Spatial and Temporal Variability in Chert Exploitation on Santa Cruz Island, California

Society for American Archaeology

Spatial and Temporal Variability in Chert Exploitation on Santa Cruz Island, CaliforniaAuthor(s): Jennifer E. Perry and Christopher S. JazwaSource: American Antiquity, Vol. 75, No. 1 (Jan., 2010), pp. 177-198Published by: Society for American ArchaeologyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20622487 .

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SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIABILITY IN CHERT EXPLOITATION ON SANTA CRUZ ISLAND, CALIFORNIA

Jennifer E. Perry and Christopher S. Jazwa

Chert outcrops on eastern Santa Cruz Island were of vital importance to the inhabitants of the Santa Barbara Channel

region because of their comparatively limited availablity elsewhere on the California Channel Islands. Temporally diag nostic artifacts and radiocarbon dates from associated shell middens suggest that chert quarries were exploited through out the Holocene. The importance of these quarries has been well documented in regard to microlith production as part of the shell bead industry during the late Holocene. However, relatively little is known about local chert tool manufacture and

exchange in earlier times. Systematic documentation of 26 known chert quarries, and sampling at associated shell middens on eastern Santa Cruz Island has resulted in the identification of significant spatial variability in chert exploitation through time. Whereas chert quarrying during the middle Holocene appears to have been opportunistic and dispersed throughout the landscape, comparable activities during the late Holocene became increasingly circumscribed as microlith production

was intensified. These trends in chert procurement are interpreted in the context of temporal changes in subsistence, tool

manufacture, and residential mobility on the northern Channel Islands, and have broad implications for spatial and tem

poral patterning in prehistoric lithic exploitation.

Los afloramientos de silex en la parte Oeste de la Isla de Santa Cruzfueron de vital importancia para los habitantes de la

region, ya que esta materia prima se encuentra relativamente ausente en el resto de las Isias del Canal de Santa Barbara. Arte

factos diagn?sticos y fechas de radiocarbon asociadas a conchales siguieren que minas de silex fueron explotadas a lo largo de todo el Holoceno. La importancia de estas fuentes de aprovisionamiento ha sido bien documentada en relacion a la pro ducci?n de microlitos como parte de la industria de cuentas de concha durante el Holoceno Tardio. A pesar de esto, relativa mente poco se sabe sobre la manufactura local de artefactos de silex y su intercambio en tiempos mas tempranos. La documentaci?n sistemdtica de 26 fuentes de silex, asi como muestreos en conchales asociados en la parte Este de la isla de Santa Cruz, han resultado en la identificaci?n de una variabilidad espacial significativa en la explotaci?n de silex a lo largo del tiempo. Considerando que la extracci?n de silex durante el Holoceno Medio parece haber sido de tipo oportunista y dis

persa a traves del paisaje, actividades semejantes durante el Holoceno Tardio se volvieron cada vez mds circunscritas al inten

sificarse la producci?n de microlitos. Estas tendencias en la adquisici?n de silex son interpretadas dentro de un contexto de

transformaci?n en estrategias de subsistencia, producci?n de artefactos y movilidad residencial en las Isias del norte del Canal de Santa Barbara, transformaciones con profundas implicaciones en las caracteristicas espacialesy temporales de explotaci?n litica en la prehistoria.

|he significance of prehistoric chert exploita tion on Santa Cruz Island has been recog

A nized since the earliest archaeological inquiry into the Santa Barbara Channel region of the California Bight (Figure 1). Although chert sources have been identified on other islands in recent years (Erlandson et al. 2008), 26 quarries found within an area of 30 km2 make eastern Santa Cruz Island (East End) second only to Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) with respect to the quan tity and quality of known sources of naturally

occurring Monterey chert accessible to the Chu mash. Starting with Leon de Cessac in the late 1870s (Heizer and Kelley 1962), Arnold (1987, 1992a), Olson (1930), Pitzer et al. (1974), Rogers (1929), and Rozaire (1978) are among those who have stressed the importance of these intensively used chert quarries and their byproducts, particu larly microliths1 for communities of hunter-gather fishers in the northern California Bight.

Despite this long-standing interest, formal

investigations into the prehistoric exploitation of

Jennifer E. Perry Department of Anthropology, Pomona College, Claremont, CA 91711 ([email protected]) Christopher S. Jazwa University of Oregon, Department of Anthropology, Eugene, OR 97403 ([email protected])

American Antiquity 75(1), 2010, pp. 177-198

Copyright ?2010 by the Society for American Archaeology

177



178 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 75, No. 1, 2010]

(Light shading is land between 250 and 500 m and dark shading is above 500 m asl.)

Figure 1. Santa Cruz Island.

island cherts have been undertaken only in the past 30 years. Arnold (1985, 1987, 1990b, 1992a) was the first to systematically document the microblade

industry and evaluate its relationship to shell bead

making, regional exchange, and political com

plexity. Interested in cultural developments of the late Holocene, she has focused on quarries and coastal village sites, including those where chert microdrills were used to drill the highly valued and

widely circulated callus cup beads from the purple olive shell (Olivella biplicata) (see Arnold 1987, 1992a, 2001a, 2001b; Arnold and Graesch 2001;

Arnold and Munns 1994; Hudson and Blackburn

1987:123-127, 267-282). Lacking until recently, however, was systematic documentation of the chert quarries on the East End and interpretations of their use through time, especially the millennia

immediately preceding the microblade industry. After the East End was acquired by Channel

Islands National Park in 1997, Kennett (1998, 2005) and others initiated archaeological surveys in the region and identified other chert quarries in the process, including CA-SCRI-610, the largest one on the islands. Chert outcrops recorded in the late 1990s and early 2000s revealed a high degree of interquarry variability in raw material procure

ment and tool-making activities. Between 2004 and

2006, we evaluated 24 of 26 chert quarries on the East End using standardized criteria for intersite

comparison (Jazwa 2005; Perry 2003, unpublished field notes on file with author) and conducted test

ing at associated shell middens. Located within a

relatively well-preserved, bounded cultural land

scape, the chert quarries of the East End offer

unique insights into how lithic exploitation fits within shifting trends in settlement and subsistence on Santa Cruz Island, as well as the regional econ

omy of the Santa Barbara Channel. Based on an increasing number of radiocarbon

dates and the recovery of diagnostic tools, we have identified significant changes in chert exploitation from the middle (4500-1500 B.C.) to late Holocene

