The Late Upper Palaeolithic Occupation of the Moroccan Northwest Maghreb During the Last Glacial...

African Archaeological Review, Vol. 22, No. 2, June 2005 ( C© 2005)DOI: 10.1007/s10437-005-4190-y

The Late Upper Palaeolithic Occupationof the Moroccan Northwest MaghrebDuring the Last Glacial Maximum

R. N. E. Barton,1,10 A. Bouzouggar,2 S. N. Collcutt,3 R. Gale,4

T. F. G. Higham,5 L. T. Humphrey,6 S. Parfitt,7 E. Rhodes,8

C. B. Stringer,6 and F. Malek9

New work at Kehf el Hammar Cave provides the first well-dated palaeoenviron-mental sequence for the Late Upper Palaeolithic in this region of the northwestMaghreb. The archaeological layers are dated via a combination of AMS radio-carbon and luminescence dating methods. The sequence contains charcoal-richoccupation layers with faunal, human and lithic finds. Local vegetational patternsare reconstructed on the basis of preliminary analysis of the charcoal evidence.Using standard calibration curves the AMS radiocarbon dates are compared withproxy evidence for climatic change from sea core records in the Alboran Sea.These appear to show that the Late Upper Palaeolithic occupation of the regioncoincides closely with Heinrich Event 1, a period marked by intense aridificationand dating to ca. 16,700–17,250 calendar years ago.

Les nouvelles recherches dans la grotte de Kehf el Hammar ont permis d’obtenir lapremiere sequence paleoenevironnementale bien datee du Paleolithique superieurtardif au Nord Ouest du Maghreb. En effet, les niveaux archeologiques ont ete

1Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.2Institut National des Sciences de l’Archeologie et du Patrimoine (INSAP), Rabat, Morocco.3Oxford Archaeological Associates Ltd., Oxford, United Kingdom.4Kew Gardens, London, United Kingdom.5Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.6Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom.7Institute of Archaeology, University College London, United Kingdom.8Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.9Laboratoire des Recherches, d’Analyses Techniques et Scientifiques de la Gendarmerie Royale(LARATES), Rabat, Morocco.

10To whom correspondence should be addressed at Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford, 36Beaumont Street, Oxford OX1 2PG, United Kingdom; e-mail: [email protected].

77

0263-0338/05/0600-0077/0 C© 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.

78 Barton et al.

dates par le radiocarbone par accelerateur (AMS) et des methodes radiometriquesbasees sur la luminescence. En revanche, les paleoenvironnements vegetaux ontete partiellement reconstitues a base des premieres analyses des charbons debois. Les dates AMS calibrees ont ete comparees aux donnees climatiques is-sues des carottes marines dans la mer Alboran. Ainsi, les occupations humainesdu Paleolithique superieur tardif dans la region ont sensiblement coıncide avecl’evenement climatique Heinrich 1. Celui-ci correspond a une periode qui a etemarquee par une aridification intense entre 16.700 et 17.250 ans (cal.).

KEY WORDS: Iberomaurusien; Late Upper Palaeolithic; Maghreb; AMS radiocarbon dating;luminescence dating; Alboran Sea; Heinrich event 1.

INTRODUCTION

The Moroccan Northwest Maghreb region of Africa is of key interest for theunderstanding of human evolution and behavioral development. Not only are itscaves prolific sources of early human fossil and archaeological evidence (Camps,1974; Lubell, 2000; Roche, 1963) but the area lies immediately adjacent to theGibraltar Strait, still considered by many as a likely route for the dispersal of earlyhumans out of Africa (Barton et al., 2001; Bouzouggar et al., 2002; Straus, 2001).Yet, for all the obvious research potential, during critical periods of the LatePleistocene when evidence would be expected for population replacement anddispersal, the record of human settlement patterns and cultural histories remainsdisappointingly vague and incomplete. This can be partly explained by a lack ofmodern fieldwork and the fact that the number of sites with available dates isseverely limited due to a combination of imprecise contextual information andan over reliance on bulked charcoal for radiocarbon dating. Also largely missingfrom the archaeological record is the detailed palaeoenvironmental evidence thatwould allow proper consideration of questions regarding the rates and scales ofclimatic and landscape change and how these might have affected human evolutionand dispersal. As a contribution to this topic we present a new series of AMSradiocarbon and luminescence dates for Kehf el Hammar in NW Morocco. Theoccupation layers can be related to palaeoenvironmental proxy indicators, suchas charcoals and small vertebrates, and by using the calibrated record of AMS14C dates it is possible to make some preliminary observations concerning humanoccupation in this region in comparison with the event stratigraphy of the globalmarine isotope record.

