Strategies for Teaching English as a Foreign Language: The Use of Games in Oral Classrooms

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Strategies for Teaching English as a Foreign Language:

The Use of Games in Oral Classrooms

Student Name

University Name

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Table of Contents

1.0 INTRODUCTION............................................................31.1 Objectives.............................................................31.2 Thesis.................................................................41.3 Structure..............................................................41.4 Background.............................................................5

2.0 DISCUSSION..............................................................62.1 Making the Case for Game-Centred Learning..............................72.2 Classification of Pedagogic Games......................................82.3 Creating Incentives for TEFL Games....................................102.4 Sports and Educational Games..........................................112.5 Directed Activities Related to Text...................................122.6 Age Groups and Their Needs............................................142.7 Behaviorism...........................................................152.8 Developmental Psychology..............................................172.9 Cognitive Learning Theory.............................................182.9.1 Computational Models..............................................192.9.2 Functionalist Perspectives........................................202.9.3 Macro and Micro Processes.........................................20

2.10 Teaching Simplified Versions of English..............................212.11 Overcoming Innate Learning Difficulties in TEFL......................222.12 Pronunciation and the Mother Tongue..................................242.13 Improving Grammatical Construction...................................252.14 Developing and Diversifying Vocabulary...............................262.15 Bridging the Gap between Spoken and Written English..................282.16 Exposing Students to Varieties of English............................292.17 Code Switching and Fluency...........................................312.18 Blended Learning Techniques..........................................332.19 Sandwich Techniques, Mother Tongue Mirroring and Back-Chaining.......342.20 Item and System Learning.............................................362.20.1 Interlanguage Comparative Analysis...............................37

2.21 Sequences of Acquisition.............................................382.21.1 Introducing Variability..........................................40

2.22 Bridging the Gap between Input and Interaction.......................412.22.1 Language Immersion...............................................42

2.23 Socialization of Language Skills.....................................432.23.1 Accumulation Model...............................................452.23.2 Socio-Educational Model..........................................452.23.3 Inter-Group Model................................................462.23.4 Language Socialization...........................................472.23.5 Social Identity..................................................47

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2.24 Speech Community.....................................................482.24.1 High and Low Prestige Forms......................................49

2.25 Interactionist Approaches for TEFL...................................503.0 CONCLUSION.............................................................513.1 Summary and Findings..................................................513.2 Recommendations.......................................................513.3 Relevance.............................................................523.4 Essay Limitations.....................................................53

BIBLIOGRAPHY...............................................................54

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This paper analyzes the possibilities of using games as a

learning tool when teaching English as a Foreign or Second

Language (TEFL). It contributes to the body of research relating

to teaching methods and their impact on the wider pedagogic

theory. At the same time the paper provides a practical guide for

those TEFL teachers who are searching for ways of making their

classes more effective and interesting. The theoretical and

practical dimensions of this essay also mean that it is relevant

for those students who are on the quest to acquire new linguistic

skills.

1.1 Objectives

This essay aims to identify the theories that underpin

learning and education. It focuses on the acquisition of TEFL

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skills from the perspective of both the student and the teacher.

The paper introduces games as an interesting and practical

addition to the learning tools that are currently available1.

Ultimately the paper aims to educate those who are teaching and

those who are learning a second language. In that sense the paper

is not just restricted to TEFL activities but covers the entire

spectrum of educational activities. This essay aims to contribute

to the body of research into teaching methods in general and TEFL

paradigms in particular.

1.2 Thesis

The thesis of this paper is that TEFL and other language

acquisition programs are based on both practical and theoretical

learning2. It argues that games are not just for fun but can

improve the learning process for students of all ages and

abilities. Furthermore, that the social-cultural context from

which a student and teacher emanates can have a positive or

negative impact on their effectiveness3. Therefore the paper sets

1 Michael Canale,”Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing,” Applied Linguistics 1, no. 1 (1980): 8-12.2 Michael Canale,”Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing,” Applied Linguistics 1, no. 1 (1980): 8-12.3 Esther Us-Juan, and Alicia Martnez-Flor, "Teaching learners to appropriately mitigate requests," ELT Journal 62, no. 4 (2008): 144-145.

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out the premise that any games that are chosen for use as part of

a TEFL course must be configured in such a way as to account for

the unique experiences of the people that are involved in the

learning process4. This paper proposes bespoke interpretations of

standard learning theories in order to achieve optimum outcomes.

1.3 Structure

The paper is broadly divided into three parts: the

Introduction, Discussion and Conclusion. The introductory remarks

set out the premise and justification of the paper. They also

include some background information. The discussion introduces

and categorizes a number of games that are appropriate for TEFL

purposes. It then sets out the limits and possibilities of these

games. The discussion then develops a number of theories

concerning the learning process, highlight their relevance to

TEFL. During this process, the paper will indicate some practical

applications of games bearing in mind the theoretical paradigms

that have been explored. The paper concludes by summarizing its

findings and recommendations. Finally the relevance of the

research is analyzed and placed in context.

4 (Maley 2003): 307

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1.4 Background

The value of games in the classroom can be measured by the

extent to which they encourage students to use the language

instead of merely memorizing its rules and forms5. The

interactive nature of games allows students to bring spontaneity,

imagination, cooperation and creativity to their language

skills6. The competitiveness of games encourages students to

develop ambitions and goals which in turn will enable them to

sharpen their linguistic competencies7. The students must first

understand the language on a personal basis before using it to

communicate. Above all games bring interest to the learning

process and allow students to the contexts within which their

second language might be essential or appropriate8. Therefore the

pedagogic use of games is an integral aspect of TEFL.

5 C. Davis, C and J. Kim, "Repeating and Remembering Foreign Language Words: Implications for Language Teaching Systems," Artificial Intelligence Review 16, no. 1 (2001): 39-42.6 J. Mouton, "Second language teaching for primary school students: an evaluation of a new teaching method," Evaluation and Program Planning (18) 4 (1995): 403-406.7 Jakob Gyllenpalm, Per-Olof Wickman, and Sven-Olof Holmgren, "Teachers' Language on Scientific Inquiry: Methods of teaching or methods of inquiry?" International Journal of Science Education 32, no. 9 (2010): 1163-1165.8 Ahmad Al-Issa, and Hana Sulieman, "Student evaluations of teaching: perceptions and biasing factors," Quality Assurance in Education 15, no. 3 (2007): 308-312.

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2.0 DISCUSSION

The first justification of games in TEFL is that they are an

effective tool or technique for student involvement9. Therefore

they complement the literature and theoretical concepts that

underpin this unique learning process. Where the games have been

carefully selected, it is possible to give students a break from

the mundane (and often boring) routine of learning while at the

same time imparting core skills that will be useful to them on a

daily basis10. Therefore games stimulate both the cognitive

aspects of learning and the social group dynamics that are

integral to the use of language11. Of course games give students

an opportunity to practice different types of communication

including verbal and non-verbal. They learn the intricacies of

the language including tone, context and emphasis. These are

things which are very difficult to teach in a traditional format.

2.1 Making the Case for Game-Centred Learning

9 A Henry, "Natural Chunks of Language: Teaching Speech Through Speech," English for Specific Purposes 15, no. 4 (1996): 298-301.10 A Wray, "Formulaic sequences in second language teaching: principle and practice," Applied Linguistics 21, no. 4 (2000): 473-476.11 Joana Jansen, and Virginia Beavert, "Combining the Goals of Language Documentation and Language Teaching: A Yakima Sahaptin Case Study1." Building Communities and Making Connections 1, no. 1 (2010): 67-69.

