This article was downloaded by: [University of Johannesburg]On: 20 January 2014, At: 01:08Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: MortimerHouse, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Teacher Development: An international journal ofteachers' professional developmentPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rtde20

Teachers' portfolio reflections: a comparativeanalysisGert J. Van Der Westhuizen a & Kari Smith ba Vista University , South Africab Oranim College of Teacher Education , IsraelPublished online: 16 Feb 2011.

To cite this article: Gert J. Van Der Westhuizen & Kari Smith (2000) Teachers' portfolio reflections: a comparativeanalysis, Teacher Development: An international journal of teachers' professional development, 4:3, 339-352

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13664530000200123

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) containedin the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose ofthe Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be reliedupon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shallnot be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and otherliabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to orarising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in anyform to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Teacher Development, Volume 4, Number 3, 2000

339

Teachers’ Portfolio Reflections: a comparative analysis

GERT J. VAN DER WESTHUIZEN Vista University, South Africa KARI SMITH Oranim College of Teacher Education, Israel

ABSTRACT Teachers’ portfolios are emerging as a significant tool for professional development and assessment of competence. What teachers choose to include in their portfolios is often a function of external factors, such as what is publicly rewarded and valued as good performance. This article reports on an extension of research conducted in South Africa and Israel on the specific reflections teachers report about their own portfolios. Teachers were invited to indicate what they would include in their portfolios of performance and learning, to write reflections on what they see as evidence for professional growth, and to indicate how these inclusions are valued. The article reports on a comparative analysis of these reflections. The purpose is to develop an understanding of differences (and similarities) in terms of socio-political realities and broader educational culture. A comparative analysis drawn on interviews and portfolio entry data indicate similarities in the way teachers view good teaching, and the choice of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ evidence in portfolios. The main differences are related to external factors such as facilities within the school, degrees of autonomy teachers have, and the social cultural context in which they teach.

Introduction and Purpose

The concept of portfolios has gained prominence internationally over the last few years. A cursory analysis of the American Education Research Association conference programmes of 1998 and 1999 indicates that the bulk of the literature focuses on the use of portfolios in assessment and development of school learners. A portfolio is a purposeful collection of examples of work collected over a period of time (Smith, 1998a). Recent explorations of the concept seem to be focussing on the formalised use of teacher portfolios in professional development and assessment of competence (Smith, 1998b). This

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

Gert J. van der Westhuizen & Kari Smith

340

trend is evident from the models and implementation proposals, which have been developed in countries such as South Africa (Geyser, 1997; Wilkinson & Buchner, 1998), Israel (Smith, 1998a), and elsewhere (Campbell et al, 1997; Smith & Tillema, 1998).

Various studies on the use of portfolios for professional development have indicated that they could serve purposes of assessment of professional competence, and of ongoing development. The former has been identified as ‘presentation portfolios’ and the latter as ‘working portfolios’ (Campbell et al, 1997). A distinction is also made between teacher and teaching portfolios. Teacher portfolios are broader, used for presentation in appraisal and job applications.

Across countries teacher portfolios are being used to offer insights into teacher thinking and beliefs. Smith (1998b) has illustrated this, for example, in her analyses of the link between what teachers include in their portfolios and concepts of good teaching. In this sense, portfolios are being looked at as ‘snapshots’ of where teachers are, the views they hold and their achievements (Campbell et al, 1997). On another level, as we will be arguing in this article, portfolios reveal much of the dynamics of teaching, of the influence of context, of access to opportunities and resources, and of how policies are implemented.

The teachers involved with the study from South Africa and Israel were familiar with portfolio as a learning and assessment tool used with pupils, but they were not familiar with teachers’ portfolio. This was a new concept to them.

The purpose of this article is to develop an understanding of the conceptions teachers in two countries have of portfolios, and what their inclusions and selections say about professional development and teacher performance. Central to the investigation is the expectation that portfolios may reveal more than technical information about performance and growth. In a broader sense, the article explores the extent to which teacher views about portfolios reflect information about context and educational change.