This region of Morocco, known locally as the western Rif, is part of adiscontinuous band of upland massifs that extends eastwards from Morocco intoTunisia and Libya and forms what is widely referred to as the Maghreb (Blondeland Aronson, 1999). During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) the Maghreb isbelieved by some to have been largely depopulated ca. 20,000–18,000 14C bp(Close and Wendorf, 1990, p. 42). Climatic conditions in the western Maghreb

Late Upper Palaeolithic Occupation of the Moroccan Northwest Maghreb 79

for this period have been described as cool and arid with a vegetation dominatedby open steppe and little tree cover, and a projected mean annual precipitation of<500 mm per year (Lubell, 2000, p. 129). Conventionally, the end of the LGMis marked at ca. 15,000–14,000 14C bp by a rise in overall humidity levels asindicated by an increase in tree and shrub pollen in marine and terrestrial profiles(Lubell, 2000, p. 130).

The latest Palaeolithic industries across the region have traditionally been la-beled as “Iberomaurusien.” This describes a group of microlithic assemblages thatappear to be largely focused on the coastal zone of North Africa (Brahimi, 1970).The origins of this cultural entity continue to remain obscure. It is known in easternAlgeria at Tamar Hat before 20,000 14C bp (Saxon et al., 1974) and was apparentlypresent by 22,000 14C bp in eastern Morocco at Taforalt (Roche, 1976). Since thereis no convincing earlier Upper Palaeolithic in either of these areas it is assumed thatthere was a substantial rupture in human settlement between the Middle and Up-per Palaeolithic (Close and Wendorf, 1990, p. 43). Considerable methodologicalproblems surround the interpretation of the earliest Iberomaurusien in Morocco.At Taforalt the only two published radiocarbon dates greater than 21,000 14Cbp are based on burnt soil samples, while 12 dating determinations on charcoalsfrom overlying levels span the period of 16,000–11,000 years bp (Roche, 1976).On the Atlantic coast the Iberomaurusien at Grotte de Contrebandiers has a re-ported age of 22, 630 ± 500 bp (Gif-2576) but is considered ambiguous becauseof possible mixing with the underlying latest Middle Palaeolithic Aterian layers(Roche, 1976). A long sequence of Iberomaurusien deposits has recently been pub-lished from the cave of Ifri el Baroud in eastern Morocco (Mikdad and Eiwanger,2000). The dates range in age from about 11,000 to 17,000 years bp with a dateof 16, 777 ± 83 bp on charcoal for the oldest Iberomaurusien level (Eiwanger,1998; Gorsdorf and Eiwanger, 1998). Not far to the east in Algeria at AfalouBou Rhummel cave, the Iberomaurusien can be shown to cover an age range of11, 450 ± 230 bp (Ly-3227) for Couche III to 14, 910 ± 180 bp (Gif-9637) forCouche VII (Hachi et al., 2002), with a series of human burials in Couche V(Hachi, 1996, 1999). However it should be noted that most, if not all, of the datesmentioned above are based on combined charcoal samples and therefore shouldbe treated with caution.

So far very little work has been published on the palaeoenvironmental recordof northern Morocco and this has tended to focus on charcoal analyses ratherthan on pollen, phytoliths, molluscs, or microfauna. Except for early work on theIberomaurusien by Couvert and Roche (1976) studies have mainly been limited toHolocene deposits (Wengler and Vernet, 1992) with the result that little is knownof the ecological context of Late Upper Palaeolithic occupations.

A further dilemma for many North African archaeologists concerns the de-scription of technological nomenclature. The term “Iberomaurusien” was firstcoined by Pallary (1909) to describe archaeological finds from the Abri Mouillah inwestern Algeria. However, for a long time it has been regarded as an unsatisfactory

80 Barton et al.

and misleading label, particularly since the name implies trans-Mediterranean cul-tural links that have not yet been formally demonstrated (Camps, 1974, 57; Closeand Wendorf, 1990, but see Straus, 2001 for a contrary view). Alternative terms forthis technology have included: “Oranian” (Gobert and Vaufrey, 1932), “Mouillian”(Goetz, 1945–6 cited in Roche, 1963) and “Eastern Iberomaurusien” or “EasternOranian” (McBurney, 1967; Lubell, 2000), but none of them has been appliedconsistently or has gained common acceptance. To avoid such terminological con-fusion we propose instead in this paper the label “Late Upper Palaeolithic” ofNorthwest African facies. The advantage of using this broad term is that it avoidshistorical issues of terminological priority and sidesteps some of the cultural-boundary problems and chronological assumptions made in using alternativessuch as “epipalaeolithic.” Our definition would include lithic assemblages with apredominance of small backed blades and backed points; some made using themicroburin technique. For us, such industries are typified by those described atAbri Mouillah by Pallary (1909) comprising “une profusion de tres petites lames ados retouche et a pointe tres aigue.” The backed blade component in these assem-blages can be very rich, often contributing 40–80% of the retouched tools (Camps,1974, p. 62). Such is the case for the levels described below at Kehf el Hammar.

