Ministry of Environmental

Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency

Suez Canal Expansion Project

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Introduction

This is the Egyptian point of view on the

likely impacts of alien species crossing

Suez Canal due to the expansion project

launched in August 2014. It is based on

scientific evidences available in the

international literature and Egyptian

studies made in the Suez Canal for more

than 60 years. Data were analyzed

thoroughly and the possible

environmental, economic and health

impacts are considered.

This present report provides a review of

the Suez Canal since it was opened in

1869, a description of the new expansion

project, facts on the alien invasive

species in eastern Mediterranean, biota

of the Suez Canal, Egyptian

commitments to international and

regional conventions, and mitigation

measures implemented by the relevant

authorities in Egypt. The Suez Canal

expansion project is designed to have

minimal impacts on the sensitive marine

environment.

I- The Suez Canal:

The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level

waterway in Egypt, connecting the

Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea.

Opened in November 1869 after 10

years of construction, it allows ships to

travel between Europe and South Asia

without navigation around Africa

thereby reducing the sea voyage distance

between Europe and India by about

7,000 kilometers. When built, the canal

was 164 km long and 8 m deep. After

several enlargements, it is 193.30 km

long, 24 m deep and 205 meters wide. It

consists of the northern access channel

of 22 k, the canal itself of 162.25 km and

the southern access channel of 9 km.

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Seawater flows freely through it. In

general, the canal north of the Bitter

Lakes flows north in winter and south in

summer. The current south of the lakes

changes with the tide at Suez.

The current Suez Canal is a single lane

with 4 double passes and 6 bypasses at

Port Said, Ballah, Timsah, Deversoir,

Kabrit and Bitter Lakes. The time spent

to cross the Suez Canal varies from 12 to

18 hours. On a typical day, three

convoys transit the canal, two

southbound and one northbound. The

passage takes between 11 and 16 hours

at a speed of around 8 knots (15 km/h; 9

mph). The low speed helps prevent

erosion of the banks by ships’ wakes.

The canal allows passage of ships up to

20 m draft or 240,000 deadweight tons

and up to a height of 68 m above water

level and a maximum beam of 77.5 m

under certain conditions. About 20,000

ships of different sizes passes through

the canal annually.

II- Description of the Suez Canal

expansion project

Within the framework of increasing

world trade, increases in size of ships,

and the need of the Egyptian economy to

develop its resources, it was imperative

to expand the current Suez Canal to cope

with the increasing future world trade.

The Suez Canal expansion project is

well planned based on scientific

evidence and in consultation with the

relevant international organizations.

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The expansion project is restricted to

specific sites along the Suez Canal, from

kilometer 50 to 122 (72 km) at Bitter

Lake (27 km west of the canal), Timsah

Lake (35 km), and at Ballah (10 km).

The objective of this expansion to

connect the existing 6 by passes together

and double the longest possible parts of

the water way to facilitate traffic in the

two directions, and to minimize the

waiting time for transiting ships from 18

hours to only 11 hours. This will allow

move ships (up to 97) to pass through

Suez Canal, and accommodate large

ships.

The advantages of this project are:

- Increase national income from

foreign currency.

- Increase carrying capacity of Suez

Canal by 50%.

- Contribute to the ever increase of

using Suez Canal as international

navigation canal, hence raise its

classification.

- Increase the capacity of SC to allow

97 ships in 2023 instead of current 49

ships.

- Success of the Suez Canal

Development project will transfer

Egypt into international trade and

logistic hub.

- Reduce the cost of crossing ships to

attract more ships, and reduce fuel

consumption, hence reduce global

warming.

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Comparison between the Current Suez Canal and the New Expansion

Project

Advantages of the Expansion Suez Canal Project

Issue Current Situation Future Suez Canal

Number of ships (45 – 66

feet) can cross Suez Canal

daily

- Northern convoy no

more than 8 ships

- Southern convoy allows

all ships to cross daily

45 ships with more than 45 –

66 feet can cross Suez Canal

without stopping, in both

directions

Direct crossing of all

convoys without stopping

Only one convoy cross

directly

Allow 45 ships to cross non-

stop in each direction

Navigation Safety Navigation ceases when an

accident occurs

In case of emergency, an

alternative route ensures

navigation to continue crossing

Suez Canal

III- Egyptian commitments to

International and regional

conventions

1- Convention of Biological

Diversity (CBD)

- Article 8(h) calls each

contracting party, as far as

possible and appropriate, to

prevent the introduction of,

control or eradicate those alien

species which threaten

ecosystems, habitats on species.