(1500 B.C.-present), and within the late Holocene from the late Middle (A.D. 900-1150) to Late peri ods (A.D. 1300-1782) of Chumash prehistory (Table 1). Such trends are best understood within the frame

works of central place foraging in the middle Holocene and collector-based strategies in the late

Holocene, as resource prioritization shifted from the seasonal foraging of terrestrial and marine resources to intensified fishing and regional exchange (Glas sow 1993; Kennett 2005). During the middle



REPORTS 179

Table 1. Radiocarbon Dates from Chert Quarries and Associated Shell Middens on Eastern Santa Cruz Islanda b

Site Designation CA-SCRI

14C Sample3

Depth (cm) 14C Lab. No.

14C?oYrsB.P.

813C-corrected

813C

CalYrs?2o

395 396 408 408 412 627 627 632 693 693 724 724 724 741 741 753 753

surface

10-15

surface

15-25

surface

surface

surface

surface

30

65

20-30

30-40

50-60

24-35

58-66

10-15

10-15

?-195422

?-195423 ?-195424 ?-222703 ?-195425 ?-216760 ?-216761 ?-190380 ?-203416 ?-203417 ?-222704 ?-222705

?-226843 ?-172033

?-164524

?-168347 ?-222706

2340 ? 60 4280 ? 50 4030 ? 70 6400 ? 50 4600 ? 100 5480 ? 80 5700 ? 40 4780 ? 50 4520 ? 70 4760 ? 70 5330 ? 70 5500 ? 60 5680 ? 90 3780 ? 80 4110 ?80 1180 ?50 1250 ? 60

-.2

-.6

1.6

-1.7

.2

.6

.6

1.2

1.5

1.3

-2

1.6

2.6

.3

.5

0

.2

A.D. 90-420

2300-1960 B.C.

2100-1600 B.C.

4790-4520 B.C.

2870-2280 B.C.

3890-3500 B.C.

3990-3780 B.C.

2910-2630 B.C.

2900-2560 B.C.

3310-2880 B.C.

3920-3620 B.C.

4040-3780 B.C.

4330-3940 B.C.

1960-1560 B.C.

2440-1970 B.C.

A.D. 1300-1470

A.D. 1250-1450

Note: INTCAL98 Radiocarbon Age Calibration (Stuiver et al. 1998). aAll radicarbon samples are marine shell, and were dated by Beta Analytic, Inc.

bOther radiocarbon dates reported in Arnold (1987) and Kennett (2005).

Holocene, islanders appear to have been engaged in

opportunistic quarrying throughout the landscape for the production of bifaces, macrodrills, and other chert tools. In contrast, increased coastal sedentism, intensified fishing, and the microblade industry char acterize the latter parts of the late Holocene (see Arnold 1987,1992a, 2001a, 2001b; Kennett 2005;

King 1990). The particular chert outcrops targeted appear to change primarily in response to (a) tool

preferences and raw material requirements, (b) sub sistence and resource scheduling, and (c) residential

mobility and transportation costs.

Spatial and temporal patterning in quarrying and tool production on eastern Santa Cruz Island have

implications for lithic studies throughout North America given their potential to shed light on the

interrelationships between chert exploitation and

subsistence, residential mobility, and exchange. As the largest and most terrestrially diverse of the north ern Channel Islands, Santa Cruz Island is well-suited for exploring different spheres of trade and inter

action, namely intervillage, interisland, and island mainland relations. What makes eastern Santa Cruz Island unique is the scale of exploitation compared to the other islands and the small area within which

most of the chert quarries are found. In comparable studies, distinctions are commonly made between lithic sources on large geographic scales, sometimes

as much as hundreds of kilometers apart, such as

different geologic formations or mountain ranges

(e.g.,Andrefsky 1994; Austin 1996; Beck and Jones

1990; Beck et al. 2002; Gramly 1980; Hoard et al.

1993; Jones et al. 2003; Julig 1988; Julig et al. 1992; Luedtke 1979; Moore 1989; Newman 1999; Tanker

sley 1998). However, what is evident on eastern Santa Cruz Island is that people were making dis tinctions on much smaller scales, sometimes between outcrops just a few hundred meters apart. Such proximity allows us to examine different lev els of decision-making with respect to the use and control of chert outcrops, tool production and dis

tribution, local and long-distance exchange, and

regional interaction.

Chert Exploitation in the Santa Barbara Channel Region

Lithic resources are patchily distributed through out the northern California Bight. Those most com

monly used in the Santa Barbara Channel region include chert, basalt, and other igneous materials, fused shale, sandstone, and quartz (see Pletka

2001:142-143). In contrast to the abundance of chert outcrops north of Point Conception and on Santa Cruz Island, comparable raw materials are absent from coastal areas further to the south where




the densest populations lived, with local toolstone

being limited to stream cobbles and other small sources (Moore 1989:81). Instead, the occupants of the southern parts of Chumash territory relied

primarily on Monterey chert from the VAFB region 40-80 km away and Franciscan chert from the inte rior of the Santa Ynez Valley, requiring a journey through an intervening mountain range (Arnold 1990a:8-20,54; Moore 1989). Although the near est obsidian source is over 300 km to the east in the Coso Mountains, obsidian tools were also imported to the Channel Islands during the middle and late Holocene (Arnold 1987; Kennett 2005; *Pierce et al. 1990; Pletka 2001; Rick et al. 2001).

