THE PUNIC COINS AND THEIR LEGENDS

Herbert Sauren

Prof. emer. UCL Université Catholique de Louvain-la-Neuve, Bélgium

Abstract

Emitting coins is and was always a juridical act. The emitter was responsible and he is noted on the coin, either by his title, by his effigy, by the symbol of the emitting religious community or by the name of the town, when the township emitted the coin. Names of towns are rare by this reason and appear only in determined and limited regions of the Iberian Peninsula.

The coins with mainly late Punic writing were emitted in the south of Spain, most of them after the Punic wars and during the Roman occupation. The article notes the periods of coining, translates the legends, names the emitters and the beneficiaries, and joins a table of the letters used.

Resumo

Pôr moedas em circulação é hoje e foi sempre um acto jurídico. O emissor foi responsável, tal como é indicado na moeda, pelo o seu título, pela sua efígie, pelo símbolo da comunidade religiosa emissora, ou pelo nome da cidade, nos casos em que a autoridade urbana emitiu a moeda. Desta maneira, os nomes de cidades são pouco frequentes e aparecem unicamente em certas regiões da Península Ibérica.

As moedas, que mostram principalmente legendas em escritura Púnica tardia, foram postas em circulação no sul da Espanha, a maior parte delas depois as guerras Púnicas e durante a ocupação Romana. O artigo destaca os períodos da cunhagem, traduz as legendas, indica os títulos e nomes dos emissores e beneficiários, e junta uma tabela das letras utilizadas.

71

The legends of the Punic coins found on the Iberian Peninsula have been collected since long time and published by several authors.1 Nevertheless, most of the legends are not read and translated, because the authors did not know or not use the corresponding dictionaries.2 The present article is therefore in the fi rst place a philological complement.

The coins 3

1st period: from the fi rst coining, 3rd century b.C. to the III Punic War, 146 b. C. by exception of the coins of Ibiza, legends appear only about 175 b.C. The writing is Punic, the language North-West Semitic. The old centres of trade guard their activities and sent probably metal to Carthage. It seems that the Romans did not yet control the South of Spain and Portugal.4

m 1, DCH 2, 113-120: Ibiza / Eivissa, lat.: Ebusus. Archaeology appoints to the fi rst coining about 330 b.C. The fi rst legends appear only after 90 b.C.

m 2, DCH 2, 146-154: Cadiz, lat.: Gades, nw.: g d r , “the wall”.5 A period without legends counts eight diff erent casting. DCH accepts legends from the II Punic War on, 237 b.C. The 6th emission, 6.ª 37, DCH dates about 206 b.C., was the model of the coins of Odeceixe, which were emitted by a coalition of landlords, addressed “Their Graces”. The coalition is attested by a grave stone with Iberian script, mLH, J. 1.1, dated by the typology about 175 – 150 b.C. (Sauren, 2004, 136; 2004, 2.) The dating of DCH should therefore be lowered by some decades.

m 3, DCH 2, 352-355: Almuñécar, Granada, lat.: SExS, on legends in Punic script: š y š, a word of non Semitic origin, cf. lat.: saxum , port.: seixo, “stone”; port., sp.: sáxeo, “stony”. The word appears often in place names, towns along the coast of the sea and of rivers. The fi rst emission, 1.ª 1-3, shows no legends; the fi rst legend, 2.ª 4, is dated by DCH during the fi rst half of the 2nd century b.C.

m 4, DCH 2, 274-278: malaga, lat.: malaca. The fi rst emission, 1.ª 1-6, does not bear any legend; the legends of the following emissions do not note the name of the town. Nevertheless the name is probably Semitic, cf. nw.: m l k3 , m l g (by sonorous pronunciation), “king, kingly”.6 The fi rst legend appears, 2.ª 7, about 175 b. C. Coins have been found inside the town of malaga and in the neighbourhood, so that the attribution seems to be correct.

2nd period, from the end of the III Punic war to the Sertorius’ wars, 70 B.C. Most of the coins appear during this period. Only a few towns are known by their names. The writing evaluated but there is no new writing system. I prefer to name it Late Punic instead of Neo-Punic. Some letters from the Iberian writing system are used, Greek and Latin script occurs. most of the coins are emitted from factories and their administrators.