- Since CBD COP6 in 2002, the

issue of invasive species was

discussed, guiding principles

were provided, and a specific

target (9) (Biodiversity Strategic

Plan 2011-2020) on invasive

species was approved, where by

2020 invasive alien species are

identified and prioritized, priority

Issue Current Situation After Construction

Time of first north convoy

from Port Said southward

18 hours, including waiting

at lakes.

Approximately 11 hours direct

crossing

Number of hours waiting

in Bitter Lakes, depending

on number of ships

8 – 11 hours waiting 3 hours waiting if number of

ships exceeds 45 ships

Time of 2nd

north convoy

that wait at western Ballah

6 – 8 hours depending on

number of ships

2nd

north convoy be joined

with first to save waiting time

in Ballah

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species are controlled or

eradicated and measures are in

place to manage pathways to

prevent their introduction and

establishment. COP 12 (October

2014) in South Korea, confirmed

that alien invasive species

represent danger to biodiversity,

human health and sustainable

developments. It welcomed

partnerships and programs on

alien invasive species, and

requested Secretary General of

CBD to facilitate regional

projects, capacity building, and

policy tools for decision makers,

and assess the socio-economics

of environmental impacts of

invasive species. All issues

raised by CBD are being

implemented in Egypt.

2- Barcelona Convention:

Article 4 (C,D) on environmental impact

assessment

(c) Undertake environmental impact

assessment for proposed activities

that are likely to cause a

significant adverse impact on the

marine environment and are

subject to an authorization by

competent national authorities;

(d) Promote cooperation between and

among States in environmental

impact assessment procedures

related to activities under their

jurisdiction or control which are

likely to have a significant adverse

effect on the marine environment

of other States or areas beyond the

limits of national jurisdiction, on

the basis of notification, exchange

of information and consultation;

Article 15 on Public Information and

Participation

Several workshops were held, and the

first public hearing was made.

3- United Nations Convention

on the Law of the Sea

Article 196 on use of technologies or

introduction of alien or new species

Appropriate measures have been taken,

and new ones are being considered by

the Egyptian Authorities.

IV- Analytical review on alien species

in the Mediterranean Sea

- The Mediterranean Sea in

particular has seen successive

waves of introductions. Its biota

consist of a mosaic of formally

alien species of different

biogeographic affinities, reflecting

its eventual geological history

- It is impossible to prevent

movement of marine creatures, but

manage them in accordance with

international and regional

conventions (tools and guidance

include relevant guiding principles

of CBD, relevant guidelines under

the Ballast water convention of

IMO, relevant guidelines for

control and management of ships

Bio fouling, relevant standards by

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FAO on applying risk analysis in

aquaculture, recreational fisheries).

- Species migration is a global

phenomenon, not restricted to Suez

Canal. A very small number of

marine ecosystems in the world are

free of alien species. Climate

change plays the main role in this

process.

- Terminology being used on

migratory species over time (e.g.

lesspsian migration 50 years ago,

invasive species in 1993, non-

indigenous species, accidental or

causal species, tropical species,

circumtropical and the new

concept of adapted species to new

environment is being discussed.

- Species migration via Suez Canal

occurs from the Red Sea to the

Mediterranean and vice versa from

the Mediterranean to Gulf of Suez.

(at least 60 species).

- The terminology used by invasion

ecologist reflects their pre-

conceived options, ranging from

neutral to quasi-hostile, sometimes

emotionally charged attitudes. The

spread of new species to new

habitats is and has always been a

natural and continuous process

over the ages. Man has only

accelerated this process.

- Invasive species is associated with

adverse effects, threatening native

biological diversity, the ecological

stability of the invaded

ecosystems, and the resulting

economic and health

consequences.

- Many authors ignore other

potential impacts such as over

harvesting of resources,

destruction of habitats or the

introduction of harmful pollutants.

- By 1970, most species were

established and adapted at the Suez

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Canal ecosystems, and many have

reached eastern Mediterranean,

reaching 140 species of plants and

animals. However, this number

has increased dramatically to more

than 300 species in eastern

Mediterranean, due to the

considerable changes in

environmental conditions.

- In 2014, number of alien species in

the Mediterranean is close to 900

species (representing 5% of the

marine species in the entire

Mediterranean), 13.5% of them are

classified as invasive species (47).

