THE LOEB CLA SSICAL LIBRARY

ED ITED BY

T. E . PAG E , LITT.D .

E . CAPPS, PH .D ., LL.D . W . H . D. ROUSE, LITTJ).

THE G EOG RA PHY OF STRA BO

VII

THE G EOG RAPHY

OF STRABO

W ITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY

HORACE LEONARD JONES, PH.D .,LL.D.

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

IN EIGHT VOLUMES

LONDON : WILL IAM HEINEMANN LTD

NEW YORK : G. P.

‘

P U TN A M’

S SONSMCMX X X

CONTENTS

BOOK X V

BOOK X VI

A S IA.

A PARTIAL D ICTIONARY OF PROPER NAMES 375

THE

G EOG RAPHY OF STRABO

BOOK X V

VOL. VI I . B

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1 Le. the Indian Oc ean.

THE G EOG RA PHY OF STRABO

BOOK XV

1. THE parts s till left of Asia are those outs idethe Taurus except Cilicia and Pamphylia and Lycia ,I mean the parts extending from India as far asthe Nile and lying between the Taurus and theouter sea on the south .

1 After Asia one comes toLibya , which I shall describe later , but I must nowbegin with Indi a , for it is the first and largestcountry that lies out towards the east .2 . But it is necessary for us to hear accounts of

this country with indulgence , for not only is itfarthest away from us , but not many of our peoplehave seen it ; and even those who hav e seen it ,have seen only parts of it , and the greater part ofwhat they say is fM e ars ay ; and even what theysaw they learned on a hasty passage with an armythrough the country . Wherefore they do not giv eout the same accounts of the same thing

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eventhough they hav e written these accounts as thoughtheir statements had been carefully confirmed .

And some of them were both on the sameexpedition together and made their soj ournstogether , like those who helped Alexander to subdue As ia ; yet they all frequently contradict one

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another . But if they differ thus about what wasseen

,what must we think of what they report from

hearsay ?3 . M oreover ,most of those who hav e written anything about this region in much later times , andthose who sail there at the present time , do not present any accurate information either . At any rate ,Apollodorus , who wrote The Partizic a, when hementions the Greeks who caused Bac triana to revoltfrom the Syrian kings who succeeded SeleucusNic ator, says that when those kings had grown inpower they also attacked India , but he rev ealsnothing further than what was already known , andeven contradicts what was known , saying that thosekings subdued more of India than the M acedonians ;that Euc ratidas , at any rate , held a thousand citiesas his subj ects . Those other writers , however , saythat merely the tribes between the Hy dasp e s andthe Hypanis were nine in number , and that they hadfi v e thousand cities , no one of which was smallerthan the M e ropian Cos , and that Alexander subduedthe whole of this country and gav e it ov er to Porus .4 . As for the merchants who now sail from A e gy pt

by the Nile and the Arabia—

n Gulf as far as India ,only a small number hav e sailed as far as the Gangesand even these are merely private citizens and ofno use as regards the history of the places theyhav e seen . But from India , from one place andfrom one king , I mean Pandion , or another Porus ,

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Poru s me ntioned in 3 above .

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GEOGRAPHY , 1 5. 1 . 4—6

of honour and the Indian sophist who burnt himself up at Athens ,

1 as Calanu s had done , who madea similar spectacular display of ‘himself beforeAlexander.5 . If, howev er , one should dismi ss these accountsand observ e the records of the country prior to theexpedition of Alexander , one would find things stillmore obscure . Now it is reasonable to suppose thatAlexander believed such records because he wasb linde d by his numerous good fortunes ; at any 31rate , Ne arc hu s says that Alexander conceived anambition to lead his army through G e dro s ia whenhe learned that both Semiramis and Cyrus hadmade an expedition against the Indians , and thatSemiramis had turned back in flight with onlytwenty people and Cyrus with sev en ; and thatAlexander thought how grand it would be , whenthose had me t with such rev erses , if he himselfshould lead a whole v ictorious army safely throughthe same tribes and regions .2 Alexander , therefore ,believ ed these accounts .6. But as for us , what j ust credence can we

place in the accounts of India deriv ed from such anexpedition made by Cyrus , or Semiramis ? AndM e gas the ne s v irtually agrees with this reasoningwhen he bids us to hav e no faith in the ancientstories about the Indians ; for , he says , neitherwas an army ev er sent outs ide the country by theIndians nor did any outside army ev er invade theircountry and master them, except that with Heraclesand Dionysus and that in our times with theM acedonians . However , Sesostris , the A e gy pt ian ,

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GEOGRAPHY , 15. 1 . 6—7

repute among the Chaldaeans than He rac le s , le d anarmy ev en as far as the Pillars . Thus far , he s ays ,als o Te arc o went and Sesostris als o led his army fromIberia to Thrace and the Pontus ; and Idanthy rs u sthe Scythian ov erran Asia as far as A e gyp t ; but noone of these touched India , and Semirami s too diedbefore the attempt ; and , although the Persianssummoned the Hy drac e s as mercenary troops fromIndi a , the latter did not make an expedition toPersia , but only came near it when Cyrus wasmarching against the M as s age tae .

7 . As for the stories of Heracles and Dionysus ,M e gas the ne s with a few others considers themtrustworthy ; but most other writers , among whomi s Eratosthenes , consider them untrustworthy andmythical , like the stories current among the Greeks .For instance , in the Bac c hae 1 of Euripides Dionysussays with youthful bravado as fo llows : I hav e leftbehind me the gold- bearing glades of Lydia andof Phrygia , and I have v isited the sun - strickenplains of Persia , the walled towns of Bactria , thewintry land of the M edes , and Arabia the Blest ,and the whole of Asia .

” 2 In SophoEIes ,Elsa-

fi re

is someone who hymns the praises of Nysa as themountain sacred to Dionysus : Whence I beheldthe famous Nysa , ranged in Bacchic frenzy bymortals , which the horned Iacchus roams as hisown sweetest nurse , where—what bird ex ists thatsingeth not there ? And so forth . And he isalso called M e rotraphe s . And Homer says of

1 13 ff.3 Quote d also in l . 2 . 20.

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1 Adventures of Herac les .1 2

GEOGRAPHY, 15. I . 8—10

my th by the stories of the Caucasus and Prometheus ,for they hav e transferred all this thither on a slightpretext , I mean because they saw a sacred cav e inthe country of the Paropamisadae ; for they setforth that this cav e was the prison of Prometheusand that this was the place whither Heracles cameto release Prometheus , and that this was the Caucasusthe Greeks declared to be the prison of Prometheus .9 . But that these stories are fabrications of the

flat t e re rs of Alexander is obv ious ; first , not onlyfrom the fact that the histo rians do not agree with /one another , and also because , while some relatethem , others make no mention whatever of them ;

for it is unreasonable to believ e that exploits sofamous and full of romance were unknown to anyhistorian , or , if known , that they were regarded asunworthy of recording , and that too by the mosttrustworthy of the historians ; and , secondly , fromthe fact that not even the interv ening peoples ,through whose countries Dionysus and Heraclesand their followers would have had to pass in orderto reach India , can show any ev idence that thesemade a j ourney through their country . Further ,such accoutrement of Heracles is much later thanthe records of the Troj an War , being a fabricationof the authors of the HerLLL

‘kia,1 whether the authorwas Pe is ande r or someone else . The ancient statuesof Heracles are not thus accoutred .

10. So , in cases like these , one must accept ev erything that is nearest to credibility . I hav e alreadyin my first discussion of the subj ect of geography2made decisions , as far as I could , about thesematters .And now I shall unhesitatingly use those decisions

2 . 1. I E.

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GEOGRAPHY , 1 5. I . 1 0—1 1

as accepted, and shall als o add anything els e thats eems required for the purpos e of clearing s . I t wasparticularly apparent from my former dis cus s ionthat the s ummary account s e t forth in thethird book of his geography by Eratos thenes ofwhat was in his time regarded as India, that is ,when Alexander invaded the country , is the mos ttrus tworthy ; and the Indus River was the boundarybetween India and Ariana, which latter was s ituatednext to India on the wes t and was in the pos s es s ionof the Pers ians at that time ; for later the Indiansals o held much of Ariana, having received it fromthe Macedonians . And the account given byEratos thenes is as follows11. India is bounded on the north , from Ariana

to the eas tern s e a, by the extremities 1 of the Taurus ,which by the natives are s everally called Paro

pamis u s and Emodus and Imau s and othernames , but by the Macedonians Caucas us on

the wes t by the Indus River ; but the s outhern and

eas tern s ides , which are much greater than theother two , extend out into the Atlantic s e a, and

thus the shape of the country becomes rhomboidal ,each of the greater s ides exceeding the oppos ites ide by as much as three thous and s tadia, whichis the s ame number of s tadia by which the cape 2common to the eas tern and s outhern coas t extendsequally farther out in either direction than theres t of the shore . Now the length of the wes terns ide from the Caucas ian Mountains to the s outherns e a is generally called thirteen thous and s tadia,

1 Se e 11. 8. 1 and footnote 3 .

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16

GEOGRAPHY , 1 5. I . 1 1—1 2

I mean along the Indus River to its outlets , so thatthe length of the opposite side , the eastern , if oneadds the three thousand of the cape , will be sixteenthousand stadia . These , then , are the minimumand max imum breadths of the country . The lengthsare reckoned from the west to the east ; and , ofthese , that to Palib othra can be told with more confi den c e , for it has been measured with measuringlines ,1 and there is a royal road of ten thousandstadia . The extent of the parts beyond Palib othrais a matter of guess , depending upon the voyagesmade from the sea on the Ganges to Palib othra ;and this would be something like s ix thous andstadia . The entire length of the country, at itsminimum, will be sixteen thousand stadia , as takenfrom the Regis ter of D ay s

’

Journey s that is mostcommonly accepted , according to Eratosthenes ;and , in agreement with him , M e gas the ne s statesthe same thing , though Patro c le s says a thousandstadia less . If to this distance , however, one addsthe distance that the cape extends out into thesea still farther towards the east , the extra threethousand stadia will form the max imum length ; 2and this constitutes the distance from the outletsof the Indus River along the shore that comes nextin order thereafter, to the aforesaid cape , that is , tothe eastern limits of India . Here live the Coniac i ,as they are called .

12 . From this one can see how much the accountsof the other writers differ. Ctesias says that Indiais not smaller than the rest of Asia ; One s ic ritu s that

1 Or, by a s light emendation of the te xt, “ in te rms of thes c hoe nu s (s e e c ritic al note and c f. 11. 14 .

2 Le s tadiaI 7

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2 0

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. I . 1 3—1 5

watered by the summer rains and that the plainsbecome marshes . Now in the rainy seasons flax

is sown, and also millet, and, in addi tion to these ,sesame and rice and b osmorum ,

1 and in the winterseasons whe at

'

and barley and puls e and other edibleswith whi ch we are unacquainted . I might almost saythat the same animals are to be found in Indi a asin A e thi0pia and A egyp t , and that the Indian rivershave all the other river animals except the hippo

potamu s , although One s ic ritu s says that the hippo

potamu s is also to be found in India . M r thepeople of India , those in the south are like tlie

W in colour, although they are like the restin respect to countenance and hair (for on accountof the humidity of the air their hair does not curl),whereas those in the north are like the A egy p tians .

14 . As for Taprob ané ,2 it is said to be an island

situated in the high sea W ithin a seven days ’ sailtowards the south from the most southerly parts ofIndia , the land of the Coniac i ; that it extends inlength about eight thousand stadia 3 in the direction

‘\ of A e thi0pia, and that it also has elephants . Suchare the s tatements of Eratosthenes ; but my own

description will be specially characteris ed by theaddition of the statements of the other writers ,wherever they add any accurate information .

15 . One s ic ritu s , for example , says ,

of Taprob ané

that it is fi v e thousand stadia in size , withoutdi stinguishing its length or breadth ; and that it is atwenty days ’ voyage di s tant from the mainland , but

1 Se e 18 following.2 On Taprob ané (Ce lon), c f. P liny 24 (22)if .3 Se e 2 . whe re IStrab o says fi v e thousand (s e e c ritic alnote ).

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1 P liny (6. 2 4 say s , navi b u s u trimque prorae , ne p e rangus tias alve i c irc umagi s it ne c e s s e the ships have prows2 2

GEOGRAPHY , 1 5 . 1 . 1 5—1 7

that it is a di fficult voyage for ships that are poorlyfurnished with sails and are cons tructed withoutbelly - ribs on both s ides ; 1 and that there are als oother is lands between Taprobane and India, thoughTaprobane is farthes t s outh ; and that amphibiousmons ters are to be found round it , s ome of whichare like kine , others like hors es , and others likeother land- an imals .

16. Ne arc hu s , speaking of the alluvia depos ited bythe rivers , gives the following examples : that thePlain of the Hermus River, and that of the Cay s te r,as als o thos e of the Maeander and the Cai c u s , are s o

named becaus e they are increas ed , or rather created ,by the s ilt that is carried down from the mountainsover the plains—that is all the s ilt that is fertileand s oft ; and that it is carried down by the rivers ,s o that the plains are , in fact , the offspring , as itwere , of thes e rivers ; and that it is well s aid thatthey belong to thes e . This is the s ame as the s tatement made by Herodotus in regard to the Nile andthe land that borders thereon , that the land is the

gift of the Nile2 and for this re am hu s rightly

M ‘ a- f

s ays that the Nile was als o called by the s ame nameas the land Aegyptus .

17 . Aris tobulus s ays that only the mountains and

their foothills have both rain and snow , but that theplains are free alike from rain and s now , and are

inundated only when the rivers ris e ; that the mountains have snow in the winter- time , and at theat e ithe r end , in o rde r that it may not b e ne c e s sary to tac kwhile nav igating the narrow pas sage s of the

Me ine ke , fo llowing the c onj e c tu re of K rame r , emends thew ords of Strabo to make them more in ac c ord with thos e ofP liny (s e e c ritic al note ).

2 Cp. 1. 2 . 29 .

2 3

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late r e ditors .

2 ins e rted b y G roskurd ,s o the late r e ditors .

Corais , for Movdmay oii s o the late r e ditors .

GEOGRAPHY , 1 5. I . 1 7

beginning of spring- time the rains als o s e t in and

ever increas e more and more , and at the time ofthe Etes ian winds the rains pour unceas ingly and

violently from the clouds , both day and night , untilthe ris ing of Arcturus ; and that , therefore , therivers , thus filled from both the snows and the rains ,water the plains . He s ays that both he hims elf andthe others noted this when they had s e t out forIndia from Paropamis adae , after the s etting of thePleiades , and when they spent the winter near themountainous country in the land of the Hy pas ian sand of A s sac anus , and that at the beginn ing ofspring they went down into the plains and to Taxila,

a large city , and thence to the Hy dasp e s River andthe country of Porus ; that in winter, however, nowater was to be s een , but only snow ; and that itfirs t rained at Taxila ; and that when , after theyhad gone down to the Hy dasp e s River and hadconquered Porus , their j ourney led to the HypanisRiver towards the eas t and thence back again tothe Hy dasp e s , it rained continually, and especiallyat the time of the Etes ian winds ; but that whenArcturus ros e , the rain ceas ed ; and that after tarrying wh ile

O

the‘

ir shipsWere being built on the Hy dasp e sRiver, and after beginning their voyage thence onlya few days before the s etting of the Pleiades , and ,after occ upying thems elves all autumn and winterand the coming spring and summer with theirvoyage down to the s eacoas t , they arrived at Patale né at about the time of the ris ing of the Dog Star ;"

that the voyage down to the s eacoas t therefore tookten months , and that they saw rains nowhere , noteven when the Etes ian winds were at their height

,

and that the plains were flooded when the rivers

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28

GEOGRAPHY , 1 5. I . 18—19

the grain is winnowed like barley ; and rice growsals o in Bac triana and Babylonia and Sus is , as als oin Lower Syria. M egillus s ays that rice is s ownbefore the rains , but requires irrigation and transplanting,1 being watered from tanks . Bosmorum ,

according to One s ic ritu s , is a smaller grain thanwheat ; and it grows in lands s ituated betweenrivers . It is roas ted when it is threshed out , s incethe people take an oath beforehand that they willnot carry it away unroas ted from the threshingfloor , to prevent the exportation of s eed .

19 . Aris tobulus , comparing the characteris tics ofthis country that are s imilar to thos e of both A egy pt

and A e thi0p ia, and again thos e that are oppos itethereto , I mean the fact that the Nile is floodedfrom the s outhern rains , whereas the Indian riversare flooded from the northern , inquires why theintermediate regions have no rainfall ; for neitherthe Thebais as far as Sy e né and the region of Meroenor the region of India from Patale né as far as theHy daspe s has any rain . But the country abovethes e parts , in which both rain and snow fall , are

cultivated , he s ays , in the s ame way as in the res tof the country that is outs ide Indi a ; for , he adds ,it is watered by the rains and snows . And it isreas onable to s uppos e from his s tatements that theland is als o quite s ubj ect to earthquakes , s ince itis made porous by reas on of it s great humidi ty and

is s ubj ect to s uch fis sures that even the beds ofrivers are changed . At any rate , he s ays that whenhe was s ent upon a certain mis s ion he saw a country

1 Se e c ritic al note .

4027 0 3 , Epit. , 0 677 7 6: othe r MSS . s o the e d ito r s .

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30

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. I . 19—2 0

of more than a thou sand cities , together wi thV illages , that had been des erted becaus e the Indushad abandoned it s proper bed , and had turned as ideinto the other bed on the left that was much deeper ,and flowed with precipitous des cent like a cataract ,s o that the Indus no longer watered by it s overflowsthe abandoned country on the right , s ince thatcountry was now above the level , not only of thenew s tream , but als o of it s overflows .

20. The flooding of the rivers and the abs ence ofland breez es is confirmed als o by the s tatement ofOne s ic ritu s ; for he s ays that the s eashore is coveredwith shoal—water , and particularly at the mouths ofthe rivers, on account of the s ilt , the flood- tides , andthe prevalence of the winds from the high s eas .

M e gas the n e s indicates the fertility of India by s aying that it produces fruit and grain twice a year.And s o s ays Eratos thenes , who speaks of the winters owing and the s ummer s owing , and likewis e ofrain ; for he s ays that he finds that no year iswithout rain in both s eas ons ; s o that , from this fact ,the country has good s eas on s , never failing to produce crops ; and that the trees there produce fruitsin abundance , and the roots of plants , in particularthos e of large reeds , which are sweet both by natureand by heating , s ince the water from the sky as

well as that of the rivers is warmed by the rays ofthe s un . In a s ens e , therefore , Eratos thenes meansto s ay that what among other people s is calle d theripen ing ,

” whether of fru its or of j uices , is calledamong thos e people a heating , and that ripen ingis as effective in producing a good flavour as heatingby fire . For this reas on als o , he adds , the branchesof the trees from which the wheels of carriages are

3 1

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3 2

GEOGRAPHY , 1 5. I . 2 0—2 1

made are flexible ; and for the same reas on evenwool 1 blos soms on s ome . From thi s wool , Ne arc hu s

says , finely threaded cloths are woven , and theMacedonians u s e them for pillows and as paddingfor their s addles . The Serica 2 als o are of this kind ,Bys s us 3 being dried out of certain barks . He s tatesals o concerning the reeds } that they produce honey ,although there are no bees , and in fact that there isa fruit- bearing tree from the fruit of which honeyis compounded , but that thos e who e at the fruit rawbecome intoxicated .

21. In truth , India produces numerous s trangetrees , among which is the one whos e branches benddownwards and whos e leaves are no smaller than ashield. One s ic ritu s , who even in rather s uperfluousdetail des cribes the country of Mu s ic anu s , which , hes ays , is the mos t s outherly part of India, relates thatit has s ome great trees whos e branches have firs tgrown to the height of twelve cubits , and then , afters uch growth , have grown downwards , as thoughbent down , till they have touched the earth ; andthat they then , thus dis tributed , have taken rootunderground like layers , and then , growing forth ,have formed trunks ; and that the branches of thes etrunks again , likewis e bent down in their growth ,have formed another layer, and then another, ands o on s ucces s ively , s o that from only one tree thereis formed a vas t sunshade , like a tent with many

17°

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2 the threads of whi c h the Se re s make the ir garments(s e e Pausam

’

as 6. 26. 4 and Fraz e r’s note there on).3 By By s s us Strabo undoubte d ly means s ilk, s uppo s ing

it to b e a kind of c otton (se e Mis s R i c hte r’s art ic le on“ Silk

in Gre e c e ,” Am. Jour. Arc h , Jan - Marc h , 1929, pp . 2 74

s ugar- c ane .

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e ditors .

36

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. I . 2 2—2 3

cure he receives a reward from the king. And hes ays that the s outhern land of Indi a , like Arabiaand A e thiopia, bears cinnamon , nard , and otheraromati c products , being s imilar to thos e countriesin the effect of the rays of s un , although it s urpas s e sthem in the copious nes s of its waters ; and thattherefore its air is humid and proportionately morenourishing and more productive ; and that thi sapplies both to the land and to the water, and therefore , of cours e , both land and water animals in Indiaare found to be larger than thos e in other countries ;but that the Nile is more productive than otherrivers , and prom huge creatures , among othersthe amphibious kind ; and that the A egypt ian womens ometimes actually bear four children . Aris totlereports that one woman actually bore s even ; andhe , too , calls the Nile highly productive and nourishing becaus e of the moderate heat of the s un

’

s rays ,whi ch , he s ays , leave the nourishing element andevaporate merely the s uperfluous .

23 . It is probably from the s ame caus e , as Aris totles ays , that this too takes place— Imean that the waterof the Nile boils with one - half the heat required byany other. But in propo rtion , he s ays , as the waterof the Nile travers es in a s traight cours e a long andnarrow tract of country and pas s es acros s manyclimata 1 and through many atmospheres , whereasthe s treams of India spread into greater and widerplains , lingering for a long time in the s am eclimata,

” in the s ame proportion thos e of Indi aare more nourishing than thos e of the Nile ; and on

1 be lts of latitude (s e e Vol. I , p . 22 , footnote

57rvpL64161 7 6

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38

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. I . 2 3—2 4

this account their river animals are also larger andmore numerous ; and further , he says , the wate ris already heated when it pours from the clouds .24 . To this s tatement Aris tobulus and his followers ,who assert that the plains are not watered by rain ,would not agree . But One s ic ritus believes that rainwater is the cause of the dis tinctive differences inthe animals ; and he adduces as evidence that thecolour of foreign cattle which drink it is changed tothat of the native an imals . Now in this he is correct ;but no longer s o when he lays the black complexionand woolly hair of the Aethiopia‘

ns on merely thewaters and censures The ode c t e s ,

1 who refers thecaus e to the s un its elf, s aying as follows Nearingthe borders of thes e people the Sun , driving hischariot , di s coloured the bodies of men with a murkydark bloom , and curled their hair, fus ing it byun increas able forms of fire . But One s ic ritu s mighthave s ome argument on his s ide ; for he s ays that , inthe firs t place , the s un is no nearer to the Aethiopiansthan to any other people , but is more nearly in a

perpendicular line with reference to them and on

this account s corches more , and therefore it is incorrect to s ay , Nearing the borders the s un ,

s ince the s un is equidis tant from all peoples ; and

that , s econdly , the heat is not the caus e of s uch a

dis coloration , for it does not apply to infants in thewomb either , s ince the rays of the s un do not touchthem . But better is the opinion of thos e who laythe caus e to the s un and its s corching , which caus esa very great deficiency of mois ture on the s urfaceof the skin . And I as s ert that it is in accordance

1 The ode c tas is probably the c orre c t spe l ling (s ee I . G.

I I ,

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4 0

GEOGRAPHY, I 5. 1 . 2 4

—2 5

with this fact that the Indian s do not have woollyhair, and als o that their skin is not s o unmercifullys corched, I mean the fact that they share in an

atmosphere that is humid. And already in the /womb chi ldren, by s eminal impartation , become liketheir parents in colour ; for congenital affections and

other s imilarities are als o thus explained . Further ,the s tatement 1 that the s un is equidi s tant from all

peoples is made in accordance with obs ervation , notreas on ; and, in accordance w ith obs ervations thatare not cas ual , but in accordance with the obs ervation

,as I put it , that the earth is no larger than a

point as compared with the s un ’

s globe ; s ince inaccordance with the kind of obs ervation whereby wefeel di fferences in heat— more heat when the heat isnear us and les s when it is far away— the s un is notequidis tant from all ; and it is in this s ens e that thes un is spoken of 2 as nearing the borders of theAethiopians , not in the s ens e One s ic ritus thinks .