Contexts of the Investigations

Education in South Africa is in a state of socio-political transformation and this has significant implications for education. Since the political democratisation of the country started in 1994, the education system has seen structural changes, as well as the introduction of significant policy changes. The former involved a shift from racially-based education departments to integrated provincial departments. National policies have been introduced to ensure equitable distribution of resources and a redress of historical imbalances. Most recently, the introduction of Curriculum 2005 is an attempt to bring about a major change in school curricula towards outcomes-based education (OBE) in the different learning areas. The process of curriculum transformation only started in 1998 on the level of grade one and is scheduled to be complete by 2005.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

TEACHERS’ PORTFOLIO REFLECTIONS

341

In the wake of all the changes, teachers experience pressure to adapt and implement new policies. This is happening in the context of schools that are still very much under-resourced. In many (especially rural) schools, physical conditions are such that teaching takes place without the availability of basic resources, such as water and electricity. These conditions are being improved. At the same time a number of school improvement initiatives are happening in the different provinces. While most of these tend to support the introduction of OBE through programmes of staff-development, a significant emphasis is being placed on what has come to be known as ‘whole school development’. These are aimed at developing management capacity, as well as changing teaching and learning.

The historical legacy of apartheid education is still very visible in the majority of South African schools. The remnants of decades of disempowerment, authoritarian control, lack of resources, as well as poor quality of teacher development are still a strong influence on teaching and learning practice. Classes are big, with the average class size between 40 and 50. Teaching is conducted through the medium of English as a second, third and, in many cases (in rural areas), a foreign language. Despite these conditions, many schools have accepted that actions need to be taken to develop a culture of learning and teaching (COLT). The COLT programme has been instituted nationally and is aimed at normalising an education culture, which had been broken down by the apartheid experience.

Teaching in South African schools takes place in a policy context which is very much part of societal transformation (Ekong & Cloete, 1997). This imperative is a motivation for this investigation to focus on describing choices and preferences teachers have when they talk about their portfolios, and to offer interpretations of these choices and views from a broader perspective of educational change.

In the case of Israel, the status of the teacher is much discussed and merits concern. The educational system is centralised by a government office, which is in control and makes decisions about changes. It ensures, by the means of national inspectors, that these are implemented by schools and by teachers. There is, however, a welcome tendency to give more and more schools autonomy in choosing their major fields of study. Schools employing a teaching staff with new and well rationalised educational views and who can document these, are likely to be given the status of an ‘experimental school’, meaning they are permitted to work independently of the ‘macro-decided’ school curriculum.

The classes are usually big, 40 pupils in each class. The classes are extremely heterogeneous, not only in levels, but also in terms of language, and social and cultural background. Israel has integrated close to a million new immigrants into its previous population of 4 million in the last decade. Children and teachers coming from very different educational settings with different standards of good teaching and learning have been absorbed in the system, not without difficulties. The demands put on the native and the

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

Gert J. van der Westhuizen & Kari Smith

342

immigrant teachers are major. This integration has challenged the professional community of teachers in Israel; it has forced teachers, new and old, to reflect on their work, because they had a different model of teaching within their own staff.

A number of schools have undertaken staff discussion of the school’s vision. What are their aims for education? What alternatives can be found to their present approach to teaching? At the same time, the question of creating an ethical code for teachers has been raised, a question which is likely to draw much attention in the future. The Israeli professional community of teachers is questioning its present practice; it is reflecting on its professionalism.

The salary of the Israeli teacher is relatively low compared to private sectors. There are, however, benefits in ongoing in-service training. Teachers are also entitled to a sabbatical leave every seventh year in order to prevent burnout and to update their professional knowledge. The authority of the teacher is diminishing, parents and pupils have become active stakeholders of the teachers’ work, a development that does not always simplify the job, but it does, however, make it more challenging and demanding. This should be seen as a positive development.

There is a vast majority of women in the profession; it has been considered a convenient ‘second’ job in the family with school-based working hours, which allow for fewer hired caretakers of personal children. This issue becomes problematic when alternative teaching and assessment approaches put additional demands on teachers’ working time.

The teachers’ professional organisations are strong and the Israeli teachers’ interests are well taken care of as soon as they become members of the professional community. An example is that after 2 years of teaching, the teacher is given tenure and cannot be fired from the job unless she is offered another job within the educational system.

In conclusion, due to the many challenges the Israeli teacher meets and due to the positive conditions for professional development, there is a positive tendency for the Israeli teaching community to establish itself as a professional community that wants to be involved in setting standards for quality in their work.

Methods of Investigation

Data was collected from three groups of South African teachers and a total of 84 teachers from Israeli schools.