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Occasionally the teacher may be required to justify the use

of games as a means of TEFL particularly if they are working in a

very traditional context where new methods are treated with

skepticism. Essentially games allow students to acquire and apply

vocabulary. Through relaxation, reinforcement, emphasis and

repetition; games increase the propensity of students to retain

information12. Their competitive aspects motivate students to

achieve more. Moreover games bring the real world into the

classroom without requiring significant resources. The games

focus on the learner instead of the teacher and encourage

participatory approaches to the use of language.

Having made a substantive business case for the use of games

in TEFL, it is important to set the parameters that are necessary

for effectiveness. Thus, games should only be used as a

complement to the formal curriculum and not as a complete

replacement. The selected games should be challenging enough to

interest and motivate the students. At the same time they should

12 S Amir, and N. Moosavi, "An Integrated Holistic Method for Teaching Introductory German to Community College Students," Community College Journal of Research and Practice 31, no. 10 (2007): 804-808.

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avoid hostile or confrontational competition which can disrupt

the learning process.

It is imperative that the use of the game is structured in

such a way with the specific purpose of allowing students to

learn how to use language rather than learning about it13. The

games should be inclusive in terms of accounting for the specific

needs of the student including their age, background,

characteristics and capabilities. Therefore a one-size-fits-all

approach would be undesirable in this instance.

2.2 Classification of Pedagogic Games

The four types of games that might be used for pedagogical

purposes in TEFL include Board Games, Card Games, Party Games and

Simulation Games14. Traditionally these games are played in a

community setting and require the physical participation of

students. However the role of technology must not be ignored in

TEFL because the advent of video games and online games offers

new opportunities for learning particularly if the institution 13 Michael Canale,”Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing,” Applied Linguistics 1, no. 1 (1980): 16-19.14 Manuela Macedonia, "Games and foreign language teaching" Support for Learning 20, no. 3 (2005): 137-139.

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has already invested in the appropriate infrastructure. It is

best to select games that are both familiar and popular so as not

to spend a lot of time actually learning the game. The primary

purpose of the exercise is TEFL and not the enjoyment of the game

per say.

It is possible to reconfigure classic games in such a way as

to achieve the TEFL objectives that are under discussion. For

example Charades, Hangman, Chinese Whispers, Pictionary, Snakes

and Ladders, Battleships, Bingo and Ludo can be modified in such

a way as to emphasize the use of language. Likewise television

shows like Who Wants to be a Millionaire? Provide opportunities for

learning as long as they are part of a structured program. One

issue that tutors need to be wary of is the fact that many of

these games were conceived in an age where Political Correctness was

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not an issue. Therefore it is advisable to check that the

students and their families are not offended by the games.

The focus is on intellectual rigor rather than physical

activities. Therefore the games that are chosen do not

necessarily have to involve clapping, shouting or movement. The

pre-game simulation will allow the tutor to identify the

practical limitations of the games in terms of their suitability

for the audience that is going to use them. At the same time it

will help the teacher to gather the necessary logistics and

resources in order to make the project successful. The fact that

these materials can be reused in different contexts is also

useful because it reduces the need to make fresh plans for each

session. Of course it is perfectly acceptable to adjust the games

based on the lessons that have been learnt after play.

2.3 Creating Incentives for TEFL Games

In order to maintain the interest of the students, it is

important that there are incentives that attract the players.

Some simple prizes such as stickers, stamps and reward points do

not stretch the budget. However they play an important role in

allowing the student to get into the habit of setting goals and

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achieving them15. For example a set of cards can be linked to the

reward of a number of points or fake money. However it is

imperative that younger students clearly understand the

difference between the game and the reality. If there are queries

about monetary rewards then the tutor must explain the set-up of

the game specifically.

Pedagogic games can be played at any time of the day but it

is advisable to consider those periods when students are likely

to be the least alert. These include the last 30 minutes before a

break and on sunny afternoons. Rather than spending time teaching

the theory of TEFL to students who are not picking up the core

concepts, games can allow the teacher to impart knowledge without

alerting students to the fact that they are actually working hard.

The games should emphasis doing and communicating things rather

than merely thinking about them. For example the word puzzle

should encourage students to create sentences from seemingly

disparate words. If the students are willing to create posters

then they can be used as signposts in the classroom. This adds

ownership to the learning experience, an essential requirement

15 M. Moldoveanu, "Language, games and language games," The Journal of Socioeconomics31, no. 3 (2002): 237-242.

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for TEFL where the language is considered to be a non-academic

undertaking by some students.

2.4 Sports and Educational Games

The natural interest in sports means that pedagogic games

(PG) which are inspired by popular games are likely to engage

students in a unique way. The teacher should try to recreate a

realistic image of the sport as it is played. For example the

class can draw an imitation of a court or field using some

standard classroom cardboard. The game is then divided into

sequences or hierarchies which represent an achievement. Thus

each student who manages to use language correctly goes up the

chart. It is possible to integrate the sporting experience into

other activities such as shopping. For example the players can

identify memorabilia or players that they wish to buy and sell.

It is important to ensure that the games always call for

interaction and dialogue because that is the essence of TEFL.

There is always a risk of reducing the sports-related PG

into nothing more than a vocabulary acquisition exercise. One of

the ways of mitigating this risk is to engage students in a Taboo

Game where they have to describe a word without mentioning it.

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This shifts their focus away from merely parroting words but also

finding ways of using them and describing their meaning16. In

order to tackle the spelling requirements of students, it is

possible to use a Chain Spelling or ABC game. Here students are given

clues and the expected outcomes before they have to search for

the right context. It is an imitation of process that human

beings go through on a regular basis when they have to make

split-second decisions about the correct use of language. The

teacher can add excitement but associating the exercise with

discovery. For example a Treasure Hunt is going to be more

attractive than a plain description of a word.

2.5 Directed Activities Related to Text

The games that fall within the DARTs (Directed Activities Related to

Text) framework include Sequencing, Prediction and Jigsaw

Puzzles17. They are not for emphasizing the competitive nature of

PG while at the same time forcing the student to be imaginative.

The risk is that the students can begin to pay more attention to

16 Stephen D. Krashen, and Tracy D. Terrell, The Natural Approach. Revised (New York: Blood Axe Books, 1996): 51-55.

17 Anthony Pym, "Natural and directional equivalence in theories of translation," Target 19, no. 2 (2007): 283-286.

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the accomplishment of the game targets rather than the use of

language. Therefore the role of the tutor is important because

he/she will continuously encourage students to communicate with

one another in English18. In order to emphasize the community and

social dimensions of language, it may be a good idea to ask the

students to form competitive groups. The rewards should not only

be focused on accomplishing the task but involving everyone in

the team. Language is a thread that links a community and

therefore students should be encouraged to communicate with one

another from the outset.

The power of a narrative cannot be ignored in DARTs.

Students should be encouraged to tell stories and to be as

imaginative as they want. The critical point is that they use

appropriate language to describe the process through which they

thread together the story based on the clues that have been

provided. It is important to discourage one-word answers because

they do not really extend the ability of the student to use

grammar in different contexts. As part of the preparation for the

DARTs, the teacher should try to delve into the social, family or

18 Michael Canale,”Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing,” Applied Linguistics 1, no. 1 (1980): 43-45.

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work-life circumstances of the students so as to identify the

games that are most suitable for them. This is where consultation

plays a critical role particularly when dealing with older

students who are better able to describe their needs.