The dominant group in the western

Mediterranean and Adriatic Sea

are macrophytes (macroalgae and

sea grasses), whereas polychaetes,

crustaceans, mollusks and fishes

dominate eastern and central

Mediterranean. The vast majority

of alien species occur in the

eastern Mediterranean; some are

located exclusively in the south-

eastern basin, others are restricted

to the western basin, whereas

others have colonized the entire

Mediterranean. Alien species

occur in warm waters.

- The number of alien species

continues to increase globally. In

Europe, north America, and China,

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the number has increased

dramatically during the last 4

decades by 50 – 70% due to the

rapid increase in global trade,

marine transportation, tourism.

This is similar to what happened in

the eastern Mediterranean.

- The main dispersal routes include

shipping (ballast waters and

fouling that represent 70% of alien

species), active swimming (fishes),

intentional release (aquaculture

and aquaria), natural dispersal,

through currents and tides,

adaptation through Suez Canal,

trade, tourism (recreational boats),

dumping in the marine

environment, ports and marina.

- Alien species pattern is not

influenced by water volume or

current speed, but rather with high

salinity that acts as natural barrier.

- Globally, alien species were

identified in terms of more than

tens of thousands species, and

invasive species by few thousands.

However, many problems still

exist, including species trait, time

lag in species introduction,

settlement and adaptation, and the

risk assessment of invasive

species.

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0 2 4 6 8

10 12 14 16 18

No. of Major Taxonomic Group

- Out of 47 species claimed to be

invasive, only 28 species of Indo-

Pacific origin were recorded in the

eastern Mediterranean, mostly

fishes, crustaceans and mollusks.

The dispersal of these species is

though shipping (14 species in

ballast water and fouling), Suez

Canal (21 species), and

aquaculture (10 species), and one

from Monaco aquarium.

A preliminary risk assessment for the

claimed invasive species was made,

based on literature review, and it was

found that:

0

5

10

15

20

25

Origin of Sp.

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A- Possible Environmental

Impacts:

- Five species, out of 9

macrophytes have potential for

environmental impact

(competition for space).

- One sea grass species can

compete for space, however,

more studies are needed. - Two species of coelenterates

(Jellyfish) have impact on

tourism, and feed on young

mollusks and crustacean.

- Ten out of 12 mollusks species

may have environmental impact

(competition for space, and

forming rocky habitats).

However, 2 species without

studies.

- Four out of 18 fish species are

known to have impact, and the

remaining have potential impact

(competition for food and space).

B- Possible Economic Impacts:

- Two species out of 9 algal

species have pharmaceutical

(medical) importance, and the

remaining 7 species have no

direct economic importance.

- Sea grasses provide good habitats

as nursery (feeding) and

spawning grounds for economic

species of fish, crustaceans and

mollusks.

- Jellyfish have impacts on tourists

through their toxic secretion.

- Seven out of 12 mollusks species

have considerable economic

importance (fisheries and

aquaculture).

- Crustaceans are of considerable

economic importance (about

16000 tons are caught annually in

Egypt.

- Three species out of 18 fish

species have toxic effect,

however, they don’t cause harm

in Suez (fishermen know how to

deal with them). However,

toxicity of the fishes can be used

in curing and increasing

longevity of patients with cancer.

V- Results of Egyptian studies on Suez

Canal:

During the last 60 years, and in

particular since the establishment of

Suez Canal University in 1975, Egyptian

researchers have made considerable

contribution to understand the dynamics

of Suez Canal waters, ecosystems,

habitats and biota. Most of these studies

have not been published yet but they are

in the form of M.Sc., Ph.D. thesis and

reports. However, they were the basis of

the environmental set up that was

considered for the environmental

consideration of the Suez Canal

expansion project.

Egyptian studies included the history of

Suez Canal since its opening for

international trade in 1869; geology

(geomorphology, topography),

Oceanography (hydrology, water

current, circulation, salinity,

temperature, tide, etc.); habitats in Bitter,

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and Timsh lakes and the main canal

(sandy rocky, and muddy shores,

sabkhas, soft bottom and hard bottom

habitats, fresh water habitats); main

biota (235 species of macrophytes, 287

species of phytoplankton, 125 species of

zooplankton, 71 epiphytic species, 35

species of bryozoans, 77 species of

polychaetes, 50 species of bivalves, 19

species of gastropods, 6 species of

cephalopods, 35 species of crabs, 43

species of amphipods, 8 isopod species,

2 cirripedia species, 85 copepods 7

species of echinoderms, 23 ascidian

species, 114 fouling species, more than

100 fish species, main important bird

areas (more than 150 species), main

freshwater habitats and biota; and the

terrestrial animal and plant species. The

biology of the main species and

particularly commercial ones (e.g.

fishes, shrimps, shellfish) were studied

in details (e.g. reproductive biology,

food and feeding habits, abundance,

partitioning of resources, competition for

space and food, etc.). In addition, the

migration patterns of macrophytes,

invertebrates and fish from the Red Sea

and Mediterranean Sea via Suez Canal

were studies.