Kehf el Hammar

Kehf el Hammar is a cave occupying a small lateral valley of the River OuedLaou, in the Northwestern Rif of Morocco (GPS 5◦ 10.565′ W., 35◦ 20.376′ N.).It lies some 10-km inland from the present Mediterranean coast (Figs. 1 and 2).

The cave is at an altitude of 97 m and is situated near the base of cliffs abovetalus cones that slope sharply down to the terrace of the tributary about 20 m below.The cave entrance faces southeast with good views in the up-valley direction of thetributary. The cave itself is roomy and well-lit, measuring some 10 m wide by 20 mdeep, and 8 m high above the present ground surface. The local bedrock appearsto be a massive calcilutite (calc-mudstone) with slightly crinkled schistosity andcalcite veining, implying low-grade metamorphism. The cave is developed alongprominent fault zones and seems to have been formed by structural collapse ofblocks, although there are also signs of earlier phreatic activity in the form of tubesnow completely filled with cemented angular limestone grits (“breccia”).

Previous test excavations undertaken by the Mission Maroco-Espagnole(MME) in 1992 (Slaoui, 1995) confirmed the presence of multiple Later Up-per Palaeolithic occupation layers, very rich in artefactual and organic remains,and extending over a depth of more than 2 m. Fragmentary human skeletal remainswere also reported from the uppermost layers (Slaoui, 1995). In 2001, as part ofan extensive survey of caves and rock shelters in the Talembote area of northernMorocco we decided to re-examine the site by opening the backfilled trenches ofthe earlier excavation. Apart from the advantage of a well-stratified sequence, the


Fig. 1. Location of Kehf el Hammar and other caves cited in the text.

cave is extremely dry and conditions are exceptionally favorable for the preser-vation of bone, charcoal and palaeobotanical evidence. The cave contains humanskeletal remains of adults and children, which are so far undated.

Sampling Methods

In the first season standing sections left by the earlier excavation were cleanedand carefully logged and a series of samples taken for sieving in the laboratory. Amore concerted sampling effort was undertaken in 2002 and involved excavatinga vertical column 50 × 25 cm and ca. 2 m deep alongside the area sampled inthe previous season. The column was dug specifically for palaeoenvironmentaland dating samples. This strategy of microexcavation allowed each of the mainstratigraphic units to be sampled for charcoal, small vertebrates, amphibians,reptiles, and molluscs, and ensured that dating samples came from securely definedstratigraphic contexts. All sediments were wet-sieved through a 1-mm sized meshscreen and charcoal extracted by flotation.

AMS dating was undertaken on identified charcoals from each of the mainarchaeologically-rich layers. Initially, it was also hoped to obtain accelerator dateson bone and shell from the same stratigraphic units. The aim of this work was partly

82 Barton et al.

Fig. 2. Photograph of Kehf el Hammar.


methodological, to provide comparative samples for testing apparent discrepanciesrecently noticed between radiocarbon dates on charcoal and those on bone and shell(Joris et al., 2003) Unfortunately, screening of bone from the main archaeologicallayers using percentage nitrogen analyses revealed that not enough protein waspreserved for the samples to be dated and indeed several trial samples selected fordating assay failed in pre-treatment chemistry. Equally, most of the shell recoveredwas of thin-walled terrestrial molluscan species and therefore unsuitable for dating.However it was possible to include a number of burnt chert artefacts and sedimentsamples for luminescence dating.

Lithostratigraphy: Archaeological and Palaeontological Contexts

The detailed description of lithostratigraphy (below) describes the main sec-tion uncovered in 2001 (Fig. 3). It correlates with the column excavated againstthe same section in the following season. The section logged in 2001 can besubdivided provisionally into four members and described as follows:

Above bedrock, the Laminated Carbonate member (0–63 cm above bedrock)has diagnostic features: abundant powdery or fine aggregate carbonate; frequent,often fine alternation between more particulate (involving siliceous silt) and purer,weakly cemented levels; occasional very thin crystalline crusts; ubiquitous lam-ination (where not later disturbed); consistent easterly dip. The lamination andaggregates suggest a damp environment, with sediments continually organized bysheet flow; this interval may represent true climatic humidity (rather than sim-ply a closed cave context), since carbonates precipitated by mosses and otherlower plants (eucladioliths) do not develop beyond the diffuse light zone. Thereare rare, very small, true pebbles and siliceous sand grains possibly from oldersources. This member would contain both MME (Mission Maroco-Espagnole,Slaoui, 1995) units 6 and 5, together with Couches 11–7 of the 2002 season;significant scree and even boulders occur locally, in MME unit 5 and westwardsin Couche 8.