2.6 Age Groups and Their Needs

The PGs that have been selected must be appropriate for the

age-set. There is particular concern about adult and very young

learners where the games can be either too simple or too

difficult. Sampling and pilot projects will enable the teacher to

identify the capabilities of the class as a whole and the

individual requirements of students so that the scheme can be

adjusted accordingly19. Older students will prefer relevant games

that are clearly structured or otherwise they may end up losing

respect for TEFL as a concept. This is particularly true if they

are funding their course and need to see value for money. Students

must be in no doubt about the purpose of the games (learning how

to use language in different contexts).

19 Gail Ellis, and Barbara Sinclair, Learning to learn English (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989): 23-24.

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The level of motivation and professionalism that is

portrayed by the teacher will play an important role in

determining how these PGs are received by students. Ideally the

teacher should like or have an affinity with the PG but if that

is not possible then they have to take a professional attitude

towards it. The priority is the students and it may be necessary

to actually observe them interacting with the set-up in order to

determine whether it is a viable concept. Demonstration is a much

more effective learning tool than explaining in this context

therefore the teacher should show students how it is done20. The

debriefing and evaluation stage will allow the TEFL professional

to estimate the success of the project and the areas where

improvements are required.

2.7 Behaviorism

The theory of Behaviorism provides a context for PGs in as

far as it describes the effects of the interactive model. Ian

Pavlov of the Conditioned Reflex experiments has shown that

repetition and habituation can turn certain tasks into routine


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such that the student does not even have to actively think about

them21. The complexity of language means that these skills are

useful in unpredictable circumstances. Those students who have

not learnt the art or science of acting spontaneously when using

language will find that they can read, write and even speak to

someone but are somehow unable to respond when the other person

speaks back in a way that is different from what they have learnt

in class. By contrast the students that are used to dealing with

complexity and diversity in the use of language will find ways of

using the limited vocabulary they have in an imaginative way

regardless of the circumstances22.

The Behavior Modification framework proposed by BF Skinner is

particularly useful to those students who acquire English as a

foreign language. Understandably their vocabulary will be limited

by the experiences that they have in the classroom23. Therefore

the TEFL professional might assist them by making PGs an integral

21 Dawn Cadogan, "Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts," The Charleston Advisor 14, no. 4 (2013): 54-55.22 D. J. Delprato, "Comparisons of Discrete-Trial and Normalized Behavioral Language Intervention for Young Children with Autism," Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 31, no. 3 (2001): 319-322.23 A. Fundaro, "Behavioural effects of chronic administration of nimodipine ingrouped or individually housed rats," Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 19, no. 2 (1995): 302-306.

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aspect of the learning process. For example a card game that

requires students to continuously create sentences from

signposted words and clues will give the students experience of

stringing a conversation together based on simple ideas. If they

find a sympathetic conversationalist in their daily life then it

will be possible for them to expand their vocabulary without

having to reference a dictionary all the time. Behaviorism has

been expanded to include the Audio-Lingual Learning model, a tool that

appeals to two of the most important senses that are available to

the student24. TEFL should aim for positive reinforcement,

transformative drills and listen-repeat exercises25. These can be

incorporated into PGs with the other students and the teacher

providing the audio feedback that the student needs in order to

interact with the language in a meaningful way.

2.8 Developmental Psychology

The incremental nature of TEFL means that the theory of

Developmental Psychology (DVP) is relevant when using PGs. Jean

24 Keiko Komiya Sammy, "A Comparative Study of Teaching Japanese in the Audio-Lingual Method and the Counseling-Learning Approach," The Modern Language Journal 73, no. 2 (1989): 172-174.25 Gail Ellis, and Barbara Sinclair, Learning to learn English (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989): 54-56.

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Piaget argues that learning takes place in four distinct stages.

They are sequential, predictable and innately determined.

Although the theory is associated with early learning, it is

relevant to adult learners as well particularly in the context of

TEFL. DVP shows that the acquisition of language includes social

interaction, developmental readiness and personal interpretation

of processes. PGs address the social interaction requirement by

encouraging students to play with one another26. A case in point

is a word game that requires students to string together

sentences based on clues that are provided by their colleagues.

DVP can play an important role in determining the stage of

development at which the student is. This is a critical element

of TEFL because it informs lesson plans and other structured

educational activities. PGs are adjusted to cater for the

individual requirements of the player. This means that the

individualization requirement of DVP is met in this instance.

Nevertheless DVP has sometimes been criticized for being too

simplistic. However it provides a framework through which PGs can


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be structured at a basic level so as to maximize the

effectiveness of the learning process during TEFL.

2.9 Cognitive Learning Theory

Having explored the applicability and limitations of DVP, it

is pertinent to present the Cognitive Learning Theory (CLT) as an

advanced alternative. It is based on the premise that human

beings learn through experiences. Over their lifetime, they will

try different approaches until they find the ones that seem to

work for them27. PGs allow students to fulfill this requirement

because they necessarily involve testing and feedback. It is also

an important aid for the TEFL professional who may not be certain

about the best approaches. Therefore PGs enable students to

develop insight and understanding of language in its practical

use.

A case in point is a puzzle-game which requires the student

to test a number of solutions before settling on one which works.

The PGs are not in themselves important to TEFL but rather it is

their ability to engage students in progressive cognitive

27 Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 192-198.

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experiences. The knowledge that they acquire will enable them to

solve language problems in the future where they have to think

quickly and often speak instinctively. CLT differs from DVP

because it assumes that human beings do not just respond to

stimuli but actually engage in a problem-solving paradigm28. This

is the humanistic (as opposed to mechanistic) approach to TEFL

which can enrich learning experiences because it fosters the

independent/critical thought of the students.

2.9.1 Computational Models

The three-stage Computational Model of CLT explains the

sequence in which TEFL students acquire linguistic skills. The

Intake Stage allows learners to retain specific features of English

in their short term memory. The Conversion Stage allows students to

store some of those elements in their long term memory after they

have been converted into second language knowledge. In the Output

Stage, the learners use this knowledge through speaking.

Therefore a word puzzle PG will start the intake through the

28 Dazhi Yang, Jennifer Richardson, Brian French, and James Lehman, "The development of a content analysis model for assessing students’ cognitive learning in asynchronous online discussions," Educational Technology Research and Development 59, no. 1 (2011): 55-59.

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acquisition of vocabulary and grammar29. When the game is

repeated this information will be stored. Finally a presentation

allows the student to reach the output stage.

2.9.2 Functionalist Perspectives

The Functionalist Perspectives are based on the premise that

language is acquired for a specific purpose. If there is no

purpose (such as frequent use of the language) then the

acquisition process will slow down. TEFL students that are

restricted to the classroom will not be able to diversify their

requirements for linguistic skills particularly if they routinely

use their mother tongue30. Therefore the challenges of a PG such

as a word puzzle will create the need for functionality. This

will increase the rate at which the student acquires the

requisite linguistic skills. It is possible to distinguish

between implicit, explicit, procedural and declarative language

skills31. The Functionalist Perspective also borrows from the

Dual-Mode System where some parts of the language are stored as

29 Peter Watcyn-Jones, Grammar Games and Activities (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1995), 40-43.30 Gail Ellis, and Barbara Sinclair, Learning to learn English (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989): 89-93.31 Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 61-73.

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rules while others are language knowledge items. The TEFL student

requires both these aspects.

