THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TERRORISM ON

SOCIO- ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

BY

CHINGLE, I. P.

DEPT. OF GENERAL STUDIES

PLATEAU STATE POLYTECHNIC, BARKIN LADI.

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AbstractTerrorism in its ramification poses a threat and insecurity to

human existence to the extent that defenceless citizens live in

perpetual fear and anxiety. The predominant threat and security

challenges are from un-abated attacks on Nigerian citizens,

individuals, public and governmental installations, kidnapping

and destruction of properties. All these effects of terrorist

activities are a serious crime against the Nigerian state, which

has threatened its national security and socio-economic

activities. Using the principles of frustration-aggression

theory by John Dollard, this paper examines several factors that

can help in the explanations of the relationship between

Terrorism and the psychological consequences it imposes on the

citizens. It also analyzes the implication of terrorism from the

economic perspective. This paper observes that there is a

negative relationship between terrorism and economic development.

It recommends that government should take the business of

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addressing socio economic issues that the terrorist capitalized

on to perpetrate such mayhem as priority in its agenda.

Introduction

Terrorism as the word implies was first used in France to

describe a new system of government adopted during the French

Revolution (1789-1799). From that time on, terrorism has had a

decidedly negative connotation. The word, however, did not gain

wider popularity until September 11, 2001, when Osama Bin Laden

masterminded a terrorist attack on United State.

 Terrorism according to Nolan, (1998) is the deliberate creation

and exploitation of fear for bringing about political change. All

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terrorist acts involve violence, or equally important the threat

of violence. These violent acts are committed by non-states armed

actors.

Terrorists attempt not only to show panic but also to undermine

confidence in the government and political leadership of their

target community. Terrorism is therefore designed to have

psychological effects that reach far beyond its impact on the

immediate victims or object of an attack. (Maier, 2000)

In Nigeria, terrorism has taken very interesting dimensions

which include threat to life and property, brutal killings of

both defenceless civilians and armed military men, burning of

houses, religious organizations especially churches in the north

eastern part of the country. In the North central, it takes the

form of cattle rustling perpetrated by so called Fulani herdsmen

who come mostly in the night and wipe out families and in some

instances entire villages. In the south, there are cases of

kidnapping. And today Nigeria is seen as belonging to the league

of growing terrorist nations (Farouk, 2012).

Groups that have been associated with terrorist act in Nigeria

include the Boko Haram, Movement for the emancipation of the

Niger Delta (MEND) and Fulani Herdsmen.

These acts of terrorism have a serious consequence on the socio

economic development of its citizenry, their activities, has

destabilized socio-economic activities, increased crime and the

destruction of both life and property. This can be attested to by

the mass movement of people living in the northern part of the

country. This situation has made it impossible for the citizens

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in that part of Nigeria to carry on their legitimate businesses.

As it becomes clear that nobody is safe as the terrorists can

strike anywhere, economic activities have been on the decline and

expansion plans are put on hold. For example, foreign investors,

who use to flow at least 200 billion dollar a year into the

Nigeria economy (Akpan, 2010) no longer view the Nigerian economy

as the safe haven that once was. The proliferation of terrorism

in Nigeria has made investors to think twice before moving into

the country to invest.

Various theories provide explanation for these observable

phenomena. This section attempts to draw analogy between

established theories and the problem being investigated. The

theoretical requirement for this work is drawn from frustration-

aggression theory which we believe provides a detailed

explanation for the emergence of terrorist insurgence in Nigeria.

The theory was propounded and developed by John Dollard and his

research associates initially developed in 1939, it has been

expanded and modified by scholars like Leonard Berlowitz (1962)

and Audrey Yales (1962). The theory properly created the analogy

used within this research to explain the dynamics in terrorism.

According to Dollard (1939) violent behaviour stemmed from

inability to fulfil needs. In attempts to explain aggression,

scholars point to the difference between what people feel they

want or deserve to what they actually get the ―want get-ratio and

difference between ―expected need satisfaction and actual need

satisfaction (Davies, 1960). When expectation does not meet

attainment the tendency is for people to confront those who are

responsible for frustrating their ambitions. Therefore, 5

frustration-aggression provides that aggression is not just

undertaking as a natural reaction or instinct as realist and

biological theorist assumes but that, frustration is the outcome

of a situation where the desire of an individual is denied either

directly or by the indirect consequence of the way the society is

structured, the feeling of disappointment may lead such a person

to express his anger through violence that will be directed to

those he holds responsible or people who are directly or

indirectly related to them (Akwen, 2011).