The most abundant and highest quality chert sources on the mainland are located north of Point

Conception in the Vandenberg Air Force Base

(VAFB) region, the interior of the Santa Ynez Val

ley, and the Temblor Range 100 km to the north

(Arnold 1987,1990a, 1990b, 1992b; Grivetti 1982; Moore 1989; Pierce et al. 1990; Pletka 2001). Fran ciscan chert is found most abundantly in the Santa Ynez Valley and adjacent mountains, and consists of quality stone of red, brown, and green coloration with dull surfaces (Arnold 1987:91-92; Moore

1989:82; Pierce et al. 1990). In contrast, Monterey chert in the VAFB region is generally dark brown to black in color, lustrous, and of high quality (Glas sow et al. 1990:CH 8:22; Grivetti 1982). Starting around 8,000 years ago, these chert quarries were utilized to manufacture bifaces including dart

points, knives, and harpoons (Arnold 1990a, 1992b; Glassow 1996:141-142). The advantages of the VAFB Monterey chert for bifaces and other large tools derive from the relative abundance of high quality chert in layers or bands thick enough to be able to routinely find and work with large chunks or cores (Arnold 1990a:8-79; Glassow et al. 1990.CH 8:22-23; Grivetti 1982).

Compared to the mainland of the northern Cal ifornia Bight, high-quality lithic materials on the northern Channel Islands are limited, with less vari

ety and lower quality of workable materials. Based on lithic assemblages described in site records from across the island, chert, basalt, and quartzite were the types most commonly exploited on Santa Cruz Island. Obsidian, Monterey chert, Franciscan chert, fused shale, and other stones were also imported from the mainland, and steatite was introduced from Santa Catalina Island to the south. Most of

these materials were transported to the island as fin ished tools rather than as unworked nodules. The relative scarcity of obsidian is reflected in the form it most often takes on Santa Cruz Island: thin, small flakes no larger than a fingernail, likely the prod uct of tool retouch (Michael Glassow, personal communication 2007).

Chert was of great importance to residents of the northern islands throughout prehistory, and sources have been documented on Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, San Miguel, and Anacapa Islands. Erlandson et al. (1997, 2008) have identified sev eral chert sources on San Miguel Island in recent

years, and Rick (2006) has found exposed chert

deposits on Anacapa Island. Lower-quality and/or smaller outcrops of chert are also present on Santa Cruz Island in canyons south of Prisoners Harbor and possibly in contexts further to the west (see Dibblee 2001). However, none of these come close to comparing with the vast quantities of usable

materials on eastern Santa Cruz Island, an area that has long been recognized as a major chert source for at least 7,000 years.

The most abundant and highest-quality chert sources are situated on and around El Montafion, the prominent ridgeline that separates the East End from the rest of the island (Arnold 1987; Kennett

1998, 2005; Perry 2003; see Figure 1). Often referred to as Santa Cruz Island blonde chert due to the light brown color observed in archaeologi cal contexts, it is well-suited for flint-knapping due to its high silica content and blocky rather than laminar structure (Arnold et al. 2001:115). The

prevalence of chert on the East End results from the relationship between the two geologic sub strates that underlay this region: the Monterey For

mation and Santa Cruz Island (SCI) Volcanics

(Dibblee 2001; Weaver and Meyer 1969). In many places where the contact between these two for mations is exposed, such as along the western flanks of El Montafion, chert outcrops are easy to locate and exploit (Arnold 1987:101).

The History of Archaeological Research on

East End Chert

The significance of chert exploitation on eastern Santa Cruz Island?especially with respect to microlith production?has long been known, and is mentioned specifically in Leon de Cessac's



REPORTS 181

accounts of his 1878 expedition to the island (Heizer and Kelley 1962). Olson (1930:14-15) conducted the first excavations on eastern Santa Cruz Island in 1927-1928, recovering "flint points" as well as drills and picks from two cemeteries at Smugglers Cove (CA-SCRI-504 and SCRI-506). Subsequent analyses of microblade caches indicate that lithic

specialists were among those interred there, pro viding evidence that microblade production was one of the major craft specializations on Santa Cruz Island during the late Holocene (Hollimon 1990; Hoover 1971; King 1976; Pitzer et al. 1974).

In spite of such early recognition, Arnold (1985, 1987, 1991, 1992a, 1993) was the first to bring considerable attention to the roles of the microb lade and Olivella shell bead industries in the

regional economy based on excavations at 11 late Holocene sites on Santa Cruz Island (Arnold et al.

2001; Arnold and Munns 1994; Pletka 2001; Preziosi 2001). Of these sites, four?CA-SCRI

240, the historic village and economic center of Xaxas at Prisoners Harbor; SCRI-392 and SCRI

306, a quarry and the Late period village, Lu 'upsh, respectively; and SCRI-93, a quarry and shell mid den on El Montanon?exemplify different stages of microblade production and distribution, around which the economy of eastern Santa Cruz Island seems to have revolved after ca. A.D. 900 (Arnold 1987, 2001b; Arnold et al. 2001; Dietler 2003; Pletka 2001).

Resulting from the accumulation of microlith data from different sites, Arnold (1987:191,1992a, 2001a, 2001b) established a chronological sequence of microblade types spanning much of the late Holocene. Radiocarbon dates and diagnostic shell beads from stratified deposits at CA-SCRI-240 and SCRI-306 place the beginning of the microblade

industry around A.D. 900-950 (Arnold 1987:194; Arnold et al. 2001:116-117). Although the termi

nology has varied, three different microblade types have long been recognized (Figure 2). The trape zoidal and triangular with dorsal retouch (TDR) types are quantitatively associated with the late Mid dle and Late periods, respectively, whereas the non

diagnostic triangular form was produced throughout the span of the microblade industry, frequently as

part of the manufacturing of the other types (Arnold 1987:194; Arnold etal. 2001:116-117).2

Despite the attention given to microliths, until Arnold (1987:99-100, 124) surveyed the western

1 2 cm

A

Figure 2. Trapezoidal microblades and drills (top) and tri

angular with dorsal retouch (TDR) microblades and drills

(bottom). Adapted from Preziosi (2001:153).

side of El Montanon in 1981, C A-SCRI-93 was the

only chert quarry that had been formally docu mented on the Channel Islands. Arnold (1987:148) describes this site as "a microblade production area, and a small, circumscribed food processing/occu pation area" encompassing an area of 1,875 m2.