Based on the Egyptian studies, important

remarks have been reached and are being

considered in the strategic environment

assessment. These are:

- The current socio-economic impact

of the Suez Canal on the

development of world economy

particularly in the Mediterranean

countries cannot be ignored. For

example, 22% of the world

container ships (represent 12.9% of

world trade) cross Suez Canal, an

equivalent of 1.7 trillion US $

annually.

- The Suez Canal and its lakes

support diversified habitats and

species (about 1500 species), most

of them are of Indo-Pacific origin,

and some of Mediterranean origin

(at least 60 species).

- New species of Indo-Pacific and

Mediterranean species were

recorded for the first time (e.g. 9

species of crabs, 35 species of

benthic algae).

- There are increases in number of

species with time. For example,

only 8 macrophyte species were

recorded in 1869, increased to 25

species in 1924, 96 species in 1972,

133 species in 1983, 200 species in

2000 and reached 235 species of

benthic algae and sea grasses by

2015. Out of these 235 species of

macrophytes, 22 species crossed

Suez Canal and only one alien

species is considered to be invasive,

and 3 species were recorded before

the opening of Suez Canal.

- The southern part of the Suez Canal

is of high salinity and is dominated

by Indo-Pacific species; this

tendency decreases towards the

northern part at Port-Said, where

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dominant species are of

Mediterranean origin.

- Many species are caught

commercially (e.g. fishes, shrimps

and shellfish). For examples

shrimps and crabs constitute about

25 % of the total catch by volume,

and a first of the trawl gross income.

- This commercial species are

beneficial to local fisheries, and, in

our view they don't have important

impact upon ecosystem.

- The creation of new habitats during

the last decades, due to dredging

activities, enabled many species to

settle and adapted to the diversified

ecosystems of Suez Canal and its

lakes. Many of them have kept their

original identity and biology,

however they share available

resources of space and food, and

competition is minimal. Thus, they

have adapted to the new

environmental conditions of the

Suez Canal ecosystems.

- The new environmental conditions

of the Suez Canal ecosystems are

exhibited by several changes:

a- Salinity of the Bitter lakes which acts

as natural barrier for many species, has

decreased dramatically from 68 ppt in

1871, to 53.3 ppt in 1924, 48 ppt in

1970, and have reached 39 ppt in 2012.

However, during the closure of Suez

Canal during 1967 – 1975, salinity near

the bottom was exceptionally high in

many locations especially in the eastern

area of the lake. The increase of salinity

from surface to the bottom (16 m deep)

was very rapid, reaching 314.93 ‰,

suggesting formation of brine at the

bottom. This abnormal pattern needs to

be studied thoroughly.

a. Suez Canal has undergone several

enlargements over the years. The

most recent expansion completed

in 2010, increased its depth (from

8 to 25 m) and width (cross-

sectional area was 304m² in 1869,

increased to 1800 m² in 1962, and

3600 m² in 1980, and currently

5200m²) to allow the passage of

large vessels. This has also

created more diverse habitats in

the Suez Canal ecosystems.

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b. The climate change in the

eastern Mediterranean has

shown an increase in air and

water temperatures

particularly in coastal areas.

This is likely to affect the

structure of marine

communities and provide

further opportunities for alien

species to spread and out-

compete native species.

c- Volume of water due to the

Suez Canal expansion project

will increase by 183.7 million

cubic meters, representing only

5.6% of the entire volume of

Suez Canal and its lakes that

contain about 90% of all water.

- A Model for water movement

due to the expected impact of

Suez Canal expansion was

prepared by Egyptian experts to

determine:

a- impact of the extension

on Hydro-dynamics along

Suez Canal;

b- expected impacted area

due to dredging activities;

c- Effect of the Suez Canal

extension on movement

of tracer materials.