The Lower Gritty Carbonate and Silt member (63–107 cm) has diagnosticfeatures: poorly sorted, gritty carbonate powder and silt matrix; common, usuallyfine limestone clasts; thick, diffuse bedding, tending towards better laminar fabriconly nearer the top of the sequence; more segregated eucladiolith lenses (fromshifting centers of plant growth); slight easterly dip. Much of the coarser clasticinput (limestone, bone, charcoal) may be due to, or augmented by, human activity.The base of this sequence is slightly erosional but, above this, texture, fabric anddip all indicate lower energy levels, with sheet flow only picking up again nearerthe top of the sequence (where wavy false-bedding indicates damp conditions).Most beds tend to thicken slightly eastwards (thus reducing dip) but the moretufaceous lenses (thickening westwards) served locally to keep overall surfaceslope more or less constant. This member corresponds with the bulk of MME

84 Barton et al.

unit 4 (less the uppermost “phenomena” from about 113 cm, as described below),together with Couches 6-5 of the 2002 season.

There follows a complex (composite) angular unconformity, possibly repre-senting significant periods of time. First, as a minor erosive event, the sediment ofthe interval 107–113 cm truncates the already wavy false-bedding of the depositsbelow. This interval itself contains much carbonate aggregate, followed by whatmay be true (thin) floor speleothem, suggesting a degree of closing of the cave

Fig. 3. Kehf el Hammar: Stratigraphic profile of main section.


Fig. 3. Continued.

86 Barton et al.

environment, although the easterly dip persists locally. The interval 107–113 cmshould therefore be designated the Discordant Carbonate inter-bed; this clearlycorrelates with Couche 4 of the 2002 season. Couche 3 of the 2002 season (not ob-served in 2001) was cut out eastwards by strong erosion (possibly anthropogenic),implying that an Upper Gritty Carbonate and Silt member must be recognizedhere. A radical angular disjunction or “nonsequence” then occurred (after thestrong erosion event), all subsequent deposits having a reversed bedding dip to thewest. There is more limestone in stratigraphic proximity to this unconformity andit seems likely that there was significant structural failure of the outer overhangat about this time. The discordant interval appears to correspond to phenomenadescribed as being at the “junction” between MME units 3 and 4; there are strongsigns of burning but they seem to be posterior (allowing for some infiltration) tothe unconformity, the relatively “hard” surface being used by man during earlierdeposition of the next member.

The Gritty Loam member (113–192 cm above bedrock) has diagnostic fea-tures: poorly sorted gritty matrix; common fine-to-medium limestone clasts;patchy eucladioliths; generally only thick, coarse bedding; moderate, if a littleirregular, bedding angle towards the west. Human activity strongly affected thesequence (with obvious lenticular hearths). These are strictly local, low-energydeposits, the bedding angle appearing to represent the proximity (transgression) ofnormal entrance talus. This member must be time-transgressive, successive units“on-lapping” progressively further westwards onto the rising “hard” unconformitysurface; some stratigraphically lower units of this member (and possibly of as yetundefined intermediate members) remain to be observed further east of the expo-sures to date. This member would correspond with MME unit 3, and possibly withsome part of Couche 2 of the 2002 season.

The lowest layer with archaeological finds is Couche 11. The artefacts consistof a few undiagnostic flakes but there is a multiple burin on a concave truncation,which appears to be of Upper Palaeolithic type. The burin is on a blade (16 mmwidth), fractured proximally and with the truncation at the distal end. Multipleburin facets are present down one edge and are stopped by retouch (not a notch)near the distal end.

The overlying layers (Couches 10–7) are archaeologically sterile and containno charcoal or faunal remains. A thick sequence of unambiguously Late UpperPalaeolithic artefacts is located from Couches 6 upwards. Preliminary study of thelarge collection from the MME excavation (Slaoui, 1995) shows that it containsa high proportion of microlithic backed tools (curve-backed and straight-backedpoints), and evidence of the use of the microburin technique. Lithic artefacts(small curve- and straight-backed bladelets and small waste) principally in flinthave been recovered from the excavated column (Table I). It should be notedthat the lithic raw materials include both rocks collected from local sources inriver gravels but also flint presumed to come from Jbel Bouzaitoune, at least


Table I. Lithic Artefacts and Organic Remains from 2001 at Kehf el Hammar

SedimentSl. Depth sample Lithic Large Micro-no. (base = 0 cm) weight (g) artefacts Charcoal Shell mammal vertebrates