Thousands of trapezoidal microblades and cores have been recovered from these shallow deposits, indicating that their production was among the pri

mary activities conducted at this locale (Arnold 1987:126). Overall, the trapezoidal form represents 80-100 percent of the microblades and 65-100

percent of the microcores at nine quarries docu mented on El Montanon, whereas none are domi

nated by the subsequent TDR type (Arnold 1987:161). Based on these data, Arnold (1987) has

made the following general conclusions regarding spatial patterning in chert exploitation: "all major chert quarries are used, no matter how remote; ...

smaller quarries are used relatively less intensively except where highly accessible [and of higher qual ity]"; and "permanent or temporary occupation areas were established at or near several of the quar

ries" (1987:163).



182 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY

Table 2. Summary of Quarry Characteristics.

[Vol. 75, No. 1,2010]

Site number Geographic Quarry # of Presence of Middle Holocenea

CA-SCRI- cluster size (m2) mining pits shell midden (4500-1500 B.C.)

Late Middle Periodb Late Periodb

(A.D. 900-1300) (A.D. 1300-1782)

93

392 394 395c

408 409 412 414 415 417 419 609 610 611 627d 628 629 630d 632 633 634 637 638 693 748 Potato

El Montanon

Beach

El Montanon

El Montanon

El Montanon

El Montanon

El Montanon

El Montanon

El Montanon

El Montanon

El Montanon

Scorpion

Scorpion

Scorpion

Scorpion

Scorpion

Scorpion

Scorpion

Smugglers

Smugglers El Montanon

Smugglers

Smugglers

Scorpion

Scorpion Harbor Beach

1,875 840

3,380

5,720

1,500 900 625

4,100

7,000

1,250 215

6,000

56,000

3,500

60,000

2,850

6,930

70,000

7,020

7,020

2,400

6,375

13,600 400

32,000 600

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 56 26 3 1 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Nearby Yes

Nearby Yes

No

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

Nearby No

Yes

Nearby Yes

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

aBased primarily on radiocarbon dates.

bBased primarily on the relative distribution of major microblade types. cCA-SCRI-395 also dates to the earlier part of the Middle Period (1500 B.C.-A.D. 900) based on one radiocarbon date.

dThe large site areas for CA-SCRI-627 and SCRI-630 pertain to extensive lithic scatters; CA-SCRI-610 is the largest quarry.

In contrast to SCRI-93 and other quarries around El Montanon is the strong emphasis on TDR microblade production at coastal sites in the area of China Harbor. Late period village sites and the

nearby quarry at CA-SCRI-392 suggest that microblade activities shifted from the quarries of El Montanon to the coast over time. Prior to SCRI 392 being buried by a landslide in 1998, Arnold

(1987:100) observed that "large boulders of chert have eroded down from the section of the Contact Zone just above the harbor and now rest on the

shore," and were exploited primarily for the man

ufacture of TDR microblades. Shell middens in the China Harbor region, such as SCRI-306, have

yielded strong evidence for household-level pro duction of TDR microblades and shell beads, but

nothing earlier (Arnold 1987:179-187, 2001b; Dietler 2003).

Current Research on East End Chert Quarries

Through her research, Arnold (1987:121-125) made significant contributions to the understand

ing of the microblade industry and documented 10 chert quarries in the process. However, little was

known about the broader temporal or geographic scope of chert exploitation when Arnold completed her fieldwork on eastern Santa Cruz Island. Since the acquisition of the East End in 1997 and the Isth

mus in 2000 by Channel Islands National Park and their subsequent accessibility to archaeologists, 16 other quarries have been found in this region by Kennett (1998, 2005), Rick et al. (archaeological site records on file at the Central Coastal Informa tion Center), Perry (2003,2004,2005), and Jazwa

(2005). Of the 26 known quarries, we visited 24 of them from 2004 to 2006, assessing the original site



REPORTS 183

records and current site conditions as well as col

lecting standardized data on quarry characteristics

(Table 2). In doing so, we evaluated different arti fact types, particularly bifaces and microliths; the

sizes, densities, and constituents of nearby shell

middens; and other indicators of the functions of these quarries.

Spatial variability in chert exploitation is influ enced by a variety of factors including the quality, abundance, and accessibility of the material; tool

morphology and function; and residential patterns and transportation costs (Andrefsky 1994; Bam forth 1992; Beck and Jones 1990; Beck et al. 2002; Jones et al. 2003; Kelly 1988, 1992; Kuhn 1994;

Moore 1989; Newman 1999; Parry and Kelly 1987; Torrence 1983, 1989). Among the most relevant

quarry characteristics is raw material availability, referring to both abundance and quality, which

Andrefsky (1994) argues can have greater influence on tool production than the settlement strategies in which chert exploitation is embedded. Bamforth

(1992:132) emphasizes the importance of "the dis tribution of source areas in space" or overall abun

dance; "the accessibility of stone at the source"

including "its density or concentration within the source area, and its ease of extraction"; and "the

knapping and use qualities of that stone." Chert quality on eastern Santa Cruz Island varies

significantly due to its banded nature, with clear differences between high and low quality (Arnold 1987; Junak et al. 1995). Large blocks or nodules of homogeneous chert are rare. Rather, the best

quality material tends to be layered between bands of Monterey shale and siltstone, making pieces suitable for the production of tools larger than

microblades difficult, but not impossible, to find. In contrast, low-quality chert tends to occur in thin bands and/or contains numerous flaws, cracks, and shale inclusions.