3rd period, the Roman republic, up to 27 b.C. There are no new centres of coining. The Semitic languish looses characteristic phonemes.

1 I refer to the last publications, where older references can be found; García-bellido, 2001, (abbreviated: DCH); Villaronga, 2002, (abbreviated: CNH):

2 The dictionary of Hoftijzer, Jongeling, 1995, (abbreviated: nw.) cites all Punic lexemes, which occur on the legends, but does not cite any of them. The legends of the younger period present sometimes words of South-West Semitic language; an Arab dictionary, I use Kazimirsky, 1860, (abbreviated: sw.) is helpful in those cases.

3 CNH 79-117, 119-130, collects the Punic and Late-Punic coins in two chapters. DCH gathers all the pre-Roman coins in pretended “alphabetic” order. This alphabet is based on wrong readings, a free invented transcription and perverted Latin orthography of the older names. This study is therefore based on CNH, counting the coins as m (moeda, moneda) followed by the number.

4 Roman silver denarii’s appear at the end of the 3rd century b.C. during the II Punic war, but legends with the names of Roman consuls only about 150 b.C., Guinea barbosa, 2002.

5 The limited space urges that the equivalent from the dictionaries is cited only when the word occurs for the fi rst time. The references are shortened to the essential. The consultation of the dictionaries is recom-mended.

6 The Indo-European solution is highly improbable for a town frequented by Phoenicians since the 6th century b. C., but cf. Villar, 2001, 261.

The Punic coins and their legends

Herbert Sauren

72

Numism�tica

VI CONGRESSO INTERNACIONAL DE ESTUDOS FENÍCIOS E PÚNICOS

4th period, the Roman Empire. Only three cities continue coining using semitic legends: Eivissa, Gadir, Abdera.

m 5, DCH 2, 45-47: medina Sidonia, Cadiz, lat.: A SIDO. The late Punic legends do not name the town. The fi rst letter of the Latin form is only a determinative, which corresponds to the fi rst letter of the Assyrian word: ālu, “town”. The modern name adds medina, sw.: madīnat, “town”. DCH points out that the name is a homonymous word of Sidon, the town situated in Lebanon. People coming from the Near East gave the name of their home-town to the new housing. The Romans applied the continuous writing, which provoked the wrong interpretation.

m 6, DCH 2, 298-299: Aznalcázar, Sevilla, lat.: L‘A N T / LVNT, legend 1.ª 1: l ‘n r’, Lana(r/t).7 In 2.ª 7; 2.ª 10, precedes a letter identical with the Greek, Latin O, but this form of the letter is also the Punic, ayin, as in many Semitic alphabets. ‘A is another writing of the determinative for ālu, “town”, cf. m 5. The Semitic laryngeals, alif and ayin were not distinguished in pronunciation at this time.

m 7, DCH 2, 288: Jimena de la Frontera, Cadiz, (DCH); in the surroundings of Jimena (CNH), lat.: ObA < ‘AS2A, < *Aesta, lat.: aestum, “heat”, port.: esto, “high tide”. The late Punic legends show no place name. The legend, which has been interpreted as ObA accepting more recent Latin majuscules, has the Semitic ayin followed by the vowel a at the beginning, cf. m 6. For the reading of S2 cf. Sauren, 2004, 135, and the place name ‘A S O > Aestu > Estoi, l.c. 136, 1378.

m 8, DCH 2, 51-52: In the province of Cadiz, lat.: bAILO / baelo. The legends present no place name, but an invocation of the god baal, 1.ª 1: b a6 l <’ >l l a6, “baal is God”, nw.: ’ l1 , ’ l h1 ; sw.: ’ilah “god”; sw.: ’al + ’ilah , “the unique god”. The Romans understood this invocation as the name of the factory9.

m 9, DCH 2, 212-213: Cabezo de Hortales, Prado del Rey, Cadiz, (DCH); between Los Algodonales and El bosque, Cadiz, (CNH), lat.: IR TVCI, “the town of the merchants”.10 The emblematic side, DCH reverse, is diff erent from m 10, so that we have to accept diff erent places. DCH notes many places of this name with or without the fi rst element, nw.: ‘ r1 , “town”, t g r 1 , “merchant”.

m 9 a, DCH 2, 302: uncertain in the province of Cadiz, DCH separates from m 9. Legend reads: ‘A QVR, “the town”, determinative and nw.: q r t1, “town”. In the upper part: a4 l, “town”.

