Sporting the Glass Jaw: Views on Women in Sports

OriginalpaperUDC17:796–055.2(045)doi:10.21464/sp34204

Received:14November2018

Ana MaskalanInstituteforSocialResearchinZagreb,Frankopanskaulica22,HR–10000Zagreb

[email protected]

Sporting the Glass Jaw: Views on Women in Sports

Abstract

Sport is still understood as a traditional bastion of masculinity that exalts physical qualities such as strength and speed, and psychological traits such as aggression and perseverance, deeming women’s participation undesirable and unnecessary. Nevertheless, women for dec-ades, in strict separation from men or within so-called “women’s sports”, were achieving results worthy of the attention of even the fiercest sceptics. Because of its nature founded in physicality, sport is still relatively seldom the area of political struggle for gender equality, although female athletes have occasionally done more for positive outcomes of that struggle than is acknowledged. In this paper, I discuss the ambivalent nature of sport contributing, on the one hand, to the essentialisation of genders in their differences and the petrification of power relations between them, and containing, on the other, indications of destruction or at least of corruption of the traditional, hierarchically established gender norms. The paper consists of four parts. In the first introductory part, I explain the reasons for concentrating my discussion on formalised competitive sports and approaches I am using. While empha-sising the biopolitical aspects of the subject, I start my analysis with the description of a proclaimed guiding principles of contemporary sports contained in the spirit of Olympism. In the second part, I discuss the ontology of sport contained in the ideas of the founder of the modern Olympic Games Baron pierre de Coubertin and the consequential factors influencing women ‘s participation in sports. These range from the perception of women’s allegedly debilitating physical and psychological traits, through hypersexualisation of fe-male athletes’ body, or the attitude that it is not feminine enough, to the accusations that fe-male athletes harm their health jeopardising, for example, the basic feminine duty – that of motherhood. In the third part, I put de Coubertin’s arguments in the contemporary context emphasising the relevance the concept of hegemonic masculinity has on the contemporary understanding of masculinity and the role of sport in maintaining it. In the last, fourth part, I discuss emancipatory aspects of sports, concluding on their ability to disrupt both essen-tialised femininity and essentialised masculinity.

Keywords

sport,women,women’ssports,Olympicspirit,PierredeCoubertin,gender,emancipation

Introduction

Most Croatians do not have a problem recollecting the 2017Wimbledongentlemen’ssingleschampion.In2017,SwissRogerFedererbeatCroatiantennisplayerMarinČilićwinningtheWimbledontitle.Itisuncertainifthesamekindofknowledgecanbeexpected in thecaseof thewinnerof the2017Wimbledon ladies’ singles championship.Hername isGarbiñeMu-guruzaBlanco,sheisaSpanishVenezuelantennisplayer,andshewontheWimbledontitlebybeatingUnitedStates’VenusWilliams.AlthoughIam

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SYNTHESISPHILOSOPHICA68(2/2019)pp.(285–300)

A. Maskalan, Sporting the Glass Jaw:ViewsonWomeninSports286

awarethatthispossibleknowledgediscrepancyprimarilyexistsbecauseof,inthefirstcase,emotionalinvestmentfollowingtheparticipationofanation-al(Croatian)tennisplayer,factremainsthatevenifthatwasnotthecasethenameofthefemalechampionformostpeopleinCroatiaandbeyondwouldstayunknown.Oneofthemainreasonsfortheaboveisthatthereisstillahugegapbetweenmediacoverageofmen’sandwomen’ssports infavouroftheformer,withthelatterbeingoftenconsideredboring,unattractiveandnon-lucrative.1

AlthoughwomenstartedcompetinginWimbledonChampionshipsin1884(thefirstWimbledonfemalewinnerwasBritishplayerMaudWatson),sevenyearsafterthefirstWimbledonChampionships,itseemsthatmanypeople,including journalists, forget thatwomenplay tennis. In2017whenBritishtennisplayerAndyMurraywasinterviewedafteraWimbledonmatchthathelosttoSamQuerrey,areporterstartedhisquestionbyreferringtoQuerreyas the firstUSplayer to reach amajor semi-final since2009.AndyMur-ray correctedhimby saying thatQuerreywas the firstmaleUSplayer toreachamajorsemi-final,sincefrom2009SerenaWilliamsalonehaswon12GrandSlamTournamentsandhersisterVenusreachedtheWimbledonsemi-finals.2

Inthispaper,Iwillconcentrate,fromaphilosophicalandfeministperspec-tive,onideologicalobstaclesandemancipatorypotentialofwomen’spar-ticipation in contemporary sports. Under the termcontemporary sports, Iunderstandsportsasweknowthemforthelasttwoandaquartercenturies,thatoccurparallel toand independenceof theadvanced industrial socie-ties.Whilediscussingcontemporarysports,myfocuswillprimarilybeonformalisedcompetitivesports,whichmeansthatIwillmostlyneglectthoseformsofhumanactivityimplicittotheconceptsofleisureandofphysicaleducation.3Thefirstreasonformyselectionisthatformalisedcompetitivesportsofferaclear insight into theworkingsofbiopoliticsofsportwheregenderservesasoneof thefoundationsforgamesofpower.It is throughformalised competitive sports that biopolitical power relations have beenestablishedwhich,since the19thcenturyand thefoundingof themodernOlympicGames,haveservedtoeducateandsocialisethefutureproclaimedrulersoftheworld–whiteupperclassmen.Thesecondreasonformyse-lection is that formalised competitive sports usually increase the existingproblemsstemmingfromtheinclusionofgenderdifferenceinsport.Theydosobyintroducingintothisalreadyexplosiveconcoctionequallyladenel-ementsofsocialrealitysuchasmediarepresentationandmarketandpoliti-calinterests.Also,becauseoftheirmainstreamnatureandtheirexposuretotheconventionalpubliceye,formalisedcompetitivesportsoftenreproduceandpetrifyexistingsocialinjustices,ofwhichIwillprimarilyfocusonthoseexperiencedbywomen.However,preciselybecauseoftheiromnipresenceinpubliclifetheyhavethecapacity,whichtheysometimesdemonstrate,tochange existing social relations by introducing gender emancipatory phe-nomenaandtrends,someofwhichIwillmentionhere.Although thedominantperspective fromwhich the topicof sport is tack-led in this thematic issue is bioethical, I have decided to use biopoliticalmore than bioethical approach.4 The reason for that choice is a necessityofunderstandingabroader(bio)politicalperspectivewhich,inmyopinion,liesattheheartofmanybioethicaltopicsandproblemsconcerningwomen,making themevenmorecontroversialandcomplex than theyalreadyare.



Strictly speaking, themost popular contemporary bioethical concerns re-gardingwomeninsportscoveringtopicssuchassexverification,sexseg-regation, transgenderathletes,etc.,arecloselyrelatedtothebiopoliticsofsexortheestablishmentofsocialandpoliticalpoweroverindividualsandgroupsbasedontheirperceivedbiologicalsex.5IunderstandbiopoliticsintheFoucauldiansensemeaningpoliticsthatgovernpopulationsbycontrol-ling,regulatinganddiscipliningdifferentbodies.6Itdoessothroughvari-ousarenas,sportsbeingoneofthem.Itseemsthatespeciallyinsportsthis“microphysicsofpower”7getsitsfavouriteplaygroundsincetheyareoftenallabout“discipliningbodies,shapingthoughts,anddisplayingtheproductofthisprocessasanexemplartoanaudience”.8BodiesaredisciplineduntildocilethroughpracticesthatgoverntheselfandtheOtherwherebytheOtherisoftendemonisedanddiscriminatedagainst.Thatiswhythestoryofsportsisintricatelylinkedtothestoryofthestateandofphenomenasuchasimpe-rialism,colonialism,nationalism,classism,racismandsexism.Workingsofthebiopoliticsofsexcanbewonderfullyobservedonthecon-temporaryunderstandingofsportsthatwasseveraldecadesagosummedbythefather ofthemodernOlympicGamesBaronPierredeCoubertin.FordeCoubertinOlympicgamespromotedacertainphilosophyoflife(Olympism)whosefundamentalprinciplesemphasisedtheblendofsport,cultureandedu-

1

Cf.JanetS.Fink,“Femaleathletes,women’ssport,andthesportmediacommercialcom-plex: have we really ‘come a long way,baby’?”,Sport Management Review18(2013)3,pp.331–342,doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2014.05.001;CherylCooky,MichaelA.Messner, RobinH.Hextrum, “Women playsport,butnotonTV:Alongitudinalstudyoftelevised news media”, Communication & Sport1(2011)3,pp.203–230,doi:http://doi.org/10.1177/2167479513476947;MaryJ.Ka-ne, “The better sportswomen get, the morethemediaignorethem”,Communication and Sport1(2013)3,pp.231–236,doi:http://doi.org/10.1177/2167479513484579.