53 200–207 1025.6 ?√ √√√ √ √ √

52 200–207 198.0√ √

51 174–186 226.8√ √

50 174–186 181.9√ √ √ √

49 160–164 285.6√√ √√ √ √

48 160–164 — — — — — —47 160–164 211.2

√ √ √46 160–164 256.4

√√ √45 138–160 1033.8

√√ √√√ √√√ √√ √44 132–138 826.8

√√ √√√ √√√ √√√43 132–138 — — — — — —42 132–138 250.2

√√ √√√ √√ √√41 132–138 226.7

√√ √√ √√ √√40 119–129 438.4

√√ √√√ √√ √√√39 119–129 — — — — — —38 119–129 222.1

√ √√ √√ √√37 119–129 275.4

√√ √√√ √√ √√36 113–119 410.0

√ √√√ √√ √√ √35 113–119 — — — — — —34 113–119 — — — — — —33 113–119 70.1

√32 95–107 773.2

√ √√√ √√ √√√ √31 95–107 461.9

√ √√√ √√ √√ √30 93–95 39.1

√ √ √29 86–93 161.3

√ √ √ √√ √28 81–93 — — — — — —27 81–86 748.6

√ √√√ √√√ √√√ √26 79–81 102.8

√ √ √24 72–75 88.8

√ √ √ √23 63–72 286.2

√ √ √ √ √20 54–58 — — — — — —19 54–58 342.3

√ √√ √ √18 54–58 53.8

√17 52–54 136.3

√ √15 46–48 111.9

√14 46–48 170.1

√13 42–46 901.4

√√ √ √12 42–46 137.8

√ √11 39–42 82.7

√ √10 36–37 67.1

√9 34–36 170.4

√ √ √8 33–34 75.7

√7 33–34 46.1

√5 19–29 261.3

√ √√ √ √4 19–29 253.6

√√ √3 9–19 195.5

√ √1 0–5 133.5

√ √ √ √ √

Note.√

: rare,√√

: common,√√√

: abundant.

88 Barton et al.

Table II. List of Large Mammal Faunal Recorded at the Site

Kehf el Hammar (2002)Insectivora

Atelerix algirius Algerian hedgehogCrocidura sp. White-toothed shrew

ChiropteraChiroptera unident. Unidentified bat

PrimatesHomo sapiens Human

LagomorphaLepus capensis Cape hare

RodentiaHystrix cristata Crested porcupineGerbillus sp. GerbilMeriones sp. JirdMus spretus Algerian mouse

CarnivoraCanis aureus Golden jackalUrsus arctos Brown bear

ArtiodactylaGazella sp. GazelleAmmotragus lervia Barbary sheep

50 km from Kehf el Hammar. In addition to these finds, large vertebrates mainlybarbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), are abundant throughout (Table II). Many ofthe large mammal bones were either charred or calcined, and some have cut-marksindicating that much of this material represents human food refuse. Some smallmammal, bird, amphibian, reptile and fish bones were also recovered but these areuncommon in all of the samples (Table I).

A small number of human remains were recovered from the 2002 excava-tions. Although these were from potentially disturbed contexts (Couches 1 and2) it may be significant that amongst the finds was the maxilla of a young adultthat had evidence of an avulsed upper central incisor. This is a characteristicthat has previously been noted in Iberomaurusien burials (Ferembach, 1962) andsuggests that the human finds from Kehf el Hammar could belong to the sametradition.

In summary, the sediments comprise a series of powdery carbonate rich grittyloams to silts interspersed with frequent charcoal lenses and ashy deposits. Thefine sediments show evidence of rapid deposition, separated by a number of breaksin sedimentation. The most important disjunction occurs between Couches 3 and2. Late Upper Palaeolithic finds occur in Couches 6-3. The overlying Couches1 and 2 have also yielded Late Upper Palaeolithic finds but the interpretationof environmental and chronological evidence is complicated by the loose andheavily bioturbated nature of the sediments. Table I and Fig. 3 present summariesof each of the main layers containing palaeoenvironmental and archaeologicalevidence.


Charcoal Evidence

The large numbers of samples processed to date have produced quantities ofcharcoal but so far no other plant macroremains or carbonized seeds. A subsampleof the charcoals from each of the main levels has been analyzed by one of us(RG). It consisted of just under 500 fragments of which 251 were identifiable togenus or group level. The charcoal comprised small fragments, mostly <2 mmin radial cross-section, and ranging from extremely friable to relatively firm. Thesamples were prepared for examination using standard methods (Gale and Cutler,2000). The charcoal was examined using incident light on a Nikon Labophot-2compound microscope, and matched to reference slides. The results are presentedin Tables III and IV.