25 . The following , too , is one of the things agreedupon by all who maintain the res emblance of Indiato A egypt and A e thi 0p ia : that all plains which are

not inundated are unproductive for want of water.Ne arc hu s s ays that the ques tion formerly rais ed inreference to the Nile as to the s ource of its floodingsis answered by the Indian rivers , becaus e it is theres ult of the s ummer rains ; but that when Alexanders aw crocodiles in the Hy das pe s and A e gy pt ian beansin the A c e s ine s , he thought he had found the s ourcesof the Nile and thought of preparing a fleet for an

expedi tion to A egypt , thinking that he would s ail as1126. of One s ic ritu s .

2 b y The ode c te s .

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4 4

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. I . 2 6

He therefore approached Indi a through Ariana , and,leaving India on the right , cros s ed over Mt . Paro

pami su s to the northerly parts and Bac triana ; and ,having s ubdued everything there that was s ubj ectto the Pers ians and s till more , he then forthwithreached out for Indi a too, s ince many men 1 hadbeen des cribing it to him, though not clearly .

Accordingly he returned, pas s ing over the s amemountains by other and shorter roads , keeping Indiaon the left , and then turned immedi ately towardsIndi a and its wes tern boundaries and the Cophe sRiver and the Choasp e s , which latter empties intothe Cophe s River near a city Plemy rium, afterflowing pas t G ory s , another city, and flowing forththrough both Bandob e né and G andarit is . He learnedby inquiry that the mountainous and northerly partwas the mos t habitable and fruitful , but that thes outherly part was partly without water and part lywashed by rivers and utterly hot , more s uitable forwild beas ts than for human beings . Accordingly,he s e t out to acquire firs t the part that was commended to him, at the s ame time cons idering thatthe rivers which it was neces s ary to cros s , s ince theyflow trans vers ely and cut through the country whichhe meant to travers e , could more eas ily be cros s ednear their s ources . At the s ame time he als o heardthat s everal rivers flowed together into on e s tream ,

and that this was always s till more the cas e thefarther forward they advanced, s o that the countrywas more difficult to cros s , especially in the event oflack of boats . Afraid of this , therefore , he cros s edthe Cophe s and began to s ubdue all the mountainouscountry that faced towards the eas t .

1 His torians and ge ographe rs who ac c ompanied him.

4 1:

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4 6

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 1 . 2 7

—2 8

27 . After the Cophe s he went to the Indus , thento the Hy dasp e s , then to the A c e s ine s and theHy arotis , and las t to the Hypani s for he was prevented from advancing farther , partly throughobs ervance of certain oracles and partly becaus e hewas forced by his army, which had already beenworn out by it s labours , though they suffered mos tof all from the waters , being continually drenchedwith rain . Of the eas tern parts of India , then ,there have become known to u s all thos e parts whichlie this s ide the Hypani s , and als o any parts beyondthe Hyp an is of which an account has been added bythos e who , after Alexander , advanced beyond theHypanis , as far as the Ganges and Palib othra. Nowafter the Cophe s follows the Indus ; and the regionbetween thes e rivers is occupied by A s tac e ni , Mas iani ,Ny s ae i , and Hypas ii ; and then one comes to thecountry of A s sac anu s , where is a city M e s oga, theroyal s eat of the country ; and now near the Indusagain, one comes to another city , Pe uc olai t is , nearwhich a bridge that had already been built affordeda pas s age for the army .

28. Between the Indus and the Hy dasp e s liesTaxila, a cit which 18 large and has mos t excellentlaws and t e country that lies round it is spaciousand very fertile , immediately bordering als o on theplains . Both the inhabitants and their king , Taxile s ,received Alexander in a kindly way ; and theyobtained from Alexander more gifts than theythems elves pres ented, so that the Macedonians wereenvious and s aid that Alexander did not have anyone , as it s eemed, on whom to bes tow his b e ne factions until he cros s ed the Indus . Some s ay that thiscountry is larger than A e gypt . Above this country

4 7

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4 8

GEOGRAPHY,1 5 . I . 2 8- 2 9

in the mountains lies the country of A b isarus , who ,according to the ambas s adors that came from him ,

kept two s erpents , one eighty cubits in length andanother one hundred and forty, according to Ones ic ritus , who cannot s o properly be called arch- pilotof Alexander as of things that are incredible ; forthough all the followers of Alexander preferred toaccept the marvellous rather than the true , Ones ic ritus s eems to surpas s all thos e followers of hi s inthe telling of prodigies . However, he tells s omethings that are bo th plaus ible andworthy of mention,

and therefore they are not pas s ed by in s i ence evenby one who disbelieves them . At any rate , otherstoo speak of the s erpents , s aying that they arecaught in the Emodi mountains and kept in caves .

29 . Between the Hy daspe s and the A c e s ine s is ,firs t , the country of Porus , extens ive and fertile ,containing about three hundred cities ; and , s econdly ,the fores t near the Emodi mountains , from whichAlexander cut , and brought down on the Hy das pe s ,a large quantit of fir, pine , cedar , and other logsof all kinds fit or shipbuilding, from which he builta fleet on the Hy das p e s near the cities founded byhim on either s ide of the river where he cros s ed andconquered Porus . Of thes e cities , he named oneBu c e phalia, after Bucephalas , the hors e which fellduring the battle with Porus (the hors e was calledBucephalas 1 from the width of hi s forehead ; hewas an excellent war- hors e and was always us ed byAlexander in his fights); and he called the otherNicaea, after his victory . In the fores t abovementioned b oth

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GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 1 . 3°

to him is called G andaris . A s for Cathae a, a mos tnovel regard for beauty there is reported ; I meanthat it is priz ed in an exceptional manner, as , forexample , for the beauty of its hors es and dogs ; and,in fact, One s ic ritu s s ays that they choos e the hands ome s t pers on as king , and that a child is j udged inpublic after it is two months old as to whether it hasthe beauty of form required by law and is worthyto live or not ; and that when it is j udged by theappointed magis trate it is allowed to live or is putto death ; and that the me n dye their beards withmany mos t florid colours for the s ole reas on thatthey wish to beautify thems elves ; and that thispractice is carefully followed by numerous otherIndian peoples als o (for the country produces marv e llou s colours , he s ays), who dye both their hairand their garments ; and that the people , thoughshabby in every other way, are fond of adornment .The following too is reported as a cus tom peculiarto the Cathae ans : the groom and bride choos e oneanother thems elves , and wives are burned up withtheir deceas ed husbands for a reas on of this kindthat they s ometimes fell in love with young me n

and des erted their husbands or pois oned them ; and

therefore the Cathae ans es tablished this as a law ,

thinking that they would put a s top to the pois oning . However , the law is not s tated in a plaus iblemanner, nor the caus e of it either . It is s aid thatin the country of Sop e ithe s there is a mountain ofmineral s alt s ufficient for the whole of India. Andgold and s ilver mines are report ed in other mountains not far away, excellent mines , as has beenplainly shown by Gorgus the mining expert . Buts ince the Indians are inexperienced in mining and

53

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54

GEOGRAPH Y , 1 5 . I . 30—3 2

smelting, they als o do not know what their res ourcesare

, and handle the bus ines s in a rather s implemanner .31. Writers narrate als o the excellent qualities of

the dogs in the country of Sop e ithe s . They say , at

any rate , that Alexander received one hundred and

fift y dogs from Sop e ithe s ; and that , to prove them ,

two were let loos e to attack a lion , and , when theywere being overpowered , two others were let loos eupon him , and that then , the match having nowbecome equal , Sop e ithe s bade s omeone to take oneof the dogs by the leg and pull him away , and ifthe dog did not yield to cut off his leg ; and thatAlexander would not cons ent to cutting off the dog ’

s

leg at firs t , wishing to spare the dog , but cons entedwhen Sop e ithe s s aid that he would give him fourins tead ; and that the dog s uffered the cutting off ofhis leg by s low amputation before he let go his grip .

32 . Now the march to the Hy dasp e s was for themos t part towards the s outh , but from there to theHypanis it was more towards the eas t , and as awhole it kept to the foothills more than to the plains .

At all events , Alexander , when he returned from theHypanis to the Hy dasp e s and the naval s tation , proc e e de d to make ready his fleet and then to s e t sailon the Hy dasp e s . All the above -mentioned rivers ,las t of all the Hypanis , un ite in one river , the Indus ;and it is s aid that the Indus i s j oined by fifteen noteworthy rivers all told, and that aft e r

w

b e ing fl e d s o

full by all that it is widened in s ome places , accordingto writers who are immoderate , even to the extentof one hundred s tadi a, but , according to the more

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55

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GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. I . 3 2—33

moderate,fifty at the mos t and s even at the leas t

(and there are many tribes and cities all about it),1

it then empties into the s outhern s e a by two mouthsand forms the is land called Patalené . Alexanderconceived thi s purpos e 2 after dismis s ing from his

mind the parts towards the eas t ; firs t , becaus e hehad been prevented from cros s ing the Hypanis , and ,s econdly , becaus e he had learned by experience thefals ity of the report which had preoccupied his mind ,that the parts in the plains were burning hot andmore habitable for wi ld beas ts than for a humanrace ; 3 and therefore he s e t out for thes e parts ,dismis s ing thos e others , so that the former becamebetter known than thos e others .

33 . Now the country between the Hypanis and theHy daspe s i s s aid to contain nine tribes , and als o citiesto the number of five thous and—cities no smaller thanCo s M e ropis ,

4 thou h the number s tated s eems to beexces s ive . And as or the country between the Indusand the Hy dasp e s , I have s tated approximately thepeoples worthy of mention by which it is inhabited ; 5

and below them , next in order, are the people calledSibac , whom I have mentioned before ,“ and theMalli and the Sy drac ae , large tribes . It was in thecountry of the Malli that Alexander was in peril ofdeath , being wounded in the capture of s ome smallcity ; and as for the Sy drac ae , I have already spokenof them as mythically akin to Dionysus .

7 NearPatale né , they s ay , one comes at once to the countryof Mu s ic anus , and to that of Sabus , where is Sindo

1 The words in parenthes is are probably a glos s .

27°

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4 Se e 14 . 2 . 19 .5 28 abov e .

6 8 abov e .7 8 above .

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1 Se e 10. 4 . 16, 20.

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 7 . 3 4—3 5

that the Seres live s till longer than thi s), and theirhealthfulnes s , and s imple di et , even though theircountry has an abundance of everything . Peculiarto them is the fact that they have a kind of Laconiancommon mes s ,1 where they eat in public and u s e as

food the meat of animals taken in the chas e ; and

that they do not u s e gold or s ilver, although theyhave mines ; and that ins tead of s laves they u s e

young men in the vigour of life , as the Cretans u s e

the Aphamiotae and the Laconians the Helots ; 2

and that they make no accurate s tudy of the s ciencesexcept that of medicine , for they regard too muchtraining in s ome of them as wickednes s ; for example ,military s cience and the like ; and that they haveno proces s at law except for murder and outrage , forit is not in one ’

s power to avoid s uffering thes e ,whereas the content of contracts is in the power ofeach man hims elf, s o that he is required to endureit if anyone breaks faith with him, and als o to cons ider carefully who should be trus ted and not to fillthe city with laws uits . This is the account of thos ewho made the expedition with Alexander.35 . But there has als o been published a letter of

Crat e ru s to his mother Aris topatra, which allegesmany other s trange things and agrees with no oneels e , particularly in saying that Alexander advancedas far as the Ganges . And he s ays that he hims elfs aw the riverand mons ters on its banks , and a magnitude both of width and of depth which is remotefrom credibility rather than near it . Indeed , it issuffi ciently agreed that the Ganges is the larges t ofknown rivers on the three continents , and after itthe Indus , and third and fourth the Is ter and the

2 Se e 8. 5 . 4 and 12. 3. 4 .

61

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2 66271 F , 86? othe r MSS .3 '

d 78773 700107 .

1 More than tw e lv e mile s .

2 About 120 fe e t. A c c ording to the late st c alc ulations ,the length of the main s tream of the Gange s is 1540 m., orwith its longe st affluent, 1680 ; bre adth at tru e entranc e into

62

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5 . 1 . 35

—3 7

Nile ; but the s everal details concerning it are s tateddifferently by different writers , s ome putting it s

minimum breadth at thirty s tadia and others evenat three , whereas M e gas the ne s s ays that when it s

breadth is medium it widen s even to one hundreds tadia 1

and that its leas t depth is twenty fathoms .

2

36. It is s aid that Palib othra lies at the confluenceof the Ganges and the other river,3 a city eightys tadi a in length and fifteen in breadth , in the shapeof a parallelogram , and s urrounded by a wooden wallthat is perforated s o that arrows c an be shot throughthe holes ; and that in front of the wall lies a trenchus ed both for defence and as a rece ptacle of thes ewage that flows from the city ; and that the tribeof people amongs t whom this city is s ituated is

called the Pras ii and is far s uperior to all the res t ;and that the reign ing king mus t be s urnamed afterthe city, being called Palib o thru s in addition to hisown family name , as , for example , K ing Sandrocottus to whom M e gas the ne s was s ent on an embas sy .

4 Such is als o the cus tom among the Parthians ;for all are called Ars ac e s , although pers onally oneking is called Orode s , another Phraat e s , and anothers omething els e .37 . Writers are agreed that the country as a wholeon the far s ide of the Hypanis is bes t ; but they donot des cribe it accurately , and becaus e of theirignorance and of it s remotenes s magnify all things

the s ea, 20m. ; breadth of c hanne l in dry s eas on , U; to 2}m. ;

de pth in dry s eas on , 30 ft.” (Holdi c h, in Enc y c . Britannica .)3 The Erannob oas (now the Sone ), ac c ording to G roskurd

(who c ite s Art ian , 1770100 10)and the late r e ditors (s e e c ritic alnote ).

4 Se e 2 . l . 9 .

63

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1 Se e 2 . l . 9 .

2 Apparently an imaginary c reature (s ometime s c alle d ant

lion with the fore -

parts of a lion and the hind -

parts of an

ant . He rodotus (3 . 102)de s c rib e s it as smalle r than a dog

64

GEOGRAPHY , 1 5. I . 3 7

or make them more marvellous .

1 For example , thes tories of the ants that mine gold 2 and of othercreatures , both beas ts and human beings , which areof peculiar form and in respect to certain naturalpowers have undergone complete changes , as , forexample , the Seres , who , they s ay , are long- lived ,and prolong their lives even beyond two hundredyears . They tell als o of a kind of aris tocratic orderof government that was compos ed outright of fivethousand couns ellors , each of whom furnishes thenew commonwealth with an elephant. M egas the ne s

s ays that the larges t tigers are found among thePras ii , even nearly twice as large as lions , and s o

powerful that a tame one , though being led by fourmen

, s eiz ed 3 a mule by the hind leg and by forcedrew the mule to its elf and that the long- tailedapes are larger than the larges t dogs , are whiteexcept their faces , which are black (the contrary isthe cas e els ewhere), that their tails are more thantwo cubits long , and that they are very tame and no t

malicious as regards attacks and thefts ; and thats tones are dug up of the colour of frankincens e andsweeter than figs or honey ; and that in other placesthere are reptiles two cubits long with membranouswings like bats , and that they too fly by night , discharging drops of urine , or als o of sweat , whichputrefy the skin of anyone who is not on his guard ;and that there are winged s corpions of s urpas s ing

‘

s iz e ; and that ebony is als o produced ; and that thereare als o brave dogs , which do not let go the obj ectbitten till water is poured down into their nos trils ;b ut large r than a fox. Strabo e ls ewhe re (16. 4 . 15)re fe rs tolions c al led ants .

’

3 The Gre e k word sugge sts s e iz ing with the c laws , not withthe teeth.

65VOL. V I I .

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66

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3 Ins tead of and Co rais read 110L

1 Pe rhap s the more natural inte rp re tation of the Gre ekw ou ld b e , the farme rs c ultivate it for wage s , on c onditionof re c e iving a fourth part of the produ c e ,

”whethe r wage s

and fourth part are appos itional , or on c ondition of

means , as it might, “ in addition to .

”But D iodorus Sic uiu s

68

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 1 . 39—4 1

obs erved as us eful with reference to the prosperityof either fruits or living beings or concerning thegovernment , he brings forward in public ; and hewho is thrice found fals e is required by law to keeps ilence for life , whereas he who has proved correctis adjudged exempt from tribute and taxes .

40. The s econd cas te , he s ays , is that of thefarmers , who are not only the mos t numerous , butals b the mos t highly respected , becaus e of theirexemption from military s ervice and right of freedom in their farming ; and they do not approach a

city, either becaus e of a public dis turbance or onany other bus ines s ; at any rate , he s ays , it oftenhappens that at the s ame time and place s ome are

in battle array and are in peril of their l ives agains tthe enemy , while the farmers are ploughing ordigging without peril, the latter having the formeras defenders . The whole of the country is of royalown ership ; and the farmers cultivate it for a rentalin addi tion to paying a fourth part of the produce .1

4 1. The third cas te is that of the shepherds andhunters , who alone are permi tted to hunt , to breedcattle , and to s ell or hire out beas ts of burden ; and

in return for freeing the land from wild beas ts ands eed- picking birds , they receive proportionate allowanoes of grain from the king, leading , as they do , awandering and tent- dwelling life . No private pers onis permi tted to keep a hors e or elephant . Thepos s es s ion of either is a royal privilege , and there aremen to take care of them .

5)say s , the rentals of the c ountry they pay to theking . . b ut apart from the rental they pay a fourth partinto the roy al tre asury Henc e the trans lator agree s withToz er Selec tions from S trab o, p . who quote s Las s en(I 710180 e A lterthumskunde I I , p .

69

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70

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5 . I . 4 2

4 2 . The chas e of the elephant is conducted as

follows : they dig a deep ditch round a treeles s tractabout four or five s tadia in circuit and bridge theentrance with a very narrow bridge and then , lettingloos e into the enclos ure three or four of their tames tfemales , they thems elves lie in wait under cover inhidden huts . Now the wild elephants do notapproach by day , but they make the entrance on e

by one at night ; and when they have entered , themen clos e the entrance s ecretly ; and then , leadingthe mos t courageous of their tame combatants intothe enclos ure , they fight it out with the wildelephants , at the s ame time wearing them down als oby s tarvation ; and , once the animals are worn out ,the boldes t of the riders s ecretly dismount and eachcreeps under the belly of his own riding - elephant ,and then , s tarting from here , creeps under the wildelephant and binds his feet together ; and when thisis done , they command the tamed elephants to beatthos e whos e feet have been bound until they fall tothe ground ; and when they fall , the men fas tentheir necks to thos e of the tamed e lephants withthongs of raw c x - hide ; and in order that the wildelephants , when they shake thos e who are attemptingto mount them , may not shake them off, the menmake incis ions round their necks and put the thongsround at thes e incis ions , s o that through pain theyyield to their bonds and keep quiet . Of the elephantscaptured, they rej ect thos e that are too old or tooyoung for s ervice and lead away the res t to the s tallsand then , having tied their feet to one another andtheir necks to a firmly planted pillar, they s ubduethem by hunger ; and then they res tore them with

green cane and gras s . After this the elephants are

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1 The s o - c alle d mus t (frenz ie dmale )e lephant di s c harge san abundanc e of dark 0i matte r from tw o pore s in the

fore head (s e e E lephant in Enc y c . Britannic a). True ,7 2

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. I . 4 2—4 3

taught to obey commands , s ome through words ofcommand and others through being charmed bytunes and drum - beating. Thos e that are hard totame are rare ; for by nature the elephant is of amild and gentle dispos ition , s o that it is clos e to a

rational animal ; and s ome elephants have eventaken up their riders who had fallen from los s of bloodin the fight and carried them s afely out of the battle ,while others have fought for, and res cued, thos e whohad crept between their fore - legs . And if in angerthey have killed one of their feeders or mas ters ,they yearn after him s o s trongly that through griefthey abs tain from food and s ometimes even s tarvethems elves to death .

4 3 . They copulate and bear young like hors es ,mos tly in the spring . It is breeding- time for themale when he IS s ei z ed with frenz y and becomesferocious ; at that time he dis charges a kind of fattymatter through the breathing- hole which he hasbes ide hi s temples .

1 And it is breeding- time for thefemales when this s ame pas s age is open . They arepregnant eighteen months at the mos t and s ixteenat the leas t ; and the mother nurs es her young s ix

years . Mos t of them live as long as very long- livedhuman beings , and s ome continue to live even totwo hundred years , although they are s ubj ect tomany dis eas es and are hard to cure . A remedy forey e dis eas es is to bathe the eyes with cow

’

s milk ;but for mos t di s eas es they are given dark wine todrink ; and , in the cas e of wounds , melted butter

on o c c as ion male e lephants ge t into the s tage c alle d mu s th,the symptoms of whi c h , and pos s ibly the c aus e , are c e rtainhead glands . M 118171 has no c onne c tion with s e x , althoughthi s is c ommonly thought to b e the c as e (Major A . W.

Smith , A tlantic M onthly , Nov embe r 1928, p .

73

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glos s .

74

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76

GEOGRAPHY,1 5 . I . 4 4—4 5

below it are gold mines , of which the miners areants , animals that are no smaller than foxes , are

surpas s ingly swift , and live on the prey they catch .

They dig holes in winter and heap up the earth atthe mouths of the holes , like moles ; 1 and the golddus t requires but little smelting . The neighbouringpeoples go after it on beas ts of burden by s tealth ,for if they go openly the ants fight it out with themand purs ue them when they flee , and then , havingovertaken them , exterminate both them and theirbeas ts ; but to es cape being s een by the ants , thepeople lay out pieces of flesh of wild beas ts at

different places , and when the ants are drawn awayfrom around the holes , the people take up the golddus t and , not knowing how to smelt it , di spos e of itunwrought to traders at any price it will fetch .

4 5 . But s ince , in my account of the hunters and

of the wild beas ts , I have mentioned what bothM egas the ne s and others have s aid , I mus t go on toadd the following. Ne arc hu s wonders at the numberof the reptiles and their viciousnes s , for he s ays thatat the time of the inundations they flee up from theplains into the s ettlements that es cape the inundations , and fi ll the hous es ; and that on thi s account ,accordingly , the inhabitants not only make theirbeds high , but s ometimes even move out of theirhous es when infes ted by too many of them ; and thatif the greater part of the multitude of reptiles werenot des troyed by the waters , the country would bedepopulated ; and that the smallnes s of s ome ofthem is troubles ome as well as the huge s iz e of others ,the small ones becaus e it is di fficult to guard agains tthem , and the huge ones becaus e of their s trength ,

1 A spe c ie s of the Spalac idae .

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78

GEOGRAPHY,1 5, I . 4 5

inasmuch as vipers even s ixteen cubits long are to bes een ; and that charmers go around who are believedto cure the wounds ; and that this is almos t the onlyart of medicine , for the people do not have manydis eas es on account of the s implicity of their dietand their abs tinence from wine ; but that if dis eas esaris e , they are cured by the Wis e M e n . But Aris tobulus s ays that he s aw none of the an imals of thehuge s iz e that are everywhere talked about , excepta viper nine cubits and one span long . And I mys elfs aw one of about the s ame s iz e in A e gy pt that hadbeen brought from India. He s ays that you havemany much smaller vipers , and asps , and larges corpions , but that none of thes e is s o troubles omeas the s lender little snakes that are no more than aspan long , for they are found hidden in tents , inves s els ,1 and in he dge s

z; and that pers ons bitten

by them bleed from every pore with anguish , andthen die unles s they receive aid immediately ; butthat aid is eas y becaus e of the virtue of the Indianroots and drugs . He s ays further that crocodiles ,neither numerous nor harmful to man , are to befound in the Indus , and als o that mos t of the otheranimals are the s ame as thos e which are found in

\ the Nile except the hippopotamus . One s ic ritus , however , s ays that this an imal too is found in India. And

Aris tobulus s ays that on account of the crocodilesno s e a- fi sh swim up into the Nile except the tkris sa,

3

the c ash ew ;1and the dolphin ,

5 but that there is a

3 Appare ntly of the ge nu s Trz'c hiuridae (c utlas s fi sh), or

e ls e E ngrau lidae (smal l he rring - like fi sh us e d for p ic kling andsau c e s).Appare ntly of the genus M ugilidae (gre y mu lle ts ).