Color has commonly been used to assess qual ity and as a criterion for differentiating local from

mainland cherts (see Pletka 2001). Arnold

(1987:97) noted the presence of white, blonde, light brown, dark brown, gray, and bluish cherts in the 11 quarries west of El Montanon; we have also doc umented reddish brown, yellowish brown, red, red dish yellow, and very dark gray to black. Such variation in chert color frequently occurs within individual sites, with adjacent outcrops often dis

playing different hues. Similarly, chert quality

varies not only between quarries, but also within individual outcrops. Although Monterey and Fran ciscan cherts are relatively easy to distinguish based on color, less clear are the differences between cherts from Santa Cruz Island, San Miguel Island, and the VAFB region (Erlandson et al. 2008). In

fact, the high degree of intra- and inter-site vari

ability in chert color is evident on the East End calls into question some of the existing interpretations regarding imported tools of Monterey chert (Arnold 1987; Arnold et al. 2001; Pletka 2001; Kennett

2005:200).

Employing multiple criteria we identified four distinct types of quarries. Out of 26 quarries, five have no associated shell middens or known chrono

logical affiliation. From the remaining 21 quarries we were able to identify three distinct quarry types that represent significant differences in resource

scheduling and tool production through time: (a) those for which there is no evidence of microblade

production; (b) those for which there is abundant evidence of trapezoidal and triangular undiagnos tic microblade production; and (c) those for which there is evidence of TDR microblade production and/or mining pits. In general, quarries of the first

type are dispersed throughout the East End; quar ries of the second type are largely confined to El

Montanon; and quarries of the final type are found in the vicinity of Scorpion Canyon. CA-SCRI-392 and quarried cobbles at Potato Harbor are the only two chert sources that are situated directly on the

coast, whereas the rest are located at higher eleva tions. Of the 21 quarries for which chronological data are available, 11 have yielded evidence of use

during the middle Holocene; 18 during the late

Holocene; and 8 during both time periods.

Chert Exploitation in the Early Holocene

Significant spatial and temporal variability is evi dent in chert exploitation and associated tool pro duction, with important shifts occurring from the middle to late Holocene and, with respect to microblade production, from the late Middle to Late period. Despite the abundant evidence of chert

exploitation dating to the past 6,500 years, com

parable data for early Holocene activities on Santa Cruz Island are limited to one chert quarry, CA SCRI-610. Evidence found elsewhere on the north ern Channel Islands includes chert in early and



184 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 75, No. 1,2010]

Figure 3. Spatial distribution of chert quarries with Middle Holocene deposits (4500-1500 B.C.).

middle Holocene deposits at Daisy Cave on San

Miguel Island (Erlandson et al. 1997). Although few in number, these sites indicate that island chert sources were exploited beginning with the earliest colonization of the northern Channel Islands. Along with evidence for intensive biface production in the VAFB region, it is clear that exchange networks existed in the Santa Barbara Channel since the early Holocene, in which island cherts presumably played an ongoing and important role. Intra-island

transportation of chert is indicated by the debitage and tools recovered from deposits dating between

6,800 and 100 cal B.C. at Punta Arena (SCRI-109) on the southwestern coast of Santa Cruz Island,

among other sites (Glassow et al. 2008). Extending over an estimated 56,000 m2, CA

SCRI-610 is by far the most intensively exploited chert quarry on the Channel Islands. Its surface is littered with at least 56 large mining pits, 5-10 m

in diameter, and populated with exceptionally dense concentrations of chert cobbles, cores and micro

cores, microblades, flakes, and other debitage (Cen

tral Coast Information Center, CA-SCRI-610

archaeological site record, 1997; Clifford 2001:67). At Locus A, a small shell midden directly associ ated with the quarry, one sample of black abalone

(Haliotis cracherodii) shell yielded a radiocarbon date of 5060-4625 cal B.C. (la) (Kennett 1998:463; Kennett 2005:130-133). Evidence of

microblade production of all types is present in and around the mining pits. Due to the high quality and abundance of the raw material, intensity of quar

rying activities, early radiocarbon date, and evi dence of microblade production, it seems possible that SCRI-610 was quarried throughout the

Holocene.

Chert Exploitation in the Middle Holocene

In contrast to the lack of data pertaining to the early Holocene, middle Holocene chert exploitation is

clearly represented at 11 of the 26 quarries on east ern Santa Cruz Island (Figure 3). Comparable to other middle Holocene sites on the northern Chan



REPORTS 185

nel Islands, these sites are dispersed throughout the

landscape in a variety of environmental contexts

from the coast to the highest elevations on El Mon tanon. Four of these quarries (CA-SCRI-632, SCRI-633, SCRI-637, and SCRI-638) are located south of Smugglers Canyon, the second largest watershed on the East End (Kennett 2005:50). Its mouth is Smugglers Cove, the location of the his toric village of Nanawani (CA-SCRI-504 and

SCRI-506) (Hoover 1971; Johnson 1993; Kennett et al. 2000; Olson 1930). In general, chert at these

quarries is of the poorest quality on the East End and the outcrops are relatively small. Despite sig nificant evidence for quarrying, there is none for microblade production or mining pits at any of these sites.

Of these four quarries, only CA-SCRI-632 is

directly associated with a shell scatter; the rest are

comprised exclusively of quarried chert outcrops and large lithic scatters. Located uphill from Smug glers Cove, SCRI-632 is a small, low-quality chert

quarry and a small, low-density shell scatter (36 m2) surrounded by an extensive low-density chert lithic scatter (7,200 m2). The shell scatter consists almost

exclusively of wavy top (Lithopoma undosum) with no associated carbonaceous soil and no apparent depth to the cultural materials. One complete con

tracting stem dart point made of island chert was

recovered from the site surface, which is consis tent with a radiocarbon date of2910-2630 cal B.C.

(2rj) from a large wavy top fragment. No evidence of microblade production has been found despite its proximity to Smugglers Cove and Nanawani.