2.9.3 Macro and Micro Processes

TEFL learners go through a systematic and random mental

process as they acquire languages. These processes can be broadly

categorized as being either Micro or Macro. The Micro elements

include memorization, restructuring and integration. The Micro

elements include incidental learning and intentional learning.

This is the explicit-implicit division which adds sophistication

to the acquisition of a second language32. TEFL professionals can

use a number of models in the classroom to enhance both Micro and

Macro learning. Examples include Multidimensional models,

Nativization, Processability, Competition, Emergentist frameworks

and Skill-Acquisition33. Good PGs incorporate all these elements.

For example a word-based Blackjack gambling game will allow

students to acquire words and also develop imaginative ways of

using them.

2.10 Teaching Simplified Versions of English

32 (Bertin and Narcy-Combes 2007): 448-450.33 (Al-Kufaishi 2004): 51-54.

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Even where international communities are involved, the

formal version is recommended for TEFL. In actual use, the

students may decide to adopt one or more of the simplified

versions but that is their personal choice. Normally the

classroom is restricted to formal types of English required for

academic, business and everyday use. However there may be

situations where the TEFL professional is required to change or

improve the speaking patterns of students34. In this case it

makes sense to understand some of the various versions of

simplified English that are on the market today. For example

knowledge of slang will enable the tutor to correct errors in the

grammar and vocabulary repertoire of the student.

Currently there are about five recognized forms of

simplified English but the list could be extended if Pidgin English

and Caribbean English or Patois are included. I.A. Richards and

Charles Ogden developed Basic English which has been revived by

writers like Bill Templer. Meanwhile van Ek and Alexander

developed Threshold English. Jean-Paul Nerriere developed Globish.

Joachim Gzerga took this further by developing Basic Global English.

34Stephen D. Krashen, and Tracy D. Terrell, The Natural Approach. Revised (New York: Blood Axe Books, 1996): 19-25.

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Although Gabriele Stein and Randolph Quirk proposed Nuclear English,

the concept did not take off35. Wherever possible, TEFL should be

approached from the formalized and widely accepted versions of

the language.

2.11 Overcoming Innate Learning Difficulties in TEFL

The Contrast Analysis Approach shows that one of the main

barriers to learning English as a second language is the

differences between the language and the learner’s mother tongue.

The structured use of PGs can be of immense benefit in these

circumstances. For example the fact that German is more similar

to English than Japanese will affect the learning strategies and

outcomes for students depending on their origin. It is important

to design PGs that acknowledge these differences but at the same

time create a pathway to developing better language skills. TEFL

aims to ensure that people can communicate (understand and be

understood). In particular it can help to reduce errors of

syntax, grammar and vocabulary.

35 Stella-Maria Stekskal, Teaching English in Switzerland - Committment to Common Standards or Movement Towards Globish (Bern: GRIN, 2007), 7-8.

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A case in point is the use of False Friends which results from

Language Transfer Interference. PGs address these problems at the

earliest stage in order to prevent the learner from developing

lifelong errors which are not significant enough to warrant

discomfort in casual conversations but could create real

difficulties in the formal context36. TEFL professionals need to

be particularly wary of students who acquire bad habits and then

continue with them even to the extent of assuming that they are

the correct approaches. PGs are the constant reminders of what

needs to be done. For example it is possible to design a card

game where students are required to correct subtle grammatical

errors. This will condition them to spot and correct errors at

every stage.

From the point of view of equality and diversity, it is

critical not to stereotype all TEFL learners based on their

background. For example a Chinese student may speak fluent

English, even excelling well beyond native speakers because they

have put in the effort and used the right tools37. Rather the

36 Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 214-222.37 Friederike Klippel, Keep Talking ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 176-179.

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teacher should identify potential problem areas and fashion long

term solutions that improve the learning outcomes for all

students. Moreover not all errors are due to Language Transfer. For

example students from all backgrounds struggle with conjugation

particularly in the 3rd person singular.

2.12 Pronunciation and the Mother Tongue

Despite the best efforts of TELF professionals,

pronunciation is one of the dead giveaways for students who are

acquiring a second language. The primary avenue for correcting

pronunciation is conversation with native speakers. However if

that is not possible then PGs allow the class to develop

pronunciation limits which will be very useful to the student in

the future. The mother tongue has an important role to play here

because it may contain idiosyncrasies that are at odds with

Standard English. Japanese speakers may struggle to distinguish

between the letters R and L. Likewise the differences between B

and V are not clear to native Arabic, Spanish and Korean

speakers. At the same time English has unique sounds that are

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not easily grasped by foreign speakers38. For example Interdentals

like th are rare in other languages and yet remain a critical

aspect of TEFL.

Students often struggle to master the unique syllable structure

of English. The skills required are rarely accumulated in the

classroom by PGs can bridge the gap39. For example a card game

could be used to address the use of Cluster Consonants. Thus a

Japanese student will gradually be taught to avoid creating

vowels where none is required. The game could call for the

repetition of the words Desk or Sixths in order to identify how the

student pronounces them. More importantly the PG will give the

tutor an opportunity to address the incorrect speech patterns

that the student has developed through no fault of their own.

Likewise Spanish speakers could be requested to pronounce words

that begin with the letter S followed by another consonant such

as School. In that way it is possible to prevent them from adding

a vowel at the beginning of the sentence according to Spanish

convention.

38 Miki Shibata, "Asian varieties of English: Attitudes towards pronunciation," World Englishes 30, no. 3 (2011): 401-404.39 Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 72-80.

30

2.13 Improving Grammatical Construction

The notion that grammar is only necessary in formal

settings is rather outdated. PGs play an important role in

identifying the origin, manifestation and consequences of

incorrect grammatical constructions. This will then become the

foundation for improving the students’ skills at an advanced

level40. A case in point is how the sentence construction game

can allow students to pick up the subtle changes in tense-aspect-

mood, an often challenging task for foreign speakers. It can

help to distinguish between the standard progressive and the

perfect progressive, an aspect that is often glossed over by

students who are not exposed to complex conjugation patterns.

The teacher can re-invent snakes and ladders so as to

illuminate the proper use of auxiliaries. Typically foreign

speakers will struggle with negation, short answers and tag

questions. Therefore the games can involve standard tests on the

appropriate use of these auxiliary verbs with the learner going

up and down depending on their competency41. Moreover the game

40 Peter Watcyn-Jones, Grammar Games and Activities (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1995), 18-23.41 Colin Granger, John Plumb, and Coville Charlotte, Play Games with English 1 (Oxford: Macmillan Education, 1993), 22-24.

31

can also make reference to modal verbs. PGs also introduce

students to idiomatic usage. For example the teacher could

encourage students to distinguish between the words make and do

through sentence construction and correction games. PGs can also

be used to distinguish between definite, indefinite and zero

articles. The frequency of articles (the, an and a) means that

this is an essential aspect of TEFL. Through practice and

repetition, PG can help students become more comfortable with

their use.

2.14 Developing and Diversifying Vocabulary

A rich and varied vocabulary is essential for routine

conversation. Given the fact that formal TEFL classes cannot

provide the full range of vocabulary that the student will

require in life, it is appropriate to make use of PGs as a

complementary resource. A crossword puzzle may enable foreign

students to understand the syntactic patterns and meanings of

subtle phrasal verbs. Moreover it can help the student to

understand the differences in the use of phrasal verbs when

switching from American to British English. By including a

variety of prepositions used in different contexts, PGs help

32

foreign speakers to grasp the subtlety of changing meanings

depending on the placement of prepositions.