5 T he dolphin , howe v e r , is amammal , not a fi sh.

79

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1 Of the genus Caridea (shrimp , prawns , and the like ).80

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 1 . 4 5—4 8

large number of di fferent fi sh in the Indus . Of thec aride s ,1 the small ones sw im up the Indus only as

far as a mountain,

2 b u t the large ones as far as theconfluence of the Indus and the A c e s ine s . So much

,

then, is reported about the w ild animals . Let menow retu rn to M e gas thene s and continue hi s accountfrom the point where I left off.4 6. After the hunters and the shepherds , he s ays ,follows the fourth cas te— the artisans , the tradesmen ,and the day - labourers and ofi he s e , s ome paytribute to the s tate and render s ervices pres cribedby the s tate , whereas the armour-makers and shipbuilders receive wages and provis ion s , at a publisheds cale, from the king , for thes e work for him alone ;and arms are furnished the s oldiers by the commander- in - chief, whereas the ships are let out forhire to s ailors and merchants by the admiral .4 7 . The fifth cas te is that of the warriors , who ,when they are not in s ervice , spend eir ives inidlenes s and at drinking- bouts , being maintained atthe expens e of the royal treas ury s o that they maketheir expeditions quickly when need aris es , s incethey bring nothing els e of their own but their bodies .

4 8. The s ixth is that of,

3 to whomit is given to inspect what and reports ecretly to the king , us ing the courtesans as colleagues , the city ins pectors us ing the city courtesansand the camp inspectors the camp courtes ans ; butthe bes t and mos t trus tworthy men are appointed tothis ofli c e .

’

2 A mountain is uninte l ligible . The on ly p lau s ibleemendations y ie ld the moun tains or the U ri (a pe op lementione d b y Pliny 6. 20, Se e c ritic al note .

3of politic al and military offic ials .

81

VOL. vn .

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1 the marke t c ommis s ione rs .

3 when the inundations de stroy e d the landmarks .

4 Se e 4 0 abov e .

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84

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. I . 51—52

them when they are s ick and bury them when theydie . The third group is that of thos e who s crutiniz ebirths and deaths , when and how they take place ,both for the s ake of taxes and in order that birthsand deaths , whether better or wors e , may not beunknown . The fourth group is that which has todo with s ales and barter ; and thes e look aftermeasures and the fruits of the s eas on , that the lattermay be s old by s tamp .

1 But the s ame man cannotbarter more than one thing without paying do

‘

ubletaxes . The fifth group is that of thos e who havecharge of the works made by artis ans and s ell thes eby s tamp , the new apart from the old ; and the man

who mixes them is fined . The s ixth and las t groupis that of thos e who collect a tenth part of the priceo f the things s old ; and death is thqp e nalty fionthe“ w

mamyvho steals ,2 Thes e are the special duties per

fom e dh

by'

e ac h group , but they all take care j ointlyof matters both private and public , and of therepairs of public works , of prices ,3 market- places ,harbours , and temples .

52 . After the city commis s ioners there is a thirdj oint admini s tration , in charge of military affairs ,which is als o divided into s ix groups of five each .

Of thes e groups , one is s tationed with the admiral ;another with the man in charge of the c x- teams , bywhich are transported ins truments of war and foodfor both man and beas t and all other requis ites ofthe army . Thes e als o furnish the menials , I mean

2 the taxpay e r who c heats the gov e rnment.3 Me ine ke emends the Gre e k word for p ric e s to that forwalls (s e e c ritic al note ), thu s making walls , market

p lac e s , harbours , and temple s in appos ition with publicworks .

”

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37°

.e . before they are us ed in battle .86

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5 . I . 5 2—53

drum- beaters , gong- carriers , as als o grooms and

mac hinis ts and their assistants ; and they send forththe foragers to the s ound of bells , and effect speedand safety by means of reward and punishment .The third group c onsis ts of thos e in charge of theinfantry ; the fourth , of those in charge of the horsesthe fi fth , of those in charge of the c hariots ; and thesixth , of those in charge of the elephants . The stallsfor both hors es and beasts 1 are royal ,2 and thearmoury is also royal ; for the soldi er returns theequipment to the armoury, the hors e to the royalhorse—stable , and likewise the beast ; and they usethem without bridles . The c hariots are drawn onthe march by oxen ; but the horses are led by halter ,in order that their legs may not be c hafed by harness ,and als o that the sp irit they have when drawingc hariots may not be dulled .

3 There are two comb atant s in each chariot in addition to the charioteer ;but the elephant carries four persons , the driver andthree bowmen , and thes e three shoot arrows fromthe elephant ’s bac k.

53 . All Indians live a simple life ,’

and especiallywhen they are on expedi tions ; and neither do theyenj oy us eles s disturbances and on this account theybehave in an orderly manner . But their greates tself- restraint pertains to theft ; at any rate , Megasthe ne s says that when he was in the c amp ofSandrocottus , although the number in camp was

forty thous and, he on no day s aw reports of stolenartic les that were worth more than two hundreddrac hmae ; and that too among a people who useunwritten laws only . For, he c ontinues , they have !no knowledge of written letters ,4 and regulate every

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88

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 1 . 53—54

s ingle thing from memory but still they fare happ ily ,becaus e of their simpligity and their frugality ; andindeed they do not drink/

wine , except at sac rifi ces ,but drink a beverage which they make from riceins tead of barley ; 1 and also that their food consistsfor the most part of rice

‘orrid e ; and their sim

pli c ity is als o proven”

in t”

eir aws and contracts ,whic h arises from the fact that they are not litigiousfor they do not have lawsuits over either p ledges ordepos its , or hav e need of witnesses or seals , buttrus t pers ons with whom they stake their interests ;and further , they generally leave unguarded whatthey have at their homes . Now these things tendto s obriety ; but no man could approv e those otherhabits of theirs—of always eating alone and of nothaving one common hour for all for dinner andbreakfas t instead of eating as each one likes ; foreating in the other way is more conducive to a socialand civic life .54 . For exercis e they approv e most of all of rub ‘

bing ; and, among other ways , they smooth out theirbodi es through means of smooth sticks of ebony .

Their funerals are simple and their mounds small .But , contrary to their simplic ity in general , theylike to adorn themselves ; for they wear apparelembro idered with gold , and use ornaments set withpre c ious stones , and wear gay - coloured linen gar

ments , and are acc ompanied with sun - shades ; for ,s in c e they esteem beauty, they practise everythingthat can beautify their appearance . Further, theyrespect alike truth ; and therefo re theygive no precedence even to the age of old me n ,

unless these are also superior in wisdom . They1 Arrack is the name of this beverage .

89

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GEOGRAPHY, 15. I . 55

—56

the whole day hearing cas es to the end, none theles s even if the hour comes for the care of his pers on .

T his care of his person cons is ts of his being rubbedwith s ticks of wood , for while he is hearing thecas es through , he is als o rubbed by four men whos tand around him and rub him . A s econd departureis that to the s acrifices . A third is that to a kind ofBacchic chas e wherein he is s urrounded by women ,and , outs ide them , by the spear- bearers . The roadis lined wi th ropes ; and death is the penalty foranyone who pas s es ins ide the ropes to the women ;and they are preceded by drum - beaters and gongcarriers . The king hunts in the fenced enclos ures ,shooting arrows from a platform in his chariot (twoor three armed women s tand bes ide him), and als oin the unfenced hunting - grounds from an elephant ;and the women ride partly in chariots , partly onhors es , and partly on elephants , and they are

equipped with all kinds of weapons , as they are whenthey go on military expedi tions with the men.

56. Now thes e cus toms are very. novel as com

pared with our own , but the following are s tillmore s o . For example , M e gas the ne s s ays that th e

urs e W ith

c ip ic e s , roll s tones downupon their purs uers ; and that mos t of the animalswhi ch are tame in our country are wild in theirs .

And he mentions hors es with one horn and the headof a deer ; and reeds , s ome s traight up thirtyfathoms in length , and others lying flat on theground fifty fathoms , and s o large that s ome arethree cubits and others s ix in di ameter.

93

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1 About 22 ; in c he s .

2 Iliad 3 . 6.

3 Of. 2 . 1. 9 .

4 Swi ft- foote d .

5 men that s le e p in the ir e ars .

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1 one - ey e d .

2 Pe op le Without nos e s .

96

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. I . 5 7—58

Monommat i ,1 with dog ’

s ears , with the eye in themi ddle of the forehead, with hair s tanding erect ,and with shaggy breas ts ; and that the Amy c t e re s 2eat everything , including raw meat, and live but ashort time , dying before old age ; and the upper lipprotrudes much more than the lower . Concerningthe Hyperboreans who live a thous and years he s aysthe s ame things as S imonides and Pindar and othermyth- tellers . The s tatement of Timage ne s is als o amyth , that bras s rained from the sky in braz endrops and was swept down .

3 But M egas thene s is

nearer the truth when he s ays that the rivers carrydown gold- dus t and that part of it is paid as a taxto the king ; for this is als o the cas e in Iberia .

4

58. Speaking of the philos ophers , M e gas the ne s

says that thos e who inhab it\

fl1/

e mountains hymnthe pm s

x

q fh

g ippy sufi s and po int out as evidences 5

the wild grape - vine , which grows in their countryalone , and the ivy , laurel, myrtle , box - tree , andother evergreens , no one of which is found on thefar s ide of the Euphrates except a few in parks ,which can be kept alive only with great care ; and

that the cus tom of weg ingj i nfi

elng arme nts , mitres ,

and gay- c oldfi'

i'gd garments , and for the king tobe attended by gong- carriers and drum—beaters onhis departures from the palace , are als o Dicmy siag ;but the phi los ophers in the plains worship Heracles .

Now thes e s tatements of M e gas the ne s are mythicaland refuted by many writers , and particularly thos eabout the vine and wine for much of Armenia , andthe whole of Mes opotami a , and the part of Media

3 b y riv e rs .

4 See 3 . 2 . 8.

5716. e videnc e s of his forme r pre s en c e there (s e e 11. 5 .

97VOL. VI I .

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1 B rahmans . 2 Sramans .

98\ V \

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060009 7 Li 867 7 6pi ¢60 L0, 7 Li 060 667796L0 0 60¢0 L06L01 The words 60 wapaaxe vdfe o

' eaz are omitte d b y moz z ;the othe r MSS . read 0 00800A000 L 7 6 7 770 60 7 600070 6xo00 7

806o s exovo'

t 806o s obv iou s ly be ing a g los s).The abov e reading is that of Krame r and late r e ditors .

1 Toz er (Selec tions , note 0d inte rpre ts 7 6 0 7 008020 to

mean the numbe r of “ the ir c omforts .

”

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. x. 59

wearing linen arm ts , ornaments of gold inmode rationE

—tlgc—e

'

lirj iariis~

and on their hands , and

partake of meats"

of animals that are of no help toman in his work, but abs tain from pungent and

s eas oned food ; and that they marry as many wivesas pos s ible , in order to have M us children, forfrom many wives the number of earnes t children 1

would be greater ; and, s ince they have no s ervants ,it is neces s ary for them to provide for more s ervicefrom children— the s ervice that is neares t at hand ;but that the Brac hmane s do not share their philos ophy with their wedded wives , for fear , in the firs tplace , that they might tell s ome forbiddg rl j e icrgtto the profane if they became corrupt , and, s econdly ,that they might des ert them if they became earnes t ,for no pers on who has contempt for pleas ure and toil ,and likewis e for life and death , is willing to be s ubj ectto another ; and that the earnes t man and the earnes twoman are

‘

suc h e rs ons ; and that they convers emore about deat than anything els e , for theybeli eve that the life here is , as it were , that of ababe s till in the womb , and that death , to thos e whohave de votéd th

'

6ms'

61ve s to philos ophy, is birth intothe true life that is , the happy life ; anmt e re fore dis cipline thems elves mos t of all to beready for death ; and that they believe that nothingthat happens to mankind is good or bad , for otherwis e s ome would not be grieved and others delightedby the s ame things , both having dream - like notions ,and that the s ame pers ons cannot at one time begrieved and then in turn change and be delightedby the s ame things . A s for the opinions of theBrac hmane s about the natural world, M egas thene s

s ays that s ome of their opinions indicate mental

I OI

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0. the re fore , not e verlasting (s e e Aris totle , 00d .

2 Se e ] 20 and footnote .3 B rahma.

1 02

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61.

’

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0 00777 770, 0 0¢0 7 6p0L9 8’

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7 60

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0 7 077

1 67 77067000 : E ,67 770670009 o the r MSS .

266800 moz .

3 Afte r 60 167 177 0 Corais ins e rts T G6V€ ¢V .

1 Cf. 61, 63 (be low).1 04

GEOGRAPHY,1 5. I . 60—61

honour, and that they are , as it were , human itarianrs , men who are of frugal habits Bu t doout of doors , and subs is t upon rice and

barley- groats , which are given to them by everyoneof whom they beg or who offers them hospitality ;and that through 5933 311

7 they c an caus e people tohave numerous offspring , and to have either male orfemale children ; and that they cure dis eas es mos tlythrough means of cereals , and not through means ofmedicaments ; and that , among their medicaments ,their ointments and their poultices are mos t es teemed ,but that the res t of their remedies have much inthem that is b ad ; and that both this clas s and theother practis e s uch endurance , both in toils and in

pers everance , tM lmu tay in one p os ture ,

all dayh

h

long without moving ; 1 and that there are als o divinersand enchanters , who are skilled both in the rites andin the cus toms pertaining to the deceas ed, and goabout begging alms from village to village and fromcity to city ; and that there are others more aecom

plishe d and refined than thes e , but that even thes ethems elves do not abs tain from the common talkabout Hades , ins ofar as it is thought to be conduciveto piety and holines s ; and that women as well asme n , s tudy philos ophy with s ome 6 them , and thatthe women likewis e abs tain from the delights of love .61. Aris tobulus says that he s aw two of the

s ophi s ts at Taxila, both Brac hmane s ; and that theelder had had his head shaved but that the youngerhad 1M , anm m were followed bydis ciples ; and that when not otherwis e engagedthey spent their time in the market- place

,being

honoured as couns ellors and being authoriz ed totake as a gift any merchandis e they wished ; and

105

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1 Se e 59 (abov e).

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. I . 62 - 64

to the shoulders and then her front parts , and if shepleas es him, and at the s ame time allows hers elf tobe pers uaded, on approved terms , he marries her ;and the dead are thrown out to be devoured byvulture s ;m s e ve ral wives is a cus tomcommon als o to b theM e further s ays thathe heard that among certain tribes wives were gladto be burned up along with their deceas ed husbands ,and that thos e who would not s ubmit to it wereheld in dis grace ; and this cus tom is als o mentionedby other writers .

2

63 . One s ic ritu s s ays that he hims elf was s ent toconvers e with thes e s ophis ts ; for Alexander hadheard that the people always went naked and devotedthems elves to endurance , and that they were held invery great honour , and that they did not vis it otherpeople when invited, but bade them to vis it themif they wished to participate in anything they didor s aid ; and that therefore , such being the cas e ,s ince to Alexander it did not s eem fitting either tovis it them or to force them agains t their will to doanything contrary to their ances tral cus toms , hehims elf was s ent ; {77 171 that he found fifteen men ata di s tance (if twenty s tadia from the city , who werein different pos tures , s tanding or s itting or lyingnaked and motionles s till even ing , and that theythen returned to the city ; and that it was very hardto endure the s un , which was s o hot that at middayno on e els e could eas ily endure walking on theground with bare feet .64 . One s ic ritus s ays that he convers ed with oneof thes e s ophis ts , Calanus , who accompani ed the kingas far as Pers is and died in accordance with the

2 Se e 30 (above); and of. D iodorus Sic ulu s 19. 23 .

109

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1 Se e end of this paragraph.I I0

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GEOGRAPHY, 1 5 . I . 64—65

empire , he was desirous of wisdom ; for the king wasthe only philosopher in arms that he ever saw, andthat it was the most useful thing in the world ifthose me n were wise who have the power of persuading the willing , and forcing the unwilling , tolearn self- control ; but that he might be pardonedif, conversing through three interpreters , who , withthe exception of language , knew no more than themasses , he should be unable to set fo rth anythingin his philosophy that would be useful ; for that , headded, would e xpe c ting n er to flou ure

through mu”

753 . At'

all events , all he said , according to Onesic ritus , tended to this , that the best teaching is thatwhich remgv e s ple as ul g i nd pain from the soul ; and

afi d’

toil is inimicalto man and the latter friendly , since man trains thebody for toil in order that his opinions may bestrengthened , whereby he may put a stop to dissensions and be ready to give good adv ice to all ,both in public and in private ; and that , furthermore ,he had now adv ised Taxile s to receiv e Alexander ,for if he received a man better than himself he wouldbe well treated , but if inferior , he would improv ehim . One s ic ritu s says that , after saying this , Man

danis inquired whether such doctrines were taughtamong the Greeks ; and that when he answered thatPythagoras taught such doctrines , and also badepeople to abstain from meat , as did also Socratesand Diogenes , and that he hims elf had been a pupilof D iogenes , M andani s replied that he regarded theGreeks as sound-minded in general , but that theywere wrong in one respect , in that they preferredcustom to nature ; for otherwise , Mandanis said,

1 I3VOL. vn .

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1 16

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. I . 66- 67

among other tribes different groups cultivate thecrops in common on the basis of kinship , and ,when they collect the produce , they each w .

off a load sufficient for sustenance during the year,but Burn the remainder in order to hav e work to dothereafter and not be idle . Their weapons , he says ,consist of bow and arrows , the latter three cubitslong , or a j av e linf and a small shield and a broadsword

‘

three cubits long ; and instead of bridles theyuse nose - bands , which differ but slightly from amuzzle ; 1 and the lips of their horses have holespierced through them by spikes .2

67 . Ne arc hu s , in explaining the skill of theIndians in handiwork , says that when they sawsponges in use

-

among the M acedonians they madeimitations by sewing tufts of wool through andthrough with hairs and light cords and threads , andthat after compressing them into felt they drew outthe inserts and dyed the Sponge - like felt withcolours ; and that makers of strigils and of oil- flasksquickly arose in great numbers ; and that they writemissives on linen cloth that is v ery closely woven,though the other writers say that they make no useof written characters ; and that they use brass thatis cast , and not the kind that is forged ; and he doesnot state the reason , although he mentions thestrange result that follows the use of the v esselsmade of cast brass , that when they fall to theground they break into pieces like pottery . Amongthe statements made concerning India is also the

\ following, that it is the custom , instead of makingobeisance , to offer prayers to the kings and to all

who are in authority and of superior rank. The1

spikes , or rais e d points , ins ide the nos e - bands .

1 1 7

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1 13116 F, e ixe othe r MSS.

1c arbunc le s , rubie s , garne ts .

1 18

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‘

xpvmp Ic e /Lo

111737 6, Corais and late r ed itors , for

2 6311, all MSS. exce pt moz,w hich read 15. K rame r conj .

716909 for ndpos , citing A rrian 7 . 2 . 3 .

1 2 0

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. I . 68- 69

and others , who are much suffering, hang themselves and others , who have a fiery temperament ,fling themselves into fire ; and that such was Calanu s ,a man who was without self- control and a slave tothe table of Alexander and that therefore Calanu sis censured, whereas Mandanis is commended , for

when Alexander ’s messengers summoned Mandanis

to visit the son of Z eus and promised that he wouldreceive gifts if he obeyed , but puni shment ifhe disobeyed, he replied that , in the first place ,Ale xandenm gihfi son pLZ e u s , inasmuch as hewas not ruler over even a very small part of theearth , and , secondly, that he had no need of giftsfrom Alexander, of which there was no satiety,1 and ,

thirdly , that he had no fear of threats , since Indiawould supply him with sufficient food while he wasalive , and when he di ed he would be released fromthe flesh wasted by old age and be translated to abetter and purer life and that the result was thatAlexander commended him and acquiesced .

\ 69 . The following statements are also made bythe historians : that the Indians worship Z eus and theGanges River and the local deities . And when theking washes his hair, they celebrate a great festivaland bring big presents , each man making rivalry indisplay of hi s own wealth . And they say that someof the ants that mine gold 2 have w ings ; and thatgold- dust is brought down by the rivers , as by therivers in Iberia .

3 And in the processions at the timeof festivals many elephants are paraded , all adorned

1 Or pe rhaps , for whi ch he had no longing (s e e criticalnote ).

2 Cp . 37 and 4 4 (above ).3 Se e 3 . 2 . 8.

1 2 1

STRABO

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Zu re L'

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1 2 2

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éunpp e'

vovs moz and

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K rame r,1 01106117711 ; 0. Mul le r 13 1016157 7111 or A Lap3a

i

V11v,

1 2 4

GEOGRAPHY, 15. 1 . 70

—73

skins , and carry wallets full of roots and drugs , pretending to cure people with these , along withwitchery and enchantments and amulets ; and thatthe Naked Pramnae , as their name implies , livenaked, for the most part in the open air, practisingendurance , as I have said before ,1 for thirty - sevenyears ; and that women associate wi th them but donot have intercourse with them ; and that thesephilosophers are held in exceptional esteem .

7 1. They say that the City Pramnae wear linengarments and live in the city, or els e out in thecountry, and go clad in the skins of fawns orgaz e llgs ;but that , in general, the Indians wear white clothing , white linen or cotton garments , contrary to theaccounts of those who say that they wear

and that they all wearhair

'

émd long beards , and that they braid their hairand surround it w ith a h ad - band.

7 2 . Artemidorus say stlEE—thg Ganges River flows

down from the Emoda mountains towards the south ,and that when it arrives at the city G anges it turnstowards the east to Palib othra and its outlet into thesea . And he calls one of its tributaries Oe dane s ,saying that it breeds both crocodiles and dolphins .And he goes on o me ntio certain o ther things , butin such a confused an careless manner that they arenot to be considered . But one might add to theaccounts here given that of Nic olaii s D amas c e nu s .

7 3 . He says that at Antioch , near D aphne, hechanced to meet the Indian ambassadors who had

1 60 and 61 (above).

4KM GT

, Casaubon and late r e ditors, for 7101716211 .

1 2 5

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1 So call e d from the fact that Herme s was usually re pre

sente d as a small god, and some time s W ithout hands or fe e t

1 26

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STRABO

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i

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yav w and Corais .

1 The spe lling of the name is doubtful. Dio Cassius (54 . 9)re fers to the same man as Z armarus (s e e critical note ).1 28

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 1 . 7 3- 2 . 1

following words were inscribed on his tomb : Herelies Z armano c he gas ,

1 an Indi an from Bargos a, whoimmortalised himse lf in accordance with the ancestralcustoms of Indians .

1. After Indi a one comes to Ariana , the first portion of the country subj ect to the Persians after 2

the Indus River and of the upper satrapies situate doutside the Taurus . Ariana is bounded on the southand on the north by the same sea and the samemountains as Indi a, as also by the same river, theIndus , which flows between itself and India ; andfrom this river it extends towards the west as faras the line drawn from the Caspian G ates to Carmania, so that its shape is quadrilateral . Now thesouthern side begins at the outlets of the Indus andat Patale né , and ends at Carmania and the mouthof the Persian Gulf, where it has a promontory thatproj ects considerably towards the south ; and thenit takes a bend into the gulf in the direction of

Pe rs is . Ariana is inhabited first by the Arb ie s ,whose name is like that of the River Arbis , whichforms the boundary between them and the nexttribe , the Ore itae ; and the Arb ie s have a seaboardabout one thousand stadia in length , as Ne arc hu ssays ; but this too is a portion of India . Then one

comes to the Ore itae , an autonomous tribe . Thecoasting voyage along the country of this tribe isone thousand eight hundred stadia in length , andthe next , along that of the Ié thy ophagi , seven

2 to the wes t of.

1 2 9VOL. V II .

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7 57 10 1 0 101 ; b u t it is be tte r to accept the read ing of the

MSS . and assume that Strabo do e s not include in his sumtotal the coast of the Arb ie s ln India

,

“about one thousand

stad ia in le ngth .