Dating Evidence

A series of six range-finder AMS radiocarbon dates was obtained on identifiedsingle charcoals from stratified contexts (Table V). An overlapping set of fourluminescence dates on sediments and burnt lithic artefacts (Table VI) providescomplimentary information from the same excavated sequence. As stated above,the lack of bone collagen in any of the collected specimens meant that none of theosseous material could be dated.

The methodology of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating is well-known so requires no further explanation here. The luminescence of sand-sizedquartz grains from samples was measured using a modified single aliquotregenerative-dose (SAR) protocol (Murray and Wintle, 2000). For the burnt lithics,a multiple aliquot combined additive and regenerative TL technique was used.Gamma dose rates were measured in situ and beta dose rate values were calcu-lated using Neutron Activation Analysis. A value of 2 ± 2% water content wasassumed for these samples.

For the OSL measurements extremely low infrared stimulated luminescence(IRSL) values and very bright OSL signals were observed, implying good quartzseparation had been achieved. A low degree of variability between aliquots wasobserved for all the OSL samples, leading to relatively high levels of precision inthe age estimates. Extremely low quartz yields restricted the number of aliquotsto 3 per sample. No signs of incomplete zeroing were observed. The high OSLsignal intensity of the samples may be related to anthropogenic heating of grains,or may reflect the natural high sensitivity of quartz grains often observed in NorthAfrica. The TL samples showed variable degrees of scatter, presumably reflectingdifferent degrees of heating. Higher temperature heating tends to produce sampleswith stronger TL emissions, less scattered growth, and higher precision in the ageestimates. A low degree of sensitivity increase of up to around 15% was observedin the regenerated growth curves. Measured parameters and luminescence datingresults are shown in Table VI, with 1 sigma (68%) uncertainties.

90 Barton et al.

Tabl

eII

I.C

harc

oalS

ampl

es(2

001)

Acc

ordi

ngto

Dep

thA

bove

Bas

e

Cis

tus/

Dep

thE

rica

/Pi

nus

(cm

;top

Pom

oide

aeL

egum

in-

Phi

llyr

ea/

Que

rcus

Que

rcus

Sali

x/pi

nea/

toba

se)

type

Ficu

sFr

axin

usos

aeR

ham

nus

Pist

acea

Aln

usde

cidu

ous

ever

gree

nPo

pulu

spi

nast

erP

inus

spC

onif

er

200–

207

+++

++++

+?++

+17

4–18

6++

++

+16

0–16

4+

+++

+13

8–16

0+

++

++

132–

138

+?++

++++

++

++

+++

+11

9–12

9+

++

++

++

+11

3–11

9+

++

++95

–107

++?

++

++

++

+86

–93

+++

81–8

6+

+?++

+++

81–7

9+

63–7

2+a

++

54–5

8+

+

Not

e.+

1,++

2–4,

+++

5–9,

++++

10–1

5,++

+++

16–2

5,++

++++

>25

.aA

MS

14C

radi

ocar

bon

date

onsi

ngle

spec

imen

.


Tabl

eIV

.20

02C

harc

oalS

ampl

esfr

omth

eE

xcav

ated

Col

umn

Lay

er/

Leg

umin

-P

hill

yrea

/Ju

nipe

rus/

Que

rcus

Ced

rus/

Sali

x/P

inus

/Pic

ea/

Cou

che

osae

Rha

mnu

sP

ista

cea

Tetr

aclin

usde

cidu

ous

Abi

esPo

pulu

sL

arix

Pin

ussp

Con

ifer

3+

++

++

++

++a

4a++

++

++

+a5

++

+a6

++

++

++

++

++a

7+

+9

++a

+

Not

e.+

1,++

2–4,

++

+5–

9,+

+++

10–1

5,+

++

++

16–2

5,+

++

+++

>25

.aA

MS

14C

radi

ocar

bon

date

onsi

ngle

spec

imen

.

92 Barton et al.

Tabl

eV

.A

MS

14C

Det

erm

inat

ions

and

Cor

rect

edD

ates

for

Keh

fel

Ham

mar

Cou

che/

Con

vent

iona

lC

alib

rate

d14

Cde

pth

Lab

code

Iden

tifier

Gen

usδ

13C

14C

(yea

rsbp

)ag

era

nges

(68%

)

3O

xA-9

26K

EH

5/H

8/3

Pin

us−2

4.1

13,3

45±

5016

,300

–15,

750

4aO

xA-1

1927

KE

H2A

/H8/

4AP

inus

−21.

913

,805

±55

16,8

10–1

6,32

05

OxA

-119

29K

EH

59/H

8/5

Juni

peru

s/−2

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Dat

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rate

Age

yrs

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(Gy)

(mG

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code

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2000

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0.54

0.95

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600

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994

KE

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513

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900

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565

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94 Barton et al.