Terrorism in Nigeria Prior to October 1, 2010, terrorism was unknown to majority of

Nigerians from the domestic point of view. International

terrorism may not have been a new phenomenon to many Nigerians

but local terrorism was certainly new. The bombing of Eagle

Square on the 50th, Independence Anniversary of Nigeria on October

1, 2010 introduced terrorism in an unprecedented dimension in

Nigeria. The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta

(MEND) led by Henry Okar claimed responsibility for that

terrorist attack in which lives and properties were lost.

(Farouk, 2012). Ever since then, Nigeria has not known peace as

the bombing of various parts of Northern Nigeria has continued

unabated with a Sect known as Boko Haram, claiming responsibility

each time it occurs. The Boko Haram sect is rooted in the Northern

part of Nigeria and represents fundamentalist Islamic religious

group whose objective is to institute Islamic rule in Northern

Nigeria and discourage Christians and southerners from inhabiting

that geographical entity. The sect has unequivocally rejected

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western education and Christianity. Their main targets of attack

have been churches and security agencies. In quick successions,

they have attacked churches, police stations, the Police Forces

Headquarters in Abuja, the United Nations (UN) building. In

Abuja. Recently, tertiary institutions have also been bombed and

many students lost their lives.

(Awoyemi, 2012).

The Boko Haram terrorist group has adopted several strategies to

intimidate Nigerians. Its bombing activities have extended to

newspaper houses accusing them of skewed reporting of its

activities. Its most recent attacks are on telecommunications

base stations owned by MTN, Airtel, Etisalat, Globacom,

Multilinks, HIS and Helios Tower. The modus oparandi of the

Boko Haram sect is it issues warnings to the public before its

numerous attacks and despite the many security operatives in the

country; the threats of the sect are usually fulfilled.

This unfortunate situation has become worrisome to many Nigerians

including the

Federal Government which has sought collaboration with the United

States of America. America has officially declared Boko Haram as

a terrorist organisation in April 2012 and in June 2012 it

(America) placed three Boko Haram leaders on its terror list. The

main objective of America

is to move against the Boko Haram fundamentalist group and to

diminish its capacity to execute violent attacks ( Liqueur, 1996)

.Available information shows that Boko Haram has links with North

African AI-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb with which it shares

explosives and funds and relates with other foreign terror groups

( Onoja, 1996).7

Impact of Terrorist activities in Nigeria

Audrey,2002).

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Psychological Effect of Terrorism

Following series of bomb attacks in many parts of the country by

terrorist groups, Nigerians may have become exposed to the

psychological effects of terrorism in the country.

Studies have been carried out on the emotional, cognitive,

somatic, and behavioural responses that can be expected in the

immediate aftermath of terrorism. Beaton and Murphy (2006) review

of responses to terrorist events suggest that up to two-third of

those directly affected either as a victim or as a relative are

psychologically impaired to some degree. They may experience a

wide range of emotional and behavioural consequences that include

post traumatic stress disorder, a psychological disorder

characterized by persistent flashbacks or nightmares, extreme

irritability or jumpiness, and emotional numbing or avoidance of

reminders of the trauma. Others may develop other anxiety

disorders, depression, and problems with substance use.

The Effect of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

PTSD is likely the most prevalent and debilitating consequence of

disasters in general and terrorism in particular. There is an

emerging consensus in the literature that PTSD is a likely

outcome of terrorist incidents, and that PTSD after such events

is frequently accompanied by other behavioural and health

disturbances. Although the behavioural consequences of terrorist

incidents have received considerable attention, much of it is

driven by the September 11th, 2001 terrorist attack on the United

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States Most of the information on disaster-related PTSD comes

from the general disaster literature

First described in the 1980’s and included in the Diagnostic and

Statistical Manual; Third Edition (DSM-III) the diagnosis of PTSD

arose largely in response to the experiences of war veterans. To

qualify for a diagnosis an individual requires at least one

eligible traumatic event a symptom of re-experiencing the trauma

(intrusion), a numbing or blunting of affect (avoidance) and at

least 2 symptoms of hyper vigilance and startling (arousal). The

diagnostic criteria underwent revision in the 1987 DSM-III-R when

the requirement of at least one month’s duration was added and

again, in DSM-IV when the individual’s perception of the event

was added to the criteria.

(Robertson 1998).