1 30

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STRABO

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GEOGRAPHY, 15. 2 . 3—4

situated G e dros ia, a country less torrid than India ,but more torrid than the rest of Asia ; and since itis in lack of fruits and water, except in summer, it isnot much better than the country of the Ic hthy ophagi . But it produces spices , in particular nardplants and myrrh trees , so that Alexander

’s armyon their march used these for tent- coverings andbedding, at the same time enj oying thereby sweetodours and a more salubrious atmosphere ; and theymade their return from India in the summer on

purpose , for at that time G e dros ia has rains , andthe rivers and the wells are filled , though in winterthey fail , and the rains fall in the upper re gionstowards the north and near the mountains ; andwhen the rivers are filled the plains near the seaare watere d and the wells are full . And the kingsent pe rsons before him into the desert country to

dig wells and to prepare stations for himself and hisfl e et .4 . For he di vided his forces into three parts , and

himself set out with one division through G e dros ia.

He kept away from the sea no more than five hundredstadia at most, in order that he might at the sametime equip the seaboard for the reception of hisfleet ; and he often closely approached the sea ,although its shores were hard to traverse and rugged .

The second divi sion he sent forward through theinterior under the command of Crateras , who at thesame time was to subdue Ariana and als o to advanceto the same region whither Alexander was di rectinghis march . The fleet he gave over to Ne arc hu s and

25

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GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 2 . 6

there were als o ascents and descents to be made .And it was neces s ary also , on account of the wells ,to make long marches of two hundred or threehundred s tadia , and sometimes even s ix hundred ,travelling mos tly by night . But they wou ld encampat a dis tance from the wells , often at a di s tance ofthi rty stadi a , in order that the s oldi ers might not ,to s atis fy their thirst , drinktoo much water ; formany wou ld plunge into the wells , armour and all ,and drinkas s ubme rged me n would ; and then , afterexp iring, would swell up and float on the surfaceand corrupt the wells , which were shallow ; andothers , exhaus ted by reas on of thirs t , would li e downin the middle of the road in the open s un , and thentrembling , along with a j erking of hands and legs ,they would di e like pers ons s ei z ed with chills or

ague . And in s ome cas e s s oldiers wou ld turn as idefrom the main road and fall as leep , being overcomeby s leep and fatigue . And s ome , falling behind thearmy , perished by wandering from the roads and

by reas on of heat and lack of everything, thoughothers arrived s afely , b ut only after s u ffe ring manyhardships ; and a torrential s tream , coming on bynight , ov erwhelmed both a large number of pers onsand numerous articles ; and much of the royalequ ipment was also swept away ; and when thegu ides ignorantly turned aside s o far into the interiorthat the s e a was no longer v isible , the king , p e rc e iving their error , s e t out at once to s eekfor theshore ; and when he found it, and by digging discovered potable water , he s ent for the army

, and

thereafter kept clos e to shore for seven days , with a

good s upply of water ; and then he wi thdrew againinto the interior.

I 37

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1 Orae s e ems s ure ly to be a.v ariant sp e lling of Ore itae ,as Groskurd points out .1 38

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1 Strabo re fers to hi s de s cription in 1—3 (abov e).2 Ariana, not G edros ia, as s ome think.

3 Mere ly a portion of Ariana.1 4 0

G EOG RAPHY , 1 5 . 2 . 8

of the lands of the G e drosn and Ore itae , whi ch landsare situ ated next above the s e aboard.

1 It 2 is a largecountry, and even G e dros ia 3 reaches up into theinterior as far as the D rangae , the Arac hot i , and theParopamisadae , concerni ng whom Eratos thenes hasspoken as follows (for I am unable to give any betterdes cription). He s ays that Ariana is bounded on

the eas t by the Indus R iver, on the s outh by thegre at s e a, on the north by the Paropamis u s mountain and the mountains that follow it as far as theCas p ian Gates , and that its parts on the wes t aremarked by the s ame boundaries by which Parthi a isseparated from M edia and Carmania from Paraetac e né and Pers is . He s ays that the bre adth of thecountry is the length of the Indu s from the Paropamisu s mountain to the outlets , a dis tance of twelv ethou s and s tadi a (though s ome s ay thirteen thou s and)and that its length from the Casp ian Gates , as

recorded in the work entitled As iatic Stat/uni} is

s tated in two ways : that is , as far as Alexandre ia inthe country of the Arii , from the Casp ian Gatesthrough the country of the Parthians , there is one

and the s ame road ; and the n , from there , one roadleads in a s traight line through Bac triana and ov e rthe mountain pas s into Ortospana to the mee ting of

the three roads from Bactra , which city is in thecountry of the Paropamisadae ; whereas the othertu rns of? s lightly from Aria towards the s outh toProphthas ia in D rangiana, and the remainder of itle ads backto the boundaries of India and to the

4 the v ariou s Halting-

plac es in As ia . The s ame re cordshav e alre ady bee n re fe rred to in 15 . l . 11. The author of

this work a

appjaars to hav e be en a ce rtain Am tas , who

ac c ompanie exande r on his e xpe dition (s e e At enae us 11.

500 D , 12 . 529 E , 2 . 67 A , and A e lian 17 .

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1 Philotas . 2 Be ne factors .

14 4

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 2 . 9

—1 0

are s ituated alongs ide the D rangae on the north aswell as on the wes t , almos t s urrounding a small partof their country . Bac triana lie s to the north alongs ide both Aria and the Paropamisadae , throughwho s e country Alexander pas s ed over the Cau cas u son his march to Bactra . Towards the wes t , next tothe Arii , are s itu ated the Parthians and the re gionround the Cas p ian Gates ; and to the s outh of thes elies the desert of Carmania ; and then follows theres t of Carmania and G e dros ia.

10. One would unders tand still better the accountsof the afores aid mountainou s country if one inqu iredfurther into the route which Alexander tookin hispursu it ofBe s su s from the Parthian territory towardsBac triana ; for he came into Ariana , and thenamongs t the D rangae , where he pu t to de ath thes on of Parmenio ,1 whom he caught in a plot ; and heals o s ent pers ons to Ecbatana to pu t to death thefather of Philotas , as an accompli ce in the plot . Itis said that thes e pers ons , riding on dromedaries ,comple ted in elev en days a j ou rney of thirty days ,or even forty , and accomplished the ir undertaking .

The D rangae , who o therwis e are imitators of thePers ians in their mode of life , hav e only s cantys upp lies of wine , b ut they hav e tin in their country .

Then , from the D rangae , A lexander went to theE v e rge tae ,

2 who were s o named by Cyru s ,3 and tothe Arac hot i ; and the n , at the s etting of the Pleiad ,through the country of the Paropamisadae , a countrywhich is mountainou s , and at that time was coveredwith snow , s o that it was hard to trav el . However ,numerou s v illages , well s upp lied with everything

3 Cyrus the Elder— in return for the ir kindly s e rv ice s whe nhe marche d through the de s e rt of Carmania (Arrian 3 . 2 7 ,

1 4 5VOL. V II .

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GEOGRAPHY,15. 2 . 1 1—13

theking ; and indeed both forces of infantry gatheredtogether in Carmania at about the s ame time . Anda little later Ne arc hu s s ailed with his fleet into thePers ian Gulf, hav ing often suffered di s tres s becau seof his wanderings and hardship s and the hugewhales .

12 . Now it is reas onable to s uppose that thos e whomade the j ourn ey by s e a have prated in many cas esto the point of exaggeration ; b ut nevertheles s theirstatements show indirectly at the same time thetrouble with which they were afli ic t e du that underlying their real hardships there was apprehens ionrather than peril . But what disturbed them mo s twas the spouting whales , which , by their spoutings ,would emit s uch mas s ive s tre ams of water and mis tall at once that the s ailors could not s e e a thingthat lay before them . But the p ilots of the voyageinfo rmed the s ailors ,who were frightened at this anddid not see the cau s e of it, that it was caused bycreatures in the s e a, and that one could get rid ofthem by s ounding trumpets and making loud no is esand consequ ently Ne arc hu s led his fleet towards thetumultuou s spoutings of the whales , where theyimpeded his progres s , and at the s ame time frightenedthem with trumpets and the whales firs t dived, andthen showe d up at the stems of the ship s , thu saffording the spectacle of a naval combat , b utimmedi ately made off.

13 . Thos e who now s ail to Indi a , however, alsospeak of the s iz e of thes e creatures and of theirmanner of appearance , b u t do not speakof themeither as app earing in large groups or as oftenmaking attacks , though they do speakof them as

being scared away and got rid of by shouts and

1 4 9

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GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 2 . 1 4

s outh into the great s e a ; and Carmania , after forming

,along with the cape that extends from Arabia

If e lix ,which is in full v iew, the mou th of the Pers ian

G lilf , be nds towards the Pers ian Gulf until it borderson Persis . Carmania is a large country and , in theinterior , extends betwee n G e dros ia and Pers is ,although it deviates more towards '

tht h-

thanG edros ia. This is plainly indicated by it s fruitfulnes s ; for it produces all manne r fru its , is full oflarge trees except the olive ,

"

and is also watere d byrivers . G e dr’o sia

'

diifers b ut little from the countryonhe Ichthyophagi , and therefore often s uffers cropfailures ; and on this account they keep the annualcrop in storage , de aling it ou t for s everal years .

One s ic ritu s speaks of a river in Carmania that bringsdown gold- dus t ; and he s ays that there are als omines of s ilver and copper and ruddle , and also thatthere are two mountains , one cons is ting of ars enic 1and the othe r of s alt . Carmania als o has a des ertwhich borders at once 2 upon Parthia and Parae tacené . And it has farm crops s imilar to tho s e of thePers ians , the v ine among all the res t . It is from thisv ine that the Carmanian , as we here call it

,

originated— a vine which often has clu s ters of eventwo cubits ,3 thes e clu s ters be ing thickwith largegrape s ; and it is reas onable to suppos e that thi sv ine is more flourishing there than here . Becau s eof s carcity of horses mos t of the Carmanians u s e

as s es , even for war ; and they s ac rifi_

c e an as s toAres , the only god they worship , and they are awarlik

fi

efi pu

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5

marri es before he has c u t

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5

7 3 117 3 1.

GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 3 . M

themes , the length of the country towards the northand the Cas pian Gates is about eight thousand s tadia,if reckoned from certain promontories ,1 and theremainder to the Caspian Gates is not more thantwo thous and s tadia ; 2 and the breadth , in theinterior , from Sus a to Pe rsg olis , is four thous andtwo hundred s t i dfi f Z fid The nc e to the borders ofCarmania s ixteen hundred more . The tribes whichinhabit the country are the Pate is c hore is , as theyare called, and the Achaemenidae and the Magi .Now the Magi follow with z eal a kind of augus t life ,whereas the Cyrt ii and the Mardi are brigands and

others are farmers .

2. I might almos t s ay that Sus is als o is a part ofPers is ; it lies between Pers is and Babylonia and hasa mos t notable city , Susa. For the Pers ians and

Cyrus , after mas tering—The Medes , s aw that their

native land was s ituated rather on the extremitiesof their empire , and that Sus a was farther in and

nearer to Babylonia and the other tribes , and therefore es tablished the royal s eat of their empire atSus a . At the same time , als o , they were pleas edwith the high s tanding of the city and with the factthat its territory bordered on Pers is , and , better s till ,with the fact that it had never of its elf achieved anything of importance , but always had been s ubj ect toothers and accounted merely a part of a largerpolitical organ is ation , except , perhaps , in ancienttimes , in the times of the heroes . For Sus a too iss aid to have been founded by Tithonus the father

. N

W W

of Memnon , with a circuit of one hundrEH5

3 nd

1. The te xt s e ems to b e c orrupt. A c leare r statement of

this same dimens ion , as quote d from Eratosthene s , is giv en in2 . 1. 26.

2 In 2 . 1. 26 the text reads about three thousand stadia.

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GEOGRAPHY,1 5 . 3 . 4

—5

territory extends down to the s e a ; and its s eaboardis about three thous and s tadia in length , extendingfrom the boundaries of the Pers ian s eaboard approximately to the outlets of the Tigris . The Choasp e sRiver flows through Sus is , terminating at the s ames eaboard , and has it s s ources in the territory of theU xii ; for a kind of mountainous country intrudesbetween the Sus ians and Pers is ; it is rugged and

sheer, and has narrow de fi le s that are hard to pas s ,and was inhabited by brigands , who would exactpayments even from the kings thems elves when theypas s ed from Sus is into Pers is . Polycleitus s ays thatthe Choasp e s , the Eulae u s , and also the Tigris meetin a kind of lake , and then empty from that lakeinto the s e a ; and that there is an emporium nearthe lake , s ince , on account of the cataracts , purpos elycons tructed , the rivers cannot receive the me r

c handis e that comes in from the s e a nor bring downany either , and that all traffic is carried on by land ;for the dis tance to Sus a is s aid to b e eight hundred 1s tadia. Others , however, s ay that the rivers whichflow through Sus is meet in one s tream , that of theTigris , oppos ite the intermediate canals of theEuphrates ; and that on this account the Tigris , atit s outlets has the name of Pas it igris .

2

5 . Ne arc hus s ays that the coas t of Pers is is coveredwith shoal-waters and that it ends at the EuphratesRiver ; and that at the mouth of this river there isan inhabited village which receives the merchandis efrom Arabia ; for the s eaboard of the Arabians bordersnext on the mouth of the Euphrates and the Pas it i

1 Apparently an e rror for e ighte en hundre d .

2 The Pas it igris , prope r ly s o c al l ed , is one of the r iv e rsWhi c h flow from Su s is (se e Arrian , Anab . 3 . 17 . l , Ind. 4 2 . 4 ,and Pliny , 6. 129 and

161

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162

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GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 3 . 6—7

country of the U xu . There is als o a river Cyrus ,which flows through Co ele 1 Pers is , as it is called , inthe neighbourhood of Pas argadae ; and the kingas sumed the name of this river , changing his namefrom Agradatu s to Cyrus . Alexander cros s ed theAraxes near Pers epolis its elf. Pers epolis , next toSus a , was the mos t

~ b eautifii lly fl gonstruc t e d c ity , andthe larges t , Hay

-

ing a palace that was remarkable ,particularly in respect to the high value of itstreasures . The Araxes flows from the country ofthe Parae tac i ; and this river is j oined by the Medus ,which has it s s ource in Media. Thes e rivers runthrough a very productive valley which borders on

Carmania and the eas tern parts of the country , as

does als o Pers epolis its elf. Alexander burnt uR thepalace at Pers epolis , to avenge the

-

G reeks , becaus ethe Pers ians had des troyed both temples and citiesof the Greeks by fire and sword .

7 . Alexander then went to Pas argadae ; and thistoo was an ancient royal res idence . Here he s aw

als o , in a park , the tomb of Cyrus ; it was a smalltower and was c on c e ale d

‘

wi thin the dens e growth oftrees . The tomb was s olid below, but had a roof ands epulchre above , which latter had an extremelynarrow entrance . Aris tobulus s ays that at thebehes t of the king he pas s ed through this entranceand decorated the tomb ; and that he s aw a goldencouch , a table w ith cups , a golden coffi n , and numerousgarments and ornaments s e t with precious s tones ;and that he saw all thes e things on his firs t vis it ,but that on a later vis it the place had been robbed

1 Hol low .

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,adde d b y ELw and the e ditors .

1 when the empire pas s e d from the Me de s to the P e rs ians

GEOGRAPHY,1 5. 3 . 8—1 0

built at the time of the s ucces s ion of the Pers ians ,1

and that the tomb was kept under guard ; and thatthere was one ins cription written in Greek , thatquoted above , and another written in the Pers ianlanguage with the s ame meaning . Cyrus heldPasargadae in honour

,becaus e he there conquered

A s ty age s the Mede in his las t battle , trans ferred tohims elf the empire of As ia, founded a city , and cons tructed a palace as a memorial of his victory .

9 . Alexander carried off with him all the wealtin Pers is to Sus a, which was als o full of treas ures andequipment ; and neither did he regard Sus a as theroyal res idence , but rather Babylon , which heintended to build up s till further ; and there tootreas ures lay s tored . They s ay that , apart from the

treas ures in Babylon and in the camp , which werenot included in the total , the value of thos e in Sus isand Pers is alone was reckoned at forty thousandtalents , though s ome s ay fifty ; and others havereported that all treas ures from all s ources werebrought together at Ecbatana and that they werevalued at one hundred and eighty thous and talents ;and the treas ures which were carried along withD are iu s in his flight from Media, eight thousandtalents in value , were taken as booty by thos e whos lew him .

10. At all events , Alexander preferred Babylon ,s ince he s aw that it far s urpas s ed the others , not onlyin it s s iz e , but als o in all other respects . AlthoughSus is is fertile , it has a hot and s corching atmosphere ,and particularly in thm ighm ood of the city ,according to that writer .2 At any rate , he s ays that

2 Whethe r Aristobu lus or Nearc hus or One s ic ritu s , the

trans lator doe s not know .

169

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1 70

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e nd of § 12. Ins tead of the s e words the MSS. read (afte r1 72

GEOGRAPHY,1 5 . 3 . 1 1 - 1 2

account , also , the people do not cut the furrowsclose together

,for the crowding of the roots hinders

the sprouting. The v ine did not grow there untilthe M acedonians planted it , both there and at Babylon ; however, they did not dig trenches , but onlythrust into the ground iron - pointed stakes , and thenpulled them out and replaced them at once with theplants . Such , then , is the interior ; but the seaboard is full of shallows and without harbours . Onthis account , at any rate , Ne arc hu s goes on to saythat he me t with no nativ e guides when he wassailing along the coast with his fleet from India toBabylonia ; that the coast had no mooring - places , andthat he was also unable to find any experiencedpeople to guide him .

12 . Neighbouring Susis is the part of Babyloniawhich was formerly called Sitac e né , but is now calledApolloniatis . Above both , on the north and towardsthe east , lie the countries of the E lymae i and theParae tac e ni , who are predatory peoples and rely onthe ruggedness of their mountains . But the Parae taceni are situated closer to the Apollioniatae , andtherefore treat them worse . The Elymae i carry onwar agains t both that people and the Susians , whereasthe U xii too carry on war against the Elymae i ; butless so at the present time , in all probability , becauseof the might of the Parthians , to whom all the peoplesin that part of the world are subj ect . Now when theParthians fare well , all their subj ects fare well too ,

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Bn,are re peate d b y the MSS. towards the e nd of 12 and

right ly omitte d by the e dito rs .

3s ixe v, K rame r and late r e ditors , for é

’

xew .

I 73

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1 The Sun.

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1 76

GEOGRAPHY, 15. 3 . 1 4

- 1 5

death . And to water they offer sacrifice by goingto a lake or river or spring, where , hav ing dug atrench leading thereto , they slaughter a v ictim, beingon their guard lest any of the water near by shouldbe made bloody, believing that the blood wouldpollute the water ; and then, placing p ieces ofmeaton myrtle or laurel branches , the M agi touch themwith slender wands and make incantations , pouringoil mixed with both milk and honey , though not intofire or water, but upon the ground ; and they carryon their incantations for a long time , holding intheir hands a bundle of slender myrtle wands .

15 . In Cappadocia (for there the sect of the Magi ,who are also called Pyrae thi,1 is large , and in thatcountry are also many temples of the Persian gods),the people do not sacrifice v ictims with a swordeither , but with a kind of tree—trunk , beating themto death as with a cudgel . They also have Py raetheia , noteworthy enclosures ; and in the mids t ofthese there is an altar , on whic h ’

the re is a largequantity of ashes and where the M agi keep the firever burning. And there , entering daily, they makeincantations for about an hour, holding before thefire their bundle of rods and wearing round theirE ds higlLturb ans of felt , which reach down overtheir cheeks 13 ?

~

enough to cover their lips . Thesame customs are observ ed in the temples of Ana’

itisand Omanu s ; and these temples als o hav e s acredenclosures ; and the people carry in procession awooden statue of Omanu s . Now I hav e seen thismyself ; but those other things , as also what follows ,are recorded in the histories .

1 Fire - kindle rs .

VOL. VII .

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rat A67 67 az .2o¢6y 8oy ofiu7 e s , Me ineke emends to O

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x The tre e is theP is tac ia tereb inthus .

180

GEOGRAPHY, 1 8

them also to give an account of each lesson , at thesame time train ing them in loud speaking and inbreathing, and in the use of their lungs , and alsotraining them to endure heat and cold and rains ,and to cross torrential streams in such a way as tokeep both armour and clothing dry , and also to tendflocks and liv e outdoors all night and eat wild fruits ,such as pistachio nuts ,1 acorns , and wild pears .These are called Cardac e s , since they liv e on thievery ,for ‘ ‘ ”carda means the manly aand

“ warlike spirit .2

Their daily food after their gymnastic exercises consists of bread , barley- cake , cardamum ,

3 grains ofsalt , and roasted or boiled meat ; but their drink iswater. They hunt by throwing spears from horseback, and with bows and slings ; and late in theafternoon they are trained in the planting of treesand in the cutting and gathering of roo ts .4 Theboys do not touch the meat of wild animals , thoughit is the custom to bring them home . Prizes are

offered by the king for v ictory in running and in thefour other contests of the pentathla .

5 The boys areadorned with gold, since the people hold in honourthe fiery appearance of that metal ; and on thisaccount , in honour of its fiery appearance , they donot apply gold, j ust as they do not apply fire , to adead body .

2 This statement appears to b e an inte rpolation (s e e c ritic alnote ).

3 The Nas turtium orientale , als o c alled Tropaeolum ma'

us .

The plant, a kind of c res s , c ontains a punge nt jui c e ; an its

s eeds are pre pare d and eate n like our mus tard.4 i . .e formedi c inal purpos es .

5 The pe ntathla we re (1) jumping, (2) di s c us throwing ,(3) runni ng, (4 )wre s tling , and (5) jave lin throwing (if notboxing).

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184

GEOGRAPHY, 15. 3 . 2 0—2 2

bodies to be eaten bL b irds ; and these M agi , byanc e s tral

’

c’

ustdmfi gns ortfi

even with their mothers .Such are the customs of the Persians .21. Perhaps also the following, mentioned by

Poly c ritu s ,1 is one of their customs . He says that

in Susa each one of the kings built for himself onthe acropolis a separate habitation , treasure - houses ,and storage places for what tributes they eachexacted , as memorials of his administration ; andthat they exacted silver from the people on the seaboard, and from the people in the interior suchthings as each country produced, so that they alsoreceived dyes , drugs , hair, or wool , or something els eof the kind , and likewise cattle ; and that the kingwho arranged the separate tributes was D are iu s ,

called the Long- armed , and the most handsome ofme n , except for the length of his arms , for theyreached even to his knees ; 2 and that most of thegold and silver is used in articles of equipment , butnot much in money ; and that they consider thosemetals as better adapted for presents ‘and for depositing in storehouses ; and that so much coinedmoney as suffices their needs is enough ; and thatthey coin only what money is commensurate withtheir expendi tures .22 . For their customs are in general temperate ;but on account of their wealth the kings fell intosuch luxury that they sent for wheat from Assns inAeolis , for Chalymonian wine from Syria

,and for

1 An e rror, appare ntly, for Polyc le itus (s e e c ritic al note ).2 Thi s is thought b y various edi tors to b e an inte rpolation

(s e e c ritic al note ). P lutarc h (Artaxe rxe s 1) re fe rs to Artafxe rxe s as having be e n s urname d Long -arme d be c aus e hi sright arm was longe r than hi s le ft ; b ut the above statementin regard to Dare ius lacks c orroboration .

185

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GEOGRAPHY, 1 5. 3 . 2 4

24 . Now the man who established the Persians intheir hegemony was Cyrus .

1 Cyrus was succeededby his son Cambyses , who was deposed by the Magi .The Magi were slain by the Sev en Persians , whothen gav e over the empire to D are ius , the son ofHy s tasp e s . And then the succes sors of D are ius cameto “an end with Arses . Ars es was s lain by Bago iisthe eunuch , who set up as king another D are ius ,who was not of the royal family. Him Alexanderdeposed, and reigned himself for ten or eleven years .And then the hegemony of Asia was div ided amongsthis several successors and their descendants , andthen dis solved. The hegemon of _ _

the Persians overAsia lasted about two hundredand fifty years . Butnow

,though again organis ed into a state of their

own ,the Persians have kings that are subj ect to

other kings , formerly to the kings of M acedonia ,but now to those of the Parthians .