m 10, DCH 2, 216-217: Campo de Tejada, Escacena, Huesca, (DCH); Tejada de la Vieja, Sevilla (CNH), lat.: I(R) TVCI, legend, 2.ª 3, nw.: ‘ y r t2 g r , “the town of the merchants”. The Latin writing is a perverted form by bad pronouncing and phonetic writing, which omits the fi nal R .

m 11, DCH 2, 33: Diff erent places in the province of badajoz, (DCH), lat.: ARSA. The legends 1.ª 1-2 note no place name. The Latin legend on the opposite side, (DCH face), may be interpreted as ’arșā , “on the land”, nw.: ’ r ș, “earth, land”.

m 12, DCH 2, 382-383: Llerena or Casas de Reina, badajoz, (DCH), lat.: TVRI RE2CINA / REGINA > Torre Regina. The legend in late Punic script refers to a factory.

7 The fi nal letter is the Punic r , which indicates the pronunciation of the Semitic feminine ending. The Se-mitic emitter adopted the word, which is not Semitic. Perhaps to combine with fr.: lande, a uncultivated land with brushes and wild plants. The old place names are derived from geographical circumstances.

8 The identifi cation of the letter is based on a bilingual inscriptions on a small wine jug, found on the Puy de Dôme, conserved in the musée bargoin, Clermont Ferrand, cf.:

Sauren 2010, 23-27 and www.museedeglozel.com/Documents/HSauren.pdf<http://www.museedeglozel.com/Documents/HSauren.pdf

9 Some letters are from Hebrew quadrate writing, cf.: Sauren, H., 2007, Hebrew quadrate writing before 200 b. C., from Tilbes Höyök, Turkey, and Iberian, late Punic documents, Spain. Appendix to: Gil Fuensanta, J., Trabajos de la mision Arqueologica Española en Turquia (xIII): El Proyecto Tilbes, 2007, bAEO 43, 25-43, 44-53.

10 The late Punic legend, 1.ª 1, does not name the town. In comparison with m 99, we have to identify the letter similar to the Latin majuscule P as the Greek, and Iberian rho / r . This confusion of writing systems occurs rather often for these letters, eg.: Sauren, 2004, 135, 3º.

VI CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL DE ESTUDOS FENÍCIOS E PÚNICOS

73

m 13, DCH 2, 16-18: Adra, Almería, lat.: AbDERA, legend 1.ª 1: ’ b d r’ , *’ bū darāt , “Father of the houses”, nw.: ’ b1 , sw.: ’abū, “father”, nw.: d r1 , “family”, sw.: dārat , “house”. Cf. m 6 for the writing of the feminine ending. I would like to call this writing the r-marbuta . Place names formed with ’abū , “father”, are frequent in South-West Semitic, but the writing of the legend is late Punic.

m 14, DCH 2, 403-404: uncertain, Gaucín, malaga, lat. : 3.ª 4 : VESCI // D SIS > Veje / Veja de Sis, “Sis, the older”, cf. m 3. The bilingual inscription mLH, E. 1.335: reads in Iberian script: p t , sw.: fi tat , “jar”, and in Latin majuscules: SC‘ARA, port., sp.: “jarra”, the sound, indicated by SC, corresponds to the sw. dj / ğ , sp.: j .

m 15, DCH 2, 24-25: attributed to Alba, Alicante, (DCH); uncertain, (CNH). The late Punic legends show no place name.

m 16, DCH 2, 358-359: attributed to Tíjola, Alicante, DCH); uncertain, (CNH). No place name in all the three diff erent legends.

m 17, DCH omitted, CNH 130, 2: ‘ y w2 ‘ , “the factory and the town”. Nw.: ‘ y1 , island, every enclosed place, factory; w2 ; sw.: wa , “and”, conjunction; cf. m 6 for ‘ / ‘A , “town”.

m 18 - 22, DCH 2, 208-210, A 1.1, A 2. 3; A 3. 4-7; A 4. 8-10; A 5. 12. m 23, DCH omitted, CNH 130, 1.m. 24, DCH 2.213 : I<R>RIPPO, *’ir riviyyu, “the town on the river side”, cf.: Ripense, DCH