Further to the south, La Canada Del Aguaje is fed by three springs that are among the most reli able freshwater sources on the East End (Perry 2003:124-125). Eight sites have been identified in the vicinity, including three shell middens, one chert quarry, and four lithic scatters. SCRI-741 is the largest and densest of the shell middens (3,700

m2), located 200 m downslope of the quarry at SCRI-637 (Perry 2003, 2005). All radiocarbon

samples and temporally diagnostic artifacts from SCRI-741 and nearby sites date to the middle Holocene. La Canada Del Aguaje exemplifies the

general pattern south of Smugglers Cove: there is evidence of quarrying and biface manufacture dur

ing the middle Holocene, but no indications that these quarries were utilized on any significant scale after this time. In fact, except for the village sites

at Smugglers Cove (CA-SCRI-504 and SCRI-506), there is no evidence of occupation south of Smug glers Cove at any point during the late Holocene.

Scorpion Anchorage (CA-SCRI-611, SCRI-627, andSCRI-724)

In contrast, the vicinity of Scorpion Canyon appears to have been inhabited for the past 8,000 years, and was the location of Swaxtl, an important historic

village that the Chumash occupied into the 1810s

(Johnson 2001; Kennett 2005; Kennettetal. 2000).

Dispersed throughout this region are large, dense shell middens and evidence of extensive chert

exploitation, including mining, at nearby quarries. Overlooking Scorpion Anchorage, CA-SCRI-627 is comprised of a large (6,000 m2), moderate- to

high-density lithic scatter extending across the entire landform; a chert quarry with three mining pits that are dotted with variously sized igneous hammerstones; and a small (225 m2), ephemeral shell midden situated just five meters away from the cluster of mining pits (Central Coast Informa tion Center, CA-SCRI-627 archaeological site record 1997; Perry 2007). Based on two radiocar bon dates of 3990-3780 and 3890-3500 cal B.C.

(2a), the shallow, low-density shell midden seems reflective of short-term habitation during the mid dle Holocene. Despite the quarry's proximity to

Scorpion Anchorage and Swaxil, there is little evi dence of microblade production aside from the two

triangular undiagnostic microblades and one small core with trapezoidal blade removals. Instead, the vast majority of the chert flakes and debitage ana

lyzed, as well as the recovery of one large nonde

script chert biface fragment, suggest that biface manufacture accounts for at least a portion of the chert extracted and tested at the site.

Situated 150 meters uphill and 700 meters south of Scorpion Anchorage are alarge chert quarry, CA

SCRI-611, and a large high-density shell midden, CA-SCRI-724, located within 100 meters of each other. The chert is of high quality and occurs in a

variety of colors including white, tan, brown, red, gray, and blue. A total of 26 distinct mining pits averaging 5-10 m in diameter were observed by Kennett et al. (Central Coast Information Center, CA-SCRI-611 archaeological site record, 1997) when the site was first recorded in 1997. Chert cores, microblades, flakes, and other debitage, as well as igneous and chert hammerstones of all sizes,



186 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 75, No. 1,2010]

c. Vandenberg contracting stem dart point, Santa Cruz Island chert (CA-SCRI-724)

d. Macrodrill, Santa Cruz Island chert (CA-SCRI-724)

e. Foliate arrow point, Santa Cruz Island chert (CA-SCRI-700)

Figure 4. Chert bifaces recovered on eastern Santa Cruz Island.

are evident on the site surface. Indicators of microb lade production are present, including all three

microblade forms, of which triangular undiagnos tic microblades are the most abundant. With no

clear pattern in the proportions and distribution of the trapezoidal and TDR types, it is difficult to determine chronological affiliation beyond infer

ring that the quarry was likely used throughout the time of the microblade industry.

Nevertheless, radiocarbon dates and temporally diagnostic artifacts from the nearby shell midden

at CA-SCRI-724 make this quarry one of those that dates to both the middle and late Holocene. Large pieces of wavy top that Perry excavated from a 1 x-l-m unit (Unit 5S/5W) and an adjacent 20-X-20 cm column sample yielded dates of 3920-3620, 4040-3780, and 4330-3940 cal B .C. (2 s) from lev els at 20-30 cm, 30^0 cm, and 50-60 cm, respec tively. Evidence that the occupants of this shell

midden intensively utilized the nearby quarry includes the recovery of chert biface fragments,

macrodrills, flake tools, cores, and thousands of



REPORTS

Table 3. Lithic Materials Recovered from Unit 5S/5W at CA-SCRI-724

187

0-10 cm 10-20 cm 20-30 cm 30-40 cm 40-50 cm 50-60 cm Total

Basalt flakes 3 1 0 0 0 0 4 Quartzite flakes 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Chert debitage 443 262 275 298 239 28 1,545

Chert flakes 269 305 697 1,128 453 33 2,885 Chert flake tools 1 0 8 1 1 0 11 Chert cores 4 1 2 3 1 0 11 Chert trapezoidal microblades 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Chert triangular undiagnostic microblades 2 2 0 0 0 0 4 Chert microcores 4 1 0 0 0 0 5 Chert undiagnostic biface fragments 0 3 3 2 1 0 9 Chert contracting stem dart points_1_0_1_1_1_0_4

flakes and debitage (Figure 4 and Table 3). Of the 13 chert bifaces recovered from the excavations, seven are members of the highly variable Vanden

berg contracting stem dart point type, which Jus tice (2002:243) observes "probably functioned for

spear and harpoon tips as well as knives." Signifi cantly, sea mammal bones are well represented in the midden deposits, providing insights into local subsistence during the middle Holocene.

Biface production was an important facet of the

regional economy during the middle Holocene, as best represented by the wide circulation of VAFB bifaces throughout the Santa Barbara Channel

(Arnold 1990a, 1992b; Glassow 1996; Glassow et al. 1990). Dietler (2003), Noah (2005), and Pletka

(2001), among others, have noted that at Late period coastal villages on Santa Cruz Island "most or all

projectile points are imports from the mainland"

(Arnold 1987:207). Pletka (2001:144) observed a

significant difference in material types between finished and unfinished bifaces; 54 percent of the finished bifaces (n = 108) recovered from excava tions at CA-SCRI-191, SCRI-192, SCRI-240, and SCRI-330 were made from mainland chert and other imported materials. In contrast, all except one of the unfinished bifaces (n = 22) were manufac tured from island chert. Additional studies at SCRI 240 yielded 63 bifaces from the Historic period, of which 17 were made of island chert (Noah 2005:125). However, we know far less about the relative emphasis on local and imported lithic mate

rials, and associated biface manufacture, on Santa Cruz Island prior to the late Holocene.

