change or

adapt to the new situation. Literature carries out their

contention that extended holiday bookings would not

materialise for mining or museum tours, except if the mining

was of the underground type or the area is completely restored

after the mining is over. Open cast mining would not encourage

any type of tourism activities while the mining is going on.

With reference to theme three: Opportunities and Challenges to

Tourism Activities from Mining, the general consensus was that

there were only risks and challenges for the tourism industry

from the open cast mining and almost no benefits. Neither the

company nor the government that had allowed the mining were

prepared to offer any type of compensation to the tourism

sector, promising only about 1200 jobs. The risks included

devastation of the environment, pollution of the seas and

beaches, loss of livelihood. The open cast mining did not give

rise to any type of tourism activities especially in the area

95

of Halkidiki that was dependent on the sun and sea tourism

model.

Regarding theme four: policy coordination between tourism

operators and the government, there was an almost consensus

opinion that the government was corrupt and there was hardly

any collaborative efforts from its side. There were also views

about the lack of coordination and cooperation among the

businessmen or among the members of the community regarding

the mining company’s activities. This segmentation of the

stakeholders is not conducive to collaborative policy making

and implementation. A cost versus benefits analysis was not

carried out before the mining was sanctioned. The present laws

were biased towards mining and mineral exploitation and

disregarded developmental activities such as tourism and other

supportive industries that already exist like bee-keeping,

fishing and farming. The literature points out that it is only

collective action in the development and allocation of common

pool resources through stakeholder collaboration that can lead

to sustainable development in any field, more so where tourism

is concerned. Transparency and dissemination of the relevant

information is necessary to make and implement policies that

96

would benefit all stakeholders. All these aspects seem to be

overlooked by the present policy makers.

On the theme five on: the co-existence of mining and tourism

in Halkidiki, although the literature seems to be positive on

this subject from a general point of view, the stakeholders at

Halkidiki took the negative view. Some reasons can be ascribed

to such a dissonance in the perspectives: most of the

literature dealt with locations and situations that were very

different: underground mining areas that were long derelict,

and developing tourism such areas where there was no tourism

before. There are no instances of replacing the sun and sea

model of mass tourism (such as is prevalent in Halkidiki now),

that too at the same time and place where a vast open mining

is proceeding. Cost benefit analysis and a planned approach as

at Mes Aynak with the involvement of the international

agencies and experts along with the government and

stakeholders could find some solutions and avoid the bleak

picture of tourism painted by the tourism operators.

5.7.2 Recommendations

97

This study on the resilience of sustainable tourism in

Halkidiki in view of the on-going gold mining project has

revealed that there has been no collaboration between the

government and stakeholders on the policy making and

implementation. This may be due to the fact that pre-planning

study has not been made by the government, such as a cost

versus benefit analysis and the mining project has been

sanctioned unilaterally without the consultation and

concurrence from those who would be affected. One of the

fundamental problems seems to be a lack of adequate no

collaboration with the local tourism operators, in spite of

the fact that the mass tourism in the area is one of the most

remunerative and also one that will be affected the most by

the devastation and pollution caused by the open mining. A

more concerted and collaborative efforts from the government

with the stakeholders and strong and effective plans for

alternatives have to be explored before the mining begins to

change the environment.

98

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Appendix Interview

Personal questions :How long have you been in this business?

What made you choose this business?

What are your personal goals for the future?

Question 1What are the issues in the local area that cause the most conflicts between businesses like your own and other organisations?

Question 2What has been the impact of mining on your business in the

past?

107

Question 3 What is the current impact of mining on your business?

Question 4 What future impacts do you think mining will have on your

business?

Question 5 What kind of strategies have you adopted in response to the

previous mining activities?

Protest (direct to the mine company / via government /

direct action)

Finding out information

Talking to other businesses

Question 6What options as a business do you have if the current mining

proposals in Halkidiki go ahead?

Question 7

Is there anything that would improve the situation for local

tourism businesses if the mine proposals go ahead?

Question 8

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What benefits do you think the development in the mining

activities will accrue to the various business activities in

the region?

Question 9What risks do you think such development will bring in these

regions in the short and long term?

Question 10How will the mining activities affect tourism in this region

in the short and long term?

Question 11There is a plan to develop mineral exploitation in the area.

Were you consulted by the policy makers?

Question 12If yes, what was the extent of your participation in the

policy making?

Question 13 What policies do you think are important for making use of the

resources effectively for both tourism and mining?

Question 14

109

Do you think that tourism and mining can co-exist in this area

of Halkidiki? Why?

Question 15What are your suggestions for developing tourism and mining

simultaneously?

110