1 Cy ru s the Elde r.

189

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01V.

192

BOOK XVI

1. THE count ry of the Assyrians borders on Persisand Susiana. This name 1 is given to Babylonia andto much of the country all round , which latter , inpart , is also called A turia, in which are Ninus ,Apolloniatis , the E lymae i , the Parae tac ae , theChalonitis in the neighbourhood of Mt. Z agrus , theplains in the neighbourhood of Ninus , and also Dolomené and Calac he né and Chaz e né and Adiab e né ,and the tribes of M esopotamia in the neighbourhood of the Gordyaeans , and the My gdonian s in theneighbourhood of Nisibis , as far as the Z eugma 2 ofthe Euphrates , as also much of the c ountry on thefar side of the Euphrates , which is occupied byArabians , and those people who in a special sense ofthe term are called by the me n of to - day Syrians ,who extend as far as the Cilicians and the Phoenic ians and the Judae an s and the sea that is oppositethe A e gyp t ian Se a and the Gulf of Issus .2 . It seems that the name of the Syrians extendednot only from Babylonia to the Gulf of Issus , but alsoin ancient times from this gulf to the Euxine . Atany rate , both tribes of the Cappadocians , boththose near the Taurus and those near the Pontus ,have to the present time been called White

1 As syria.2 Bridge .

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194

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I96

GEOGRAPHY, 16. 1 . 3-

5

far side of the Lycus River li e the plains of A turia,whi ch surround Ninus . In A turia is a v illage Gaugamela , where D are iu s was conquered and lost hisemp ire . Now this is a famous place , as is also itsname , which , being interpreted , means Camel ’sHouse .” D are iu s , the son of Hy s tasp e s , so namedit , hav ing given it as an estate for the maintenanceof the camel which helped most on the toilsomej ourney through the deserts of Scythia with theburdens containing sustenance and support for theking . However , the M acedonians , seeing that thiswas a cheap v illage , but that Arbela was a notablesettlement (founded , as it is said , by Arb e lus , theson of A thmone u s), announced that the battle andv ictory took place near Arbela and so transmittedtheir account to the his torians .4 . After Arbela and M t . Nic atorium 1

(a nameapplied to it by Alexander aft er his victory in theneighbourhood of Arbela), one comes to the CaprusRiver , which lies at the same dis tance from Arbelaas the Lycus . The country is called Artac e né .

2

Near Arbela lies the city Demetrias and then onecomes to the fountain of naphtha , and to the fires ,and to the temple of

“

Anea , and to Sandrac ae , andto the royal palace of D are iu s the son of Hy s tasp e s ,and to Cy paris s on , and to the crossing of the Capru sRiver , where , at last , one is close to Se le u c e ia andBabylon .

5 . Babylon, too , lies in a plain ; and the circui tof its wall is three hundred and eighty- fi v e stadia .The thickness of its wall is thirty- two feet , the

1 Mount of Vic tory.

3 P robably an e rror for Adiab ené (s ee 8 and 16. l .Appare nt ly the same as the godde s s Anaitis (c f.

and 15 . 3 . 15)

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1vfi, M e ineke ins e rts .

GEOGRAPHY, 16. 1 . 5—6

cared for this matter ; and even what was left of thecity was neglected and thrown into ruins , partly bythe Pers ians and partly by time and by the indi ffe rence of the Macedon ians t6things of this kind , andin particular afterS eleucus Nic ato r had fortifiedSe le u c e ia on the Tigris near Babylon , at a dis tanceof alfiTft

—three hundred s tadia therefrom . For not

only he , but als o all his succes s ors , were s tronglyinteres ted in Se le u c e ia and trans ferred the royalres idence to it . What is more , Se le u c e ia at thepres ent time has become larger

“

than Baby lon ,whereas the greater part of Babylon is s o des ertedthat one would not hes itate to say what one of thecomic poets s aid in reference to the Megalopolitansin Arcadia : The is a g reat des ert

2

On account of the s carcity of timber their buildingsare finished with beams and pillars of palm -wood .

They wind ropes of twis ted reed round the pillars ;and then they plas ter them and paint them w ithcolours , though they coat the doors with as phalt .Both thes e and the private homes are built high,all being vaulted on account of the lack of timber ;for , with the exception of the palm tree , mos t ofthe country is bare of trees and bears shrubs only .

The palm is mos t abundant in Babylonia, and is

found in abundance in Sus a and on the coas t ofPers is and in Carm

'

an ia'

. They do not us e tile smuch on their hous es , for they get no rain ; and

this is likewis e the cas e both in Susm d Sitac e né .

6. In Babylonia a s ettlement is s e t apart for the

1 Me ga10polis me ans Great City .

2 Strabo make s the same quotation in 8. 8. l .

2 BaBq x/ f, G roskurd and Me ineke emend to BaBuAGm.

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2 04

GEOGRAPHY, 16. I . 9

9 . The country is travers ed by s everal rivers ,though the larges t are the Euphrates and the Tigris .Next to the Indi an rivers thes e two , among thos ein the s outhern parts of As ia , are s aid to hold thes econd place . And they are navigable inland :the Tigris to

H

Op is and the pres ent §e le u c e ia1(the

village Opls"

is an emporium of the? places s ituatedround it)and the Euphrates to Babylon , a di s tanceof more than three Now thePers ians , wi shing on purpos e to prevent voyagingup thes e rivers , for fear of attacks from wi thout , hadcons tructed artificial cataracts , but Alexander , whenhe went agains t them , des troyed as many of them as

he could , and in particular thos e to Opis . He als opaid careful attention to the canals for the Euphratesris es to flood- tide at the beginning of summer ,beginning firs t to ris e in the spring when the snowsin Armenia melt ; s o that Of neces s ity it forms lakesand deluges the ploughed lands , unles s the exces sof the s tream , or the s urface water, is dis tributedby means of trenches and canals , as is the cas e withthe Nile in A egyp t . Now this is the origin of thecanals ; but there is need of much labour to keepthem up , for the s oil is s o deep and s oft and yieldingthat it is eas ily swept out by the s treams , and theplains are laid bare , and the canals are eas ily filled ,and their mouths choked , by the s ilt ; and thus itres ults again that the overflow of the waters , emptying into the plains near the s e a, forms lakes and

marshes and reed- beds , which las t s upply reeds from

1 B runo Me is sne r (K lio, Be itrage z ur A llen G es ckz’

c hte ,X IX . 1925 , p . c omparing 2 . l . 26, unde rs tands Straboto mean that Opis and the pre se nt Se le uc e ia are identic al(se e c ritic al note ).

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2 08

GEOGRAPHY, 16. I . 10—1 1

unles s the canals were regulated s o that the waterin them neither was exces s ive nor failed.

11. Aris tobulus s ays that Alexander hims elf,when he was s ailing up the river and piloting theboat , inspected the canals and with his multitude offollowers cleared them ; and that he likewis e s toppedup s ome of the mouths and opened others ; andwhen he noticed that one canal , the one whichs tretched mos t directly towards the marshes andlakes that lay in front of Arabia, had a mouth mos tdifficult to deal wi th and could not eas ily be s toppedup becaus e of the yielding and s oft nature of thes oil , he opened up another mouth , a new one , at adis tance of thirty s tadi a from it , having s elected aplace with a rocky bottom , and that he divertedthe s tream to that place ; and that in doing this hewas taking forethought at the s ame time that Arabiashould not be made utterly difficult to enter by thelakes or even by the marshes , s ince , on account ofthe abundance of water , that country was alreadytaking the form of an is land . For of cours e Alexander, he s ays , intended to acquire pos s es s ion of thatcountry , and had already prepared fleets and bas esof operations , having built s ome of his boats in

Phoenicia and Cypros , boats that were cons tructedwith bolts and could be taken to pieces , which wereconveyed by a s even days ' j ourney to Thaps ac us andthen down the river to Babylon , and having bu iltothers in Babylonia, from the cypres s trees in thegroves and the parks ; for there is a s carcity oftimber in Babylonia , although there is a moderatelygood s upply of timber in the countries of the Co ss ae iand certain other tribes . Now Alexander alleged

2 09VOL . vn .

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2 1 2

GEOGRAPHY, I6. I . 1 2 - 1 3

Lib anu s and Mt . Ant ilib anu s and Mt . Cas ius .1

Such , then , are the accounts of Aris tobulus and

Eratos thenes .

13 . Polycleitus , however , s ays that the Euphratesdoes not overflow ; for, he s ays , it flows throughlarge plains ; and as for the mountains , s ome s tandat a di s tance of two thousand s tadia from it , butthe Cos saean mountain s at a dis tance of s carcelyone thous and , which latter are not very high , arenot covered very deeply with snow , anti do notcaus e the snow to melt quickly in great quantities ;for, he s ays , the heights of the mountains liein the

'

re gion above Ecbatana towards the north ,but , in the region towards the s outh , they split ,broaden out , and become much lower, and at thes ame time mos t of their waters are received by theTigris and thus overflow the plains . Now this las tas s ertion is obvious ly absurd , for the Tigris flowsdown into the s ame plains as the Euphrates , and theabove -mentioned heights of the mountains havedi fferent altitudes , the northern heights being moreelevated in s ome places , whereas the s outhernbroaden out in s ome places ; but the quantity ofs now is not determined merely by the heights , butals o by their latitudes ; and the s ame mountainhas more snow in it s northern parts than in it s

s outhern , and the snow continues longer in theformer than the latter . Now the Tigris receivesfrom the s outhernmos t parts of Armenia, which are

and Jose phu s 13 . e xte nde d the name Coe lé - Sy ria,whi c h was p rope rly app lie d only to the c ountry be tw e enMt s . Lib anus and Antilib anu s , to inc lude that part of Sy riawhi c h borde rs on A egy pt and Arabia. Henc e , quite apartfrom the truth or fals ity of Eratosthene s ’

s tatement, he wasc le ar ly mis inte rpre te d b y Strabo .

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GEOGRAPHY, I6. 1 . 15

Babylonia ; and that there is a fountain of thislatter asphalt near the Euphrates R iver ; and thatwhen thi s riv er is at its flood at the time of themelting of the snows , the fountain of asphalt is als ofilled and overflows into the riv er ; and that therelarge clods of as phalt are formed which are suitablefor bu ildings cons tructed of baked bricks . Otherwriters s ay that the liqu id kin

-

d also- “

is found inBabylonia . Now writers s tate in particular the

great u s efulness of the dry kind in the constructionof bu ildings , b u t they s ay als o that boats are wovenw ith reeds and , when plas tered with asphalt , areimperv iou s to water . The liquid kind , which theycall naphtha, is of a s ingular nature ; for if thenaphtha is brought near fire it catches the fire ;and if y ou smear a body with it and bring it nearto the fire , the body burs ts into flames ; and it isimpos s ible to quench thes e flames with water (forthey burn more v iolently), unles s a great amount isus ed , though they can be smothered and quenchedwith mud , v inegar , alum , and bird- lime . It is s aidthat Alexander , for an experiment , poured s omenaphtha on a boy in a bath and brought a lampnear him ; and that the boy , enveloped in flames ,would have been nearly burned to death if thebys tanders had not , by pouring on him a very greatquantity of water , prevailed over the fire and s avedhis life . Po s e idoniu s s ays of the springs of naphthain Babylonia , that s ome s end forth white naphthaand others black ; and that s ome of thes e , I meanthos e that s end forth white naphtha, cons is t o f

liqu id sulphur (and it is thes e that attract theflames),whereas the others send forth black naphtha,li u id as halt ,which is burnt in lamps ins tead of oil .

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GEOGRAPHY, 16. I . 1 7

—18

eas t ; and the j ourney for people travelling fromSus a into the interior of Pers is through U xia, andfor people travelling from Pers is into the middle ofCarmania , is als o towards the eas t . Now Carmaniais encircled on the north by Pers is , which is a largecountry ; and bordering on this country are Parae tacené and Cos sae a as far as the Caspian Gates , whichis inhabited by mountainous and predatory tribes .

And bordering on Sus is is Elymais , mos t of whichis rugged and inhabited by brigands and borderingElyma

‘

i s are Medi a and the region of the Z agru s .

18. Now the Cos s aeans , like the neighbouringmountaineers , are for the mos t part bowmen , andare always out on foraging expeditions ; for theyhave a country that is small and barren , s o that

, they mus t needs live at the expens e of the othertribes . And they are of neces s ity a powerful people ,

- for they are all fighters ; at any rate , thirteenthous and Cos saeans j oined the E lymae ans in battle ,when the latter were warring agains t both theBabylonians and the Sus ians . But the Parae tac e niare more interes ted in agriculture than the Co ss ae ans ; but s till even they thems elves do notabs tain from brigandage . The E lymae ans po s s es sa larger and more divers ified country than the

Parae tac eni . Now all of it that is fertile is inhabitedby farmers , whereas the mountainous part of it isa nurs ery of s oldiers , mos tly bowmen ; and s incethe latter part is extens ive , it can furn ish s o largea military force that their king , s ince he pos s es s esgreat power, refus es to be s ubj ect to the king of

3 the ed itors , for ’

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2 2 4

GEOGRAPHY, 16. I . 1 9- 2 0

19 . Now as for Adiab e né , the mos t of it consistsof plains ; and though it too is a part of Babylonia,s till it has a ruler of its own ; and in s ome places itborders als o on Armenia. For the Medes and theArmenians , and third the Babylon ians , the threegreates t of the tribes in that part of the world , weres o cons tituted from the beginning , and continued tobe , that at times opportune for each they would attackone anothe r

'

and in turn become reconciled . And

this continued down to the s upremacy of the Farthians . Now the Parthians rule over the Medes andthe Babylonians , b

'

ut they have never once ruledover the Armenians ; indeed , the Armenians havebeen attacked many times , but they could not beovercome by force , s ince Tigranes oppos ed all attacksmightily , as I have s tated in my des cription ofArmenia.

1 Such , then , is Adiab e né ; and the Adiabeni are als o called Sac c opode s ; 2 but I shall nextdes cribe Mes opotamia and the tribes on the s outh ,after briefly going over the accounts given of thecus toms of As syria.

20. Now in general their cus toms are like thos eof the Pers ians , but it is a cus tom peculiar to themto appoint three wis e men as rulers of each trjb e ,who pres ent in

~

pfib lic the marriagfi le gi rls , and

s ell them by au c t ion,

to,the bridegrooms

,always

s elling firs t thos e who are the more highly pri z ed .

Thus marriages are contracted ; and every time theyhave intercours e with one another , they aris e andgo out , each apart from the other , to offer incens e ;and in the morning they bathe thems elves be fore

1 Se e 11. 14 . 15 .

2 Sac k - fe et . But the name is su sp e c te d (s e e c ritic alnote).

2 2 5VOL. VI I .

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2 2 .

2 28

GEOGRAPHY, I 6. I . 2 0—2 2

them with wax . But three of their tribes have norain ; and thes e live in marshes and are fi sh- e at e

fgiving a life s imilar to that of the 01115511535 58?G e dros ia.

21. Mes opotamia 1 has its name from what is thefact in the cas e . A s I have s aid ,2 it lies betwe enthe Eu b rates and the Ti ri and Tigriswashes its e as t emfi é b fi y , w e re as the Euphrateswashes it s wes tern and s outhern s ides ; and on thenorth is the Taurus , which

"

s eparates Armenia fromMesopotamia. Now the greates t di s tance by whichthe two rivers are s eparated is that towards themountains ; and this di s tance might be the s ame asthat s tated by Eratos thenes— I mean that fromThapsac u s ,where was the old bridge of the Euphrates ,to the cros s ing of the Tigris , where Alexandercros s ed it— two thous and four hundred s tadia ; butthe shortes t dis tance between the two rivers is

s omewhere in the neighbourhood of Se le u c e ia andBabylon , s lightly more than two hundred s tadia.

The Tigris flows through the middle of Lake Thop itis ,as it is called , in the direction of its breadth ; and ,

after travers ing it to the oppos ite shore , it s inksunderground with upward blas ts and a loud nois e ;and having flowed for a cons iderable dis tance invis ible , it ris es again not far away from G ordy ae a ;and it travers es the lake s o impetuous ly , as Eratosthe ne s s ays , that , although the lake els ewhere isbriny and without fi sh, yet in this part it is fresh ,runs like a river , and is full of fi sh.

22 . Mes opotamia contracts in shape , proj ecting toa cons iderable length ; and the shape of it s omewhatres embles that of a boat ; and the greates t part ofit s periphery is formed by the Euphrates . The

2 2 9

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8w0 7 6 7 087 07 17 160 16080 90 L 0 803 0617 61 160 i 8w8

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0170 1 810 7 7717 L0x817° 8 8w 6166617019 660 67 8

w7t 6017 77 7 019 H0p98 06°

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01

16016661701, 7 7717 7 6 M 77860 17 6XOV7 69 1606 7 7717Bafi vkwv6av.

27 . M 67 0 §8 86 7 08 E8<7>pLi7 ov 1606 7 08 T6'yp109

7866 160 i 0XX09 w07 0009 , B0 0 6X6109 ICd XOlJ/LGVOS‘

,

1c ai w epi 7 7717’

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616 7 779 Evp60 9 669 2 67t 6816610 17 1606 B0Bv7t0717060wop6v00617 0L9 60 7 617 . 77 0617 0817 810780 0 19

27 08

1 61760717 , G ro skurd ,for 7 07 17 .

2 8101800 13 F ,0170

6

7800 1: othe r MSS.

1 This stone is c alle d gagetes (i .e . j et) b y P liny (10. 3 and36.

2 32

GEOGRAPHY, 1 6. I . 2 4—2 7

mos t of the places in this country , I mean all thatare worth mentioning ; for the country is rich in

pas turage , and s o rich in plants that it als o producesthe evergreens and a spice - plant called amomum ;and it is a feeding- ground for lions ; and it als oproduces naphtha and the s tone called gangitis ,

1

which is avoided by reptile25 . Gordys , the s on of Triptolemus , is s aid to

have taken up his abode in G ordy e ne , and later als othe Eretrians , who were carried off by the Pers ians .

Of Triptolemus , however , I shall s oon give a clearaccount in my des cription of the Syrians .

2

26. The parts of Mes opotamia which inclinetowards the s outh and are farther from the mountains , which are waterles s and barren , are occupiedby the Arabian Sc e nitae , a tribe of bri ands and

readily mmture and booty fail them . Accord

ingly , the people who live alongs ide the mountainsare haras s ed not only by the Sc e ni tae , but als o bythe Armenians , who are s ituated above them and ,

through their might , oppres s them ; and at las tthey are s ubj ect for the mos t part to the Armeniansor els e to the Parthians , for the Parthians too ares ituated on the s ides of the country and pos s es sboth Medi a and Babylonia .

27 . Between the Euphrates and the Tigris thereflows another river, called Bas ile iu s ; and in theneighbourhood of Anthemu s ia s till another, calledAhorras . The road for people travelling from Syriato Se le u c e ia and Babylon runs through the countryof the Sc e nitae ,3 now called Malians by s ome writers ,and through their des ert . Such travellers cros s the

2 16. 2 . 5 .3 Tent-dwe lle rs .

2 33

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2 34

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STRABO

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i1\ 77.

2 36

GEOGRAPHY , 16. I . 28

Parthians and others to the Romans , to whom theyare neighbours ; les s s o

1 the nomad Sc eni tae whoare near the river, but more s o thos e that are faraway and near Arabia Felix . The Parthians wereals o in former times eager for friendship with theRomans , but they defended thems elves agains tCras sus , who began war with them ; 2 and then ,having begun the battle thems elves , met withequal revers es when they s ent Pac oru s agains tAs ia.

3 But Antony , us ing the Armenian 4 as couns e llor, was betrayed and fared badly in his war.

Phraat e s ,5 his s ucces s or, was s o eager for friendship

with Caesar Au us tus that he even s ent him thetrophiem hi ans had s e t up as memorialsof their defeat of the Romans . And , having calledTitius to a conference , who was at that time praefectof Syria , he put in his hands as hos tages four of hislegitimate s ons , Se raspadane s and Rhodas pe s andPhraat e s and Bonone s , and two wives and four s onsof thes e ,6 for fear of s editions and attempts uponhis life ; for he knew that no pers on could prevailagains t him unles s that pers on s upported s omemember of the hous e of Arsac e s , becaus e of thefact that the Parthians were extremely fond of thehous e . Accordingly , he got rid of hi s children ,

1 le s s inc lined to giv e ear to the R omans .2 5 4 B .0 .

3 Pac orus (s on of K ing Orode s ) and Lab ienus ov e rranSy ria and part of A s ia Mino r, b ut we re de feate d (39 B.C .)b yVentidi us , a le gate of Antony . Pac orus a ain invade d Sy ria(38 b ut was again d e feate d and e ll in battle (s e e16. 2 .

4 Artavas de s , king of the Armeni ans (s e e 11. 13 .

5 Phraate s IV, who su c c e e de d hi s fathe r Orode s as kingand c ommenc e d hi s re ign b y murde ring hi s fathe r, his thirtybrothe rs , and his own son .

8 Of . 6. 4 . 2 .

2 37

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2 38

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2 4 0

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 2 . 3—4

Commage né is rather a small country ; and it has acity fortified by nature , Samosata, where the royalresidence used to be ; but it has now become aprov ince ; 1 and the city is surrounded by an exceedingly fertile , though small , territory . Here is nowthe bridge of the Euphrates ; and near the bridgeis situated Se le u c e ia, a fortress of M esopotamia ,which was included within the boundaries of Commagene by Pompey ; and it was here that Tigranesslew Selene , surnamed Cleopatra , after impris oningher for a time , when she had been banished fromSyria .4 . Se le u c is is not only the best of the above

mentioned portions of Syria , but als o is called , andis , a Tetrapolis , owing to the outstanding cities init , form sev eral . But the largest are four :Ant ioc he ia near D aphne , Se le u c e ia,

in P ieria , andalso Apafi éi f and Laodi c e ia ; and

'

these cities , allfounded by Seleucus Nic ator, used to be calledsisters , because of their

‘

concord with one another.Now the largest of these cities 2 was named after hisfather and the one most s trongly fortified by natureafter hims elf, and one of the other two , Apame ia,

after his wife Apama , and the other, Laodic e ia,after his mothé rZ

—Appropriately to the Tem lis ,

Se le uc is was also div ided into four satrapies , as '

Po s e idoniu s says , the same number into whichCoele - Syria was di vided , though M esopotamiaformed only one satrapy .

3 Ant ioc he ia is likewise

1a Roman provinc e .

2 Antioc he ia.

3 The te xt s e ems to b e c orrupt . G roskurd c onje c ture sthat Strabo wrote e ithe r Commagené , like Me sopotamia,formed one satrapy,” or Commage né , and likewise Parapotamia, forme d one satrapy (s e e c ritic al note ).

2 4 1

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1 12. 8. 19, 13. 4 . 6.

GEOGRAPHY, 16. 2 . 6—7

6. Lying above Antioc he ia, at a dis tance of fortystadia , is D aphgg, a settlement of moderate size ;and also a large , thickly - shaded grov e intersectedby fountain- streams , in the midst of which there isan asylum- precinct and a temple of

” Ap ollo andArtemis . He réfl

'

fl ? the custom for the Ant ioc he iansand

“ the neighbouring peoples to hold afestival . The grove is eighty stadia in circuit .”

7 7 The Oront_

es River flows near the city . Thisriver has its s ou i'Ees inCoe lé - Syria ; and then , afterflowing underground, issues forth again ; and then ,proceeding through the territory of the Apame ians

into that of Ant ioc he ia, closely approaches the lattercity and flows down to the sea near Se le uc e ia.

Though formerly called Typhon , its name waschanged to that of Orontes , the man who built abridge across it . Here , somewhere , is the settingof the mythical story of Typhon ’s stroke by li htningand of the mythical story of the Arim i , o?whomI hav e already spoken .

