Rhetorical theory is the body of thought about human symbol use. The term rhetoric, in its popular usage, typically has negative connotations. Rhetoric is contrasted with action; it is empty words, talk without substance, mere ornament. This contemporary understanding of rhetoric is at odds with a long history of rhetorical theory, dating back in the West to ancient Greece and Rome, that provides a long-standing foundation on which the contemporary discipline of communication is built.

Aristotle famously stated that rhetoric is “an ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion.” In other words, rhetoric is about finding all communicative options in a given situation and carefully choosing which of them will most likely persuade your audience.

The study of rhetoric was traditionally divided into five parts:

Invention (inventio)

Arrangement (dispositio)

Style (elocutio)

Memory (memoria)

Delivery (pronuntiatio)

 

 Inventio is the system or method used for the discovery of arguments in Western rhetoric and comes from the Latin word “invenire”, meaning "invention" or "discovery".

Inventio is the central, indispensable canon of rhetoric, and traditionally means a systematic search for arguments.

Inventio comes from the Latin invenire, meaning "to find" or "to come upon". The same Latin root later gave us theEnglish word inventor. Invenire is derived from the Greek heuriskein, also meaning "to find out" or "discover" .

Non-artistic: arguments that do not require invention, such as laws, witnesses, contracts, tortures, oaths etc.   Artistic: arguments that the speaker must invent. They include arguments that are based on the appeal to reason (logos), the appeal to emotion (pathos), and the appeal to goodwill and one’s personal sensibilities (ethos).

The process of invention entails four major stages:

determining the communicative aim;

analysing the audience;

gathering information; and

editing for accuracy.

The focus and shape of discourse are guided by a controlling question which motivates the writer and give the text raison d’etre.

The following are classified as the aims of discourse: expressive e.g. (of individual) conversation, journals, diaries, prayer, (of social) minority protests, manifestoes, contracts, constitution of clubs, myth, religious credos, declaration of independence etc.

Referential e.g. (exploratory) dialogues, seminars, a tentative definition of …., diagnosis, proposing a solution to a problem (scientific) proving a point by arguing from accepted premises, proving a point by generalising from particulars, a combination of both

(informative) news articles, reports, summaries, textbooks, nontechnical encyclopedia articles

Literary e.g. short story, lyric, short narrative, ballad, folk song, drama, tv show, movie, joke

Persuasive e.g. advertising, political speeches, religious sermons, legal oratory, editorials

It is the pragmatic exercise in which speakers consider the demographic variables which may determine the effectiveness of their rhetoric (e.g. age, education)

This stage consists of two major inquiry phases: internal dialogue and external dialogue.

Internal DialogueWriters carry out “conversation” with themselves to determine and take stock of what is known about the topic

Brainstorming- this requires writers to jot down personal knowledge about the subject.

Inner dialogue- it is similar to writers conducting formal interviews or conversations with themselves.

Pentad- It consists of five topics: act (what was done?), scene (when or where was it done?), agent (who did it?), agency (how did he or she do it?), and purpose (why did he or she do it?)

This strategy involves the visual representation of ideas. Writers do this when committing ideas to paper.

It is the second of five canons of classical rhetoric that concern the crafting and delivery of speeches and writing.

Aristotle defined two essential parts of a discourse: the statement of the case and the proof of the case.

the introduction, or exordium -- The term exordium comes from the Latin term meaning "to urge forward." In the exordium, the speaker gives their main argument, and all the relevant information.

the statement of the case, or narratio

the outline of the major points in the argument, or divisio (sometimes known as partitio) -- It has two functions: names the issues in dispute and lists the arguments to be used in the order they will appear.

the proof of the case, or confirmatio -- It confirms or validates the material given in the narratio and partitio.

the refutation of possible opposing arguments, or confutatio -- If the rhetor anticipates that certain people in his audience may disagree with his speech, he must be prepared to refute the argument that could possibly be presented in opposition to his original speech.

the conclusion, or peroratio -- Cicero taught that a rhetor can do three things in this step: sum up his arguments, cast anyone who disagrees with him in a negative light, and arouse sympathy for himself, his clients, or his case.

It is the third of the five canons of classical rhetoric.

The ancient authors agreed that the four ingredients necessary in order to achieve good style included correctness, clearness, appropriateness, and ornament.

correctness meant that rhetors should use words that were current and should adhere to the grammatical rules of whatever language they wrote. Correctness rules are standards of grammar and usage drawn from traditional grammar.

In regard to clarity, most ancient teachers felt that clarity meant that rhetors should use words in their ordinary or everyday senses. The object of clarity was to allow meaning to “shine through”, like light through a window.

Appropriateness- meaning to say or do whatever is fitting in a given situation.

Ornamentation-is defined as extraordinary or unusual use of language.

Choose appropriate expression for the ideas of your argument. These choices relate to:

◦Language◦Tone◦Syntax◦Rhetorical appeals◦Metaphors◦Imagery◦Quotations◦Level of emphasis

It was the term for aspects involving memory in Western classical rhetoric. The word is Latin, and can be translated as "memory.

The art of rhetoric grew out of oratory, which was the central medium for intellectual and political life in ancient Greece. Legal proceedings, political debates, philosophical inquiry were all conducted through spoken discourse.

Unlike public speakers of today, who use notes or who read their speeches, good orators were expected to deliver their speeches without such aids.

Memoria was the discipline of recalling the arguments of a discourse.

But rhetoricians also viewed memoria as requiring more than just rote memorisation. Rather, the orator also had to have at his command a wide body of knowledge to permit improvisation, to respond to questions, and to refute opposing arguments.

Pronuntiatio was the discipline of delivering speeches in Western classical rhetoric.

Rhetoricians laid down guidelines on the use of the voice and gestures in the delivery of oratory. There were instructions on the proper modulation of the voice (volume and pitch), as well as the phrasing, pace, and emphasis of speech. Also covered were the physical aspects of oration: stance, gestures, posture, and facial expressions.

There was also the concept of practice exercises that enabled speakers to both memorise their speeches and to practice their delivery.

While the content, structure, and style of oration were (and continue to be) the most important elements of oratory, there is no doubt that effective delivery enhances its persuasive power, and that poor delivery detracts greatly from its intended effect.