2

Andy Murray, “Tennis women make thesamesacrificesasmen”,BBC News(18Sep-tember2017).Availableat:https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-41082938 (accessed on24December2018).

3

Louise Mansfield, Jayne Caudwell, Belin-da Wheaton, Beccy Watson, “Introduction:Feminist thinking,politicsandpractice”, in:LouiseMansfieldet al. (eds.),The palgrave handbook of feminism and sport, leisure and physical education, Palgrave Macmillan,London2018,pp.1–15.

4

I thankLevKreft forhisobservation regar-dingthebiopoliticalnatureofmyworkaftermypresentationattheinternationalconferen-ce “Ethics, bioethics and sport” held inZa-greb and Varaždin (Croatia), 23–24 March2018.

5

In Michel Foucault’s words: “To say thatpowertookpossessionoflifeinthenineteenthcentury,ortosaythatpoweratleasttakeslifeunderitscareinthenineteenthcentury,istosaythatithas,thankstotheplayoftechnolo-giesofdisciplineontheonehandandtechno-logiesofregulationontheother,succeededincoveringthewholesurfacethatliesbetweentheorganicandthebiological,betweenbodyandpopulation.Weare,then,inapowerthathastakencontrolofboththebodyandlifeorthathas, ifyou like, takencontrolof life ingeneral–withthebodyasonepoleandthepopulationastheother.”–MichelFoucault,Society Must Be Defended. Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975–1976, translatedbyDavidMacey,Picador,NewYork2003,p.273.

6

Michel Foucault, “Governmentality”, in:GrahamBurchell,ColinGordon,PeterMiller(eds.), The Foucault effect. Studies in Gover-nment with Two Lectures by and an Interview with Michel Foucault,TheUniversityofChi-cagoPress,Chicago1971,pp.87–104.

7

MichelFoucault,Discipline and punish. The Birth of the prison,VintageBooks, transla-tedbyAlanSheridan,NewYork–Toronto1995.

8

Niko Besnier, Susan Brownell, Thomas F.Carter, The Anthropology of Sport: Bodies, Borders, Biopolitics,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,Oakland,California2018,p.202.

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cationwhilereintroducingtheancientidealofKalosK’agathos9andtheac-companyingideaofbalancebetweenbody,willandmind.AveryBrundage,the president of the InternationalOlympicCommittee from1952 to 1972,nicelyexplainedthelatter:

“Intheenlightened‘GoldenAge’,trueculturewaswellrounded,requiringbothphysicalandmentaltraining.Philosophers,dramatists,poets,sculptorsandathletesmetoncommonground.Plato,thegreatthinker,wasalsoagreatathleteandwonhonorsinthegames(…)Therewastrulyamarriageoffineartsandsport!Manprobablymorenearlyrealizedthatproudandhappyconditionofasoundmindinasoundbodythaneverbeforeorsince.”10

WhilethereisnodoubtthatOlympismpromotedmanybeautifulideals,11notallhistorianswereconvincedonthesincerityofitspromotors.FlorenceCar-pentierandJean-PierreLefèvreclaimthatasidefromtheproclaimedOlympicidealism,fordeCoubertinandhisassociatestheOlympicGameswereprima-rilythemeanstopromoteandspreadtheEuropeanaristocraticandmasculinevalues.12Theintrinsicandpartiallyhiddenaspectofthesevalueswereoftenclassism,sexismandracismthatwerefirmlyrootedinEuropeansocietyofthetime,andwhichstillholdsomeoftheirpositionsintoday’ssports.Conse-quently,contemporarysportswithOlympicGamesastheirmoreprominentexemplarwererecognisednotasaccidentalbutasdeliberatetoolsinadjust-ingtheworkingclassestothenewcapitalistregime,ofpacifyingcolonisedgroupsandinmaintaininggenderrelations.13

Althoughmanywerehappyatthetimetoequateancientandcontemporarysports,thiswasnotevenremotelypossiblesincebothwerespecificproductsof theirsocialenvironmentandhistoricalcontext,carryingboththeirgoodandtheirbadqualities.Contemporary, incomparisontoancientsports,arefurtherdifferentiatedbytheestablishmentofastrictcodificationsystempro-vidingstablestructureandeasydisseminationworldwide,andbytheemer-gence of voluntary sports associations on the local, national, regional andinternationallevelswhoseauthorityisbeingsupportedbyinternationalsportslaw.14Behindbothoftheseprocesses,startingfrom19thcenturyGreatBrit-ainandNorthAmerica,wasabeliefintheintellectual,physical,moral,reli-gious,political,sexualandracialsuperiorityoftheiroriginators.

“MuscularChristianity,oneofthemostsignificantideologicalforcesinboththedevelopmentofmodernsportinBritainanditsearlyglobalization,wasexplicitlybasedontheconvergenceofmasculinity,physicalactivity,asceticism,racialpurity,andthewhiteman’sburden.”15

Any threat toaforementionedsuperioritymeantseveresanctionsandhumili-ationoftheallegedoffenders.Thereasonsbehindthat lie inthefact that themeaningandroleofsportsare,tosomeextent,differentfromwhattheyseematfirstglance.Inmyopinion,sportsaretheimagesofwhatnationsconsiderthem-selvestobe,orwhattheywanttobecome,writingintothemtheirfearsandtheirhopes,theirmemoriesandtheirvisionsoffuture,theirvaluesandtheirvices.Conservative,misogynistic,racistorxenophobicvaluesnotonlywillfindtheirplaceinthesportsbuttheywillalsoenhancethem.Inotherwords,sportsareasdiscriminatoryandoppressiveasthesocietiesinwhichtheytakeplaceare.Societiesthatsafelykeepgenderdifferencewillcontinuetodothesameinsports,deemingwomenunfittoparticipateintheaforementionedtrainingfor“worlddo-minion”.ThatwasindirectlyexpressedintheattitudeofdeCoubertinhimself.

De Coubertin’s arguments against women in sports

UnlikeWimbledon, for participation in the Olympic Games women havewaitedlongerorshorter,dependingonwhetherwearereferringtotheoldor



thenewOlympics.TheAncientOlympicsstartingaround8thcenturyBCinGreecedidnothavefemalecompetitorsexceptinthosecaseswhenwomenweretheownersofthevictoriousracingstables.16InthecontemporaryOl-ympics,womenappearedinthe1900Parisgames,fouryearsafterthefirstgames,whenfrom997competitors,only22werefemales.Womencompetedin tennis,sailing,equestrianevents,golfandcroquet.17Thefounderof theInternational Olympic Committee and the contemporary Olympic Games,PierredeCoubertin,wasopenlyhostiletowardfemaleathletes.Heconsid-ered their participation in theOlympics “impractical, uninteresting, unaes-theticandimproper”,18believingthattheironlytaskwas“thatoftheroleof

9

“The idea of Kalos K’agathos was the gui-dingidealoftheancientAthenianconceptionofeducation–beingapersonbothgoodandbeautiful.‘Good’(agathos)referredtomoraldevelopmentand‘beautiful’ (kalos) referredtophysicalbeauty,andtogethertheyreferredtotheidealofafullydevelopedmindinasu-perbbody,laterechoedinJuvenal’sdualistictag:menssanaincorporesano.”–VasilGir-ginov,JimParry,The Olympic Games expla-ined. A student guide to the evolution of the modern Olympic Games, Routledge,London–NewYork2005,pp.7–8.