The South African Study

In the case of the South African group, teachers from two schools (schools A and B) who were involved with INSET workshops on curriculum assessment, and a group of teachers who participated in further studies in a Masters programme in cognitive education. In INSET/study workshop situations each

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

TEACHERS’ PORTFOLIO REFLECTIONS

343

of the three groups discussed ways in which learning portfolios are used in classroom assessment as part of continuous assessment in outcomes-based education. These discussions were extended to focus on the notion of teacher portfolios, and explained how these could be designed and used. Each teacher was invited to compile her own portfolio.

From school A, a group of eight teachers (all females) from a rural primary school in the Gauteng province participated in the study. The school is part of a school development programme in which the author was a facilitator and was selected as an example of a school similar to the majority of historically black schools in the country. This school is equipped with basic facilities. Teachers seem to be motivated, mostly well experienced and participated as a group in their school improvement programme. Data was gathered through a group interview.

From school B, a township school in Northwest Province, 23 teachers participated. This is a semi-urban school. The group included six male and 17 female teachers. The majority of teachers had more than 4 years of experience.

The 15 students from the MEd programme are all senior educators from the urban and rural areas of Kwa-Zulu Natal province. They hold positions of leadership as area and district managers, in schools (as principals, heads of departments), and as senior teachers in different learning areas and on a number of levels.

Data for this article was obtained from field-notes from INSET workshops, as well as from interviews and questionnaires. Interviews were of the free-attitude kind (Vrolijk et al, 1980), which involves the exploration of answers to open questions. Data analyses involved techniques of open coding and categorisation (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).

The Israeli study

The participants in the study included a cross section of teachers from urban and rural schools whose work environment and experiences are similar to that of the majority of teachers in South Africa. Eighty-four teachers who participated attended an in-service training course. The course subject was alternative teaching/assessment approaches, and part of the course dealt with teachers’ professional development. Within this setting, and for the first time for many, these teachers were introduced to the use of portfolio as a teaching and assessment school for their pupils, and also as a tool they could apply in their personal professional development. The teachers were required to compile a portfolio in the course, but this portfolio was related to the topic taught, alternative assessment approaches. They were, however, made familiar with the tool, and they had, therefore, no difficulties in undertaking the assignment needed for this study, namely to (1) define good teaching, and (2) decide on entries they would like to put into a presentation portfolio. The second question is still a hypothetical one, as there is no request for such a portfolio when seeking employment or by the government inspectors,

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

Gert J. van der Westhuizen & Kari Smith

344

however, the majority of the teachers agreed there is a need for it and expressed interest in working on a presentation portfolio.

The teachers were asked to relate to the two questions individually at home. In class, groups of four were given the task to form a group answer. This was then presented in plenary and discussed by the whole class. The data used in this study are the answers presented by the groups. There were 21 groups, each of which had four teachers, adding up to 84 teachers. Four of these teachers were then interviewed individually and asked to discuss the two issues in depth.

Main Findings from the Two Investigations

South African Study

The following findings emerged from the teacher groups we worked with in South Africa. Across the different groups of teachers, similar categories of themes emerged. These include references to work programmes/work records/work achievements, examples of learner work/descriptions of learner behaviour and personal detail. These choices are to be expected, as they describe information essential to teachers’ work. What is interesting is the fairly prominent reference to in-service learning – what teachers gain from that, how they implement new ideas and what they learn from new experiences. This is especially significant because of the extensive initiatives in the form of school improvement programmes, staff development, and other INSET interventions aimed at supporting a culture of learning and teaching.

Another common finding across the groups is the emphasis on references to working with peers, notes from others and the sharing of ideas with colleagues. On one level this indicates a need to build community, to learn from each other and to develop a sense of confidence. This also emerged in the views teachers had about what to do to improve their portfolios: to share ideas and working closer with peers. This is probably also a reflection of the fact that school curricula are being changed into outcomes-based models. This change represents quite a significant shift from the previous school curricula, and involves not only a set discourse of ‘OBE-speak’, but also a much stronger emphasis on learner-centred teaching.

In the case of the Masters group, achievement and performance orientation seem to be significant. They referred to awards and personal achievements as important inclusions in a portfolio. The group also tended to have a strong emphasis on records and instances of self-development. This choice they seem to have put forward in a confident way, and it builds on the commitment evident from the fact that they are all have made progress towards furthering their studies.