PGs tend to complement the fundamental rules of TEFL because

they show the student the various contextual meanings of

language. For example students may be required to use the same

preposition as an advert as part of a word puzzle game. Students

who have been accustomed to speaking Arabic will benefit from

such PGs because it helps them to overcome the challenges of

direct translation. TEFL should also encourage students to engage

in Word Derivation as part of a PG. For example the teacher can

construct a roulette game where the jackpot is achieved after

making the maximum number of derivations from a single word.

The sheer size of the English Lexicon means that students

rarely cover the entire spectrum of words that they will need

during the classroom42. Although the PGs may not completely cover

the entirety of the learning process, they nonetheless provide an

important complementary setting for expanding language. For

students who are looking to use the language on a daily basis,

PGs can offer an opportunity to master the different use of

42 M. R. MacEachern, "On the visual distinctiveness of words in the English lexicon," Journal of Phonetics 28, no. 3 (2000): 369-372.

33

collocations and slang (which is to be avoided whenever

possible).

2.15 Bridging the Gap between Spoken and Written English

Regardless of how well the TEFL learning experience is

structured, students will often find difficulties in speaking the

English that they have learnt to write. The formality of the

written register may actually hamper foreign speakers when

confronted with a real life situation where they have to respond

quickly to a series of verbal cues. The role of the PGs is to

give the student enough practice of actually speaking and writing

the language so that eventually they will have little difficulty

in the transition. A case in point is the use of Chinese Whispers

PGs in order to teach students about the lack of alphabetic principle

in many of the English pronunciations43. Through playing games

students can learn to memorize spellings and instinctively apply

the exceptions to complex rules.

Many TEFL professionals opt to complement rote learning with

PGs as a means of enabling students to grasp the fundamentals of

43 Colin Granger, John Plumb, and Coville Charlotte, Play Games with English 1 (Oxford: Macmillan Education, 1993), 45-49.

34

spelling. This is particularly important for those students who

have developed wrong speech patterns and engage in habituation in

order to cover them. Through social activity in the classroom,

PGs will highlight those areas that the student seems to be

struggling with so that a bespoke solution can be applied

appropriately44. A case in point is the use of Ludo which is

adapted to allow students to read out words and write them out.

The students can exchange the roles in order to ensure that they

get the phonics, spelling and pronunciation right. TEFL is a

gradual process but the use of PGs will speed it up considerably

and create long-lasting benefits for the student.

2.16 Exposing Students to Varieties of English

The standard TEFL classroom setting is not good enough when

it comes to exposing students to a wide variety of English. PGs

offer opportunities to expose students to regional accents,

grammar and vocabulary. Although these are not examinable

competencies, they aid in the use of the language on a daily

basis. Through group participation, students will learn to


35

distinguish accents and to get meaning even where the accent is

particularly challenging such as the Liverpudlian and Scottish

accents. The primary purpose of TEFL is not to pass exams but to

identify the language skills which are suitable for the needs of

the student.

Games such as Blind Man’s Bluff can be reconfigured to expose

students to different presenters depending on the cultural mix in

the class. It is also important to highlight the cultural

dimensions of English. For example many TEFL students are exposed

to pop culture but do not necessarily relate to the things that

happen in English-speaking countries45. Therefore acquiring these

skills will make it easier for them to fit in.

The formal requirements of the TEFL course must be met in

order to reach the passable standard. However it is also

important to emphasize the functionality of the language as

opposed to its intellectual qualities. PGs represent an informal

way of achieving these objectives in a structured way. Richard

McDorman has already criticized the intellectual imperiousness of the

45 Joos Droogleever Fortuijn, "Internationalising Learning and Teaching: a European experience," Journal of Geography in Higher Education 26, no. 3 (2002): 269-271.

36

current framework for TEFL which tends to ignore certain

experiences such as the African-American contribution46. The

students who graduate from TEFL classes are not going to be

restricted to environments where Equestrian English is spoken. Rather

they will be exposed to a number of situations where they must

use their skills to cope47.

A PG based on maps can be adjusted to incorporate knowledge

of the people who speak English there. This will then be linked

back to the grammar, accent and construction48. Eventually the

student will be at ease when speaking to people from all regions

rather than constantly asking for repetition and clarification.

Foreign speakers tend to avoid interacting with native speakers

because they are intrinsically embarrassed by their limited

language skills. However, PGs offer these students an opportunity

to interact with other learners who are within their ability

range.

46 Richard E. McDorman, "Understanding African-American English (AAE): A Course in Language Comprehension and Cross-Cultural Understanding for AdvancedEnglish Language Learners in the United States," Tesol Blog,2012, accessed 13th May 2013, http://tesolblog.org/Course%20Development%20Project_Richard%20McDorman.pdf.47 Tricia Hedge, Teaching and Learning in the Classroom, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 151-160.48 Colin Granger, John Plumb, and Coville Charlotte, Play Games with English 1 (Oxford: Macmillan Education, 1993), 32-37.

37

2.17 Code Switching and Fluency

One of the benefits of PGs is their ability to help students

transition from code-switching (COS) as a learning strategy to

fluency. This is particularly important for students who are

bilingual because COS allows them to continue with a conversation

without having to mentally translate everything49. The role of

the PGs is then to encourage the student to figure out those

aspects of the language which seem to be bothering them during

the mental translation. If this is done repeatedly then the

student will eventually develop such fluency that COS will no

longer be required.

Traditional approaches to TEFL tend to treat COS as if it

was a taboo. The beauty of COS is that it creates a less formal

environment and allows the students to switch as frequently as

they like as long as they can identify where the problem is and

develop a solution50. For example a sentence construction game

can be designed to allow students to express their thoughts

freely on a subject. However points will be awarded for students

49 Brian Hok-Shing Chan, "English in Hong Kong Cantopop: language choice, code-switching and genre," World Englishes 28, no. 1 (2009): 112-116.50 Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 15-18.

38

that can identify COS and even more bonus points for those who

can offer the correct translation. This process of fluency-

development is certainly less painful than the embarrassment that

a student suffers when they realize that they have just been

speaking to someone who has not understood half of what they were

saying.

Wolfgang Butzkamm proposes an Enlightened Monolingualism

paradigm which allows students to express themselves in a mixture

of languages. Eventually they will memorize the vocabulary that

is required to hold a complete conversation without resorting to

COS51. In TELF too much pressure can be as bad as not applying

any pressure at all. PGs set the perfect balance because they

allow the students to engage in activities that are of interest

to them while at the same time offering opportunities for

developing real fluency. In order to be effective in this way,

PGs must emphasize Conversational Fluency as the target position52.

2.18 Blended Learning Techniques

51 (Cain Fehr 2010): 276-279.52 Esther Us-Juan and Alicia Martnez-Flor, "Teaching learners to appropriatelymitigate requests," ELT Journal 62, no. 4 (2008): 352-354.

39

The diversity of skills required in English (Read, Writing

and Speaking) mean that one instruction method may not be

appropriate. Therefore PGs offer an opportunity to engage in

Blended Learning (BL) where the student is able to acquire

linguistic skills whilst focusing on a seemingly different

activity. For example it is possible to design a Monopoly game

where the currency and rewards are expressed in the ability to

match spellings. The same can be done for Snakes and Ladders. Here

the student acquires the ability to interact and communicate with

other students while at the same time developing their spelling

abilities53.