Work impairment associated with PTSD is as great or greater than

that seen in major depressive disorder, and is associated with

increased rates of medical utilization. The general population

rate of PTSD has been estimated at between 5.4% and 7.8%. Left

untreated, PTSD is thought to last between 36 to 64 months, but

can persist for as long as a decade; time to remission can be

reduced by half with treatment. Over the course of a lifetime,

one half of the general population will meet a stressor at some

point; about one third of these individuals will develop PTSD

(Rosenheck & Fontana 2003).

Reports of the prevalence of PTSD among victims of man-made

disasters vary greatly. Rate are highest for victims and

survivors, from 25% of individuals exposed to a 1991 Killeen,

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Texas, mass shooting up to 75% of individuals in a 1988 oil rig

fire. Prevalence rates among rescuers vary from 5 to 40%.

Thirteen percent of Oklahoma City fire fighters met criteria for

PTSD several months later. Nearly half of the Australian fire

fighters involved in battling a bush fire in 1993 had PTSD at

some point in the first two years following the incident. The

prevalence of PTSD in the general population after a disaster is

lower. Seven to 11% of New York City residents met criteria for

PTSD after September 11th and 9% of Alaskans were reported to have

PTSD after the Exxon Valdez incident ( Rosenheck & Fontana 2003).

In the first weeks following the September 11, 2001 terrorist

attacks, 1 in 10 New York area residents met the criteria for

PTSD. There were estimates that 520,000 people in New York City

(NYC) and the surrounding areas would experience symptoms of PTSD

and that 129,000 would seek treatment. 7.6% of New York City

residents reported using mental health services in the 30-day

period 5 months after September 11th. A year later, NYC residents

continued to be ‘very concerned’ about future terrorist attacks.

(DiMaggio & Galea 2006)

Although the numbers of studies that have considered PTSD after

terrorism specifically are limited, one review of the topic

suggested that in the year following terrorist incidents PTSD

prevalence in directly affected populations varies between 12%

and 16%, and that this prevalence can be expected decline 25%

over the course of that year. However, in contrast, some

researchers have found evidence of persistently elevated

prevalence of psychological distress many months after and at

long distances from the events.

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In Nigeria, no study have been carried out to ascertain the

number of individuals who are experiencing PTSD, but in view of

other studies being carried out around the world, this will

equally show that victims of terrorist attack in Nigeria will

show the symptoms of PTSD, which we all can attest to as we

witnessed on the Jos plateau. The incessant attacks by terrorist

on innocent citizens usually leave them traumatized with no hope

of surviving.

 Psychology of the Terrorist It is expedient at this point to ask, “What kind of person is

the terrorist?” “What is his mindset?” “Why does he seem to enjoy

making life miserable for others? Alexander (2005) found that

people who are more open to terrorist recruitment and

radicalization tend to:

• Feel angry, alienated or disenfranchised.

•Believe that their current political involvement does not give

them the power to effect real change.

•Identify with perceived victims of the social injustice they

are fighting.

•Feel the need to take action rather than just talking about the

problem.

•Believe that engaging in violence against the state is not

immoral.

•Have friends or family sympathetic to their cause.

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•Believe that joining a movement offers social and psychological

rewards such as adventure, comraderie and a heightened sense of

identity.

In Nigeria, it seems the systemic collapse of the Nigerian state

may be the real catalyst of all forms of terrorism being

presently exhibited. It has been suggested that Nigeria’s poor

literacy rate and rather faulty implementation of the Universal

Basic Education programme may be partly responsible for the new

wave of domestic terrorism in the body polity. If terrorists

commit an attack and the state uses extreme force to send a

punishing message back, the terrorists may use that action to

drum up greater anti-state sentiment among citizens, lending

justification to their next actions. (DiMaggio & Galea 2006).

Terrorism and Socio-Economic Development

Since the advent of terrorism in Nigeria, it is clear that the

fabric of Nigeria’s economic foundation has really been shaken.