10

DavidC.Young,A Brief History of the Olym-pic Games, Blackwell Publishing, Malden,Oxford–Carlton2004,p.80.

11

Girginov and Parry listed the following: in-dividual all-round harmonious human deve-lopment, towards excellence and achieve-ment, througheffort incompetitive sportingactivity,underconditionsofmutual respect,fairness, justiceandequality,withaviewtocreatinglastingpersonalhumanrelationshipsof friendship, international relationships ofpeace,tolerationandunderstanding,andcul-turalallianceswiththearts.–V.Girginov,J.Parry,The Olympic Games explained,p.9.

12

Florence Carpentier, Jean-Pierre Lefèvre,“ThemodernOlympicMovement,women’ssportandthesocialorderduringtheinter-warperiod”,The International Journal of the Hi-story of Sport23(2006)7,pp.1112–1127,p.1113,doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09523360600832387.

13

LoisBryson,“Sport,drugsandthedevelop-mentofmoderncapitalism”,Sporting Tradi-tions6(1990)2,pp.135–153.Also:“Asanaristocrat, he [de Coubertin] was interestedintheeducationofthemasses(alsothroughsports), but more importantly as a strategytomake themasses ‘manageable’ andmorecontrollable for the ruling élite. Therefore,the objective was not so much to promote

greater equality between parties, but ratherto preserveorder in an era characterizedbysocialtensionsandinternalrebellions.”–Co-simoDiBari, “The contemporary relevanceofPierredeCoubertin: sports ‘experienced’between communication and education. In-troductory note”, Studi sulla formazione 2(2016), pp. 229–242, p. 230, doi:http://doi.org/10.13128/Studi_Formaz-20211.

14

N.Besnier,S.Brownell,T.F.Carter,The An-thropology of Sport,pp.41–45.

15

JohnJ.MacAloon(ed.),Muscular Christiani-ty in Colonial and post-Colonial Worlds,Ro-utledge,Abington–Oxfordshire2007;accor-dingto:N.Besnier,S.Brownell,T.F.Carter,The Anthropology of Sport,p.45.

16

D.C.Young,A Brief History of the Olympic Games,p.113.

17

InternationalOlympicCommittee,Factsheet: Women in the Olympic Movement(22January2016).Availableat:https://stillmed.olympic.org/Documents/Reference_documents_Factsheets/Women_in_Olympic_Movement.pdf(accessedon24December2018).

18

“In our view, this feminine semi-Olympiadis impractical, uninteresting, ungainly, and,I do not hesitate to add, improper. It is notinkeepingwithmyconceptof theOlympicGames,inwhichIbelievethatwehavetried,andmustcontinuetotry,toputthefollowingexpressionintopractice:thesolemnandperi-odicexaltationofmaleathleticism,basedoninternationalism,bymeansoffairness,inanartistic setting,with the applause ofwomenasareward.”–DeCoubertincitedin:MartinPolley, “Sport, Gender and Sexuality at the1908LondonOlympicGames”, in: JenniferHargreaves,EricAnderson(eds.),Routledge Handbook of Sport, Gender and Sexuality,Routledge, London – New York 2014, pp.30–38,p.31.

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crowningthewinnerwithgarlands”.19MostofhisattitudesaboutthenatureoftheOlympicGamesandargumentsagainstwomen’sparticipationinthemcouldbedeterminedparadigmaticforunderstandingtheproblemsfemaleath-letesandthosewhowantedtobecomeonedealtwiththroughoutthelasttwocenturiesandarestilldealingwithtoday.De Coubertin’s arguments against women’s involvement in the Olympicscan be reduced to two major strands both heavily oriented toward the al-legedpropertiesofwomen’sbodies:Thefirstonepertained,incomparisontomen,tothelowerphysicalcapacitiesofwomen’sbodiesbecauseofwhichthey were unsuitable for sports.20DeCoubertin consideredwomen’s bod-iesfragile,glasslike,andbeingprimarilydesignedforchildbirthandnotforheavyphysicalburdens.21Theironythatescapedhimisthatchildbirthitselfisaheavyphysicalburdenthatusuallytakesgreatbodilystrengthandeffort,same strength andeffortmuchneeded in the achievementof an importantsportsresult.Gynaecologistsofthattimewereespeciallyloudtodemonstratehowactivitiessuchasrunningcanharmwomen’sbodies,lowertheirwombsandcausesterility.22Varietiesofthisattitudearestillpresenttodayintheformofuncriticalconclusionsontheharmfuleffectsonfemalehealthofactivitiessuchasheavylifting.Womenarealsostillactivelydissuadedfromcertainsports(combatsportsorbodybuilding,forexample)sinceitisbelievedthattheyarenotsuitableforthedelicatefemalenatureand(or)appearance.Inthe19thand20thcentury,thedifferencesbetweenmenandwomen,whenitcomestophysicalperformance,havebeenobservednotonlyregardingspeedand strengthbut also regarding thequalityof their bodycomportment andmovement.Causesofthesedifferencesweresoughtinbiology.Althoughthereisnodoubtthatbiologicaldifferencesbetweenmenandwomenregardingav-erageoxygen-carryingcapacity,boneandligamentsizeandmusclemasstobodyweightratiofavourmeninsportsactivitiesbasedonstrengthandspeed,whenitcomestoendurance,thegendergapdecreases.Thisledtoaconclu-sionthatthelongertheevent,thebetterthechancesofwomenachievingequalorbetterresultsthanmen,withlong-distancerunning,technicalclimbingandswimmingasexamples.23Despitethis,womenwereofficiallyallowedtopar-ticipateinthefamousBostonMarathonverylate,in1972,andthefirstfemaleOlympicmarathontookplaceevenlater,in1984.24Itisimportanttonotethatthedifferencebetweenthemaleandfemalebesttimeononeofthetoughestracesintheworld,HardrockHundredMileEnduranceRun,runningthroughthemountainouspartofColoradoandwiththecutofftimeof48hours,islessthanfiveminutes.EmilyBaerfinishedeighthoverallin2007whilestoppingseveraltimesduringtheracetobreastfeedherbaby.25

While the reasons for differences in speed and strength between men andwomencanbefound in theirbiology, thesamecannotbesaid,argues IrisMarionYounginherfamousessay“Throwinglikeagirl”,regardingtheirdif-ferencesinbodycomportmentandmovement.Reasonsforthosedifferenceswere traditionally also sought in the physiology and anatomy of women’sbodiesbutwhentheywerenotfoundthere,many,usuallymale,expertscon-cludedontheexistenceofanobscure“feminineessence”,forwhichnooneknewexactlywhatitwas,exceptthatdoingsportsisnotoneofitsattributes.26YoungevokesSimonedeBeauvoir,andherinsistingontherelevanceofhu-manexperienceon theconstructionof femininityandmasculinity (i.e. therelationshipbetweenthesituationandtheexistence)27andclaimsthatwom-en’sbodycomportmentandmovementarenotbiologicaltraitsbutadirectconsequenceofhistorical,cultural,social,andeconomiccircumstances.28Inotherwords,feminine essenceforYoungis



“…asetof structuresandconditions thatdelimit the typical situationofbeingawoman inaparticularsociety,aswellasthetypicalwayinwhichthissituationis livedbythewomenthemselves.”29

Tornbetweentheimmanenceandthetranscendence,womenlivetheirbodiesindifferentwaysthanmen,safekeepingtheirfragile,powerlessandvulnera-bleselffromtheengagementintheworld’spossibilities.“Girlsandwomen”,saysYoung,“arenotallowedtousetheirfullbodilycapacitiesinfreeandopenengagementwiththeworld,noraretheyencouragedasmuchasboysaretodevelopspecificbodilyskills”.30 Theimplicationsofsuchbeliefscanbeseenon their restrainedbodycomportmentandmovementand the laterdecision not to get involved in sports. In otherwords, female athletes aredisregardedassuch,evenbeforetheybecomeathletes.Inaddition,althoughwomenarecompetingtoday,theirathleticabilitiesareoftendeterminedaslessworthyofmediacoverageandfinancialcompensation.