The most important thing is that they may not even realize

that they are in a serious learning environment. This can offer

confidence to those students who are naturally wary of targets or

environments where they are expected to achieve things. PGs can

also develop listening, summarizing and narrative skills which

are considered to be advanced versions of TEFL54. The idea is to

make the PG environment as rich and diverse as possible in order 53 Colin Granger, John Plumb, and Coville Charlotte, Play Games with English 1 (Oxford: Macmillan Education, 1993), 61-66.54 Esther Uso-Juan, and Alicia Martinez-Flor, Current Trends in the Development and Teaching of the four Language Skills- towards acquiring communicative competence through speaking (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2006), 31-35.

40

to increase the learning opportunities that are available to the

student. PGs are very effective at creating integrated learning

experiences as well as facilitating peer-to-peer teaching55. TEFL

students understand the difficulties of learning the language and

are therefore capable of assisting their fellow learners.

2.19 Sandwich Techniques, Mother Tongue Mirroring and Back-

Chaining

PGs are a good way of using different language acquisition

techniques in a TEFL class. For example students could be invited

to read out sentences for scores. The teacher can then insert an

idiomatic translation from the student’s mother tongue. Through

repetition the students will be afforded an opportunity to learn

fairly quickly. The fact that this is in a PG setting means that

students do not feel as if they are being interrupted and they do

not get embarrassed by the occasional mistakes. This technique

can be challenging in a diverse classroom because the teacher may

not have knowledge of all the students’ mother tongues. However

55 Esther Uso-Juan, and Alicia Martinez-Flor, Current Trends in the Development and Teaching of the four Language Skills- towards acquiring communicative competence through speaking (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2006), 191-196.

41

if it is a fairly homogenous group then this technique might

speed up the learning process56.

Alternatively, the game might be configured in such a way as

to support mother tongue mirroring. This technique is often

restricted to pedagogical circumstances because it allows the

student to access the quick meaning afforded by the literal

translation57. The word puzzle could be set up in such a way as to

allow students to circumvent the technicalities of the language

construction. These can then be dealt with appropriately in the

formal classroom. This is a powerful didactic device which is a

cousin of the interlinear text paradigm. However TEFL teachers need to

be wary of the risk of confusing the student. If the outcome is

not intelligible to the student then it is advisable to add a

standard idiomatic translation.

The PGs that are based on group participation could be an

excellent way of incorporating Back-Chaining. This is particularly

useful if the students are being encouraged to use polysyllabic

words in an oral context. Here one of the students will be

56 Tricia Hedge, Teaching and Learning in the Classroom, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 251-259.57 G. M. Kobele, "Formalizing Mirror Theory," Grammars 5, no. 3 (2002): 204-208.

42

invited to read out a word picked blind from a box as if it were a

lottery. The teacher can then pronounce the last syllable before

the student repeats. Thus a chain is established to work with the

word backwards from the beginning. Some of the permutations of

the word may be quite amusing and that adds to the friendly

atmosphere that PGs are supposed to bring to the learning

experience.

2.20 Item and System Learning

There are two approaches to acquiring skills under the TEFL

framework. The student can focus on Item Learning (ILS) which is

essentially a way of memorizing specific words and patterns.

Alternatively they can make use of System Learning (SLS) which is

not really about memorization but enables the student to develop

a deep understanding of the rules that govern the construction of

sentences and words in English. The TEFL student needs both ILS

and SLS because they are used in different contexts. For example

if they encounter a new word or sentence construction then they

can use SLS to decipher meaning58. However it would require ILS

58 Esther Uso-Juan, and Alicia Martinez-Flor, Current Trends in the Development and Teaching of the four Language Skills- towards acquiring communicative competence through speaking (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2006), 307-311.

43

in order to memorize that pattern and use it automatically in the

future when required to do so.

One of the ways in which these two principles can be applied

to PGs is to create a word family game. The students could be

arranged in pairs or small groups. They will then be encouraged

to identify patterns and relationships between words so that they

can create a Word Family. Extra bonus points would be given to

those students who can describe the family and its members

without making further reference to the notes. In this way the

TEFL class is taught to analyze word patterns through the rules

of English that they have learnt in class. However the extra

bonuses will also help them to develop the memorization skills

that will be critical when dealing with new situations.

2.20.1 Interlanguage Comparative Analysis

TEFL students may benefit from Interlanguage Comparative Analysis

(ICA). This allows them to identify the typical learner errors so

that they can avoid them when using English in their day-to-day

lives. Often ICA will identify systematic errors which may be

linked to a particular mother tongue or may actually be

44

peripatetic in nature59. Thus a game might be developed in which

students are awarded points for correctly identifying systematic

errors and linking them back to a specific foreign speaker. The

purpose of this exercise is to make students aware of where their

mistakes are likely to come from in the informal settings of a

PGA. That means that the concerns about causing offense and

marginalization are minimized.

Eventually the teacher and other members of the TEFL class

will begin to identify certain undesirable patterns in their use

of phonology, grammar, pragmatics and lexicon60. Typically

students will engage in language transfer, overgeneralization and

simplification in order to cope with new languages61. There is

nothing wrong with this initial process because it enables them

to grasp abstract concepts that would come automatically to a

native speaker. During the PGs, students should be encouraged to

express and analyze their ICA. This can then be the foundation

59 Bonnie Wing-Yin Chow, Catherine McBride-Chang, and Him Cheung, "Parent–child reading in English as a second language: Effects on language and literacy development of Chinese kindergarteners," Journal of Research in Reading 33, no. 3 (2010): 293-296.60 Peter Watcyn-Jones, Grammar Games and Activities (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1995), 12-16.61 Esther Uso-Juan, and Alicia Martinez-Flor, Current Trends in the Development and Teaching of the four Language Skills- towards acquiring communicative competence through speaking (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2006), 81-86.

45

for finding a more appropriate way of expressing themselves. The

other advantage of PGs is that they reduce the feelings of guilt

when the student suddenly discovers that they have been making

systematic and repeated mistakes due to their idiosyncratic ICA.

2.21 Sequences of Acquisition

Given the fact that the Sequence of Language Acquisition

(SOLA) rarely changes amongst learners, it is possible to

incorporate these principles into PGs. SOLA also helps to

reconcile the differences between the ways in which adult and

child learners respond to TEFL lessons62. Therefore it can be an

important element of diversified TEFL classes. The lesson plan

has to account for minor adjustments which are primarily inspired

by the individual differences amongst the learners. The

overarching lesson is that there is no one size that will fit all

circumstances. Rather the TEFL professional will have to make

small adjustments depending on how the class has responded so

far.

62 Michael Sharwood Smith, and John Truscott, "Stages or Continua in Second Language Acquisition: A MOGUL Solution," Applied Linguistics 26, no. 2 (2005): 227-231.

46

One of the game ideas is to create a series of word

challenges which are then translated into chess moves. Thus a

TEFL student will start off by acquiring plurals which often

merely require a single letter S addition. They will then move on

to the progressive tense which often requires the addition of the

suffix ing. The next stage is that of Copula Forms before moving on

to Auxiliary Forms. This then introduces the student to Definite and

Indefinite articles. The next stage is that of Irregular Past Tense which

then transitions into the Third Person. Finally the student will

develop the Possessive. Such a SOLA scheme takes into account the

established patterns for learning and therefore avoids confusing

the student by jumping essential steps63.

2.21.1 Introducing Variability

The individualized approaches to TEFL can be developed much

more easily using PGs as opposed to the formal classroom

structures which often make a lot of demands on the student64.