The once peaceful and commercially active North has been crippled

and brought to its knees by these enemies of the state. The

impact of the activities of the dreaded terrorist has brought

enormous damage to the Nigeria’s fragile economy. The domestic

and global implication of this new order terrorism can better be

imagined if a comparative analysis is done looking at the sudden

drop of commercial activities and the sharp decline of Foreign

Direct Investment (FDI) as a result of worsening security

situation in the North. (Modelski, 1962)

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A recent World Investment Report (WIP) of the United Nations

Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) estimated that the

domestic economy lost a whopping N1.33 trillion Foreign Direct

Investment (FDI), owing to the activities of the Nigerian

terrorists. According to the UNCTAD report, FDI flows to Nigeria

fell to $6.1 billion (N933.3 billion) in 2010, a decline of about

29 per cent from the $8.65 billion (N1.33 trillion) realized in

2009 fiscal year. The report obtained by US further revealed that

the sharp decline of FDI to the country was compounded in the

aftermath of the global financial crisis. Also, statistics

obtained from the 2010 annual report by the Central Bank of

Nigeria (CBN) showed that the total foreign capital inflow into

the Nigerian economy in 2010 was $5.99 billion. The record showed

that FDI represented about 78.1 per cent drop from $3.31 billion

in 2009 (CBN Business Report 2012).

Foreign investors are gradually diverting from Nigeria due to the

worsening security crisis. The renewed interest of China in

investing hugely in Nigeria is being dampened due to the

inability of Nigeria’s government to guarantee these investments.

Local investors are also badly hit as large chunk of operational

cost is diverted to security logistics. Nigeria’s investment

climate is classified as risky due to the advent of terrorism,

expatriates are wary of working in Nigeria. (Nwokey, 2012).

The banking sub sector has not been exempted as the profitability

of the branches in the North has nose-dived deeply; banks are

closing down their business outfits as a result of decreased

activities in the North. Employees of these institutions are

opting to be posted out of these regions due to the fear and air 15

of uncertainty that saturates these zones. Banks are spending

very huge amount of their resources towards the provision of

security as we have seen several occurrences of high-tech bank

robbery with the use of dangerous explosives and sophisticated

bombs. The cost and risk of during business in the North is at

its highest height. Most markets in these regions are operating

at a decreased capacity as most of the merchants who hail from

the South East have gradually fled from these ‘troubled waters’.

Insurance cost has risen significantly in the North as the risk

weight of doing business has significantly risen. Insurance

companies are reluctant to insure businesses in these zones due

to probability of loss. Effective demand has also decreased due

to the incapacitation of people to earn income. (CBN Business

Report 2012).

ConclusionFrom the various aspects of this work, this paper concludes that

without calculating

measure to check terrorism in Nigeria socio-economic development

will continue to suffer An overwhelming majority of problems

identified in this study can be tackled, but only by a capable

government that is seen by its citizens as legitimate and

trustworthy. There is must that Nigeria‘s government can and must

do to reduce alienations and build trust and legitimacy among its

citizens particularly in the northern region and address other

enablers of terrorism described in the study.

The core problem is perceived government inability to provide

basic socio economic indices to its citizen, the lack of this

provides opportunities for non-state actors like Boko Haram to 16

capture loyalties, hearts, and minds in pursuit of their radical

vision of the future.

Recommendation

This paper however recommends that for a nation like Nigeria to

achieve its objective in combating terrorism, it must put in

place the following measures aimed at quelling terrorism:

I .One major factor that has enhanced terrorism in Nigeria is the

porous borders of the country, where individuals movements are

largely untracked. The government must ensure that the porosity

of Nigerian borders is closely monitor because it has serious

security implications for the country. Given the porous borders

as well as the week security system, weapons come easily into the

nation from other countries. The proliferation of such arms have

enable terrorist to have easy access to arms. Also the porosity

of the borders had made it possible for unwarranted influx of

migrants from neighbouring countries; these migrants are some of

the perpetrators of terrorist acts in the country.

ii. Government should seek international corporation with other

nations knowing that no single nation can fight terrorism

effectively without seeking co-operation of others. This is too

checked cross boarder passage of arms from one country to

another.

iii. Government should ensure the strengthening of national laws

and regulations so as to give stiffer punishment to terrorists

and their accomplish. It must also enhance physical security

around facilities and infrastructure that are commonly targeted

by the terrorist.

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iv. Nongovernmental organization can be encouraged to set up

arbitration role between government and the terrorist; this will

help in addressing some of their grievances.

v. Victims affected directly and indirectly must be given

immediate counselling to cushion the effect of trauma they have

experienced.

xi. The government must rid the nation security services of

compromised men who are constantly disclosing counter terrorism

strategy to terrorist groups. Also security agents should be

equipped with modern gadgets and sophisticated arms to face the

equally sophisticated arms of the terrorist.

xii. Government must be made to appreciate the need to get

involved in the personal life of the individual and provide for

basic necessities of life such as access to quality education at

all levels and improving their living standard, this would

encouraged the terrorist to have desire to live and not waste his

life and the live of others.

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