The combined dating evidence of AMS, OSL, and TL methods provides awell-constrained and highly coherent set of ages for the Kehf el Hammar LateUpper Palaeolithic sequence. Given the known fluctuations in the production ofatmospheric radiocarbon and the resulting deviation from the absolute timescale,the AMS dates have been corrected and converted into calendar ages. The radio-carbon dates discussed here and presented in Table V have been corrected usingthe OxCal programme (Bronk Ramsey, 2001) with reference to the INTCAL98calibration curve (Stuiver et al., 1998).

DISCUSSION

The earliest occupation evidence at Kehf el Hammar comes from Couche 11.A minimum age for this layer is given by two dates from overlying sediments of23, 400 ± 1, 200 years ago (OxL-1412) and 21, 920 ± 110 radiocarbon years bp(OxA-11872), respectively. So far, the archaeological evidence is strictly limited.The only diagnostic tool is a multiple burin on truncation. Burins of this or anyother kind are regarded as rare in the Iberomaurusien. An almost identical examplehas been recorded in Layer C at Taforalt (Roche, 1953, p. 20, Fig. 4) but the findsfrom this context do not appear homogeneous and all that can safely be said forthe present is that the Kehf el Hammar example is of Upper Palaeolithic type. Aninteresting observation is that the sedimentological evidence implies a relativelywet climatic regime at the time the layer was formed.

The first unambiguous evidence of Late Upper Palaeolithic activity comesfrom Couches 6 and 5, dated to around 14, 110 ± 60 and 14, 005 ± 55 radiocarbonyears bp. The microlithic bladelet industry comprises identifiable tools such ascurve-backed and straight-backed points and is found in association with bone ofAmmotragus lervia, some of it fragmented and burnt and interspersed with charcoalfragments. The same technology has been recorded in overlying Couches 4 and3, radiocarbon dated respectively to 13, 805 ± 55 bp and to 13, 345 ± 50 bp, witha TL date of 13, 400 ± 1, 900 for Couche 4. The youngest age so far obtained isfrom Couche 2 (OxL-1414) 10, 100 ± 600 and, if correctly interpreted, implies avery late continuation of Upper Palaeolithic activity at this site.

The charcoal collected from hearths and combusted lenses within the exca-vated column at Kehf el Hammar is so far relatively restricted in terms of samplesize yet it allows some useful observations concerning the reconstruction of localvegetational patterns. For example, the combination of types recorded in Couches5 and 6 (Leguminosae, juniper, deciduous oak and pine) is normally found to-day in supra-Mediterranean bioclimatic zones (Blondel and Aronson, 1999). Sucha grouping for this latitude would usually be expected to occur at altitudes of1200 m and above (Blondel and Aronson, 1999, Fig. 4.1), thus implying muchcooler, semiarid conditions than are experienced in this area and at this elevationat present (Aura Tortosa et al., 2002). This interpretation appears to be supported


Fig. 4. Kehf el Hammar AMS14C determinations compared to Heinrich events.

96 Barton et al.

by the relative abundance in the microfauna of gerbils and jirds in the same levels.Such rodents are typical inhabitants of African steppe and desert environmentsand would be indicative of greater aridity and a landscape with at least some areasof steppic vegetation. A persistence of cooler conditions is perhaps also explainedby the occurrence of cedar (Cedrus) or fir (Abies) in Couche 3 although otherssuch as juniper and Leguminosae are noticeably absent.

The direct dating of charcoals from occupation layers also offers far greaterresolution in locating archaeological events within the framework of global-scaleand regional climatic histories. By calibrating the AMS 14C dates for Kehf elHammar, using the OxCal programme (Bronk Ramsey, 2001), direct comparisoncan be made with the absolute timescale of the GISP2 and GRIP ice cores from theGreenland Summit (Dansgaard et al., 1993). This is by no means a new method ofresearch. Elsewhere the technique of using “dates-as-data” has been successfullyemployed to model the dispersal of human populations and to place such eventswithin the wider context of global climatic change (Barton et al., 2003; Gambleet al., 2004; Holdaway and Porch, 1995). In this area of the northwest Maghrebthe dates may serve as a useful proxy for determining the timing, and perhapsdirection, of population expansion or migration into potentially more resource-rich valley and coastal zones.