Results have shown that:

- The tidal level with change slightly

in the central part of SCC maximum

increase of 10 cm,

- The tidal current will decrease

(maximum of 15 cm) in the central

and northern part (Ferdan /

Deversoir),

- Discharge of flow rate to the

Mediterranean is nearly zero,

- The area affected by dredging is

about 5km north and south,

- Simulation of movement of tracer

material from Timsah to Bitter lakes

is minor.

In conclusion, Egypt does not deny the

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danger of alien species, but refuses to

deal with this issue without scientific

evidence. Egypt continues its

commitments to international and

regional conventions where invasive

species are being considered in the

updated National Biodiversity Strategy

and Action Plan in accordance with

Strategic Plan of CBD (2011 – 2020),

and started monitoring program of alien

species, and is in the process to

preparing a national project on alien

species to be funded by donor agencies

and countries.

VI- Measures taken by the Egyptian

government are as follows:

A- Mitigation measures being

implemented:

Baseline studies were included in the

environmental impact assessment which

was submitted by Suez Canal Authority

(SCA) to EEAA in July 2014 before

launching the new Suez Canal expansion

project. It included an extensive

literature review on the current situation

of the Suez Canal, where an assessment

of alien species in the eastern

Mediterranean and Suez Canal

ecosystems, as well as different

alternatives and mitigation measures

were presented.

EEAA requested SCA to initiate a

strategic Environmental Impact

Assessment (SEIA) to include both Suez

Canal expansion project and Suez Canal

Development project. EEAA also

request SCA to consider alien species in

the SEIA, prepare a management plan,

and models for water movement due to

the expected impact of Suez Canal

expansion project, including

hydrodynamics, impacted area due to

dredging, and movement of tracer

materials.

A ministerial Decree was issued on all

major national projects and guidelines

on SEIA were sent to all concerned

governmental agencies. Since SEIA is

to be carried out for the first time in

Egypt, EEAA offered technical

assistance to SCA, resulted in two

Memorandum of Understanding

(MOUs) to assist the consulting firm

(Dar al-Handasa which hired several

national and expatriates to pursue SEIA).

Meanwhile, a joint committee was

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established and included experts from

EEAA, SCA, Suez Canal University

(SCU), Cairo University (CU), National

Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries

(NIOF), and others to follow up with the

construction process, and to monitor air,

water soil and biota and recommends

interventions when necessary.

Guidelines provided by EEAA to SCA

deal with minimum environmental

impacts, safe waste due to dredging,

hazardous waste, permissible limit of

suspended air matter in air and water,

noise, occupational safety, monitoring of

alien species and other biota.

Several workshops were held, and

organized by SCU at Ismailia and also

by NIOF in Cairo. They were attended

by experts and media, resulted in

informing the public on the current

situation of the Suez Canal expansion

project, possible impacts on biota, and

measures to deal with toxic jellyfish and

fish.

A public hearing meeting was held in

Ismailia, headquarter of SCA, to discuss

the project, endorse measures in

accordance with SEIA requirements.

This will be followed by other public

hearing during the remaining period of

construction.

B- Other mitigation measured

being considered by relevant

authorities are:

During 2015 efforts will be made to

address all environmental issues

related to the Suez Canal expansion

project and other issues of Suez

Canal development project. Efforts

will include: control agriculture

drainage and other sources of

freshwater into the Bitter lakes, in

accordance with the Egyptian

Environmental Protection Law

(4/194, amended by law 9/2009).

Declaration of Bitter lakes as zero

discharge area is being considered.

Target 9 (invasive species) of the

strategic plan (2010 – 2020) of CBD

is included in the updated Egyptian

National Biodiversity Strategy and

Action Plan (NBSAP). Target

elements are: invasive alien species

(IAS) identified and prioritized;

pathways identified and prioritized,

priority species controlled or

eradicated; and introduction and

establishment of IAs prevented. In

addition, all decisions of CBD COPs

regarding IAS will be implemented

and reported to CBD Secretariat.

Action Plan concerning species

introductions and invasive species,

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in the Mediterranean sea (20 actions

proposed by UNEP, MAP –

RAC/SPA, 2005) and guide for risk

analysis assessing the impacts of the

introduction of non-indigenous

species (UNEP / MAP – RAC/SPA,

2008) will be accommodated and

implemented in the Egyptian

NBSAP.

The monitoring program of IAS in

the Suez Canal, Gulf of Suez and

eastern Mediterranean will be

continued for 5 years, and risk

assessment will be made by 2020.