1 They say that Typhon

(who , they add , was a dragon), when struck by thebolts of lightning , fled in search of a descent underground ; that he not only cut the earth with furrowsand formed the bed of the river , but also descendedunderground and caused the fountain to break forthto the surface ; and that the river got its name fromthis fact . Now on the west , below Antioc he ia andSe le u c e ia, lies the sea ; and it is near

"

Se le u c e iafl .“

that “

the"

Ofonte s forms its outlets , thi s city beingforty s tadi a di stant from the outlets , and one hundredand twenty from Ant ioc he ia. Inland voyages fromthe sea to Ant io c he ia are made on the same dayone starts . To the east of An t io c he ia are theEuphrates , as also Bamb y c é and Beroea and Hera

2 4 5

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4 I‘

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othe r MSS.

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2 4 6

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'

moxz , e i7 7 ov othe r MSS.

2xa

'Jpav, Corais , for X LBpov.

1 Rive rs -oi -Wate r.2 4 8

GEOGRAPHY, 16. 2 . 8—9

the Parthian general . Near the sea in this regionlie Se le u c e ia, and Pieria , a mountain continuou swith M t . Amanu s , and Rhosus , whi ch is situatedbetween Is s u s and Se le uc e ia. Se le u c e ia was inearlier tim es called Hy datos - Potamoi .1 The cityis a notable fortres s and is too strong to be takenby force ; and for this reas on Pompey , after shu ttingTigranes off from it ,

2 adj udged it a free city. Tothe south of the Ant ioc he ians is Apame ia, which iss ituated in the interior ; and to the south of theSe le u c e ians are M ts . Cas ius and Antic as iu s ; andstill fu rther after Se le uc e ia one comes to the outletsof the Orontes ; and then to the Nymphaeum , akind of sacred cav e ; and then to Cas ium ; and nextto Po s e idium, a small town , and to He rac le ia.

9 . Then one comes to Laodi c e ia, s ituated on thes e a. It is a mos ta b u ilt , has a goodm om , and has territory which , bes ides its othergood crop s , abounds in wine . Now this city fu rnishesthe mos t of the wine to the Ale xandre ians , sincethe whole of the mountain that lie s abov e the cityand is pos s es s ed by it is cov ered with V ines almos tas far as the s ummi ts . And while the s ummits areat a cons iderable dis tance from Laodi c e ia, slop ingup gently and gradu ally from it , they tower abov eApam e ia, extending up to a perp endi cular height .Laodic e ia was afflicted in no moderate degree byD olab e lla, when he fled to it for refuge , was besiegedin it by Cas s iu s till death , and des troyed, along withhims elf, many parts of the city .

2 Tigrane s had trie d for fourtee n ye ars (84—70 B .c .) tocapture the city.

3 To av oid be ing captured by Cas s ius , D olab e lla ordere done of his soldi e rs to kill him (4 3 B.c.

2 4 9

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2 The MSS . re ad Aim/ 77 77a!‘

8'

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y ov s .

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vn to Aim/ 7777

wapana p e’

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3 7717 757)8 7 Oman .

4 M00 75

7w D i , Maaiav Mapmi

av mowz (Polybius 5 . 4 5 . 61)and e ditors be fore K rame r.

GEOGRAPHY, I6. 2 . I O

For he was born at Cas iana, a fortres s of the Apameian country, and , hav ing been reared at Apame ia

and clos ely as sociated with the king and the king’

s

c ourt , when , he s e t out to effect a revolution , he gothis res ources from this city and als o from its depende nc ie s , I mean Laris a and Cas iana and -Megaraand Apollonia and other places like them , all ofwhich were tributary to Apame ia. So Try phon wasproclaimed king of this country and held out for along time . Cecilius 1 Bas s us , with two cohorts ,caus ed Apame ia to revolt and, though bes ieged bytwo large Roman armies , s trongly res is ted them fors o long a time that he did not come under theirpower until he voluntarily put hims elf in their handsupon his own terms ; for the country s upplied hisarmy with provis ions , and he had plenty of allies ,I mean the neighbouring Chieftains , who pos s es s eds trongholds ; and among thes e places was Lys ias ,which is s ituated above the lake that li es ne arApame ia, as als o Arethus a , belonging to Samps ic e ramu s and his s on Iamb lic hu s , Chieftains of thetribe of the Eme s e ni ; and at no great dis tance ,als o , were He liupolis and Chalcis , which latter wass ubj ect to Ptolemaeus the s on of M e nnae u s , whopos s es s ed Mas s y as and the mountainous country ofthe Ituraeans . Among the allies of Bas s us was als oAlc haedamnu s , king of the Rhamb ae ans , who werenomads this s ide the Euphrates River ; and he wasa friend of the Romans , but upon the belief that hewas being treated unj us tly by the Roman governors

1 Apparently an e rror for Cae c ilias .

5 ’

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c onj . that 9 8,7787ma is an e rror for 88Ae ba, a p lac e about 25

mile s east of A re thu sa.

1 Se e c ri tic al note .

2 54

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7

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7817 0 15

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5

17 075

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GEOGRAPHY, 16. 2 . 1 2—1 4

territory of Sele u c e ia on the s ide towards Phoeniciaand Co e lé - Syria.13 . Aradu s lies ofi

”

a s urfy and harbourles s s e a

board ; it lies approximately between its navals tation and Marathu s , and is twenty s tadia dis tantfrom the mainland . It cons is ts of a rock was hedall round by the s e a, is about s even s tadia in circuit

,

and is full of dwellings ; and it has had s uch a largepopulation , even down to the pres ent time , thatthe people live in hous es wi th many s tories . It wasfounded, as they say , by exiles from Sidon . Theyget their water- supply partly from the rains and

cis terns and partly from their territory on the mainland . In war-M e s they get water from the channelat a short di s tance in front of the city. This channelhas an abundant spring ; and into thi s spring thepeople let down from the water—fetching boat aninverted , wide -mouthed funnel made of lead , theupper part of which contracts into a s tem with a

moderate - s iz ed hole through it ; and round thiss tem they fas ten a leathern tube (unles s I shouldcall it bellows), which receives the water that isforced up from the spring through the funnel . Nowthe firs t water that is forced up is s e a- water, but theboatmen wait for the flow of pure and potable waterand catch all that is needed in ves s els prepared forthe purpos e and carry it to the city .

14 . Now in ancient times the Aradians weregoverned independently by kings , as was als o thecas e with each of the other Phoenician cities ; b utafterwards the Pers ians , and then the Macedonians ,and to - day the Romans , have reduced them to theirpres ent order of government . The Aradians , however, together with the other Phoenicians , subj ected

2 557VOL. V II.

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GEOGRAPHY, 16. 2 . 175- 1 7

banus , which form Co e lé - Syria, as it is called , andp m ? ‘ 0

are approxunate ly"

parallel other .’

Theyboth begin slightly ab ow i —Lib anu s abovethe s e a near Tripolis and neares t to The upros opon ,

and Antihb anu s above the s e a near Sidon ; and

s omewhere in the neighbourhood of the Arabianmountains above Damas cene and the Trac hone s ,1

as they are called , the two mountains terminate inother mountains that are hilly and fruitful . Theyleave a hollow plain between them , the breadth ofwhich , near the s e a, is two hundred s tadia, and thelength , from the s e a into the interior, is about twicethat number. It is inters ected by rivers , the Jordanbeing the larges t , which water a country that isfertile and all- productive . It als o contains a lake ,which produces the aromatic rush 2 and reed ; and

likewis e marshes . The lake is called G e nne s arit is .

The plain als o produces bals am . Among the riversis the Chr sorrhoas , which begins at the city and

country 0 the D amas ceni and is almos t whollyus ed up in the conduits , for it i rrigates a largeterritory that has a very deep s oil ; but the Lycusand the Jordan are navigated inland with ves s elsof burden , mos tly by the Aradians .

17 . A s for the plains , the firs t , beginning at th es e a, is called Maeras , or Macra - Plain . Here , as

reported by Pos e idonius , was s een the fallen dragon ,

1 Trac hone s means Rugge d, s trong trac ts16. 2 . 20)

2 Se e c ri tic al note .

5 Ins tead of 0 41067707, E reads X00770 .

Afte r,ufixos Dhi read 0817 so Corais .

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1 Se e 16. 2 . 16 and footnote .

3 the remainde r of Coe lé - Sy ria in the broad s ens e ofthe te rm.

2 64

GEOGRAPHY , I6. 2 . 19—2 1

received two legions , which were s ettled there byAgrippa, who als o added to it much of the territo ryof Mas sy as , as far as the s ources of the OrontesRiver. Thes e s ources are near Mt . Lib anus andParade is u s and the A e gy ptian fortres s s ituated inthe neighbourhood of the land of the Apame ians .

So much , then , for the places on the s e a.

20. Above Mas sy as lies the Royal Valley , as it

is called , and als o the Damas cene country , which isaccorded exceptional prais e . The c ity / Damas c u sis als o a noteworthy city , having been , I mightalmos t s ay , even the mos t famous of the cities in thatpart of the world in the time of the Pers ian empire ;and above it are s ituated two theyare called . And then, towards the parts inhabitedpromis cuous ly by Arabians and Ituraeans , are

mountains hard to pas s , in which there are deepmouthed caves , one of which c an admit as many as

four thous and people in times of incurs ions , such asare made agains t the Damas ceni from many places .

For the mos t part , indeed , the barbarians have beenrobbing the merchants from Arabia Felix , but thisis les s the cas e now that the band of robbers underZ e nodoru s has been broken up through the goodgovernment es tablished by the Romans and throughthe s ecurity es tablished by the Roman s oldiers thatare kept in Syria.

21. Now the whole of the country above theterritory of Se le u c e ia, extending approximately toA egy pt and Arabia, is called Co e lé - Syria ; but thecountry marked 03 by the Libm the Antili

banus is called by that name in a special s ens e . Ofthe remainder 2 the s eaboard from Orthos ia toPe lu s ium is called Phoenicia , which is a narrow

265

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,u uc pa Li17 0 7\0

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10 0 17 7 89 , ,8860 7010017 7 0117 7 7717 877 87 170117l A f f A

7 170177 7717 . 7 777 0 7 0 7 88 x0 9 0 17 808077 7717 Hp0 /L7t 779157 7

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0 157 0117 . 7 779 88 7 7 8p7 7 Li 9 170 17 0 7 07 00 9 2 8ul7Li

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80 7 7 7 81877 77p7017 '

0737 0 7 77 817 013

17 7 07 0v 7 07 .

24 . 2 781517 70 7 88 7 7 0X 157 8X1707 7 7 17 89 7 7 0p0 888017 7 0 7

77 0 7 xakkw exvm, x0 Li7 7 8p 17 0 7 8 7 7 07 777 779 877K0 7 '

77p89 88 ma7 4177 60 0410 7“7 rep7 7 8 Li0 7 p0 170,0 70 17

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7 779 17 17 77 7 7 7 7 7t oia 9 8,17 77 0p7 /7817 1

yap 77 0 7 170 v 7c 7\.77p 7 77 817A87707 8p017

°

x0 9Li7 7 8p 17 0 7 7 0117 A ify v 77 7 70117 81'

7'

p8p.0

moxz read 0 8 10 700317 7 817008170117 .

vav0 7 oM0 s,the e ditors

,for 170v0 7 0A0'

yias .

1 Se e 5 . 3 . 7 .

2 The Phoe ni c ian Me lc harth.

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 2 . 2 3—2 4

and the other, called A egyptian harbour, ope n .

The hous es here , it is s aid , have many s tories , evenmore than the hous es at Rome,1 and on this account ,when an earthquake took place , it lacked but littleof utterly wiping out the city. The city was als ounfortunate when it was taken by s iege by Alexander ; but it overcame s uch mis fortunes and res toredits elf both by means of the s eamanship of its people ,in which the Phoenicians in general have beens uperior to all

_peoples of all times , and by means of

their dye - hous es for purple ; for the Tyrian purplehas proved

,

1ts e lf by far the mos t beautiful of all ;and the shell fi sh are caught near the coas t ; andthe other things requis ite for dyeing are eas ily got ;and although the great number of dye - works makesthe city unpleas ant to live in , yet it makes the cityrich through the s uperior skill of its inhabitants .

The Tyrians were adj udged autonomous , not onlyby the kings , but als o , at small expens e to them , bythe Romans , when the Romans confirmed the decreeof the kings . Heracles 2 is paid extravagant honoursby them . The number and the s iz e of their colonialcities is an evidence of their power in maritimeaffairs . Such , then , are the Tyrians .

24 . The S idon ians , according to tradition , areskilled in many beautiful arts , as the poet als opoints out ; 3 and bes ides this they a hersin the s ciences of as tronomy andbegun their s tudies with practical calculations andwith night - s ailings ; for each of thes e branches ofknowledge concerns the merchant and the shipowner ; as , for example , geometry was invented , it

3 “ Sinc e the Sidonians , s ki lled in c unning handiwork hadwrought it (the s ilver mixing bowl)we l l (Iliad 23 .

269

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1

70 7 871747 7717 90790 7

1xef000 7 F ,

77 71787000 7 othe r 8188.

2 871 7709770 0 17 F,omitte d b y othe r MSS . (c p . Athenae us 8.

2 , p .

3 For 07 A4‘

1 Corais reads 17 0q 3 (v ibration).

817 01 07 8717 , Jone s , fol lowing s ugge stion of Capp s , for877 07 07 e F , 87 707 8717 othe r MSS.

2 72

GEOGRAPHY, 16. 2 . 2 5—2 6

that is adapted to fus ing , though others say thatany s and anywhe re can be fus ed . I heard at Alexandria from the glas s - workers that there was inA egypt a kind of vitreous earth without whichmany - coloured and cos tly des ign s could not beexecuted , j us t as els ewhere different countrie srequire di fferent mixtures ; and at Rome , als o , itis s aid that many dis coveries are made both forproducing the colours and for facility in manufacture , as , for example , in the cas e of glas s - ware ,where one can buy a glas s beaker or drinking - cupfor a copper .26. A marvellous occurrence of a very rare kind

is reported as having taken place on this shorebetween T1 131_ gnd tolemai s at the time whenthe Ptolemaeans , after j oining battle with Sarpedonthe general , were left in this place , after a brilliantrout had taken place , a wave from the s e a, like aflood- tide , submerged the fugitives ; 1 and s ome werecarried off into the s e a and des troyed , whereasothers were left dead in the hollow places ; andthen , s ucceeding this wave , the ebb uncovered theshore again and dis clos ed the bodies of men lyingpromis cuous ly among dead fi sh. Like occurrencestake place in the neighbourhood of the Mt . Cas iu ss ituated near A egypt , where the land undergoes as ingle quick convuls ion , and makes a s uddenchange to a higher or lower level , the res ult beingthat , whereas the elevated part repels the s e a and

1 The ac c ount of Athenae u s (8. 2 , p . quote d fromPos e idoni us , is c learer : the Oppo s

‘ ge ne rals we re Try phonthe Apame ian (se e 16. 2 . 10) and arpe don the general ofDeme trius ; it was Try phon who won the fight and his s oldie rsWho we re subme rge d .

2 73VOL. vn .

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10 1117 7670 0 17 , K y lande r, for 0 71 1 4070 717 .

2 1 617 77 Emoz , 1 1577 77 17 othe r MSS .

1 For an exte nde d di s c u s s ion of this and s imilar problems ,

s e e 1 . 3—4 , 10. 13 .

2 This p lac e was magnifi c e ntly built up b y He rod and

name d Cae sare a 111 honour of Augus tus .3 “ Mulbe rry City .

” " h

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7 7 07t v 88 77 0 7 7 8 7 0117

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31. M8 7 17 88 080 17 P0 1p7a , 817 77 I‘dX” 0 v 178,3 77177p000170

’117 , M e ine k e ; 77p00711

5

01v MSS . 7’

877 0077moz

,Tz s c hu cke and Corais .

2 Afte r ’E1r77701

’7p8 7os the MSS. add 7 87 017 0

5

3 .

3 AtAav, Me ine ke emends to Alf/710 170 .

4 8 77 817 {XL-117 8 79 7 8, Krame r, for 8 879 1‘w 7 8.

2 76

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 2 . 2 9—3 1

the s ettlements all round . Thence to Mt . Cas iu sne ar Pe lus ium the dis tance is a little more than onethous and s tadi a ; and, three hundred s tadi a farther,one comes to Pe lu s ium its elf.29. But in the interval on e comes to G adaris ,which the

~Judae ans appropriated to thems elves ;

and thefi to A z otus and As calon . The dis tancefrom Iamne ia td fi o tus and 7188510 11 is about twohundred s tadia. The country of the A s c alonitaeis a good onion -market , though the town is small .Antiochus the philos opher, who was born a littlebeforeM 7778, was a native of

_

thisfi p lac e . Philo

demus , the_Epicurean , and

'm'

agé f and M e nippu s ,the 337 3155, and Theodorus , the rhe toric fan of myown time , were natives of G adaris .

30. Then , near As calon, one comes to the harbourof the G az ae ans . The city of the G az ae ans is s ituated inlafim a dis tance of s even s tadia ; it becamefamous at one time , but was ras ed to the groundby Alexander and remains uninhabited . Thencethere is s aid to be an overland pas sage of one thous andtwo hundred and s ixty s tadia to Aela, a city s ituatednear the head of the Arabian Gulf. This headcons is ts of two reces s es one extending into theregion near Arabia and Gaz a , which is called Aclanites , after the city s ituated on it , and the other,extending to the region near A e gypt in the neighb ourhood of the City of Heroes ,1 to which the overland pas s age from Pe lus ium is shorter ; and theoverland j ourneys are made on camels throughdes ert and s andy places ; and on thes e j ourneysthere are als o many reptiles to be s een .

31. After Gaz a one comes to Rhaphia, where a1 He roonpolis .

2 77

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47 0 70 1

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17 77, the e ditors , for 7 070 75

7 7717

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17m7 .

2 78

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1 Se e 14 . 5 . 3 and footnote .

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 2 . 33-

34

hollow and marshy. Such is Phoenicia. Artemidorus s ays that the di stance to Pe lus ium fromOrthos ia is three thousand six hundred and fiftystadi a, including the sinuosities of the gulfs ; andfrom M e lae nae , or M e laniae , in C ilicia , near Celenderis , to the common boundaries of C ilicia and

Syria , one thousand nine hundred ; and thence tothe Orontes River, fi v e hundred and twenty ; andthen to Orthos ia one thous and one hundred andthirty .

1

34 . As for Judae a, its western extremities towardsCas iu s are occupied by the Idumaeans and by thelake . The Idumaeans are Nabataeans ,2 but owing toa sedi tion they were banished from there,3 j oinedthe Judae ans , and shared in the same customs withthem . The greater part of the region near the s e a

is occupied by Lake Sirb oni s and by the countrycontinuous with the lake as far as Jerus alem ; forthis city is also near the s e a ; for, as I have a lreadysaid,4 it is v isible from the seaport of Iop é . Thisregion li es towards the north ; and it is inhabitedin general , as is eac h place in partic ular , by mixeds tocks of people from A egy pt ian and Arabian and

Phoenician tribes ; for such are thos e who oc cupyGalilee and Hie ric us 5 and Philadelphia and Samaria,which last Herod surnamed Se b as t é .

6 But thoughthe inhabitants are mixed up thus , the most prevalentof the accredited reports in regard to the temple atJerusalem represents the ancestors of the presentJudaeans , as they are called, as A egyptians .

2 An Arabian people (s e e 16. 4 .

3 Arabia Petraea (s e e 16. 4 .

4 16. 2 . 28. Jeric ho .

6 Lee. in Latin, Augus ta,”In honour of Augus tus Caes ar.

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2 82

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284

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 2 . 36—37

is well supplied with water, its surrounding territoryis barren and waterless , and the part of the territorywithin a radius of sixty stadia is also roc ky beneaththe surface.1 At the same time Moses , instead ofus ing arms , put forward as defence his sacrifi ces andhis D iv ine Being , being res olved to seek a

seat of worship for Him 2 and promis ing to deliverto the e ople a kind of worship and a kind ofritual wliic h would not oppres s those who adoptedthem either with expens es or with div ine obsessionsor with other abs urd troubles . Now Moses enj oyedfair repute with these people , and organised no

ordinary kind of government , since the peop les allround , one and all, came over to him, because of hisdealings with them and of the prospects he held outto them .

37 . His successors for s ome time abided by thesame cours e , acting righteous ly and being trulypious toward God ; but afterwards , in the fi rs t place ,superstitious men were appointed to the priesthood , and then tyrannic al people ; and from supers tition arose abs tinence from flesh , from wh ic h it istheir custom to abstain even to - day , and circumc is ions and exc isions 3 and other Observan c es of thekind . And from the tyrann ies aro s e the bands ofrobbers ; 4 for some revolted and haras s ed the country ,both their own country and that of their neighbours

,

whereas others , c o operating with the rulers , seiz edthe property of others and subdued muc h of Syriaand Phoenic ia . But still they had respe c t for theiracropolis , since they did not loathe it as the seat oftyranny , but honoured and revered it as a holyplace .

L'

.e . a c ity and temple dedi c ated to His worship .

L'

.e . of females (se e 16. 4 . Se e 16. 2 . 28.

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288

GEOGRAPHY, I6. 2 . 39—4 0

39 . For thes e things , whatever truth there maybe in them , have at leas t been believed and s anct ione d among men ; and for this reas on the prophetstoo were held in s o much honour that they weredeemed worthy to be kings , on the ground thatthey promulgated to u s ordinances and amendmentsfrom the gods , not only when they were alive , butals o when they were dead , as , for example , Teires ias ,to whom even in death Pers ephone granted reas on ,that he alone should have unders tanding , whereasthe others fl it about as shadows .

” 1 Such , als o ,were Amphiaraus , Trophoniu s , Orpheus , Mus aeus ,and the god among the Getae , who in ancient timeswas Z amolxis ,

2 a Py thagore ian , and in my timewas D e c ae ne u s ,

3 the diviner of By re b is tas ; and ,

among the Bospore ni , A c hae c aru s ; and , amongthe Indians , the Gymnos ophis ts ; and, among the

Pers ians , the Magi and the necromancers , as alsothe dish - diviners and water- diviners , as they are

called ; and , among the As syrians , the Chaldaeans ;and , among the Romans , the Tyrrhen ian nativitycas ters .

4 Mos es was s uch a pers on as thes e , as

als o his s ucces s ors , who , with no bad beginning ,turned out for the wors e .4 0. At any rate , when now Judaea was underthe rule of tyrants , Alexander was firs t to declarehims elf king ins tead of pries t ; and both Hy rc anu s

‘

and Aris tobulus were s ons of his ; and when theywere at variance about the empire , Pompey wentover and overthrew them and ras ed their fort ifi c a

1 Ody s s ey 10. 4 94 .

2 Se e 7 . 3 . 5 .

3 7 . 3 . 5 .4 Cf . 17 . l . 4 3 .

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the Ep it. and Me ine ke .

37 0 77 7 0, afte r (1 17 7 17, is e j e c te d by G roskurd and Me ineke .

3 Ins tead of LLaBv s , E reads Liafi axos , F aaBLBAos , and theEpit. BLBAos .

2 92

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 2 . 4 1—4 2

white s ubs tance ; and when it is put up in smallquantities it s olidifies ; and it is remarkable for itscure of headache and of incipient cataracts and ofdimnes s of s ight . Accordingly , it is cos tly ; andals o for the reas on that it is produced nowhere els e .Such is als o the cas e with the Phoe nic on , whichalone has the c ary otic palm ,

1 excepting the Babylonian and that beyond Babylonia towards the eas t .Accordingly , the revenue derived from it is great .And they u s e the xylo- bals am 2

as spice .4 2 . Lake Sirb onis 3 is large ; in fact s ome s tatethat it is one thous and s tadia in circuit ; however,it extends parallel to the coas t to a length of s lightlymore than two hundred s tadi a , is deep to the veryshore , and has water s o very heavy that there is nou s e for divers , and any pers on who walks into itand proceeds no farther than up to his navel isimmediately rais ed afloat . It is full of as phalt .The asphalt is blown to the s urface at irregularintervals from the mids t of the deep , and with itris e bubbles , as though the water were boiling ;and the s urface of the lake , being convex , pres entsthe appearance of a hill . With the asphalt therearis es als o much soot , which , though smoky , isimperceptible to the eye ; and it tarnishes copperand s ilver and anything that gli s tens , even gold ;and when their ves s els are becoming tarnished thepeople who live round the lake know that the asphaltis beginning to ris e ; and they prepare to collect

1 Palma c ary ota, with walnut - like fruit.E

”A

fppare ntly the liquid obtaine d from the branc he s when

out o3 ' Strabo se ems obviou s ly to b e c onfus ing the Asphaltite sus (the D ead Sea)with Lake Sirb onis ,whi c h latte r broke

through to the Me dite rranean Sea (s e e 1. 3 . 4 and 1. 4 .