The choice of submissions from significant others is also a theme across the groups. These include submissions from seniors, parents, School Governing Body (SGB) members and district officials. The significance of this

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

TEACHERS’ PORTFOLIO REFLECTIONS

345

finding is that it reflects a longer tradition of the role given to authorities in the education system.

Overall, the participants in this study indicated that that they perceive teacher portfolios as being rich in information, multifaceted and close to actual practice. This reflects a certain commitment to the profession of teaching and the fact that choices about portfolios are given serious consideration.

Evidence collected for the purpose of a working/development portfolio seems to be fairly similar to what is proposed for presentation portfolios. The differences are that the former is less organised, more of work in progress, containing much more personal reflections and personal data. Implicit in both portfolios are the views and beliefs teachers hold of their work as teachers. These include pedagogical beliefs of what good teaching and acceptable standards of teaching are. Specific references have been made to learner participation, learning relationships, teaching methods and the use of teaching aids.

Also implicit in the data are reflections on what constitute evidence of growth. These include the learning related to in-service workshops, formal school change programmes, learning from working with others and extended involvement in school activities.

Few or no references have been made to a lack of physical resources. It is as if teachers were not concerned about this at all, and chose to take a positive and constructive view to focus on what can be included without highlighting problems.

Israeli Study

The question ‘What is good teaching?’ elicited answers that can be categorised as follows.

x The first category relates to types of knowledge that are required of teachers.

Subject matter knowledge: teachers are required to own expertise in the discipline taught and in related disciplines so they can practise an interdisciplinary approach to teaching. The Israeli teachers believe that history, for example, should be taught alongside literature and art.

Curriculum knowledge: teachers emphasise the importance of knowing how discipline knowledge is translated into curriculum taught in schools.

Organisational knowledge: teachers need to know how to organise teaching the curriculum, plan their lessons, organise the class and provide feedback to stakeholders (pupils, parents, authorities).

Knowledge of psychology and education.

Knowledge of pupils’ background.

Knowledge of computers and technology (computer literacy).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

Gert J. van der Westhuizen & Kari Smith

346

x The second category was didactical skills. Teaching is expected to be varied, stimulating, and motivating, and to match not only the level of the pupils, but also their personality and styles of learning. Furthermore, didactical skills include, according to these Israeli teachers, active involvement of pupils, and appropriate timing of the lesson and its various components.

x The third category involved assessment of pupils. In good teaching, the teacher applies a variety of assessment procedures. Assessment focuses on process as well as product and it needs to be success orientated to motivate ongoing learning. Furthermore, the Israeli teachers in this study claim that pupils are to be actively involved in assessing their own learning.

x The forth category is social skills, such as being a good listener and communicator, emphatic and respectful to the pupils. Teachers are also expected to be flexible, and exercise a high level of self-control and self-discipline. A sense of humour is considered to be a positive feature of good teaching.

x The last category is professional and personal development, and it involves continued in-service training. Teachers are expected to update their subject matter knowledge, teaching skills and assessment procedures. Good teaching is viewed to be a property that has to be maintained, if not, it is lost.

In answer to the question of what entries are to be included in a teacher’s presentation portfolio, teachers who participated in the Israeli study referred to evidence of what they saw as good teaching. They want the portfolio to include a combination of their own work, students’ work, feedback from others, out-of-school activities and evidence in forms of official documents. Thus, the portfolio provide a multifaceted picture of the teacher, a picture that is rich with information when they are being assessed as teachers in situations such as applying for jobs, seeking promotion and given tenure, among others.

Teachers’ subject matter knowledge is reflected in suggested portfolio entries such as a recorded talk about a topic discussed in class, or critical discussions of recent publications in their field of teaching. Worksheets teachers prepare, lesson plans and examples of long-term planning document the didactical skills of teachers. In addition, several groups suggested including video and audio recordings of lessons in the portfolio. One group would like to include descriptions and treatment of problems they had faced. Most groups suggested including written reports from colleagues and others who had observed them teach. Pupils’ assignments and achievements were considered evidence of teaching, and were included in most entries suggested by the groups. Pupils’ achievements as reflected in tests and assignments were also used as evidence for assessment approaches used by teachers, and several groups suggested presenting tests designed by them and the analysis of the same tests.