In this region of the western Mediterranean the possibility for correlatingradiocarbon dated archaeological events and climatic records has now been con-siderably enhanced by the availability of sea core data from the Alboran Sea andthe Cadiz Basin (Combourieu Nebout et al., 1999). Of particular significancefor correlation purposes is the occurrence of the North Atlantic marine sedimentrecords in the last glaciation, which contain a number of “Heinrich layers” of icerafted debris (Broecker et al., 1992). Such layers, representing so-called Heinrichevents, are linked with strong surface-water cooling throughout the Atlantic andindicate increases in ice-berg calving that have an established relationship withDansgaard-Oeschger stadials in the ice core delta18O records of the Greenland icecores (Cacho et al., 1999; Dansgaard et al., 1993). The younger Heinrich eventscan be AMS 14C dated. According to recently published evidence the cold cli-matic extreme of Heinrich Events 1 and 2 have calibrated ages of approximately16,700–17,250 years ago and 23,600–24,200 years ago, respectively (Rohlinget al., 2003, Table I). Ice Rafted Debris recorded in the Gulf of Cadiz (M39–008)core suggest that polar waters entered the Mediterranean during Heinrich 1 andsignificant cooling may be inferred from modeled Sea Surface Temperatures basedon data from the Alboran sea core (MD95–2043) (Cacho et al., 2001, p. 44). Suchexternal events must have had a major effect on the terrestrial environments andthe people living in them. On land, increased levels of dustiness (Eriksson, 1975)and hyperaridity have been recorded for the Last Glacial Maximum (sensu lato),and this may be linked with the extension of the southern limit of active dunesin the Sahara over broadly the same timescale (Williams et al., 1993). Furtherevidence of increased aridification also comes from records of marked falls in lake


levels in tropical Africa at 17–18,000 bp and 13–14,000 bp (Alayne Street andGrove, 1979).

Table V presents the absolute ages for the Late Upper Palaeolithic occupationof Kehf el Hammar. The corrected dates provide ranges of 17,170–16,670 years(OxA-11929) and of 17,040–16,550 years (OxA-11928), both at the 68% confi-dence interval. According to these data it appears that the Late Upper Palaeolithicoccupation of the cave was initiated either within or just after Heinrich Event 1(Fig. 4). This is an interesting observation because it appears to be slightly laterthan for sites further to the east in Morocco and Algeria (e.g., Taforalt, Ifri elBaroud, Tamar Hat). If the dates are a correct proxy for the spread of humanoccupation into this region it implies that dispersal may have taken place duringHeinrich Event 1 or soon after this cooling event. However, the arguments stillremain somewhat complicated. On the one hand the warming following Heinrich1 was not particularly rapid and entailed a step-wise progression in the AlboranSea (Cacho et al., 2001, 45). On the other, despite the absence in any immedi-ate rise in Sea Surface Temperatures, the inflow of sub-tropical waters into thewestern Mediterranean must have produced significant vertical mixing of cur-rents (Cacho et al., 2001). One immediate consequence of this process was anenormous increase in primary productivity in surface waters, as documented inresults of foramaniferal studies (Vergnaud-Grazzini and Pierre, 1991). Such anincrease in biomass should also have been reflected in major rises for other marineorganisms including fish and sea mammals, and this may well have had importantimplications for the sustainability of Late Upper Palaeolithic populations livingnear the coast.

While it would be very tempting to explain any repopulation of the north-western Maghreb in the Late Upper Palaeolithic in terms of an intensification ofeconomic activities at the coast, there is as yet very little direct evidence in supportof this hypothesis. Certainly the exploitation of marine shellfish is well-attestedin the Late Upper Palaeolithic (Mikdad and Eiwanger, 2000; Roche, 1963) butfew marine molluscs were recorded amongst the accumulated cultural debris atKehf el Hammar. It therefore remains to be seen whether any major increase inthe use of coastal resources at this time can be demonstrated. In the absence orpoor preservation of bone collagen it might be feasible to test for human dietaryshifts by examining the mineralized component of hard tissues (bones and teeth).This is a line of research we are currently pursuing. A further option would beto extend the search for new sites to areas of the now submerged but relativelyshallow Late Pleistocene coastline.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank the British Academy for funding the early stages of this project andacknowledge the continuing support of a major NERC award under the EFCHED

98 Barton et al.

programme. Our gratitude is extended also to the Institut National des Sciences del’Archeologie et du Patrimoine, Ministere de la Culture et de la Communication,for arranging excavation permits and for providing financial and other valuableresources to this project. We are also grateful to Alison Roberts, Bob Pomfret,and SNC for their help in producing the figures. Finally we acknowledge theoriginal work at the cave by the Morocco-Spanish team under the codirection ofDr Mohamed Abdeljalil El Hajraoui, Director of the Heritage (Morocco) and ofJorge Onrubia Pintado of Universidad de Castilla y La Mancha. The authors thankElena Garcea for her critical comments on an earlier version of this paper.

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