2.304-305 and CILPE > Silves for the pronunciation p = v.m 25, DCH 2, 265-266: In the surroundings of Alcalá de los Ganzules, Cadiz, (DCH); between

Jerez and Aracos de la Frontera, (CNH), lat.: LASCVT, IR THI, GI(= LA6)SC‘A. The late Punic legends read, 1.ª 1: l ‘ y! , 2.ª 4: l a6 , “for the factory”. This explains the fi rst element in the Latin legend, LA- / LA6-.11 IR, “town”, changes with nw.: ’ y , “factory”, cf. m 9, 10. The fi rst sound of the second element is given by SC, cf. m 14 SC = J, and THI, (= THA6) cf. Tiago / Jacob. The legend is to read: LASCUT > l ‘ (y) ğ w d , “for the good factory, cf.: sw.: ğāda , “to be good”. A settlement of South-West Semitic people can not be excluded.

The legendsThe legends of the coins have a juridical background. m 2, 5.ª 34 reads12: m p ‘ l l ’ ‘ ’g d r,

“property of the town of Gadir in favour of the factory”. The boustrophedon reading of the three lines is proved by m 8, 2.ª 2: F A-L T A I D L A-‘A, “edict of the magistrate in favour of the factory”.

The legend of Gadir names the township as emitter; m 8 indicates the responsible magistrate, cf. DCH 1, 140-151, AED, AEDILE, port., sp.: edil, “the offi cial of the township”. both cite the benefi ciary, the factory. The act of the magistrate is an edict, nw.: p ‘ l1 , “to do, to construct”. From this root comes nw.: p ‘ l h , p ‘ l t , “work, act”. With the preformative mi- , the legend of Gadir notes m p ‘ l , and the synonym of m 2, 2.ª A 10: m h l m , urges the translation: “property”. As a matter of fact the real weight of the coins does not correspond to the value in commerce. There is always a reduction. The emitter guaranties the commercial value and he is the holder and owner of the value.

The religion determined also the legends and the iconography of the coins. melqart, the god of Tyre, is represented on coins of the older cities. baal is named by invocations and prayers on coins of the factories. El is mentioned only ones. The corresponding temple could be the emitter but also the benefi ciary.

11 The reading GISCO is only noted in DCH 2, 265, note 98. It seems to me that the writer intended the letter C adding a stroke of decoration. This form of the letter C is equal to the letter l, el, in Iberian, sinistrorse, writing. Cf. m 14 for SC = J.

12 Only the fi rst occurrence is cited.

The Punic coins and their legends

Herbert Sauren

74

Numism�tica

VI CONGRESSO INTERNACIONAL DE ESTUDOS FENÍCIOS E PÚNICOS

The emittersThe temple: m 2, 1.ª 2: b , “the temple”, abbreviation of nw.: b y t2 , “temple”. m 15, 1.ª 4: p ‘ l

t2 ‘ y-b y t2 , “edict of the factory and the temple”. m 24: I R a6 g g ‘ , “the town of the temple”. The town: m 2 passim: ’ g d r , “the town of Gadir”; 6.ª b 44, 52: h g d r , “Gadir, nw.: h1 ,

article. m 3, 1.ª 1: š y š , “Sis”. m 6, m 9, m 11, m 12, m 13, m 14, m 24, above. m 17, 1.ª 2: a4 l g y! y l r’ , “the town, in commission”. m 18, A 1.2: ‘ y r l b r , A 5.11: I r l b r , “the town outside”.

The factory: m 1, 20.ª 44: ’ y b š m , 20.ª 48: ’ y b š t2 , 20.ª 56: y b š t2 , “the factory of the (island of) perfumes, cf. nw.: b š m1 , “perfume, spices for cultic use”, pl. form, b š t2 , sing. f. M 15, together with the temple. m 16, 1.ª 1: m p ‘ l g y! y l r’ , “property, in commission”, cf. sw.: ğāilat , “what someone has to do”, to take care of”. m 18, A 1.1, 5.13: ’ y l b r , “the factory outside”, cf. nw.: b r3 , “what is outside”. m 21: w2 ‘ <w2> w2 g ‘ , “and the factory and the chief”, cf. sw.: wağh , “chief”.