Most groups chose to present feedback from pupils on their teaching, making it clear that this was a tool used for their personal professional

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

TEACHERS’ PORTFOLIO REFLECTIONS

347

development. Some of the outlines suggested including the teacher’s analysis and reflections on the feedback. The need to present a picture of reflective teaching became evident also in entries such as teaching log and planning for the future. Self-analysis and reflections are both related to self-assessment and the self-aware teacher. In addition to personal criticism of teaching, most groups would like to include hard evidence in form of certificates from teacher education, pre- and in-service, official reports from inspectors, and letters of recommendations. The portfolio is more than a CV, as it includes a variety of evidence of a wide range of teachers’ activities.

The findings indicate that teachers themselves feel they possess a variety of professional skills they want to present when they become objects for assessment and appraisal. This was also emphasised in the four interviews in which it became evident that teachers feel frustrated being hired based on a certificate, a short interview and a model lesson, which is usually very artificial. They want assessment to be based on a wide range of professional entities, and the portfolio is viewed as an instrument that can better reflect their professional competence. A number of teachers involved with the study were working with portfolios in their teaching, and one teacher said she envied her pupils who have the chance to present themselves in various lights, whereas I cannot do so.

Furthermore, it was learned from the interviews that in order to keep a portfolio updated and at a level that would serve teachers well, the required time and effort might be problematic. Teachers are not willing to pay such an expensive price to compile a presentation portfolio unless they feel confident about its value on the market. Students’ portfolios are becoming an integrated part of teaching in Israel, whereas teachers’ portfolios are still limited for use in-service teacher education as requirements in specific courses.

Initial Indications of Similarities and Differences

Similarities

A comparative analysis indicates that there seems to be something inherent across borders and cultural settings in the way teachers view good teaching. Teachers in South Africa and Israel expressed the need to include hard, as well as soft evidence in their presentation portfolios. Examples of hard evidence are certificates and diplomas from professional development courses. It seems that teachers who undertake in-service training want this to be acknowledged by others. It is viewed as official documentation of professional knowledge.

Professional development is time-consuming and requires hard work. It is not sufficient only to receive a small increase in salary (Israel). Teachers want their efforts to be known and appreciated by the professional community.

Examples of students’ work are considered as another form of documentation that teachers in the two countries require in their portfolios.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

Gert J. van der Westhuizen & Kari Smith

348

Good teaching is reflected in students’ work and achievements, which again reflect professional skills of teachers.

As soft evidence, the South-African and the Israeli teachers find importance in including their personal reflections. They see it as a way to articulate their tacit knowledge of teaching. It is a type of knowledge which, according to Van Manen (1999) is not cognitive, but practical in nature. Teaching contains a great deal of knowledge that is not theoretical in nature and is, therefore, difficult to describe. Reflection requires articulation of this type of knowledge.

Differences

The main differences in the South African and Israeli teachers’ views are related to external factors, such as facilities within the school, the degree of autonomy teachers have and the social-cultural context in which they teach.

Teachers in Israel find it important to document their computer literacy. Computers are an integral part of the Israeli pupils’ life, at home as well as in school. So it is natural that teachers, who need to acquire this literacy as adults, want to include evidence of the leap they have taken into the age of technology. Some schools involved in the South-African study are still without electricity, so computer literacy is not the first priority of skills teachers need to have.

The Israeli teachers feel confident enough to criticise the curricula they have to teach, and they even see constructive criticism as part of their professional responsibility. Many teachers in Israel believe that improved changes have to come from within the school, in other words, from the teachers.

South African teachers feel an explicit need to share ideas and experiences with colleagues, and they want to include documentation of such joint professional development in their portfolios. The Israeli teachers related to this issue in a different manner. They find it important to include critical incidents from their teaching career, incidents that were not successful when they occurred, but were used as springboards for professional development. According to the Israeli teachers, the analysis of the incidents, and the use they were put to, illustrate the ability to learn from less successful experiences.

It seems that Israeli teachers feel confident enough to include feedback from students and parents as hard evidence in their presentation portfolio. Teachers are required to be accountable to all stakeholders. The degree to which stakeholders express satisfaction with the teacher’s work is important documentation.

South African teachers see themselves responsible for students’ behaviour in school and find it necessary to include documentation of students’ behaviour in their presentation portfolio. This point was not mentioned by the Israeli teachers who did not put the same emphasis on documentation of students’ achievements as the South African teachers did.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

TEACHERS’ PORTFOLIO REFLECTIONS

349

The latter group feels the teacher should be assessed based on the students’ accomplishments.