The teacher needs to acknowledge that there are discrete

sequences even where SOLA has been established as a universal 63 Esther Us-Juan, and Alicia Martnez-Flor, "Teaching learners to appropriately mitigate requests," ELT Journal 62, no. 4 (2008):352-354.64 Tricia Hedge, Teaching and Learning in the Classroom, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 322-327.

47

concept. Some students will follow an orderly SOLA pattern while

others may jump from place to place. The overall objective is to

ensure that the student is competent at the end of the day.

Thus the course leader may actually design corrective games

that are bespoke to the speech patterns that the student has used

before. The Free Variation involves the interchangeable use of two

forms while the Systemic Variation is contextualized. PGs that are

used in this way will help students distinguish between nouns and

pronouns by making them the subject of frequently used sentences.

Eventually the student will learn to select register depending on

social context. It is the first step in the very important

concept of Psycholinguistic Contextualization and will help the TEFL

become an advanced communicator.

Pedagogic Bingo is one of the games that can effectively

introduce variability to SOLA. Students are encouraged to

identify word patterns and points are scored when they make the

right exchanges or identify unusual patterns. Often students who

are playing such a PG may not even be aware that they are

engaging in SOLA or that the process will allow them to introduce

variability. However, the tutor will have a clear objective in

48

introducing such games in the hope that they can significantly

increase the TEFL student’s skills particularly in an advanced

setting where they have to make quick decisions about the type of

register that they will be using.

2.22 Bridging the Gap between Input and Interaction

One of the key determinants of language acquisition is the

balance between input and interaction (IAI). If the student

spends too much time in a formal class setting learning the

technical intricacies of English, they may not acquire the

spontaneous competencies that are required of them in an informal

setting. Therefore PGs play an important role in establishing a

balanced IAI. Stephen Krashen argues that second language

acquisition would be very difficult if there was no Comprehensive

Input65. However it may not be possible to get all TEFL students

to study abroad or to interact with native speakers in an

informal context. That is where PGs offer an affordable solution.

The PGs could be organized with the participation of fluent

native speakers. It is a sort of away day that would enable

65 Stephen D. Krashen, Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning (New York:Prentice Hall, 1988), 25-31.

49

students to polish up on their writing, grammar and vocabulary

even if they are not able to travel abroad. If no guest speakers

are available then the TEFL professional can take on the role of

a fluent native speaker. Such PGs require that the advanced

participant interacts with students rather than merely observing

them at work. The tenets of the Universal Grammar Model (UGM) show

that it is not necessary to apply a rigid interpretation of SOLA

in these PGs. Rather the student should be allowed to develop as

appropriate66.

2.22.1 Language Immersion

PGs also play an important role in establishing Language

Immersion as opposed to UGM. Here the student is encouraged to

develop a comfortable knowledge of English to the level that they

can produce competencies that are equivalent to that of a native

speaker in terms of listening, grammar and writing67. It is

important to note that meaning-focused lessons are not sufficient

to correct grammatical constructions which may be technically

correct but are unusual for native speakers. PGs can therefore 66 Friederike Klippel, Keep Talking ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 33-35.67 Peter Watcyn-Jones, Grammar Games and Activities (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1995), 21-24.

50

avoid the risk of creating people who speak perfect English but

communicate as if they lived in the 19th Century. Through

feedback, the IAI is balanced and the students will learn to

Automize their linguistic skills.

As a test case, it is possible to incorporate Long’s Interaction

Hypothesis into a game of Charades. The scoring will be based on

the ability of the students to pick themselves up after a

breakdown in communication. Here the TEFL professional should

encourage students to modify their speech patterns accordingly

and offer support where necessary. Over time the learners will

become more comprehensible in their communication and even offer

tips to their fellow students. These PGs emphasize the importance

of worker as an individual and a team to resolve language

difficulties that the students encounter in spontaneous

communication.

2.23 Socialization of Language Skills

The Social Aspects of Language Acquisition (SALA) have been

acknowledged as being complementary to the Cognitive Approach. Rod

Ellis advocates for a shift away from technical definitions of

51

SALA and towards a much more practical approach68. In that

paradigm, language is much more than a psychological phenomenon

because it is a representation of the social context of people

and students. TEFL can manage to reconcile these approaches to

SALA by using PGs which emphasize the sense of community. For

example a pedagogical version of Roulette can emphasize the use of

words to create community perspectives. Each student can win

words from the circle and then work with their groups in order to

create sentences or even paragraphs. At the end of the session

there can be a comparison of the team outcomes in order to

identify the group that has come up with the most plausible and

linguistically accurate narrative.

PGs of this type tend to overcome the rigidities of social

structure which are inherent in SALA. For example they can

mitigate the situational factors of a formal TEFL education

environment and some specific social factors such as the presence

of a diverse class of students. In this way PGs create a

sociolinguistic setting that is conducive to a communal use of

language. It is important to remember that in most English-

68 Rod Ellis, Language Teaching Research and Language Pedagogy (London: John Wiley & Sons, 2012), 112-121.

52

speaking countries, TEFL students will be a minority and will

have to negotiate the opportunities or limitations of that

classification. Through structured PGs it is possible to help

TEFL students acquire a unique understanding of the challenges

facing them so that they can identify community solutions to

those problems. Likewise these PGs make it easier for students to

switch from societies which are monolingual (e.g. Saudi Arabia)

to ones which are bilingual (e.g. Switzerland).

2.23.1 Accumulation Model Schumann has proposed the Accumulation Model of SALA which

could be of benefit to TEFL professionals when attempting to

develop the linguistic skills of their students using PGs. This

model emphasizes the role of Social Distance and Psychological Distance in

determining the rate of development and final achievement of the

student69. In most instances it is not easy to expose TEFL

students to the indigenous community. Through community PGs like

Chess and Bingo, it is possible to bridge these distances.

Eventually the students will develop a level of comfort with the

69 Kentaro Fujita, Marlone D. Henderson, Juliana Eng, Yaacov Trope, and Nira Liberman, "Spatial Distance and Mental Construal of Social Events, " Psychological Science 17, no. 4 (2006): 280-281.

53

host community and its linguistic patterns such that they can

engage in community activities with fluency and confidence.

2.23.2 Socio-Educational Model

The classroom is not devoid of social aspects70. Gardner

proposes the Social-Economic Model which explains one of the most

important ways in which students acquire languages. In order to

facilitate this element of SALA, the TEFL student ought to

encourage group solutions as opposed to individual solutions. For

example shy students should be encouraged to explore their

limited language skills with less fluent members of the group

first in order to give them confidence. They can then move on to

advanced interaction with the more fluent members of the group.

This will be preparation for the outside world where students

will encounter both advanced and basic English speakers. Thus a

game such as Snakes and Ladders is tackled on a group basis in order

to reduce the level of discomfort that students feel with

interacting with others.

2.23.3 Inter-Group Model

70 Tricia Hedge, Teaching and Learning in the Classroom, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 8-15.

54

One of the false assumptions that some TEFL professionals

make is the fact that SALA must emphasize the learned language as

the predominant linguistic skill. In fact many TEFL students will

share cultures and backgrounds. Even where there is a marked

difference, the Inter-Group Model proposes that Ethnolinguistic Vitality

can establish common ground71. Therefore students are no longer

isolated by their linguistic limitations in English but can use

the confidence they have in their mother tongue to interact with

others who may not share a cultural background with them. The

limitations of a standard classroom may not allow for this type

of SALA construction but PGs are less formal and restricted. Thus

it is possible to create a word puzzle with English words.