19

LindaK. Fuller,Female Olympians. A me-diated socio-cultural and political-economic timeline, Palgrave Macmillan, New York2016,p.27.

20

F. Carpentier, J.-P. Lefèvre, “The modernOlympicMovement,women’ssportand thesocial order during the inter-warperiod”, p.1113.

21

For example: “… in public competitions,women’s participation must be absolutelyprohibited.Itisindecentthatspectatorssho-uldbeexposedtotheriskofseeingthebodyofawomanbeingsmashedbeforetheireyes.Besides, no matter how toughened a sport-swomanmaybe,herorganismisnotcutouttosustaincertainshocks.Hernervesrulehermuscles, naturewanted it thatway.Finally,the egalitarian discipline that is brought tobearonthemalecontendersforthegoodor-derandgoodappearanceofthemeetingrisksbeing affected and rendered inapplicable byfemale participation. For all these practi-calreasonsaswellassentimentalones, it isextremelydesirablethatadrasticrulebeesta-blishedverysoon.”–DeCoubertincitedin:L.K.Fuller,Female Olympians,pp.27–28.

22

Gertrud Pfister, “The medical discourse onfemale physical culture in Germany in the19th and early 20th centuries”, Journal of Sport History17(1990)2,pp.183–198.

23

Meaghen Brown, “The longer the race, thestronger we get”, Outside Magazine (May2017). Available at: https://www.outsideon-line.com/2169856/longer-race-stronger-we-get (accessed on 24 December 2018). Cf.BeatKnechtle,ThomasRosemann,ChristophAlexanderRüst, “Women cross the ‘Catali-na Channel’ faster than men”, Springer-plus 4 (2015)332, pp. 1–9, doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-015-1086-4.

24

ThefirstwomantoruntheBostonMarathonwas Kathrine Switzer in 1967. She sent anofficial registration signing it asK. S. Swi-tzer. Boston Marathon’s organizers realizedshe was a woman only on the third mile oftherace.Theraceofficial rushed toSwitzerand tried to removeherphysically from theraceoratleasttotearoffhernumber,butthemembersofherteamfromSyracuseUniver-sityblockedthoseattempts.Thiseventhadatremendousimpactonthehistoryofwomen’smarathonparticipationandprobablyinfluen-ced significantly the changeofOlympic ru-les.See:KathrineSwitzer,“TherealstoryofKathrineSwitzer’s1967BostonMarathon”,Kathrine Switzer Marathon Woman (March2017). Available at: http://kathrineswitzer.com/about-kathrine/1967-boston-marathon-the-real-story/ (accessed on 24 December2018).

25

ChristopherMcDougall,Born to run: A hid-den tribe, superathletes, and the greatest race the world has never seen,AlfredA.Knopf,NewYork2009,p.195.

26

IrisMarionYoung,On female body experien-ce: “Throwing like a girl” and other essays,OxfordUniversityPress,NewYork2005.

27

SimonedeBeauvoir,The Second Sex,transla-tedbyH.M.Parshley,JonathanCape,ThirtyBedfordSquare,London1956,pp.669–672.

28

I.M.Young,On female body experience,p.29.

29

Ibid.,p.31.

30

Ibid.,p.43.

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TheseconddeCoubertin’sargumentwasfoundedonhisconcernsregardingwomen’stantalizingbodiesonthesportsfield.31Inhisopinion,thefemaleathletes,usuallydressedinscantierandthinnersportswearthanthemale,de-flectedtheviewer’sattentionfromthesporttowardcarnalpleasures,thuscor-ruptingtheOlympicspirit.Thecelebratedbalancebetweenthebody,willandmind,whosetrueexistenceobviouslylaidonlyinthebeingofaman,shouldnotbedisturbedbytheparadingofwomen’sbodies.WhatcanbeconcludedfromdeCoubertin’sviewsisthathesawmennotonlyasthesoleathletesbutasthesoleaudienceaswell,sincehewasnotequallyconcernedwiththemoralsofthefemaleaudience.Today deCoubertin’s arguments regarding the audience’smorals seem tohavedisappeared, being replacedby theobjectification, commercialisationandhypersexualisationofwomenathletes’bodies.Anditisnotjustthewayathleteslook;wholesportsare,inthewordsofJenniferHargreaves:

“…visiblyandsystematicallysexualized:theperformersconformtothefemalenormofhet-erosexuality;theroutinescontain‘ultra-feminine’posturesandgestures,sensuoussymbolism,sexuallysuggestivemovements,andevensometimesprovocativeposesborderingontheerot-ic.”32

Itbecameobvious that the roleofwomen in the sports fields is toenthraltheaudiencenotonlywith theirathleticabilitiesbutalsowith theirbodilycapacitytocausesexualarousalaswell.33Mediacoverageoffemaleathletesadditionallydiminishestheirphysicalcapacityandconsequentathleticper-formanceandtransformsthemintoobjectsofsexualdesire.34Tennisplay-ers,volleyballplayers,surfers,figureskatersandgymnastsregularlyexperi-encenotonlysexualisationoftheirbodiesbuttheirpornificationaswell.35Forexample,sportsorganisationsandcommissionsoftenpromotewomen’ssportswearthatistooshort,excessivelytightandskimpy.Unfortunately,theexcessivesexualisationofwomen’sclothingisjustonepartoftheproblem.Deprivingwomenandgirlsoftheright,especiallywhenitcomestocertainsports(suchasgymnastics),tochoosetheirclothing,arightthatmaleathleteshave,isanentirelydifferentsetofissuesthatdirectlythreatengenderequalityasawhole.36

Fromsportswear tomakeupandbodymaintenance, femaleathletesunder-stand that sexy, camera-friendly, stereotypical feminine look is needed fortheacquisitionofgoodsponsorshipcontracts.Thisbusinessmodelprovestobeverylucrativeformanyofthem,oftendeemingtheirathleticabilitiesandsportperformancessecondaryorevenirrelevant.Althoughthistrend,espe-ciallyfromthepostfeministperspective,canbeconsideredemancipatoryforwomen,Idonotfinditassuch.Inmyopinion,theideathatconformingtothesocialnormsthattreatwomenasobjectscanbeliberatingisparadoxical.Inotherwords, freelymakingoneselfanobjectofcommercial,sexualandpoliticalexploitationwillnotmakethatselfandallothersimilarselvesfreefromcommercial,sexualandpoliticalexploitation.Ifobjectificationofone’sbodyistheonlychoiceawomanhastosucceed,thenshehasnochoice,andshehasnofreedom.(Self)sexualisationofwomen’sbodies(andsports)shouldnotonlybeunder-stoodasahistoricalabandonmentofVictorianconservatismorapragmaticcommercialdecisionforgainingsportsroyaltiesandsponsorshipsbutacon-sequenceof sociohistorical changes in the last centuries regarding thedis-solutionofgenderroles.Changesdidnotaffectonlywomenbutmenaswellwho,itisoftensaid,areconfusedaboutbeingmenintoday’ssociety.Inthat



context,sportbecomesthelastbastionofmasculinity,theonlycommonplaceforboys’socialisationandanall-maleenvironmentforquellingfearsofmalesocialfeminisation.37Thisiswhywomenathletesareperceivedasintruders,pathological,theyareconsideredmasculinised(butch),lesbians,unfeminine,notbeingrealwomen,andconsequently,theyareoftensex-tested.38Further-more,althoughsexverificationhasbeenpresentedashavingitsbenefitsinpreservingfairplaythroughpreventingmaleathletesintheirallegedattemptstoachievesportingsuccesscompetingaswomen,itisalsousedasanideo-logicalmechanismofkeepingastrictseparationbetweenmenandwomen,especiallyinthosecaseswhenwomen’sresultsendangertheir“natural”infe-

31

F. Carpentier, J.-P. Lefèvre, “The modernOlympicMovement,women’ssportand thesocial order during the inter-warperiod”, p.1113.