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s whole ac c ount is substantial lyc orre c t. A s for floating , a ve ry c orpulent pe rson c ould walkout only up to the nav e l be fore floating , b ut a ve ry leanpe rs on up to the shoulde rs .2 94

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GEOGRAPHY , 16. 2 . 4 4—4 6

4 4 . Many other ev idences are produced to showthat the country is fiery ; for near M oasada are tobe seen rugged rocks that hav e been scorched, asalso

,in many places , fissures and ashy soil , and

drops of pitch dripping from smooth cliffs , andboiling rivers that emit foul odours to a great distance ,and ruined settlements here and there ; and therefore people believe the oft- repeated assertions ofthe local inhabitants , that there were once thirteeninhabited cities in that region of which Sodomwas the metropolis , but that a circuit of aboutsixty stadia of that city escaped unharmed ; andthat by reason of earthquakes and of eruptionsof fire and of hot waters containing asphalt andsulphur , the lake burst its bounds , and rocks wereenveloped with fire ; and , as for the cities , somewere swallowed up and others were abandoned bysuch as were able to escape . But Eratosthenessays , on the contrary , that the country was a lake ,and that most of it was uncovered by outbreaks , aswas the cas e with the sea .

1

4 5. In G adaris , also , there is noxious lake water ;and when animals taste it they lose hair and hoofsand horns . At the place called Taric he ae the lakesupplies excellent fish for p ickling ; and on its banksgrow fruit - bearing trees resembling apple trees .The A e gy ptians use the asphalt for embalming thebodies of the dead.

4 6. Now Pompey clipped ofi'

some of the territorythat had been forcibly appropriated by the Judae ans

1 the lake burst it s bounds m a numbe r ofipl

ac e s , as didthe Me dite rrane an at the P illars (s e e the te xt isc orre c t. Bu t it is mos t probable that Strabo wrote as was

the c as e with Thes saly (s e e 9. 5 . 2 , and Herodotus 7 . as

sugges te d by Corais and K rame r (s e e c ritic al note ).2 97

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300

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 3 . 1—2

Chaldaeans , of whom I have already spoken ; 1 andof thos e parts that follow after Mes opotamia as far

as Co e lé - Syria , the part that lies near the river, aswell as Mes opotami a , is occupied by Arabian Sc e nitae ,who are divided off into small s overeignties and livein tracts that are barren for want of water. Thes epeople till the land either little or none , but theykeep herds of all kinds , particularly of camels .

Above thes e people lies an extens ive des ert ; butthe parts lying s till farther s outh than their countryare held by the people who inhabit Arabia Felix , asit is called . The northern s ide of Arabia Felix isformed by the above—mentioned des ert , the eas t ernby the Pers ian Gulf, the wes tern by the ArabianGulf, and the s outhern by the great s e a that liesouts ide both gulfs , which as a whole is called Ery thra.

2

2 . Now the Pers ian Gulf is als o called the Pers ianSea ; and Eratos thenes des cribes it as follows : it s

mouth , he s ays , is s o narrow that from Harmo z i ,

the promontory ofCarmani a , one can s e e the promon

tory at Macae in Arabia ; and from it s mouth thecoas t on the right , being circular, inclines at firs t ,from Carmania, s lightly towards the eas t , and thentowards the north , and , after this , towards the wes tas far as Te re don and the outlet of the Euphrates ;and it compris es the coas t of the Carmanians and inpart that of the Pers ians and Sus ians and Babylon ians , a di s tance of about ten thous and s tadia .I have already spoken of thes e peoples .

3 And

thence next to it s mouth it extends another tenthous and s tadia , as s tated, Eratos thenes s ays , by

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304

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 3 . 4-

7

distant a ten days ’ sail from Te re don and a one day ’ssail from the promontory near the mouth of the gulfat M acae .

5 . Both Ne arc hu s and Orthagoras state that theisland Ogy ris lies in the high sea at a distance of twothousand stadia from Carmania , and that on it isto be seen the grav e of Ery thras , a large moundplanted with wild palm trees ; and that Ery thrasreigned as king over that region and left the seanamed after himself.1 Ne arc hu s says that thesethings were pointed out to them by M ithropas t e s ,the son ofAristes , which latter was satrap of Phrygia ;and that the former was banished by D are iu s , tookup his residence in the island , j oined them when theylanded in the Persian Gulf, and sought through themto be restored to his homeland .

6. Along the whole of the coast of the Red Sea ,down in the deep , grow trees like the laurel and theolive , which at the ebb tides are wholly v isible abov ethe water but at the full tides are sometimes whollycov ered ; 2 and while this is the case , the land thatlies abov e the sea has no trees , and therefore thepeculiarity is all the greater . Such are the statementsofEratosthenes concerning the Persian Se a, which , asI was saying , forms the eastern side of Arabia Felix .

7 . Ne arc hu s says that they were me t by M ithropastes , in company with M az e ne s ; that Maz e ne s

was ruler of an island in the Persian Gulf ; that theisland was called Oarac ta ; that M ithropas t e s tookrefuge , and obtained hospitality , in this island upon

1 the Ery thrae an (Re d)Sea.

2 Coral R e e fs,apparently.

4 Corais and Me ine ke,for A6pax7 a mowz

,A 6

’7pak7 a

o the r MSS ., AG96 Stephanu s .

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308

GEOGRAPHY, 16. 4 . 1—2

much earth being thrown on hurdles of reeds as theplant may require ; so that the v ine is often carriedaway, and then is pushed back again to its properplace by means of poles .2 . But I return to Eratosthenes , who next setsforth his opinions concerning Arabia . He says concerning the northe y , ordesert , part of Arabia , whichlies between Arabia Felix and Co e lé S ria andJudae a,extending as far as

“

the recess ofi h'

gArabian Gulf,that from the City of Heroes ,1 which forms a recessof the Arabian Gulf near the Nile , the distance in thedirection of the Petra of the Nabataeans to Babylonis fi ve thousand s ix hundred stadia , the whole of thej ourney being in the direction of the summer sunrise 2

and through the adj acent countries of the Arabiantribes , I mean the Nabataeans and the Chaulo tae ansand the Agrae ans . Abov e these lies A rab imlielix ,

which extends for a distance of twelve thousand stadiatowards the south , to the Atlantic Sea . The firstpeople who occupy Arabia Felix , after the Syriansand Judae ans , are farmers . After these the so il issandy and barren , producing a few pa~ fi

rnfltre e s and

a thorny tree 3 and the tamarisk , and affordingwater by digging , as is the case in G e dros ia ; 4 andit is occupied by tent dwellers and camel herds .The extreme parts towards the south , lying

-

wpos it eto A e thi0pia, are watered by summer rains and ares ow e d

, twi c e , like India ; 5 and the rivers there areused up in supplying plains and lakes . The country

X 1 He roonpolis .

2 north e as t (of. Vol. I , p . 105 , note3 Appare nt ly the M imosa N Llot a‘1 we ll -wate r (s e e 15 . 2 .

5 Se e 15 . 1. 20 and 17 . 3 . 11.

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GEOGRAPHY , I 6. 4 . 4

arrive there in s eventy days from A e lana 1 (Aclama is acity on the other reces s of the Arabian Gulf, thereces s near Gaz a 2 called A e lanit e s , as I have s aidbefore),

3 but the G e rrhae ans arrive at Chatramot itis

in forty days . The part of the Arabian Gulf alongthe s ide of Arabia , beginning at the A e laTfi te s reces s ,is , as recorded by Alexander

’

s as s ociates and byAnaxic rat e s , fourteen thous and s tadia, though thisfigure is exces s iv e ; and the part oppos ite theTroglodytic country (which is on the right as one s ailsfrom the City of Heroes), as far as Ptolemai s and

the country where elephants are captured , extendsnine thous and s tadia towards the s outh and s lightlyin the direction of the eas t ; and thence , as far as thes traits , four thousand five hundred s tadia, in a dire ction more towards the e as t . The s traits are formedtowards A e thi0pia by a promontory called Beire ,4and by a town bearing the s ame name , which is

inhabited by the Ichthyophagi .5 And here , it issaid , there is a p illar of Ses os tris the Ag gy pt ian ,

which tells in hieroglyphics ofhis pas sage"

acros s thegulf ; for manife s tly he was the firs t man to s ubduethe countrie s of the Aethiopians and the Troglody t e s ; and he then cros s ed into Arabia , and thenceinvaded the whole of As ia ; and accordingly , for thisreas on , there are in many places palis ades ofas they are called , and reproductions of temples ofA e gy pt ian gods . The s traits at D e iré contract to awidth of s ixty s tadia. However , it is not thes e thatare called s traits now, but a place farther along onthe voyage , where the voyage acros s the gulf between

1 Now Kasr-ol-Akaba.2 Now Az z ah.

3 16. 2 . 30.4 Ne c k.”

5 Fish - eate rs .

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y eh at E (Krame r approv ing); 77 6pL0Lv7 677 aL otherMSS .

3 16

1

2

3

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 4 . 5—7

the third is les s s o and is full of guinea - fowls .

1 Then ,next , one comes to the A c athartu s 2 Gulf, whichals o , like M y u s Harbour, lies oppos ite Thebais , andis really ac arthartu s ,

” for it is roughened by reefsand s ubmarine rocks , and , mos t of the time , bytempes tuous winds . And here , deep inland on thereces s of the gulf, lies a city Berenice .

6. After the gulf, one comes to the is landOphiode s ,

3s o called from the fact in the cas e ; but

it was freed from the s erpents by the king , bothbecaus e of their des truction of the people who landedthere and on account of the topaz es found there .Topaz is a transparent s tone that sparkles with agolden lus tre— so dimly in the day - time , however ,that one cannot eas ily s e e it (for it i s outs hone by therays of the s un), but thos e who collect it s e e it atnight , place a ves s el over it as a s ign and dig it upin the day - time . There was an organis ation ofpeople who were appointed by the kings of A e gy pt

to keep guard over this s tone and the collecting ofit ; and this organis ation was s upplied by them withprovis ions .

7 . After this is land one comes to many tribes ofIchthyophagi and Nomads . And then to theHarbour of Sot e ira,4 which was s o called from thefact in the cas e by certain commanders who had beensaved from great dangers . After this there is agreat change in the coas t and the gulf ; for thecoas ting voyage is no longer rough , and in a wayclos ely approaches Arabia ; and the s e a is as low, I

1 Numida M eleagris .2 Fou l .

3 Snaky .4 Saviour (some godde s s ).

4d w apxoémvoy , Corais , for 0

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3 18

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2 77s DFhrw .

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yai

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4 8178, Me ine ke,for 15778.

32 0

GEOGRAPHY, 16. 4 . 8—9

and it is occupied by the A egyptians who went thereas exiles from Psammit ic hu s . They are calledSemb ritae , as being foreigners .1 They are governedby a queen , to whom also M eroe, an island inthe Nile near that region , is subj ect ; and abovethis island, at no great di stance , is another is landin the river , a settlement of these same ex iles .The j ourney from M eroe to this sea ,2 for a wellgirded traveller, requires fifteen days . Near M eroeis the confluence of the As tab oras and the A s tapus ,as also of the A s tas ob as with the Nile .9 . Along these rivers live the Rhiz ophagi

3 andthe He le ii ,

4 who are so called becaus e they cut rootsfrom the adj acent marsh , crush them with stones ,form them into cakes , and then heat the cakes inthe sun ’s rays and use them for food. This regionis the haunt of lions ; and the beasts are driven outof this region by large gnats on the days of the ris ingof the dog- star. Near by are als o the Spe rmophagi ,

5

who , when the seeds fail , live on nuts , preparing themfor eating in the same manner as the Rhiz ophagiprepare roots . Aft er Elaea one comes to the Lookouts of Demetrius and the Altars of Conon ; and inthe interior grows an abundance of ‘Indian reeds ;and the country is called the country of Corac iu s .

Deep in the interior was a place called Ende ra, asettlement of naked people , who us e bows madeof reeds and arrows hardened by fire ; and generally

1 Of. 17 . l . 2 and He rodotus 2 . 30.

2 the Red Sea, in the ne ighbourhood of Saba.

3 Root - eate rs . Mars h -men .5 See d - eate rs .

5.

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av othe r MSS. e xc ept 7273.73 7174 717 v F

,A 'hpn

'rpo s Ptolemae u s .

32 IVOL. vn .

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e xc e pt EF .

3 Kp66¢ay c t F ,Kp60

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A apaBd moxz , A ipaBa othe r MSS.

1 Meat - eate rs . 2 Se e 16. 4 . 5 .3 Milke rs of bitc he s .

3 2 2

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w w 7 m.

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 4 . 1 0—1 1

near the well they are inhabited by the Ele phantophagi ,1 who engage in the chase of elephants . Whenfrom trees they first see a herd of elephants mov ingthrough the forest they do not then attack them , butstealthily follow the herd and hamstring thosethat have wandered from the rear of the herd . Some ,howev er, kill them with arrows dipped in the gall o fserpents . But the shooting of the bow is performedby three persons ; two of these step to the front andhold the bow, and the third draws the string. Others ,noting the trees against which the elephants are

wont to rest , approach them from the other sideand cut the trunks of these trees low down . So whenthe elephant approaches and leans against it , thetree falls and the elephant falls too ; and since theelephant is unable to arise , because its legs have onlya continuous and unbending bone , they leap downfrom the trees and cut the animal to pieces . TheNomads call the hunters A c athart i.

” 2

11. Abov e these is situated a tribe of no large size ,that of the Struthophagi ,

3 in whose country thereare birds of the size of deer , which , though unable tofly , run swiftly , like ostriches . Some hunt themwith bows and arrows , whereas others , covered withthe skins of birds , conceal the right hand in theneck of the skin and mov e it in the s ame *way as thebirds move their necks , and with the left hand theypour forth seeds from a bag suspended to the side

,

and with these seeds they bait the creatures and runthem together into gullies , where me n with cudgels ,standing over them, slaughter them . And theirskins are used bo th for clothing and for bed - cov ers .

1 E le phant- eate rs .3L'

.a. U nc lean .3 Bird - eate rs .

32 5

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,

firs t hand.2 ’

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3 He re the MSS. have a lac una of about ten le tte rs .

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3 moz have 6L7 a 6 K07 owL6'

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326

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3 fi sh-ponds and the like .

3 28

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 4 . 1 3—1 4

are nomads ; and those who till the soil are few innumber . And in some parts of their country styrax 1

grows in no small quantities . The Ichthyophagicollect the fish at the ebb - tides , throw them uponthe rocks , and bake them in the sun ; and then ,when they hav e thoroughly baked them , they pileup the bones , tread the flesh w ith their feet andmakeit into cakes ; and again they bake these cakes anduse them for food . But in stormy weather, whenthey are unable to collect the fish , they pound thebones which they have piled up and mould them intocakes and use them for food ; and they suck thebones when fresh . But some , who hav e shell- fi sh,

fatten them by throwing them down into gulliesand pools of sea - water, and then , throwing inminnowsas food for them , use them for food when there is ascarcity of fish . They also have all kinds of placesfor hatching and feeding fi sh,

2 from which theyparcel them out . Some of the people who inhabitthe part of the coast that is without water go inlandevery fi ve days , families and all , with a shouting ofpaeans , to the water- reservoirs , throw themselvesupon the ground face downwards , drink like cattleuntil their stomachs are filled out as tight as drums ,and then return to the sea again . They liv e incaves , or in pens roofed over with beams and crossbeams , cons isting of the bones of whales and smallfi sh,

3 as also with oliv e branches .14 . The Che lonophagi

4 live under cover of turtleshells , which are so large that they are used as boatsbut some of these people , since the sea - weed isthrown ashore in great quantities and forms highand hill—like heaps , dig beneath these and dwell

3 Of. 15 . 2 . 2 .1 Turtle - eate rs .

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332

GEOGRAPHY, 16. 4 . 1 4

c omes to the country that bears frankincense ; andhere is a promontory and a temple that has a grov eof poplars . In the interior lie the river - land of Isis ,as it is called , and another river- land called Ne ilu s ,both of which produce both myrrh and frankincensealong their banks . Here , too , there is a kind ofreservoir which is filled by waters from the mountains ; and after this one comes to the Lookout ofLeon and the Harbour of Py thang e lu s ; and thenext country has , among other things , pseudo - cassia .And one comes to several river - lands in successionthat produce frankincense along the riv ers , and torivers that extend as far as the cinnamon- bearingcountry ; and the river which bounds this countryproduces als o the flowering rush in v ery greatquantities . Then to another river and to the D aphnu s

Harbour and to the River—land of Apollo , as it iscalled, which produces , in addition to frankincense ,bo th myrrh and cinnamon ; but the cinnamon ismore abundant in the neighbourhood of the placesthat are deep in the interior. Then to Elephas ,1

the mountain , which j uts out into the sea , and to atrench , and , next thereafter, to the large Harbourof Ps y gmus , and to a watering - place 2 called theWatering- place of the Cynocephali ,3 and to thelast promontory of this coast , Notu - ceras .4 Afterrounding this promontory approximately towardsthe south , we no longer , he says , hav e any record ofharbours or places , because the promontory is notknown from here on , and the same is true of thecoast next after it.

1 E lephant . 2 A we ll , appare ntly.

3 Le . the D og- heade d pe ople .

4 i .e . Horn of the Sou th .

333

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336

GEOGRAPHY , I6. 4 . 16—1 7

16. In this region , also , are found camelopards ,1

though they are in no respect like leopards ; for thedappled marking of their skin is more like that of afawnskin , which latter is fle cke d with spots , andtheir hinder parts are so much lower than their frontparts that they appear to be seated on their tailparts , which have the height of an ox ,

although theirforelegs are no shorter than those of camels and theirnecks rise high and straight up , their heads reachingmuch higher up than those of camels . On accountof this lack of symmetry the speed of the animalcannot , I think , be so great as stated by Artemidorus ,who says that its speed is no t to be surpassed .

Furthermore , it is not a wild beast , but rather adomesticated animal , for it shows no signs of wildness .And in this country are also found , he says , sphinxes 2

and cynocephali 3 and cebi ,4 which last have the faceof a lion , and a body otherwise like that of a pantherand with the size of a gazelle . The country alsohas bulls that are wild , carnivorous , and far surpassthose in our part of the world in size and speed ; andtheir colour is red . The c ro c u ttas 5 is a mixedprogeny of wolf and dog , as Artemidorus says . Butwhat M e trodorus of Scepsis says in his book onHab its is like a myth and should be disregarded .

Artemidorus also speaks of serpents thirty cubits inlength which overpower elephants and bulls ; andhis measurement is moderate , at least for serpentsin this part of the world , for the Indi an serpentsare rather fabulous ,6 as also those in Libya , whichare said to grow grass on their backs .7

17 . Now the Troglodytes live a nomadic life ; and5 Appare nt ly a s pe c ie s of hyena.

6 See 2 . 1. 9 and 28.

7 See 5 .

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5

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UVGXfi 36 7 015 [100 613100 ¢0w 111wva 6211a 1 61’

503p011 ,7 111 0 0 90 2 7 6 31a 7 3 7 555

0

0 55 55 7 7511 11 15w11a 0

,11a 7 77p1211 7 6 11a1a 11 03p011 11a1 110 11 1011 1577 12pxe 1v ,

6117 a 159a 36 1c u 1 7 7711 61511ap77 2a11 7 05 11 (30111111 10 11 620a 1Ga v/111 0 7 751» 7 7p060 7 7511a0 1 36 7 015 ak0 009 amyp 11 111

7 0 11 75, 3111 7 611009 a 77 036361fy/1 61101, 36p/1a 7 0gb3p01,7 p0¢770 0177 3 7 10 11 370111211 1011 3XOV7 69 . 11 017 12§007 a 13 67 7 1 36

'

113p10 11 11a}0 ,8077 01770 12,1161101 31a 7 3 77X 77009

7 100 977p210 0 . 61 65779 60 7 1 11770 09 (Dummy , a 7r3

7 0 15 77X 7519009 7 3311 977p210 11 7 0157 10 11 3711011a0 /1 6'

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.

77 7t 7y0 20 11 35

a 157 7'

59 1211p107 75p100, 3 31a 7 621161 77p3 9

7 7711 H67 pa 11 7 7711 7 10 11 NaBa 7 a2wv 11a7t00/1 61110 11

111a7 a7\6 15000 111 , Tz s c hu cke , for 11a7 aA6

'

7 000 111.2 66

’

Eoz , 7 6 othe r MSS .

1 So D iodoru s Sic ulus (3 .

34 °

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 4 . 1 7- 18

dead, some of the Troglodytes bind the neckof the corpses to the legs with twigs of thebuckthorn , and then immediately , with merrimentand laughter ,1 throw stones upon them until thebody is hidden from sight ; and then they placea ram ’s horn on the barrow and go away . Theytravel by night , first fastening bells to the malecattle , so as to drive away the wild beasts with thenoise ; and they also use torches and bows to repelthe wild beasts ; and , for the sake of their flocks ,they also keep watch during the night , singing a

kind of song near the fire .

18. After saying all this about the Troglodytesand the neighbouring Aethiopians , Artemidorusreturns to the Arabians ; and first , beginning atPos e idium , he describes the Arabians who border onthe Arabian Gulf and live opposite th Tr lod tes .He says that Po s e idium lies 1m fhan

ythe

A e lanite s Gulf ; and that contiguous to Pos e idiumthere is a grove of alm trees , which is well suppliedwith water andE

Thighly valued because all the

country around is hot and waterless and shadeless ;and that here the fe rtilit of the palms is wonderful ; and that a man hav e chargeof the grov e , being appointed to that chargethrough hereditary right . They w e ar

w

skins , andliv e on dates from the palm trees ; . but onaccount of the numb e r of wild beasts they buildhuts in trees and sleep there . Then , next , onecomes to

"

the Island of“

Phb c ae f which was sonamed from the number of seals there . Near theisland is a promontory , which extends to the Rockof the Nabataean Arabians , as they are called , and

2 Se als .

34 1

STRABO

I IAp12,810 11 11a 1 7 7711 Haka10 7 1117111 xwpav, 629 7511

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1 A ZAt '

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,afte r 617v 011 , D11 omit .

4 The MSS. read 75511 131110 11 dy pt’

wv 11a1 Kay'

r'vAwV K rame r

,

c iting Diodoru s Sic ulu s 3 . 4 2 , transpos e s 617 1121011 as above .

34 2

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34 4

GEOGRAPHY, 16. 4 . 18

and after that to a stretch of coast about one thousandstadia in length which is rugged and diffi cult forv essels to pass , for lack of harbours and anchoringplaces , since a rugged and lofty mountain stretchesalong it. Then one comes to foot- hills , which arerocky and extend to the sea ; and these , especially atthe time of the Etesian winds and the rains , present tosailors a danger that is beyond all help . Next is agulf with scattered islands ; and continuous with thegulf are three exceedingly high banks of black sand ;and after these lies Charmothas Harbour , about onehundred stadia in circuit , with an entrance that isnarrow and dangerous for all kinds of boats . A riverflows into it ; and there is an island in the middleo f it which is well supplied with trees and fit fortillage . Then one comes to a rugged stretch ofcoast ; and after that to certain gulfs and to a countryof nomads who get their livelihood from camels ; forthey carry on war from the backs of camels , trav elupon them, and subsist upon their milk and flesh .