The findings indicate the South African teachers tend to be more anxious to present what they deliver as teachers, product of teaching (students’ achievements), education (students’ behaviour), and evidence of participation in in-service courses. The Israeli teachers, on the other hand, tend to be more interested in presenting themselves as professionals in search of their professional identity, acknowledging the fact that the search cannot include success stories only. Table I summarises similarities and differences discussed in the above.

Similarities

1. Hard evidence, such as certificates, diplomas from professional development courses

2. Examples of students’ work and achievements

3. Personal reflections

4. Articulation of tacit knowledge (professional content knowledge)

Differences

South Africa

Israel

Lack of access to computers

Evidence of computer literacy

Local and resource issues dominate

Evidence of criticism of national curriculum

Sharing ideas with colleagues

Making use of analysing and learning from critical incidents

Documentation of pupils’ behaviour as evidence of being a good teacher

Presentation of themselves as professionals

Evidence of pupils’ achievements very important

Evidence of pupils’ achievement less important

Table I. Summary of similarities and differences between the two groups of teachers.

Conclusions

Teachers involved with this study seem to set high standards for their own profession. ‘Good teaching’ as reported in the findings reflect characteristics found in the literature examining ‘expert teachers’ (Glaser & Chi, 1988; Berliner, 1992; Schempp et al, 1998).

Schempp et al (1998) report on various features found in expert teachers that are lacking in novice teachers. Examples of these are a highly developed knowledge base (Glaser & Chi, 1988) and a search for integrating various fields of knowledge into clusters of information (Chase & Simon, 1973). The findings in this study indicate that teachers see domains of knowledge, instead of

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

Gert J. van der Westhuizen & Kari Smith

350

clearly separated disciplines. They view, for example, science as a domain instead of biology and physics as two different disciplines.

In Schempp et al’s study (1998) competent teachers were found to care about the learners as individuals, whereas in the present study it was found that one of the characteristics of good teaching was related to teaching individuals within the class. Good teaching means that the teacher focuses on how to build a bridge between the material to be taught and the pupils. Berliner (1992) found in his review of the nature of the expert teacher that good teaching is not only effective instruction, but also responsible and reflective prompting of good instruction. The importance ascribed to social skills and the urge for ongoing professional development as reflected in the findings in this study seem to agree with features of the expert teacher as reported by Berliner (1992). A good teacher is someone who is reflective about personal teaching performance and in relationship with pupils.

Although the methodology of this investigation did not specifically reveal that kind of detail, it was clear that portfolio choices and reflections are very personal, and could be expected to differ not only between groups of teachers, but especially between individual teachers. In this regard, the concept of authenticity is very relevant (see Dzvimbo & Van der Westhuizen, 1997). It is in authentic situations that teachers are true to themselves, and develop a sense of control and identity. This process is dynamic and feelings of identity are constructed continuously through dialogical relationships (Grimmett & Neufeld, 1994).

What teachers choose to include in their portfolios is clearly a function of external factors, such as what is publicly rewarded and valued as good performance. In an indirect way, the data indicate the influence of the curriculum change context and the historical emphasis on the value of authority. The confidence to voice their opinion seem to be related to the support group teachers have in professional communities and labour unions.

Differences are more related to the context of teaching, such as facilities within the school (computer literacy) and social norms (pupils’ behaviour).

In conclusion, we need to highlight in further research the possibility that similarities can be ascribed to what is inherent in teaching and that differences are related to context. We invite teachers and researchers from other contexts to undertake similar studies to learn more about what teachers choose to present as evidence of professionalism.

Correspondence

Kari Smith, Oranim College of Teacher Education, K. Tivon 36006, Israel (kari@macum.ac.il).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

TEACHERS’ PORTFOLIO REFLECTIONS

351

References

Berliner, D.C. (1992) The Nature of Expertise in Teaching, in F.K. Oser, A. Dick & J. Patry (Eds) Effective and Responsible Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Campbell, D.M, Cignetti, P.B., Melenyzer, B.J., Nettles, D.H. & Wyman, R.M. Jr (1997) How to Develop a Professional Portfolio. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Chase, W.G. & Simon, H.A. (1973) Perception in Chess, Cognitive Psychology, 4(1), pp. 55-81.

Dzvimbo, K.P. & Van der Westhuizen, G.J. (1997) Shifting Paradigms in the Discourse Practices of Teacher Education Reform in Southern Africa, paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Kenton Education Association, Hermanus, South Africa, 31 October - 2 November.