32

SportsthatJ.Hargreaveshasinmindarepri-marilygymnastics, ice-skating and synchro-nizedswimming.They“arecharacterizedas‘feminine-appropriate’becausetheyaffirmapopularimageoffemininityanddemonstratetheiressentialdifferencefrompopularimagesofsportingmasculinity”.–JenniferHargrea-ves,Sporting females: Critical issues in the history and sociology of sports, Routledge,London–NewYork1994,p.159.

33

Althoughtheyarenotthesubjectofthispa-per,thediscussionshouldnotentirelyexclu-dewomenwhoseprimary,ifnottheonly,roleistheentertainment through sexual arousalatthe sports fieldsuchas ringgirls inboxing,cheerleaders in football, grid girls at races,eventhostessesintennis,etc.

34

Cf.CharleneWeaving,“SmokeandMirrors:ACritiqueofWomenOlympians’NudeReflec-tions”,Sport, ethics and philosophy6(2012)2, pp. 232–250, doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2012.666993; Charlene Weaving,JessicaSamson,“Thenakedtruth:disability,sexual objectification, and the eSpN Body Issue”,Journal of the philosophy of Sport45(2018)1,pp.83–100,doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2018.1427592.

35

Tobefair,todaymaleathletesarebeingsu-bjectedtosexualisationtrendsaswell,playingonsportsfieldsandinthemediapresentationscarefullythoughtouthyper-masculinerolesofmodernwarriorsandheroes.AgoodexampleofthisisTongantaekwondopractitionerandskier,PitaTaufatofua,whocausedagreatstiratthe2016Olympicswhenheappearedattheopening ceremony as a flag bearer wearingnothingbutamatwrappedaroundthewaistandcoveredinoil.See:SusanChenery,“Theincredible storyofPitaTaufatofua,Tonga’sshirtlessOlympicflagbearer”,The Guardian

(2January2019).Availableat:https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/jan/02/the-in-credible-story-of-pita-taufatofua-tongas-shir-tless-olympic-flag-bearer (accessed on 24December2018).

36

Although in London 2012 Olympics fema-le beach volleyball players were permittedby The International Volleyball Federationtowear less revealinguniforms (unlikepre-vious bikinis), their new clothes were stillsignificantly shorter and tighter than male.See, for example,EllieKrupnick, “OlympicVolleyball Uniforms: Bikinis No LongerRequired forWomen”,Huffington post (28February 2012). Available at: https://www.huffpost.com/entry/olympic-volleyball-uni-form_n_1385879(accessedon24December2018). Although there are some moderatelyconvincing arguments regarding functiona-lityandpracticalityoftightuniformsduringsportsactivities,thesamecannotbesaidforvery impractical skirts in sports such as la-crosse,boxingorbadminton, in thelast twobeingnolongermandatory.Anotherexamplearemandatorywomen’sleotardsingymnas-ticsbeingconsideredbymanyasfundamen-tallysexist.See, forexample,CarlyStewartet al., “Ease ofMovement and Freedom ofCorporealExpression?Femininity,TheBodyand Leotards in Trampoline Gymnastics”,Leisure Studies Association 110 (2010), pp.63–76.Also,foraninterestingdiscussiononwomen’sartisticgymnasticsfromFoucault’sperspective see:NatalieBarker-Ruchti,Ric-hardTinning,“FoucaultinLeotards:Corpo-realDisciplineinWomen’sArtisticGymna-stics”,Sociology of Sport Journal27(2010)3,pp.229–250,doi:https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.27.3.229.

37

ShariL.Dworkin,CherylCooky,“Sport,sexsegregation,andsextesting:Criticalreflecti-ons on this unjustmarriage”,The American Journal of Bioethics12(2012)7,pp.21–23,p.21,doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680545.

38

Ibid.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17511321.2012.666993

https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2018.1427592

https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.27.3.229

https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2012.680545



riority.Consequently,manyfemaleathletesprobablychoosehypersexualisa-tionasadefenceagainstpossibleaccusationsofabandoningtheheteronorma-tivematrix,fillingthemediaspacelesswiththeresultsoftheiroutstandingphysicalperformancesandmorewithproofsoftheirfemininity.39

Sports and hegemonic masculinities

Ithasalreadybeensaidthatgendersportsrelationswerebeingseriouslydis-ruptedinthelasttwocenturies,withtheemancipationofwomenbeingtheprimarycauseofthesaiddisruption.Thatemancipationwasmanifested,ontheonehand,throughwomengainingrightsandfreedomsand,ontheother,throughfundamentalchangesregardingtheunderstandingoffemininity(andmasculinity)andfemale(male)nature.Thus,manylong-standingprejudicesabout women’s intellectual, moral and other capacities were brought intoquestion,andconsequently,manyobstacleswomenfacedinthefamilyandprivate life, in the field of education and the labourmarket started to dis-solve.Feministtheoristsandscholarshaveshownthatnumerousdifferencesbetweenmenandwomen,onwhichthehierarchybetweenthemwasestab-lished,wereeithernon-existentorsociallyfounded,hencemutableorrelative.WhilethechangesaffectedmoreorlessallsocialfieldsintheWest,thesportsprovedtobemoreresistanttothem.Atthesametime,feministgroupsandgendermainstreamingadvocateswere,inmyopinion,slowinrecognisingtheimportanceofsportsinconstructinggenderedreality.Paradoxically,byturn-ingablindeyetosports,deemingthemaninsufficientlyimportantfieldoffeministstruggle,feministsunintentionallyconfirmedsportsasadominantlyorevenexclusivelymalerealm.Theconstructionofsportsasamalerealmcanbepartiallyexplainedbyintro-ducingthewell-knownconceptofhegemonic masculinityandtherolesportshadinmaintainingandreproducingit.HegemonicmasculinityisatheoreticalconceptbelongingtoRaewynConnellwhoborrowedGramscianterm“he-gemony”todescribeonecertaintypeofmasculinitythat

“…embodiedthecurrentlymosthonouredwayofbeingaman, it requiredallothermentopositionthemselvesinrelationtoit,anditideologicallylegitimizedtheglobalsubordinationofwomentomen.”40

Insportsandbeyond,hegemonicmasculinityimpliesbeingprimarilywhite,middle-classandheterosexual,41able-bodiedandmorallysuperior,meat-eat-ingandiron-pumping,assertive,aggressiveandcompetitive,exercisingcon-troloverpersonallife,anddominanceoversomebodyelse’slife.Atthesametime,itimpliesadeepdisregardforalternativemasculinities,femininitiesandespeciallyfemininephysicality.Inaddition,sportsarestillperceivedtobeanextensionoforevenanantidotetowarfare,asoneofthemain,althoughtendingtobecomeobsoletetoday,activitiesofreal manly men.Thatiswhythelanguageofsportsisfilledwithwarandcombatmetaphors.Furthermore,towinarace,toscoreagoalortoliftabarisneverjustthat,sinceinthemediaenvironmentandincheeringcommunitiessportsuccessoftenbearsthepatrioticconnotationsofthehome-land’sdefence.ThisishowthehistorianJ.A.Mangan,whileusingappropri-atelyselectedanthemicwords,explainswhytherelationshipbetweensportsandwarisnotjustametaphoricalone:

“Heroesofsportsfieldandbattlefieldhavemuchincommon.Theyarebothviewedassymbolsofnationalprowess,qualityandvirtue.Thewarriorandtheathletearecrucialtotheperceived



successofthestate.Thesportsfieldandbattlefieldarelinkedaslocationsforthedemonstrationoflegitimatepatrioticaggression.Theonelocationsustainstheotherandbothsustaintheimageofthepowerfulnation.Furthermore,thesportsfieldthroughouthistoryhaspreparedtheyoungforthebattlefield.Throughouthistorysportandmilitarismhavebeeninseparable.”42