A magistrate: m 1, 20.ª 69: l2 l2 l : “belonging to the right of the governor”, m 25, 3.ª 6: y ’ l l2 w2 , “oh!, the governors”, sw.: lā’lat , “governor, preceptor”. m 25, 3.ª 6: w2 z r‘ l2 l2 , “the ministerial administration of the governors”, cf. sw.: wazārat, “the charge of a minister”. M 4, 2.ª 7: t2 l y t2 , “the captain”, the third in rang, nw.: t l y t . Cf. nw.: t l y , “a pair of pliers”. m 8, 2.ª 2: FA-LT AID ,”edict of the AID”; m 9, 3.ª 5, 7: A-E D , “offi cial of the township”. m 16, 2.ª 3: g y! š a6 r’ , “the elder of the senat”, cf. nw.: g š y š , “chief, senator, supervisor”, here f. m 14, 1.ª 1: y a6 y ḥ2 w2 l , “oh! factory of the economic administrator”, cf. sw.: hāil , “the economist”.

Benifi ciaryThe temple or the God: m 4, 5.ª 17: š t2 š, “the smith-god under the earth”, sw.: šatasa,

“to go away, to go down into the interior of the earth”. The god Hephaestus was venerated in malaga. m 5, 2.ª 4: š ‘ b ‘ l , “the belonging of baal”; 2.ª 5: b b l , “for baal”. m 9, 3.ª 6: E l , “God”, nw.: ’ l1 , “god”. m 15, 1.ª 1: l ’ y-b y t2 , “for the factory and the temple”. m 15, 1.ª 3: t2 ’ y-b y t2 , “off ering for the factory and the temple”.

The factory: m 2, 8, cf. above. m 12, 1.ª 1, 2.ª 2: l a6 y! ḥ2 l g w2 l g , “for the factory of your friendship and for you”, cf. nw.: ’ y1, 3 , “island, enclosed territory, factory”, -g , suffi x 2nd p. sing., sw.: hill , “friend, friendship”. m 15, together with the temple. m 19: l t2g r’ , “for the commerce”, cf. m 9, 10, here f. m 20: w2 l g š ‘ , “and for the senat”, nw.: g š y š , “chief, senator”, omission of fi nal consonant. m 23: l ’ y z w2 , “this is for the factory”, cf. nw.: z y , pronoun. m 25, 1.ª 1: l ’ y! ḥ2 l w2 ‘ , “for the factory of sweets”, cf. sw.: ḥalwa , “sweets”, made with sugar or honey. m 25, 2.ª 4: l a6 , “for the factory”.

Property, reduction.M 2, cf. above.m 3, 1.ª 3: m p ‘ l š y š , “Property of Sis”.An off ering normally in favour of the temple: m 1, 20.ª 56: t2 , “off ering”, nw.: t4 , abbreviation

of t r (w) m h . m 3, 2.ª 4: t2 p ‘ l a4 l š y š , “a prayer for the town of Sis”, 3.ª 7: without a4 l.

Invocation of gods and prayerm 5, passim: ’ y! l l b l , “baal is god”. m 5, DCH 2, 210, b 1.16: b b ‘ l y ḥ2! , “she (the town) will

live by baal”. m 8, 1.ª 1: b a6 l <’ >l l a6 , “baal is god”; m 8, CNH 130, 3: y g ‘ y b V l , “the chef, oh! baal”, cf. y g ‘ < w g h , sw.: wağh , “chef, notable”; nw.: y1 , “oh!”, exclamation. m 9, 1.ª 1: y a6 b l l y l w2 ḥ2 l , “Oh! baal, be with me, in order to do it like others”, cf. -y , suffi x 1st p. sing.; sw.: waḥala , “to rival with, to be comparable to”.

75

Fig. 1. Letters, which occur on the coins, and their evolution

The Punic coins and their legends

Herbert Sauren

76

Numism�tica

VI CONGRESSO INTERNACIONAL DE ESTUDOS FENÍCIOS E PÚNICOS

Maxims to promulgate the use of the coinsm 1, 20.ª 44 : z3 z3 l , “this is cheap”, cf. nw.: z l h / z l t , “cheapness”. m 8, 1.ª 1: z y ’ g ‘ l ,