Finished bifaces made of imported materials

including Franciscan chert, fused shale, and obsid

ian, and representing every major time period have

been found on eastern Santa Cruz Island (Arnold 1987; Perry 2003). It is also evident that the major ity of large bifaces found on the East End are made of island chert. Chert tools, flakes, and debitage from sites around Scorpion Anchorage and La Canada Del Aguaje suggest that biface production may have been a focus of middle Holocene activ ities on the East End, thereby influencing resource

scheduling and site placement. Sites such as CA SCRI-724 indicate that islanders produced large bifacial tools (e.g., harpoon and spear points), some of which were transported to Punta Arena and other western locales either through embed ded procurement strategies or trade (Glassow et al. 2008).

Central Place Foraging in the Middle Holocene

Similar to settlement and subsistence trends docu mented throughout the northern Channel Islands, middle Holocene inhabitants of eastern Santa Cruz Island engaged in seasonal foraging activities, with some instances of coastal sedentism in particularly productive locales (Glassow 1993; Kennett 1998, 2005; Perry 2003,2004,2005). Islanders relied on a combination of marine and terrestrial resources,

placing a strong emphasis on shellfish gathering supplemented by fishing, sea mammal and bird

hunting, and plant gathering. Twenty-two shell middens on the East End have deposits dating to the middle Holocene, most of which are interpreted as seasonal residential bases. Their spatial distrib ution reflects residential mobility between marine and terrestrial resource patches. That 11 of these 22 shell middens are located near quarries high




lights the probable influence of chert exploitation on site placement.

Central place foraging (CFP) provides a useful framework for interpreting the spatial distribution and cultural constituents of middle Holocene shell middens (Beck et al. 2002; Bettinger et al. 1997; Binford 1979; Kennett 2005; Orians and Pearson

1979). Kennett (2005) has stressed the relevance of CPF to the prehistory of the Channel Islands:

CPF theory provides a set of principles for

estimating the optimal settlement location on

the islands. The model predicts that, all other variables being equal, foragers will select res

idential base locations that maximize the net

central place foraging returns given the pur suit, handling, and transport costs of resources

from different patches [2005:225].

Kennett (2005:32) notes that residential mobility is

likely to occur "under conditions of low population density and unhmited access to spatially separated resources" and may be employed to "capitalize on

seasonal foraging opportunities in highly produc tive and distant resource patches." Substantial trans

portation costs can be associated with toolstone as

well as bulky plant products, which can be mini mized through site placement and field processing (Andrefsky 1994; Beck et al. 2002). On eastern

Santa Cruz Island, islanders presumably attempted to minimize the transportation costs of terrestrial resources by establishing residential bases near resource patches around El Montanon.

In the context of the high residential mobility and low population density that characterizes the middle Holocene (Glassow 1999; Kennett 2005;

Perry 2003; Rick et al. 2006), biface production and the exploitation of seemingly every chert source on eastern Santa Cruz Island conform well to models of central place foraging. The strong spatial corre

lation between chert quarries and shell middens is consistent with notions of direct procurement, which "is likely to occur when a valued stone is available within a short distance of a residential

base" (Bamforth 1992:132; Beck et al. 2002). East

End inhabitants of the middle Holocene appear to have exploited chert resources proximal to their habitation bases regardless of quality, as exempli fied by quarrying activities at lower quality sources

south of Smugglers Cove. Embedded within the subsistence schedule, such quarries may have been

used to manufacture informal tools, whereas higher quality sources may have been targeted specifically to make formal tools. Overall, it is clear that for

mal and informal tools were produced from chert

quarries on the East End during the middle

Holocene, which is consistent with expectations regarding contexts of high lithic quality and abun dance (see Andrefsky 1994:30).

Chert Exploitation in the Late Holocene

Considering the shell midden data from through out Santa Cruz Island, it is evident that changes in chert exploitation from the middle to late Holocene mirror broader shifts from central place foraging to collector-based strategies. The late Holocene is characterized by (a) increased marine resource pro ductivity influenced by generally cooler sea surface

temperatures, along with (b) an increasingly mar

itime orientation among island populations that included increased coastal sedentism, intensified

fishing, and increased regional exchange (e.g., Arnold 1987, 1992a, 1993, 2001; Glassow 1993; Kennett 1998, 2005; Kennett and Kennett 2000;

Perry 2003). As populations became increasingly concentrated in coastal locales, certain quarries appear to have been ignored, such as south of

Smugglers Cove, while others were mined more

intensively, such as those around Scorpion Canyon. This spatial patterning suggests that decision

making was influenced by several environmental and cultural factors including (a) inter-quarry vari

ability in quality, (b) material requirements for dif ferent tools or tool morphologies, (c) scale of tool

production, and (d) transportation costs in the con text of (e) degree of residential mobility (see

Andrefsky 1994; Bamforth 1992; Beck et al. 2002; Torrence 1983, 1989).

Eighteen quarries have yielded evidence of sig nificant changes in the microblade industry on east ern Santa Cruz Island. Four of the shell middens associated with these quarries have been radiocar bon dated to the late Holocene, whereas the rest

have been dated based solely on the presence of

different microblade types. The quarries at CA

SCRI-93, SCRI-394 (associated with the shell mid dens of SCRI-396 and SCRI-753), and SCRI-395 are located in saddles at elevated locales just west of El Montanon, whereas SCRI-392 is along the coast at China Harbor. Only one of these, SCRI



REPORTS 189

Figure 5. Spatial distribution of chert quarries with evidence of trapezoidal microblade production during late Middle

and Transitional periods (A.D. 900-1300).

395, dates to the early part of the late Holocene prior to the large-scale introduction of the microblade

industry. This highlights a substantial gap in

chronological data that is problematic for our

understanding of quarry use on the East End.