Ekong, D. & Cloete, N. (1997) Curriculum Responses to a Changing National and Global Environment in an African Context, in N. Cloete, J. Muller, M.W. Makgoba & D. Ekong (Eds) Knowledge, Identity and Curriculum Transformation in Africa. Cape Town: Maskew Millar Longman.

Geyser, H. (1997) Evaluation, Assessment and Portfolios, paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Southern African Society for Education, Pretoria, Unisa.

Glaser, R. & Chi, M.T.H. (1988) Overview, in M.T.H. Chi, R. Glaser & M.J. Farr (Eds) The Nature of Expertise. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

Grimmett, P. & Neufeld, J. (1994) Teacher Development and the Struggle for Authenticity. New York: Teachers College Press.

Schempp, P., Tan. S., Manross, D. & Fincher, M. (1988) Differences in Novice and Competent Teachers’ Knowledge, Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 4(1), pp. 9-20.

Smith, K. (1998a) Portfolio as an Alternative Assessment Practice in Higher Education, in J.F. Forest (Ed.) University Teaching, International Perspectives. New York: Garland Publishing.

Smith, K. (1998b) What Do Teachers See as Evidence of Growth? Paper presented at the 23rd Conference of the Association for Teacher Education in Europe, Limerick, Ireland.

Smith, K. & Tillema, H. (1998) Evaluating Portfolio Use as a Learning Tool for Professionals, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 42(2), pp. 193-205.

Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research. California: Sage.

Van Manen, M. (1999) Knowledge, Reflection and Complexity in Teacher Practice, in M. Lang, J. Olson, H. Hansen & W. Bunder (Eds) Changing Schools/Changing Practices: perspectives on educational reform and teacher professionalism. Louvain: Garant Publishers.

Vrolijk, A., Dijkema, M. F. & Timmerman, G. (1980) Gespreksmodellen. Alphen a. Rijn: s.n.

Wilkinson, A. & Buchner, J. (1998) The Teaching Portfolio: a tool for development and evaluation in higher education, South African Journal for Higher Education, 12(3), pp. 88-95.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014

Gert J. van der Westhuizen & Kari Smith

352

Special issue Teacher Activism in Education Reform CALL FOR PAPERS This special issue of Teacher Development will address an important phase in teacher development and educational reform. The theme of this edition is that the voices of teachers need to be heard, not just those in positions of power in education, to achieve educational reform. A serious, unresolved tension has become evident in the educational institutions of Westernised countries: Teachers who work to better their school communities must do so within an increasingly stringent framework of public accountability. The contributors to this edition should consider issues related to the significance of teacher activism, including the potential for school practitioners to become enquiry partners with those outside their immediate school site. Recent recommendations have emerged from the teacher development literature, and authors are asked to consider them or to develop their own. Authors are also asked to provide analyses that nourish and facilitate the process of teacher activism as an expression of desirable change in education today. Papers may report empirical research or scholarly discussions from any standpoint. Where appropriate, contributors are asked to include the voices of teacher practitioners in their manuscripts and to co-author with their teacher (or other) participants. This co-authorship practice addresses challenges directed at the academic community to include school practitioners’ voices and knowledge in educational research. Teachers and other school activists are invited to submit manuscripts as collaborative or sole authors. This issue is intended as a resource for politicians, educational leaders, teachers, parents, students, and concerned citizens who are or who could become social justice advocates working on behalf of teachers’ high-quality reforms. The hope is that this edition will stimulate a focused conversation about the quality and effect of teacher activism in different countries as related to professional, ethical, and policy issues. Articles may vary in length from short notices and reports of ongoing work (of up to 1000 words) to major position papers and academic analyses (of up to 6000 words). All submitted manuscripts are scrutinized by at least two independent referees. Submissions need to comply with the Notes for Contributors printed on the inside covers of Teacher Development, which are also available at www.triangle.co.uk/tde. Manuscripts should be received by September 3, 2001 for consideration for publication, and no computer disk is required unless requested. Please send three complete copies of the manuscript to the Guest Editor, Dr Carol A. Mullen, Leadership Development Department 4202 East Fowler Avenue, EDU 162 University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620-5650, USA (cmullen@tempest.coedu.usf.edu).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f Jo

hann

esbu

rg]

at 0

1:08

20

Janu

ary

2014