Students can then construct sentences based on the grammar of

their mother tongue. Later on the entire class can re-translate

these constructions into proper English using the knowledge they

have previously acquired in TEFL classes72.

2.23.4 Language Socialization

71 Kissau Scott, "Perceptions of self-efficacy for two types of second language methods instruction, " Computer Assisted Language Learning 25, no. 4 (2012): 303-306.72 Peter Watcyn-Jones, Grammar Games and Activities (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1995), 32-35.

55

At the beginning of the 21st Century, it became clear that

cultural knowledge and linguistic skills had a symbiotic and co-

dependent relationship. Therefore one of the core elements of

SALA is the exposure to the cultural dimensions of the host

community. TEFL professionals will understand the difficulties of

controlling a curriculum which focuses on linguistic skills. The

addition of culture as a whole can strain the timetable. However

through the use of PGs, it is possible to gradually introduce

elements of the new culture. For example a Monopoly Game that

rewards language skills can also introduce the student to the

British way of life because it incorporates important icons of

the UK within the setup. In that way the teacher can reduce the

extra burden on the formal schedule.

2.23.5 Social Identity

It is important to acknowledge the subtle relationships

between identity, power constructions and the ability to acquire

language. The Social Identity model attempts to reconcile these

elements as part of a SALA framework. Although the TEFL class may

not be an appropriate forum to completely address these issues,

PGs offer the teacher with an opportunity to discreetly support

56

those people who whom the lack of power and a negative social

identity present a significant barrier to language acquisition73.

For example a student with disabilities may fear that they are

going to face a double-stigma on account of their inability to

converse competently and the effects of their physical/mental

disability. A fun-game of Charades can allow them to escape

(temporarily at least) those restrictions and learn the necessary

skills. Therefore SALA becomes an empowering model through PGs.

2.24 Speech Community

One of the most effective ways of encouraging TEFL students

is to allow them to establish a Speech Community (SPC) for purposes

of overcoming the difficulties they face when using English. The

Sprechbund is a socially constructed paradigm that creates norms

for a group of people74. If PGs like Bingo allow TEFL learners to

engage in SPC, they necessarily have to develop their

communicative competence75. The risk is that students become

73 Tricia Hedge, Teaching and Learning in the Classroom, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 38-46.74 Cecil Eng Huang Chua, "Why Do Virtual Communities Regulate Speech?" Communication Monographs 76, no. 2 (2009): 247-253.75 Esther Uso-Juan, and Alicia Martinez-Flor, Current Trends in the Development and Teaching of the four Language Skills- towards acquiring communicative competence through speaking (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2006), 2-3.

57

institutionalized into bad practices. However the teacher can act

as a watchdog in as far as they correct some of the more

egregious mistakes that their students commit. This Jargon is an

initial step in the development of competencies that will allow

the TEFL student to improvise when faced with a situation in

which a community is using a different version of the formal

language. However the teacher must be very clear that students

must also learn the standard tenets of the language so as to pass

the basic TEFL test. SPC could be used as a stopgap for those

people who are unable to make a swift transition into fluency

based on TEFL classes alone.

2.24.1 High and Low Prestige Forms

Students sometimes struggle with the distinctions between

High Prestige and Low Prestige English particularly if they have

acquired some of their linguistic skills in an informal setting.

The PGs offer the TEFL professional an opportunity to identify

the unique colloquialisms and forms that students have acquired

in their private lives. It is then incumbent upon the tutor to

correct errors and also help the student to understand the impact

58

of the register that they have chosen76. The ability to choose

register is a very advanced form of linguistic competency and is

rarely achieved through classroom endeavors alone77. The students

can be exposed to a variety of words with the appropriate

register using PGs such as Roulette, Charades, Poker and

Blackjack. The aim is to give them an opportunity to express

themselves in their normal tone and then work out whether it is a

high prestige or low prestige format.

2.25 Interactionist Approaches for TEFL

Throughout this paper PGs have been used to demonstrate the

applicability and effectiveness of various learning strategies

particularly for students who are in the process of acquiring a

second language78. However the Interactionist Approach to language

acquisition is always prevalent. Students learn by communicating

with others. TEFL does the foundational work in the classroom but

the real test of a student’s competency is their ability to

76 Tricia Hedge, Teaching and Learning in the Classroom, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 412-418.77 Tricia Hedge, Teaching and Learning in the Classroom, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 71-76.78 Esther Uso-Juan, and Alicia Martinez-Flor, Current Trends in the Development and Teaching of the four Language Skills- towards acquiring communicative competence through speaking (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2006), 76-78.

59

spontaneously and accurately use the rules that have been set.

Some people find this task easier than others. However, PGs will

help bridge the gap between those who are quick off their feet

and those who take rather more time. Therefore games are not just

a means of reducing tension or fatigue. They are actually an

integral aspect of pedagogic experiences in as far as TEFL

students are turned into fluent and functional English Language

Users79.

3.0 CONCLUSION

This essay started with the premise that language is not

acquired through theory alone but must be given a practical

purpose. It argued that PGs are an integral, effective and

affordable methodology for achieving this objective. The paper

highlighted the cultural and personal characteristics that affect

the learner’s ability to acquire new skills. It accounted for

diversity, difference and community in learning. Therefore the

paper moved away from the traditional approach of focusing on the

79 Friederike Klippel, Keep Talking ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 106-111.

60

formal usage and forms of English towards a more broad-based

learning experience.

3.1 Summary and Findings

This paper finds that students respond to PGs in a unique

way because they are an informal learning paradigm. At the same

time PGs are an important resource for TEFL practitioners who are

seeking to experiment with different tutoring methods. The essay

has identified a number of theoretical frameworks that were

designed for the TEFL class. However, it has also shown that

these theories can be translated to PGs in a systematic and

structured way. Ultimately the paper finds that PGs are more

complementary rather than being supplementary to the traditional

curriculum that TEFL practitioners are required to follow.

3.2 Recommendations

Based on the findings above, this paper recommends that

further research be undertaken for purposes of identifying some

of the practical ways in which PGs can be streamlined and

incorporated into the formal curriculum. The paper also

recommends that course leaders and managers create a special

61

resource pool to support TEFL professionals as they incorporate

PGs into their work. This would translate into practical benefits

in terms of improving the learning experience; attracting new

students; and ensuring that those who have gone through the

course are competent users are the end of it. Ultimately this

paper recommends that there is a strategic and a micro overhaul

of the TEFL curriculum in order to incorporate imaginative

learning strategies such as PGs.

3.3 Relevance

This paper is relevant to those institutions which are

looking for ways to improve the functionality of their TEFL

curriculum. Moreover the paper informs English Language

enthusiasts who seek new ways of spreading the culture and

heritage across the globe. It may inform national Education

Ministries in terms of designing curriculums and assigning

resources for specific purposes. The essay is also an important

tool for TEFL practitioners who are often tasked with the

objective of changing and improving linguistic skills for

students who are set in their ways. Finally this paper is

62

relevant to students who trying to acquire English as a second

language because it offers them with a new learning method.

3.4 Essay Limitations

In some ways this paper has been a theoretical review of

TEFL learning strategies. For example it has not conducted a

survey of students or TEFL professionals in order to develop an

empirical body of knowledge about their reaction to teaching

theories. In that sense this essay needs to be complemented by

further empirical research.

63

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Strategies for Teaching English as a Foreign Language: The Use of Games in Oral Classrooms

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