“this is active”, cf. nw.: z y , pronoun, lat.: agile , port., sp. : ágil . m 11, 1.ª 1 : ḥ2 ‘ y , “live!”, ‘ w2 y ’ y w2 , “say it, factories”. The legend becomes readable seen by an mirror, a fault of the stamp, which DCH 1, 104-105 did not observe. m 12, 1.ª 1, 2.ª 2: l a6 y! ḥ2 l g w2 l g , “for the factory of your friendship and for you”, cf. nw.: ’ y1, 3 , “island, enclosed territory, factory”, -g , suffi x 2nd p. sing., sw.: hill , “friend, friendship”. m 16, 2.ª 3: g m r w2 , the will gather provisions”, cf. sw.: māra , “to deliver provisions”, g t y y , “the factory is good”, cf. sw.: ğāda , “to be good”. m 22: t2 r w2 b , “multiply”, cf. nw.: r b y1 , “to grow, to increase”, imparf. 2nd p. m. sing., t r b h , “off spring”. m 25, 2.ª 4: l ḥ2 y g , “for your life”, cf. nw.: ḥ y1 , “life”.

The determinatives and words for town / township‘ / ‘A , abbreviation of ass.: ālu , “town”: m 2. ‘ y r , cf. nw.: ‘ r1 , “town”, m 10, 2.ª 3, 5, m 18,

A 1.2. ‘ l , ālu , “town”, m 10. A , abbreviation of ass.: ālu , “town”: m 5, m 10, m 25. a4 l , “town”, m 3, M 5, M 8, M 9 a, M 10; a4<l> , M 10, 2.ª 5. I R , cf. nw.: ‘ r1 , “town” : m 9; I <R> , M 10, I r , M 18, A 5.11, M 25, 1.ª 2. QVR , M 9 a, Q , abbreviation, cf. nw.: q r t1 , “town”, m 10, 3.ª 7.

The writings for factory’ y , M 18. ‘ , M 2. a6 , M 25. ‘ w2 , M 21. ’ y , M 15, M 25. A ‘A , M 8. a6 y! , M 12. y y , m 16.

B�����������

Garc�a Be��i�o, m.ª Paz (2001) - Diccionario de Cecas y Pueblos Hispánicos con una Introducción a la Numismática Antigua de la Península Ibérica. Textos Universitários, nº 35. Vol I-II. madrid: CSIC.Guinea Barbosa, m. b. C. da S. (1998 - 2002) - Tesouros monetários Romanos em Portugal: Da República ao Reinado de Augustus. Nummus. II Série. Vol. 21/25. Porto: Sociedade Portuguesa de Numismática.Ho�ti��er, J. & Jon�e�in�, K. (1995) - Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions. Handbuch der Orientalistik. Der Nahe und mittlere Osten. 21. Leiden: E. J. brill.Ka�imirs�i, A. de biberstein (1860) - Dictionnaire Arabe – Français. Paris: maisonneuve et Cie.Sauren, H. (2004) - moedas pré-romanas de Odeceixe e Castro marim. 12º Congresso do Algarve, Tavira. Silves: Racalclube. pp. 133-140.Sauren, H. (2004) - Refugiados e Romanos: Arqueologia e História. IV Congresso de Arqueologia Peninsular, Resumos. Faro: Universidade do Algarve. p. 100.Sauren, H. (2007) - Acta Paleohispanica Ix. A review of the Semitic Inscriptions. bAEO. 43. pp. 103-149.Sauren, H. (2008) - www.museedeglozel.com/Documents/HSauren.pdf.Sauren, H. (2010) - Romans and Residents: The Historic and Linguistic Evolution; from about 300 b.C to 300 A.D. In Proceedings of the XV World Congress (Lisboa, 4-9 Septembe, 2006) - Session C 55, Romanization and Indigenous Societies, Rhytms, Ruptures, and Continuities. pp. 23-27.Vi��ar, F. (2001) - Indoeuropeos y No Indoeuropeos en la Península Ibérica. In Vi��ar, F.; Fern�n�e� álvarez, m.ª P. (eds.) Religión, Lengua y Cultura Prerromanas de Hispania. Acta Samanticensa, Estudios Filológicos. 183. Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. pp. 257-283.Vi��aron�a, L. (2ª ed.: 2002) - Corpus Nummum Hispania ante Augusti Aetatem. madrid: J. A. Herrero, S. A.Cf. também: www.histoiredudroit.org / Antiquité / Ibérica Semítica / écriture.