Special attention will be given to the

future impact of the expansion of

Suez Canal project on the alien

species.

Issues regarding increasing salinity

of the Bitter lakes (natural barrier of

alien species) are being considered

by experts (Egyptians and relevant

organizations).

Strict measures on ballast water and

fouling will be implemented by

Suez Canal authority and relevant

authorities. Results will be reported

to IMO Secretariat periodically.

Awareness program addressing

invasive alien species started and

will be continued, and feedback

results will be reported to the

relevant agencies and organizations

(e.g. Barcelona Convention, CBD,

IMO).

Existing legal and regulatory

frameworks for alien invasive

species will be assessed and

recommendations will be considered

by the relevant authorities in Egypt.

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VII- Selected References:

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is the Mediterranean more readily

colonized than the Red Sea, by

organisms using the Suez Canal as a

passage way? Oceologia 4: 359 -361

Aleem, A. A. (1984). The Suez Canal:

A habitat and pathway for marine algae

and seagrasses. Deep Sea Research. 31:

901 – 917

American Bureau of Shipping (2014).

Guide for Ballast water treatment - 46

pages.

Bellard, J., W. Thuilier, B. Leroy., P.

Genoves.,Balkkenes, M. (2013). Will

climate change promote future invasion.

Global Change Biology, 1 – 9. Doi:

10.111/gcb.12344

Belmaker, J., Parravicini, v. and

Kulbicki, M. (2013). Ecological traits

and environmental affinity explain Red

Sea fish introduction into Mediterranean.

Global Change Biology, doi:

10.1111/geb.12132

CBD (2002). Guiding principles for

the prevention, introduction and

mitigation of impacts of alien species

that threaten ecosystems, habitats or

species: Annex to CBD Decision V1/23

Emera, A. and Belal, A.A. (2004).

Marine fouling in Suez Canal, Egypt.

Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research

(30A): 189 – 206

Farghaly, M.S. and El-Shourbaky, G.A.

(2015). Synopsis of biodiversity and

distribution of macrophytes along the

Suez Canal in time and space. Int. Conf.

Plant, Marine and Environmental

Sciences (PMES-2015), Kula Lumpur

(Malaysia): 115 – 120

Fouda, M. M. (1995). Life history

strategies of four small-size fishes in the

Suez Canal, Egypt. J. Fish. Bio: 46:

687 – 702

Fouda, M. M. and Abu-Zeid, M. M.

(1990). Bivalves of the Suez Canal.

Proc. Zool. Soc. A. R. Egypt, 21: 231 –

240

Fox, H.M. (1925). The biology of the

Suez Canal. Nature (London), 115

(2886): 262 -263

Galil, B.S and Goren, M.(2014).

Metamorphses: bioinvasion in the

Mediterranean Sea. In: The

Mediterranean Sea: Its history and

present challenges (Goffredo and

Dubinsky, Editors), 463 – 478

Galil, B.S. (2012). Truth and

consequences: the bioinvasion of the

Mediterranean Sea. Integrative

Zoology 7: 299 – 311

Galil, B.S. (2007). Loss or gain?

Invasive alien and biodiversity in the

Mediterranean Sea. Marine Pollution

Bulletin 55: 314 – 322

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Halim, Y and Rizkalla, S. (2011).

Aliens in the Egyptian Mediterranean

waters. A check-list of Erythran fish

with new records. Med. Mar. Sci. 12

(2): 479 – 490

IUCN (2013). Marine alien invasive

species strategy for the MedPan

network. Malaga, IUCN, 22 pages

Meshal, A.H. (1975). Brine at the

bottom of the Great Bitter lake as a

result of closing the Suez Canal. Nature

256: 297 – 298

Molnar, J.L., Grambos, R.L., Revenga,

C., and spalding, M.D. (2008).

Assessing the global threat of invasive

species to marine biodiversity.

Frontiers in Ecology and the

Environment 6, doi: 10.18901070064,

34 pages

Morcos, S.A. (1970). Physical and

Chemical Oceanography of the Red Sea.

Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. 8: 73 – 202

Morcos, S.A. and Gerges, M.A. (1974).

Circulation and mean sea-level in the

Suez Canal. In: L’oceanographie

Physique de la Mer Rouge, IPSO /

UNESCO / SCOR Symposium. Paris,

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Muirhead, J.R., Minton, M.S., Mulkor,

W. and Ruiz, G.M. (2015). Projected

effects of the Panama Canal expansion

on shipping traffic and biological

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