A river flows through their country that brings downgold- dust , but the inhabitants do not know how towork it . They are called D e b ae ; and sbme of themare nomads , whereas others are also farmers . I amnot giving most o f the names of the tribes becauseof their ins ignifi c anc e and at the same time becauseof the oddity of the pronunciations . Next to the

D e b ae are me n more civ ilised than they ; and the

country these liv e in has a more temperate climate ;for it is well watered , and well supplied with rains .Gold obtained by digging is found in their country—not gold- dust , but gold nuggets , which do notrequire much purification ; the smallest nuggets

5 Dh’i read ins te ad Of e b'v fpos .34 5

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34 8

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 1 9- 2 0

the incense of asphalt and goats ’ beard . The cityof the Sabaeans , M ariab a, is situated upon a wellwoodedmountain ; and

/

it has a king who is authorityin lam nd everything else ; but it is not lawfulfor him to leave the palace , or , if he does , the rabble ,in accordance with some oracle , stone him to deathon the spot . Both he himself and those about himlive in effeminate luxury ; but the masses engagepartly in farmin andpartly in the traffic in aromatics ,both the lo c aréihfids and tho se fromm m; toget the latter they sail across the straits in leathernbp ats . They have these aromatics in .s

'

uéh abundancethat they use cinnamon and cassia and the othersinstead of sticks and firewood . In the country of

the Sabaeans is also found larimnum , a most fragrantincense . From their trafficking both the Sabaeansand the G e rrhae ans have become

_

ii glles t of all ; and

they have a vast equipment of'

b o tll g old and silverarticles , such as couches and tripods and bowls ,together with drinkTEE- vessels cos tlyhogs e s ; for doors and wallsl

-q

and ceilings are variegated with ivory and gold and silver set with preciousstones . This is Artemidorus ’ account of thesepeoples , but the rest of his statements are partlysimilar to those of Eratosthenes and partly quotedfrom the other historians .20. For example , he .

says that some writers callthe sea Ery thra

1 from the colour it presents asthe result of reflection , whether from the rays of thesun when it is in the zenith , or from the mountains ,

1 the Erythrae an (Re d)s ea.

110 7 07166000 10, Le opardi , for 110 7 0 710000 10.

110 0s t .

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iw othe r MSS.

GEOGRAPHY, 16. 4 . 2 1—2 2

called ; for it lies on a site which is otherwise smoothand level , but it is fortified all round by a rock , theoutside parts of the site Heifig

—prec ipi tou s

m

and sheer ,and the inside parts hav ing springs in abundance ,both for domestic purposes and for watering gardens .Outside the circuit of the rock mo st of the territoryis desert , in particular that towards Judae a. Here ,too , is the shortest road to Hie ric u s ,1 a j ourney ofthree or four days , as also to the grov e of palmtrees ,2 a j ourney of fi v e days . Petra is alway s ruledby some king from the royal family ; and the kinghas as Adm inistrator one of his companions , who iscalled brother.” It is exceedingly well- governed ;at any rate , A the nodoru s , a philosopher and c om

panion of mine , who had been in the city of thePe trae ans , used to describe their gov ernment withadm iration , for he said that he found both manyRomans and many other foreigners soj ourning there ,and that he saw that the foreigners often engaged inlawsui ts , both with one another and with the nativ es ,but that none of the natives prosecuted one another

,

and that they in every way kept peace with oneanother.22 . M any of the special characteristics of Arabiahav e been disclosed by the recent expedition of theRomans against the Arabians , which was made in

IM I—K g

own time under A e liu s Gallus as commander .a n _a a

mnwa

fi

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sent b y Augustus Caesar to explore thetribes and the places , not only in Arabia , but also inA e thi0pia, since Caesar saw that the Troglodytecountry which adj oins A egy pt neighbours uponArabia , and also that the Arabian Gulf, which

1 Je ric ho .2 Se e 16. 4 . 18.

353VOL. vn .

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GEOGRAPHY , 16. 4 . 2 3—2 4

triremes and light boats , at Cle opatris ,1 which is near

the old canal which extends 2 from the Nile . Butwhen he realised that he had been thoroughly dec e iv e d ,

he built one hundred and thirty v essels ofburden

,on which he set sail with about ten thousand

infantry , consisting of Romans in A e gyp t , as also ofRoman allies , among whom were five hundred Jewsand one thousand Nabataeans under Sy llae u s . Aftermany experiences and hardships he arrived in fourteen days at Le u c é Comé 3 in the land of the Nabatacans , a large emporium , although he had lost manyof his boats , some of these being lost , crew s and all ,on account of difficult sailing , but not on account ofany enemy . This was caused by the treachery ofSy llae u s , who said that there was no way for anarmy to go to Leuce Come by land and yet cameltraders travel back and forth from Petra to this placein safety and ease , and m such numbers o f me n andcamels that they differ in no respect from an army .

24 . This came to pass because Ob odas , the king ,did not care much about public affairs , and partic ularly military affairs (this is a trait common to all theArabian kings), and because he put everything in thepower of Sy llae u s ; and because Sy llae u s treacherou s ly out - generalled Gallus in every way , andsought , as I think , to spy out the country and , alongwith the Romans , to destroy some of its cities andtribes , and then to establish himself lord of all ,after the Romans were wiped out by hunger andfatigue and diseases and any other ev ils which hehad treacherously contrived for them . However, ,

Gallus put in at Leuce Comé , his army now being 7

1 A ls o c alle d Ars inoé (Su e z ); s e e 17 . l . 25 .

2 to the gu lf. 3 White V illage .

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358

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360

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 4 . 2 4

truly desert ; and it was called Arare n e ; and itsking was Sab o s ; and m passing through this country , \through parts that had no roads , he spent fifty days ,arriving at the city of the Ne grani

1 and at a countrywhich was both peaceable and fertile . Now the kinghad fled and the city w as seized at the first onset ;and from there he arrived at the river in s ix days .Here the barbarians j oined battle with the Romans ,and about ten thousand of them fell , but only twoRomans ; for they used their weapons in an ine x

p e rie n c e d manner , being utterly unfit for war , usingbows and spears and swords and slings , though mostof them used a double - edged axe ; and immediatelyafterwards he took the city called Asca , which hadbeen forsaken by its king ; and thence he went to acity called A thrula ; and , hav ing mastered it withouta struggle , he placed a gai

‘rison in it , arranged for

supplies of grain and daté s for his march , advancedto a city called M ars iab a, which belonged to thetribe of the Rhammanitae , who were subj ect toIlas arus . Now he assaulted and besieged this cityfor s ix days , but for want of water desisted . He wasindeed only a two days ’ j ourney from the countrythat produced aromatics , as informed by his captiv es ,

”but he 7

had used up s ix months time on his marchesbecause of bad guidance , and he realis ed the fact ,

when he turned back , when at last he had learned theplot against him and had gone back by other roads

1 Ne grana.

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wou ld add the words mw ay wuou 66 37C 9&7}, v2xaaaiav, Jone s , fo l lowing the MSS ., ins te ad of rad ar,

the sp e l ling adopte d he re and e ls ewhe re b y K rame r and

M e ine ke .

3 Ana/aw, Co rais emends to Ga'

m/wv ; s o G roskurd,Krame r

and Me ineke , who c it e The oph ras tus His t. Plant . 9. 5,

P l iny His t. Nat. Ce ls u s 2,b ut not Arrian

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LaV y iueaflm au 'raLs , a1rb 66 TwV 65:76pm!

364

GEOGRAPHY , 16. 4 . 2 5

and , among the aromatics , they s ay that frankincens eand myrrh are produced from trees 1 and that cas s iais produced als o from marshes .

2 Some s ay thatmos t of the latter comes from India and that the bes tfrankincens e is produced near Pers is . But , according to another divis ion, Arabia Felix is split up intofive kingdoms , on e of which compri s es the warrigrs ,who fight for all ; another , the farmers , who s upplyfood to all the res t ; another , thos e who engage inthe mechanical

_

arts ; another , the myrrh- bearingcountry , anm othe r the frankin c e ns em ringcountry , although the s ame countries produc e c as s ia,

cinnamon , and nard . Occupations are not changedfrom one clas s to another , but each and allke ep tothos e of their fathers . The greater Fart

—of their

wine i f fn’

afi fi rom the palm . Brothers are held inhigher hon6iir than children . The des cendants ofthe royal family not only reign as kings , but als ohold other offices , in accordance with s eniority ofbirth ; and property is held in common b y all kinsmen , though the eldes t is lord oralh One

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1 Pos s ibly the Gre e k for and c innamon is p roduc e d frombu s he s has fal len out of the te xt he re (s e e c riti c al note ).

2 as we l l as from bu she s (b ut s e e c ritic al note ).

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GEOGRAPHY, 16. 4 . 2 6—2 7

each time using a different golden cup . The king iss o democratic that , in addition to s erving hims elf, hes ometimes even s erves the res t hims elf in his turn .

He often renders an account of his kingship in thepopular as s embly ; and s ometimes hi s mode of lifeis examined. Their homes , through the u s e o

’

fv stw gne ,

are cos tly ; but , on account of peace , the cities are

not walled . Mos t of the country is well s uppliedwith fru its except the olive ; they us e s es ame - oilins tead . The sheep are white- fle e c e d and themare large ,b ut the country no hors es . Camelsafford the s ervice they require ins tead of hors es .

They go out without tunics , with girdles about theirloins , and with s lippers on their feet— even the kings ,though in their cas e the colour is purple . Some thingsare imported wholly from other countries , but othersnot altogether s o , especially m the cas e of thos e thatare native products , as , for example , gold and s ilverand mos t of the aromatics , whereas bras s and iron ,as also purple garb , s tyrax , crocus , c os taria, embos s edworks , paintings , and moulded works are not producedin their country . They have the sam e regard for thedead as for dung, as He rac le itu s s ays : Dead bodi esmore fit to be cas t out than dung and thereforethey bury even their kings bes ide dung- heaps . Theyworship the s un , building an altar on the top of thehous e , and pouring libations on it daily and burningfrankincens e .

27 . When the poet s ays , I came to Aethiopiansand Sidonians and Eremb ians ,

” 1 hi s to rians are

1 0d. 4 . 84 .

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GEOGRAPHY , I6. 4 . 2 7

ins tead of one . Neither are thos e who writeEremni 1 plaus ible ; for that name is morepeculiarly applicable to the Aethiopians . The poetals o mentions Arimi ,

” 2 by which , according toPos e idonius , we should interpret the poet as meaning , not s ome place in Syria or in Cilicia or in s omeother land , but Syria its elf ; for the people in Syriaare Aramaeans , though perhaps the Greeks calledthem A rimae ans or A rimi . The changes in names ,and particularly in thos e of the barbarians , are

numerous : for example , they . called D are iu s

D arie c e s , Parys atis Pharz iris ,”

and AtharaA targatis , though Ctes ias calls her Berceto .

”

A s for the bles t lot of Arabia,3 one might make evenAlexander a witnes s thereof, s ince he intended

, as

they s ay , even to make it his royal abode afte r hisreturn from India. Now all his enterpris es werebroken up becaus e of his sudden death ; but , at anyrate , this too was one ofhis enterpris es , to s e e whetherthey would receive him voluntarily , and if they didnot , to go to w ar with them ; and accordingly

,when

he s aw that they had not s ent ambas s adors to him,

either before or after ,4 he s e t about making preparations for war, as I have s tated heretofore in thiswork .

5

1 B lac k (pe op le ). 2 Iliad 2 . 7 83 .

3 It was c alle d “

Arabia the B le st,” Arabia Fe lix.

4L'

.e . his expe dition to India.5 16. l . 11.

[END or VOL . VIL]

3 73

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A PARTIAL D ICTIONARY OF

PROPER NAME S 1

AABISARUS, c ountry of, 4 9

A c es ines Riv e r, the , 4 7 , 4 9A diab ene, 193 , 225

A drapsa (G adrapsa 14 7

A e lana, 3 13

A e lius Gallus , the Roman c ommande r,353 , 355

Aes c hy lus , on the mother of Memnon ,

159

Ae thiop ians , the, c omp lexion and

hair of, 39Agrippa, 265Alexande r Balas , c onque red b yPtolemy Philometor, 24 7

Ale xande r the Great, 3 , 5 , 7 , 13 , 4 1,14 3 , 14 5 , 163 , 165 , 167 , 169, 189 ,199 (his death), 205 , 209, 211, 267 ,Alexandria, 359Anaitis , temp le of, 17 7

Andromeda, my th o f, 2 7 5Andros thenes the sailor, 303Anea, temp le of, 19 7Antigonia, 24 3Antigonus , 24 3Ant ilib anus , Mt .,

213,259

Ant ioc he ia. near Daphne, 24 1, 24 3Antioc hus Hi e rax,

259

Antioc hus the Great , 223Antioc hu s the phi los ophe r, 2 7 7Antipate r the Ty rian ,

2 7 1

Antony , 237 , 299Apame ia, 24 1, 2 4 9 , 251

Apollodorus , author of the P arthic a,5

Apolloniatis (Sitac ene), 17 3 , 193Apo ll

onius , the Ty rian philos ophe r,2 7

Arabia,161, 23 7 , 299 , 307 , 353

Arabia F e lix,23 7 , 309 , 365 , 3 7 3

Arabian Sc enitae,the , 233 , 235 , 301

1 A c omp le te index of the who le workwi ll app ear in the next volume .

375

A rac hot i, the , 14 1, 14 3 , 14 5A radus , 25 7 , 267 , 303

Araxes Riv e r, the , 165Arbe la, 195 , 197Arb ies , the , 129

Ariana,129 , 14 5

Aris tobu lus (s e e D ic twnary in v ol. v),23 , 2 7 , 29 , 35 , 39 , 105 , 107 , 109,

Aris tobulus , s on of A lexande r, 289Aris totle , on c hi ld - bearing in A egy ptand on riv e rs in India and A egy pt ,3 7 ; on the Silas Riv e r, 67Aris tas of Salami s , the his torian,

167

Armenians , the , 225

A rsac e s , hous e of, 237Ars e s , las t s u c c es s or of Dare ius , 189A rtac ene, 19 7Artemidorus (s e e D ic tionary in vol.

on the Ganges Riv e r, 125 ; 281 ,3 15 , 335 , 33 7 , 34 1, 3 4 9

Artemi ta,219

Arii , the , 14 3A s sac anus

, c ountry of, 4 7

As s y ria, 193 , 225A s tac em

'

, the , 4 7

A s ty ages the Mede , c onque re d b yGyms , 169

A targat is , Sy rian goddes s , 235Athena Cyrrhes t is , 24 7A turia, 193 , 195 , 19 7

BBaby lon,

163 , 169 , 195 , 19 7 , 201, 219

Baby lonia, 193 , 203 , 215 , 2 17Baby lonians , the , 2 25Bac triana, 4 3 , 14 5 , 14 7

Bagoii s the eunuc h , 189Bamb y c é , 235Bandob ene, 4 5Be lus , tomb of , 199 ; temp le of, 223Be reni c e, daughte r of Salome, 299Bery tus (Be y rout), 263 , 267

A PARTIAL DICTIONARY OF PROPER ‘ NAMES

Bes s us , purs u it of, b y A lexande r, 14 5Boe thus , the Sidonian phi los opher,2 7 1

Bors ippa, 203

Boxus the Pe rs ian , 351

Brac hmanes (Brahmans), the , 99 , 123Buc ephah

’

a, 4 9

By b lus , roy al res idenc e of C iny ras , 263

C

Caesar Augus tus , 5 , 237 , 299 , 353Calac hené , 193

Calanus , the Indian sophis t, 109 , 119 ,121

Camby s es , s on of Cy rus , 189Cappadoc ia, s ac rifi c es in, 17 7

Capm s Riv e r, the , 19 7Cardac es , the , 181

Carmania, 15 1, 153 , 221Carme l , Mt .

,2 7 5

Gama (Carnana), 3 11Carrhae , 23 1

Casms , Mt .,211, 213 , 2 7 3 , 2 7 5 , 2 79

Cas s ius , 24 9

Cathaea, 5 3

Cattab ania, 311

Cauc as us , the , 19

Cays te r Plain,2 3

Cec ilius Bas s us , 253Chaarené , 14 7

Chaldaeans , the , 203Chaloni t is (near Mt. Z agrus), 193Chatramotitis , 3 11Chaz ene, 193

Choas p es Riv e r, the , 4 5 , 159 , 161Cidenus the Chaldaean, 203

Ciny ras , ty rant of By b lus , 263Cle itarc hus (s ee D i c tionary in v ol. ii),1 23

C le opatra (Se lene), 24 1Cle opatris (Su e z ), 3 5 7Coe le- Sy ria, 211 , 239 , 261, 265Commagene, 23 1, 239 , 24 1Coniac i, the , inhabitants of Taprobane(C ey lon), 21

Cophes Riv e r, the , 4 5Copratas Rive r, the , 163Cos saea,

221

Craterus , gene ral of Alexande r, 133,Crassus , s lain at Sinnac a, 231 ; 237

Ctes ias (s e e D ic tionary in vol. on

Indi a, 17 ; 351 , 37 3Ctes iphon, 2 19

376

Cy rus the Great (s e e D ic tionary inv ol. v), expe ditions of

, 7 , 9 , 135 ,14 5 ;

Cy rus Riv e r, the , 165

D

Damas c us , 265D are ius , 4 3 , 167 , 169 , 185 , 189 , 197 ,305 , 3 73

D e imac hus (s e e D ic tionary in v ol. i),on India, 19

D e iré , Strait of, 313 , 315Deme trias , 197Democ ritus , on the Silas Riv e r, 67D iodotus , brothe r of the Sidonianphi los ophe r Boe thu s , 2 7 1Diogenes , on abs taining from meat,113 , 219

Diony s us , invade r of India, 7 , 9, 11, 13D olab e lla, the general , 24 9D olomc ne, 193

Drangae , the , 14 1, 14 3 , 14 5

E

E c batana, 169 , 219E de s s a (Bamb y c é), 235E lephas , Mt ., 333

E lymae i, 17 3 , 193EmodaMountains , 4 9 , 125E ratos thenes (s e e D ic tionary in

v ol. i), 211, 215 , 229 , 231, 297 , 301,303 , 309

Euc ratidas , Indian King, 5E ume des , founde r of Ptolemais , 319harbour of, 327

Euphrates Riv er, the , 161 , 205 , 213,Eurip ides , on India, 9E verge tae , the , 14 5

G ab ae , 159

G adaris , 29 7

G adraps a (s ee Adrap sa).Galile e , 281G andaritis , 4 5Ganges Riv e r, the , 19 , 4 7 , 61, 121G armanes (Sramans), the , 99Gaugame la, 197Gaz a, 2 7 7 , 27 9G edros ia, 133 , 153

G edros i i, the , 139

G ennesaritis Lake , 261

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A PARTIAL DICTIONARY OF PROPER NAMES

O

Omanus , temp le of, 1 7 7Ones ic ritus (s e e D ic tionary in v ol.

on India, 17 , 21, 29 , 3 1, 33 , 39 , 4 9,5 3 , 91, 111, 113 , 115 , 135 , 153 , 163 ,167

Ophiod es , the is land, 317 }Op is , 205Ore itae , the , 129 , 139

Orontes Rive r, the , 155, 163 , 24 5 , 251

Pac orus , invade d Sy ria, 23 7 24 7P alaes t ine , 34 3

Palib othra, 17 , 63 , 125

Pandi on, Indian K ing, 5Parae tac eni , 17 3 , 221

Parmenio, fathe r of Philotas , 14 5Paropamisadae , the , 14 1, 14 3Paropamis us Mountain, the , 14 1, 14 3 ,14 7

Parthians,the , 17 3 , 219 , 225 , 233 , 23 7Pas argadae , 159 , 165 , 169

Pas itigris Riv e r, the , 161Patalené , 19 , 23 , 5 7 , 5 9

Patroc les , on India, 17P elus ium, 27 9

Pe rs epolis , 159 , 165Pe rs ian Gates , the , 163Pe rs ian Gu lf

, the , 15 5 , 301

Pe rs ians , the , 17 3 , 17 9 , 187 , 189, 195 ,205 , 2 7 1

Pe rs is,155 , 161, 163, 169 , 17 1Pe tra, 351, 353 , 3 57 , 359

P e u c olaitis , 4 7

Pharnapate s (s ee Phrani c ates), 24 7Philodemu s the Epic urean , nativ e of

G adaris , 2 7 7

Phi lotas , s on of Parmenio, 14 5Phoenic ia, 239 , 265 , 267 , 285Phraates , 23 7 n

, 7 ,Phrani c ate s (Pharnapates 24 7

Pindar, on the Hy p e rboreans , 9 7Plato, my ths of, 103 ; on K ing Minos ,287

Poly c le itus (s e e Dic tionary in vol. v),159 , 161, 213

P oly c ritu s (Poly c le itu s 185Pomp e y ,

231, 2 4 1 , 24 9 , 263 , 2 79 , 289,291 , 29 7

P ortic anu s , c ountry of, 59

Porus , c ountry of , 5 , 4 9 , 51, 127

378

P os e idonius (s ee Dic tionary in v ol. i),on the s p rings of naphtha in

Baby lonia, 217 nativ e of Apame ia,255 ; on the fallen dragon in the

Mac ras P lain,261 ; on the dogma

about atoms , 2 7 1 ; on the sorc e rersabout the D ead Sea

,295 ; on

Arabian salts , 351Pramnae , the , Indian s ophis ts , 123P ras ii, the , 63

Prome theus , s tory of, 13

P sammitic hus , 3 21Pto lemai s (A c e), 2 7 1, 319Pto lemy Philade lphus , 3 19Pto lemy Philome tor, c onqu eror ofAl exande r Balas , 24 7Py thagoras , doc trines of , 113

P yt holaus , promontory of, 331 ;

p il lars and altars of , 3 35

Sabaeans , the , 34 7 , 34 9, 351Sabata (Sawa), 3 11Sabus , c oun try of, 5 7

Salome, He rod ’s s is te r, 299Samaria, 281Samosata, 24 1

Sandrac ae , 197

Sandroc ottus , the K ing, 63 , 95 , 14 3Sarp edon, the gene ral, 2 7 3Soenae , near Baby lon,

235

Se lene (C le opatra), 2 4 1Se leuc e ia in Pie ria, 24 1Se leuc e ia on the Tigris , 201, 219, 24 3Se leuc is , 2 4 1

Se leuc us Callini c us , 24 3 , 259Se leuc us the Chaldaean,

203

Se leuc us N ic ator, Sy rian King, 5,

Semiramis , the que en, 7 , 135 , 195

Se res , the , 61, 63Ses os tris the A egy ptian 7 313 , 319

Sib ae , the , 5 7

Sidon ,257 , 267 , 269

Si las Riv e r, the , 67Simonide s , on the Hy p e rboreans , 9 7 ;on the burial - p lac es of Memnon,

159

Sinnac a, 231

Sirb onis , Lake , 27 9 , 281, 293Sitac ené (Apolloniatis), 17 3 , 221Soc rate s , on abs taining frommeat, 113Sop e ithes , c ountry of, 51

Sophoc les , on Mt. Ny sa, 9

A PARTIAL DICTIONARY OF PROPER NAMES

Strato, Towe r of, 27 5Sudinus the Chaldaean,

203Sue z (s ee Cleopatris).Sunn a, Parthian gene ral, s lay e rCras s u s , 231Susa,

15 7 , 159 , 163 , 169

Sus is , 15 7 , 169 , 17 1 , 215Sy drac ae , the , 5 7

Sy llae us the Nabataean, 3 55 , 357

Sy ria, 239, 285Sy rians , the White , 193Sy rians , the , 193 , 195 , 351

Tamna, 311

Taprobane (Ce y lon), 21Tau rus , the , 19 5 , 229Taxila, 4 7Taxi les , King of Taxi la, 4 7 , 113Tearc o , the Ae thiopian, 7

The odec tes , on the c omp lexion andhair of the Ae thiop ians , 39

The odorus the rhe toric ian , nativ e ofG adaris , 2 7 7Tigranes , 225 , 231, 24 1, 24 9Tigranoc erta, 231

Tigris Riv e r, the , 161, 205 , 213 , 229Timagenes , on the raining of bras sfrom the sky , 97

Tithonus , fathe r of Memnon and

founde r of Susa, 15 7Titiu s , p raef ec t of Sy ria. 23 7

Triptolemus , 233 , 24 3Troglody te s , the , 3 13 , 3 3 7 , 3 4 1, 355 ,3 7 1

Try phon D iodotus , K ing of Sy ria,25 1

,253 , 263

Ty phon, the my th of, 24 5Ty re , 259 , 267 , 303

U

U xii, the , 163 , 17 3

X e rxes,199

Z

Z agrus Riv e r, the , 203 , 221Z engina, the , 193 , 23 1Z eno, the Stoic philos ophe r, 2 7 1, 3 7 1

379

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