The dark side of this blend ofmilitarism, usually coming pairedwith na-tionalism,andsportwasevidentduringtheColdWar.ColdWarbattlesthatbrokeoutbetweenthetwoworldpowers–theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion–andtheiralliestookplaceinspace,science,education,andinsports.ThemoststrikingexamplewasthatofEastGermanywhoseathletes,around10000ofthem,weregivenanabolicsteroidsandothersubstancesinthelate1960stoimprovetheirperformance.Themainideabehinddopingofthesepopularlycalled“diplomatsintracksuits”,apracticefirmlysupportedbyEastGermangovernment,wastoshownotonlyathletes’skillandartistrybutalsothe superiorityof socialistover thecapitalist systemaswell.43State-spon-soreddopingsystemswerefoundinformerCzechoslovakia,44Russia45andChina.46

Thanks to the technical advancements,making physical strength obsoletenotonlyinthelabourmarketbutalsoincreasinglyonthebattlefieldaswell,sportsremainthelastlineofdefencefortraditional,hegemonicmasculinity.And thiscouldbeoneof the reasonswhy femaleathletesare stillhavingsuchahardtime.Ofcourse,thingsaregettingbetter.OntheInternationalOlympicCommittee’swebsite,wefindthatwomenin1928madeuponly10%ofthecontestantsandthattheyreached40%ofthetotalinlate2014

39

Similarpracticeofsexualobjectificationcanbe noticed with Paralympic athletes whosemedia presentations treat their disability assomething tobeminimizedorhidden,oftenpromoting ableist and sexist ideologies. Cf.C.Weaving,J.Samson,“Thenakedtruth:di-sability,sexualobjectification,andtheESPNBodyIssue”,p.97.

40

Raewyn W. Connell, James W. Messers-chmidt,“Hegemonicmasculinity.Rethinkingtheconcept”,Gender & Society19(2005)6,pp.829–859,p.832,doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639.

41

CynthiaHasbrook,OthelloHarris,“Wrestlingwith gender. Physicality and masculinitiesamong inner-city first and second graders”,in: Jim McKay, Michael A. Messner, DonSabo (eds.),Masculinities, gender relations and sports, Sage Publications, Inc. – Thou-sandOaks; London –NewDelhi 2006, pp.13–30.

42

James A. Mangan, “Prologue: Combativesportsandcombativesocieties”,in:JamesA.Mangan(ed.), Militarism, sport, europe. War without weapons,FrankCass,London–Por-tland,Or.2003,pp.1–9,p.1.

43

Cf.“First-EverOlympicMedalsAwardedtoWomenBoxers”,The International Olympic

Committee (10 August 2012). Available at:https://www.olympic.org/news/first-ever-olympic-medals-awarded-to-women-boxers(accessedon24December2018).

44

“CZECH REPUBLIC/FILE: ATHLETICS:Documents show a systematic campaign ofathlete doping in Czechoslovakia’s formercommunist regime”, Screenocean – Reuters(20 August 2006). Available at: https://reu-ters.screenocean.com/record/722497 (acce-ssedon24December2018).

45

RebeccaR.Ruiz,“TheSovietDopingPlan:Document Reveals Illicit Approach to ʻ84Olympics”,The New York Times (13August2016). Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/14/sports/olympics/soviet-do-ping-plan-russia-rio-games.html(accessedon24December2018).

46

MaxwellJ.Mehlman,The price of perfecti-on: Individualism and Society in the era of Biomedical enhancement,TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,Baltimore2009,p.134.

47

“Key dates in the history of women in theOlympicMovement”,The International Ol-ympic Committee.Availableat:https://www.olympic.org/women-in-sport/background/key-dates(accessedon24December2018).

https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639



attheWinterOlympicsintheRussiancityofSochi.47Atthe2016SummerOlympicGamesinRiodeJaneiro,womenmadeup45%ofthetotalpartici-pants.48

Althoughwomenhavebeencompetinginboxingsincethebeginningofthe18thcentury,thelastOlympicsportinwhichwomen’sparticipationwasin-troducedin2012waspreciselythisone.49ItisworthnotingthatinthesameyearattheLondonSummerOlympics,themen’sJapanesefootballteamflewtothegamesbybusinessclasswhilethewomen’steamtravelledbyeconomyclass.50Thislastexampleshowsthatunfortunately,permissiontoparticipateisnotnecessarilyfollowedbyequalityinparticipation,thelatterdependingonanumberoffactorsthatpoliticshasonlyanindirectimpacton.Morepre-cisely,despitethetopsportsresultsoffemaleathletes,womenincomparisontomenarestilllessinvolvedinsportsactivities,haveamoredifficultaccesstosportsinfrastructure,moreoftenareexposedtoviolenceandsexualharass-ment,areunderrepresentedinmanagementboardsofsportsorganizationsandfederations,51andtheirsportsarelessvisibleinthemediaandsystemicallyunderfinanced.52

Sports and emancipation

Thusfar,ithasbeensuggestedthatthereisnotmuchspaceforfemaleathletestocontributetowomen’semancipation.Contemporarycompetitivesportsnotonlymirrormanyfacetsofpatriarchalsocietybutalso,bytheirfocusonthephysicalaspectofhumanbeings,enhancethem.Asadeliberatebiopoliticalproduct,theycontainelementsthatmaintaintheexistinggenderrelationsofpower.Then,does itmakesense to talkabout theemancipatoryaspectsofsports?Tosomeextentandwithagreatdealofcaution,yes.Iwillmentionseveralwaysinwhich, inmyopinion,femaleathletescontributetogenderequality.Womeninsports,bytheirverypractice,showacapacitythattheyhavehis-toricallybeendenied– thecapacity tofullyandfreelyengagetheirbodieswiththeworldaroundthem.Particularlyintraditionallynon-womenʼssports,they testify,by theirveryownexamples, the falsityandcultural construc-tionofnotoriousfeminine essence.Byprovingthemselvesabletorun,jump,kickandthrow,withoutlosingtheiruterusesorfaintingfrompain,theycallintoquestiondeCoubertin’sviewsthattheirbodiesdonothavetheneededcapacitiesfordoingsports.However,itisnotjustthatathlete’sphysicaltraitsdisrupttheusualdeterministicunderstandingofwomen’sfunctioninginahis-torymarkedbypassivity,weakness,vulnerabilityandsubmissiveness.Saiddisruptionalsohappensthroughwomen’sdisplayofwillpower,persistence,courageandsturdiness, theircapacityfor leadership,strategic thinkingandteamwork.Notonlydowomenhavethenecessaryskillstoplaysportsbutinsomesportsdisciplinestheyarealsoapproachingorevenoutperformingmen– theequestrianevents,ultramarathonsand long-distanceswimmingbeingsomeoftheexamples.Althoughundergreatpressure,manyfemaleathletesresist thesocietalde-mands placed on them regarding how they should look, how they shouldbehave, andhow they should act.Evenunder extrememedia scrutinyandunderaccusationsofbeingaman,oratleastthatherincreasedtestosteronelevelgaveheranunfairadvantage,CasterSemenya,SouthAfrican runnerand2016Olympicgoldmedallist,refusedtosubmittothepublic’sdemands



foramorefeminisedappearance.53Bynotwillingtocomply,womenathletescontributetotheredefinitionofnotonlysportsorwhatitmeanstobeafemaleathletebut alsowhat itmeans tobeawoman (andman) ingeneral.Theirachievementsdisrupttraditionalessentialisingdefinitionsoffemininityandmasculinitybyblurringthelinesbetweenmaleandfemalesports,maleandfemalecapacities,maleandfemalebodiesandsometimesevenbetweenmenandwomenthemselves.Bydoingthat,theyarethreateningsomeofthemostfundamentalcanonsofWesterncivilisation,foundedonpatriarchalestablish-mentofhierarchiesandensuingoppression.Thisiswhythebacklashagainstthemiseversooftenextremelycruelandvicious,toocrueltobedealtwithbyathleteswhoareoftenteenagers.Mostofthemspenttheirlivesingymsandonathleticfields,notonfeministconsciousness-raisingmeetingsoratthefacultiesstudyingsocialsciencesandhumanities.Theyshouldnotbejudgedtooharshlybecause theyoftenchoose toconform.However,subversion isalwayspossible.Even though Ihavestatedpreviously thatconformitycannot lead to liber-ty,therearecaseswhenbadreasonsfordirectinginteresttowardswomen’ssportscanleadtotheemancipationofsaidsportsandtheirfemaleathletes.WhenGinaCaranoorRondaRouseyenteredmixedmartialarts, thissportdisciplinesharedthefateofotherwomen’ssports.Inaworldwherethepri-marysourceofvalorisationisbeingbigger,faster,betterandstronger,andinwhichtheideaofviolenceagainstwomeninmostpeoplecausesgreatdis-comfort,women’smixedmartialartsdidnothaveagoodchanceofacquiringa larger audience.However, it still happened.Manymen startedwatchingwomen’sMMA,anditsoongainedalmostsimilarpromotionasmen’sdid.Whatinitiallyattractedtheaudiencewasnotthebeautyofthesportitself,butthebeautyoftheathletesandCaranoandRouseywerewillingparticipantsinthatspectacle.Hypersexualisationoftheseandotherfemaleathletesfol-lowedbytheirstarstatusandfanworshipalsoattractedthoseviewersthat

48

Kuang Keng Kuek Ser, “See 120 years ofstruggle for gender equality at the Olympi-cs”,public Radio International (17 August2016). Available at: https://www.pri.org/stories/2016–08–17/see-120-years-struggle-gender-equality-olympics#targetText=The%202016%20Rio%20Olympic%20Games,participants%2C%20according%20to%20the%20IOC(accessedon24December2018).

49

Barry Bearak, “Women Finally Get TheirChancetoBeContendersinOlympicBoxing”,The New York Times (5August2012).Availab-le at: https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/06/sports/olympics/women-participate-in-olym-pic-boxing-for-first-time.html (accessed on24December2018).

50

KharunyaParamaguru,“WhyAreSomeOl-ympicWomen’sTeamsFlyingCoachWhi-le the Men Fly Business?”, Time (20 July2012). Available at: http://olympics.time.com/2012/07/20/why-are-some-olympic-wo-mens-teams-flying-coach-while-the-men-fly-business/(accessedon24December2018).

51

MoranaPalikovićGruden,Rodna ravnopra-vnost u sportu. Prijedlog za strateške akcije 2014.–2020. [Gender equality in sport. A proposal for strategic action 2014–2020],CroatianOlympicCommittee,Zagreb2018.

52

Thatinsportstherearenotonlysticky floorsbutglass ceilings aswelldemonstratesFor-bes’“Theworld’shighest-paidathletes list”thatcontainsnotasinglewomanamongthe100 best-paid athletes. Available at: https://www.forbes.com/athletes/list/#tab:overall(accessedon24December2018).

53

See, for example, Tshisalive, “This is howCasterSemenyahandledherdadwhenhetoldhertoweardresses”,Times (10August2017).Available at: https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2017–08–10-this-is-how-caster-semenya-handled-her-dad-when-he-told-her-to-wear-dresses/(accessedon24December2018).



admired,besidesathletes’bodies,theirtechnique,gutsiness,aggressionandwillingnesstohurtandbleedjustliketheirmalecounterparts.54AndalthoughIampartiallyscepticalregardingwomen’semancipationthroughbloodandviolence,Idofindrefreshingthesocialrecognitionofthefactthatwomensometimescanbebloodybutnotvictimsandcanbeviolentbutnothysteric.By freeing their bodies andmovements through sports,women learn, andtheyteachotherwomenself-respectandtheexistenceoftheworldoffreedomthatfollowsfrombreakinggenderrulesandnorms.Theyclearlyandirrefu-tablydemonstratewhatwastraditionallydeniedtowomen–thattheirbodiesarecapable,thattheirmindsarebalancedandthattheirwillsarestrong.Andwhileuniversitiesandscientificinstitutions,academiesandcorporationsarefilledwithcapableand smartwomen,mostof themcannot reach thekindofrecognitioninthepubliceyeaswomenmedallistcan.Althoughheavilyunderrepresentedin themediaandin leadershippositionsofsports institu-tionsandorganisations,disadvantagedinsituationswheremoney,fameandhonoursareshared,underprivilegedonandoffthesports’field,someofthemdorisetobecomeheroes,savioursofstatereputationandbearersofthefin-estfeaturesofnationalidentity.Whenwatchingthegameofnationalrepre-sentatives, gender, gender roles and their breaking can sometimesbecomesecondaryorirrelevanttonationalprideandthejoyofwinning.Buildingandstrengtheningofcollectiveidentitiesthroughsportsisoftenrealisedthroughidentificationwithsportheroesand theirvalues.Toidentifywithafemalehero,herothatworkshard,playshard,suffersandwins,can,inmyopinion,makeachange inperceptionofheroesandofwomen.JanicaKostelić, fa-mousCroatianWorldCupalpineskiracerandfour-timeOlympicgoldmed-allistmanagedtodojustthat.Bynomeansa“typicalfemale”,shesuccess-fullyresistedbeingvictimisedbystereotypesandprejudicestowardswomenandathletes.While,asisoftenthecasewithfamousfemaleathletes,shewasunabletoescapetheshadowofherpatriarchalfatherandtrainer,inthepubliceyesheimposedherselfasapersonwhomadeherowndecisions.Coolandcomposed,wittyandsometimesdorky,shebecameanobjectofadmirationforgenerationsofCroatiancitizens,significantlyinfluencingthepopularisa-tionofskiinginCroatia.Althoughtheplacesofnationalheroesthroughouthistoryhavebeenlargelyreservedformen,andtheentryofwomenintothesepositionsisjustifiablyagreatsuccess,thelattershouldbetakenwithsomecautionthatshouldnaturallyfollowanypoliticisationofsport.Theproblemliesinthefactthatbyenteringpoliticsintosports,bothmaleandfemaleathle-tesbecomepawnsingamesofpowerthatinherentlydenytheirfreedomandtheiremancipation.Womenathletesbringintoquestionhetero-hegemonicnorms(likeCasterSe-menya)aswellasracialandclassassumptionsofsportssuccess.Women’sincreasedsportparticipationandsuccess,especiallyofwomenofdifferentracesandreligions,helpthemachievefreedomsandrespectinthosecoun-trieswheretheirfreedomsandrespecthavebeendenied.Insomemulti-eth-niccommunities(forexampleAlbania,RussiaandAfghanistan),sportwasconsciouslyusedasapolicymeasuretoencouragewomen’semancipation55whileinChinaithelpedmanywomenbreakthroughtheconstraintsofpov-erty,therebybecomingapathtoupwardsocialmobility.56Theseandotheraspectsofsport,Ibelieve,showthedisadvantagesofnegatingthesocialcom-plexityitcarries.Althoughsportisstilloneofthetoughestareasoftraditional“biological”patriarchy,itspotentialcapacityforbreakingthroughrestrictionsshouldnotbeignored.



Ana Maskalan

Imati staklenu bradu: pogledi na žene u sportu

Sažetak

Sport se još uvijek razumijeva kao tradicionalni bastion muškosti koji veliča fizičke kvalitete poput snage i brzine te psihološke kvalitete poput agresivnosti i izdržljivosti određujući su-djelovanje žena nepoželjnim i nepotrebnim. Bez obzira na to žene su desetljećima, u strogoj razdvojenosti od muškaraca ili u takozvanim »ženskim sportovima«, postizale rezultate dostojne pažnje i najvećih skeptika. Zbog svoje prirode zasnovane u tjelesnosti sport je još uvijek rijetko područje političke borbe za rodnu ravnopravnost, premda sportašice povremeno više doprinose pozitivnim ishodima te borbe no što im se pripisuje. U ovom radu raspravljam o ambivalentnoj prirodi sporta koji, s jedne strane, doprinosi esencijalizaciji rodova u njihovoj različitosti te petrifikaciji međusobnih odnosa moći, a s druge strane sadrži pokazatelje destrukcije ili barem kvarenja tradicionalnih, hijerarhijski uspostavljenih rodnih normi. Rad se sastoji od četiri dije-la. U prvom, uvodnom dijelu objašnjavam razloge svoje usmjerenosti na formalizirane kompe-titivne sportove te pristupe koje koristim. Naglašavajući biopolitičke aspekte teme analizu zapo-činjem opisom proklamiranih vodećih principa suvremenog sporta sadržanih u duhu olimpizma. U drugom dijelu raspravljam o ontologiji sporta sadržanoj u idejama osnivača suvremenih Olimpijskih igara baruna Pierrea de Coubertina te o posljedičnim čimbenicima koji su utjecali na sudjelovanje žena u sportu. Raspon spomenutih čimbenika seže od percepcije ženskih fizičkih i psihičkih osobina kao manjkavih, preko hiperseksualizacije tijela sportašica ili pak tvrdnji da nisu dovoljno ženstvene, do optužbi da ugrožavaju vlastito zdravlje dovodeći u opasnost primarnu žensku dužnost – majčinstvo. U trećem dijelu de Coubertinove argumente smještam u suvremeni kontekst, naglašavajući važnost koju koncept hegemonijske muškosti ima u suvreme-nom razumijevanju muškosti i ulogu sporta u održavanju iste. U posljednjem, četvrtom dijelu, raspravljam o emancipatornim aspektima sporta, zaključujući o njegovoj sposobnosti destruk-cije kako esencijalizirane ženskosti tako i esencijalizirane muškosti.

Ključne riječi

sport,žene,ženskisport,olimpijskiduh,PierredeCoubertin,rod,emancipacija

Ana Maskalan

Glaskiefer mit Stolz tragen: Ansichten über Frauen im Sport

Zusammenfassung

Sport wird nach wie vor als traditionelle Bastion der Männlichkeit verstanden, die körperliche Qualitäten wie Kraft und Geschwindigkeit sowie psychologische Merkmale wie Aggression und Ausdauer hervorhebt und die Beteiligung von Frauen als unerwünscht und unnötig erachtet. Nichtsdestotrotz erzielten Frauen jahrzehntelang in strikter Trennung von Männern oder in sogenannten „Frauensportarten“ ergebnisse, die selbst die Aufmerksamkeit der schärfsten Skeptiker verdienen. Aufgrund seiner in der Körperlichkeit fundierten Natur ist Sport immer noch relativ selten ein Bereich des politischen Kampfes für die Gleichstellung der Gender, wenngleich Sportlerinnen gelegentlich mehr für positive Ausflüsse dieses Kampfes getan ha-ben, als es anerkannt wird. In diesem Beitrag erörtere ich die zwiespältige Natur des Sports, die einerseits zur Verwesentlichung der Gender in ihren Unterschieden und zur Versteinerung ihrer Machtverhältnisse beiträgt und andererseits Hinweise auf Zerstörung oder zumindest Zerfall

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See,forexample,JamesMacdonald,“Exami-ningtheGrowthandPopularityofWomen’sMixedMartialArts”,Bleacher Report(1Au-gust 2014). Available at: https://bleacherre-port.com/articles/2148497-examining-the-growth-and-popularity-of-womens-mixed-martial-arts(accessedon24December2018).

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Jim Riordan, “The social emancipation ofwomen through sport”, The International

Journal of the History ofSport2(1985)1,pp.53–61,doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/02649378508713563.

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N. Besnier, S. Brownell, T. F. Carter, The Anthropology of Sport: Bodies, Borders, Bio-politics.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02649378508713563



der traditionellen, hierarchisch festgelegten Gendernormen enthält. Das paper besteht aus vier Teilen. Im ersten einleitenden Teil erkläre ich die Gründe für die Konzentration meiner Dis-kussion auf formalisierte Leistungssportarten und Ansätze, die ich verwende. Während ich die biopolitischen Aspekte des Themas akzentuiere, beginne ich meine Analyse mit der Schilderung der proklamierten Leitprinzipien des zeitgenössischen Sports, die im Geiste des Olympismus einbegriffen sind. Im zweiten Teil gehe ich auf die Ontologie des Sports ein, die in den Ideen des Begründers der modernen Olympischen Spiele, Baron pierre de Coubertin, enthalten ist, und auf die sich daraus ergebenden Faktoren, die die Teilnahme von Frauen am Sport beein-flussen. Diese Faktoren reichen von der perzeption der angeblich beeinträchtigen physischen und psychologischen Merkmale der Frauen, über die Hypersexualisierung des Körpers von Sportlerinnen oder die einstellung, dass sie nicht weiblich genug sind, bis zu den Anschuldi-gungen, dass Sportlerinnen ihre Gesundheit schädigen, indem sie beispielsweise die weibliche Grundpflicht gefährden – die der Mutterschaft. Im dritten Teil habe ich die Argumente von de Coubertin in den zeitgenössischen Kontext gestellt und die Relevanz des Konzepts der hegemo-nialen Männlichkeit für das gegenwärtige Verständnis der Männlichkeit als auch die Rolle des Sports bei deren Aufrechterhaltung unterstrichen. Im abschließenden, vierten Teil diskutiere ich die emanzipatorischen Aspekte des Sports und schließe daraus, dass sie imstande sind, sowohl die verwesentlichte Weiblichkeit als auch die verwesentlichte Männlichkeit abzuschaffen.

Schlüsselwörter

Sport,Frauen,Frauensportarten,olympischerGeist,PierredeCoubertin,Gender,Emanzipation

Ana Maskalan

Porter une mâchoire de verre : considérations sur les femmes dans le sport

Résumé

Le sport est encore considéré comme le bastion traditionnel de la masculinité qui exalte les qualités physiques telles la force et la vitesse, mais également les traits psychologiques telles l’agressivité et la persévérance, où la participation des femmes est jugée indésirable et non nécessaire. Néanmoins, depuis des décennies, dans une stricte séparation des hommes ou dans les sports que l’on appelle « sports féminins », les femmes ont obtenu des résultats qui méritent l’attention du plus féroce des sceptiques. en raison de sa nature qui se fonde sur la corporéité, le sport est encore rarement l’objet de lutte dans le domaine politique pour l’égalité des genres, bien que les sportives féminines ont avec le temps d’avantages contribué dans ce domaine que ce qui leur est attribué. Dans cet article, je discute de la nature ambivalente du sport, d’un côté, de l’essentialisation des genres dans leurs différences et de la pétrification des relations de pou-voir entre eux, de l’autre côté, des indications de destructions qui y sont présentes, ou du moins de corruption, des normes de genre traditionnellement et hiérarchiquement établies. Ce travail est composé de quatre parties. Dans la partie introductive, j’explique les raisons de l’attention portée dans la discussion sur les sports de compétitions qui ont subi une formalisation et les ap-proches dont je me sers. en mettant l’accent sur les aspects biopolitiques du sujet, je commence mon analyse par une description des principes proclamés comme principes directeurs du sport contemporain présents dans l’esprit de l’olympisme. Dans la deuxième partie, j’aborde l’onto-logie du sport telle qu’on la trouve dans les idées du fondateur des Jeux olympiques modernes, Baron pierre de Coubertin, et des facteurs indirects qui ont influencé la participation des fem-mes dans le sport. Cette gamme de facteurs commence par les prétendus faiblesses physiques et psychologiques et va jusqu’à accuser les sportives féminines de nuire à leur corps et de mettre en danger, par exemple, leur obligation féminine majeure qui est la maternité, et passe par l’hypersexualisation du corps des sportives, ou encore, par l’affirmation qu’elles ne sont pas suffisamment féminines. Dans la troisième partie, je mets les arguments de de Coubertin dans un contexte contemporain en insistant sur l’importance que la conception hégémonique de la masculinité occupe dans la compréhension contemporaine de la masculinité et sur le rôle que le sport joue pour maintenir cette conception. Dans la dernière partie, je discute des aspects émancipatoires du sport et je conclus qu’ils sont capables d’ébranler autant la féminité essen-tialisée que la masculinité essentialisée.

Mots-clés

sport,femme,sportféminin,espritolympique,PierredeCoubertin,genre,émancipation

Sporting the Glass Jaw: Views on Women in Sports

Documents

Transcript of Sporting the Glass Jaw: Views on Women in Sports