Nonetheless, the limited evidence of late Holocene habitation near chert quarries arguably reflects

logistical forays from coastal villages such as those at Scorpion Anchorage and Smugglers Cove.

The Beginning of the Microblade Industry (A.D. 900-1300)

Comparing the relative distribution of trapezoidal and TDR microblades at quarries with that of late Holocene shell middens, patterns emerge with

respect to differences in chert exploitation between the late Middle and Late periods of Chumash pre

history (Figures 5 and 6). Based on the abundance of trapezoidal-dominated microblade debris at

quarries on El Montanon, Arnold (1987:148-149, 161-163) argues that nearby shell middens were

all associated with microblade production, and

therefore indicative of short-term occupation of the

quarries during such activities. However, the radio carbon dates we obtained from six shell middens associated with these quarries (CA-SCRI-393, SCRI-395, SCRI-396, SCRI-408, SCRI-412, and

SCRI-753) refute this interpretation. Except for SCRI-395 and SCRI-753, both situated near the

quarry at SCRI-394, all of the shell middens appear to date to the middle Holocene, well before the

quarries became chert sources for microblades. Combined with five other middle Holocene shell

middens with surface evidence of microblade pro duction (CA-SCRI-406, SCRI-612, SCRI-699, SCRI-724, and SCRI-751), there is a significant overlap between the locations of trapezoidal microblade production and earlier biface manu

facture. Evident at sites such as CA-SCRI-724 is the use of flakes generated during earlier quarry

ing activities, including during the early stages of biface manufacture. Microblades were habitually removed from these flakes, as people presumably minimized time and labor investments by utilizing



190 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol.75, No. 1,2010]

Figure 6. Spatial distribution of TDR microblade production during the Late period (A.D. 1300-1782).

suitable materials that had already been quarried and decorticated. However, not all middle Holocene sites were targeted, which is particularly evident at

quarries and shell middens south of Smugglers Cove.

The particular chert locales selected for microb lade manufacture at this time, whether quarries or

middle Holocene lithic scatters, are almost always of moderate to high quality, but not necessarily in abundant quantities in any given place. Most of the

quarries with evidence for trapezoidal microblade

production but not middle Holocene habitation, such as CA-SCRI-414, SCRI-415, SCRI-417, and

SCRI-419, are found in narrow saddles of steep

ridgelines and are by far some of the most difficult to access today. Because access to other resources

(i.e., marine and plant foods) is fairly limited at these locales, they do not fit within the model of central place foraging outlined for the middle Holocene. Rather, the relatively small shell scat ters and middens dating to the late Holocene indi cate that individuals or small groups conducted

logistical forays to these quarries to manufacture microblades on site.

The contrast between middle and late Holocene

strategies is exemplified at the El Montanon Com

plex (CA-SCRI-394, SCRI-396, and SCRI-753). Located in close proximity to one another, these three sites include a large, dense quarry (CA-SCRI 394) and two shell middens (SCRI-396 and SCRI

753), all of which have abundant evidence for

trapezoidal microblade production (Arnold 1987:161). Three radiocarbon dates from the

nearby shell middens and evidence of intensive

trapezoidal microblade production date chert

exploitation at CA-SCRI-394 to the middle and late Holocene (Perry 2003:205-209). CA-SCRI 396 is a small moderate-density shell midden sit uated on an exposed, flat area about 100 meters north of the quarry at SCRI-394. Based on the

trapezoidal microblades collected from the site sur

face, Arnold (1987:134-136, 161) interprets SCRI 396 as a "village site devoted to microblade

production" during the late Middle period. How



REPORTS 191

ever, this site has since yielded a radiocarbon date of 2300-1960 cal B.C. (2a) from California mus

sel (Mytilus californianus) fragments recovered from intact deposits 10-15 cm in depth, which sug

gests middle Holocene occupation overlain by microblade manufacture from the late Middle

period. Located 100 meters downhill from SCRI-394

on the same ridgeline, CA-SCRI-753 is a rock shelter with a small, high-density shell midden with evidence for short-term occupation during late Mid dle period (Perry 2003:205-209). In addition to

affording protection from the elements, the rock shelter is not visible from most angles and there fore would have provided a good defensive locale. Both the quarry and rocksheiter floor are covered

with thousands of trapezoidal microblades and microcores. Two radiocarbon dates were obtained from California mussel fragments excavated from a depth of 10-15 cm just inside the drip line of the rocksheiter in intact deposits: 1300-1470 cal A.D. and 1250-1450 cal A.D. (2a). The overlap of these dates is noteworthy; this rocksheiter is one of the

only East End sites potentially dating to the Medieval Climatic Anomaly, a period of intense environmental stress and prolonged droughts in southern California (Jones et al. 1999). Its prox

imity to chert and an "oak-lined stream valley" with reliable freshwater would certainly have made it attractive to islanders (Arnold 1987:134).

The few late Middle period midden deposits that are associated with chert quarries suggest that little control was asserted over the quarries them selves. No definitive evidence of regulation, con

trol, or centralization of trapezoidal microblade

production has been identified thus far (Arnold 1987, 2001a, 2001b; Arnold et al. 2001; Kennett

2005; Perry 2003). Instead, it seems that some quar ries were ignored at this time. The rest do not appear to have been occupied for any meaningful length of time during the late Middle period with respect to territorial signaling or resource defense. These

interpretations are consistent with Kennett's obser vations that "the dispersed nature of microlith

production sites suggests opportunistic exploitation of chert and an industry that was not highly orga nized or specialized" (2005:207).

We argue that the initial stages of the microb lade industry were supported by the discarded debris of earlier biface manufacture, in which the

knapping activities of middle Holocene popula tions influenced the spatial distribution of trape zoidal microblade production. In general, Bamforth

(2000:283, 2003:210) has argued that the flakes

generated from biface reduction would be unlikely to serve as the basis for an overall technological strategy. However, he does acknowledge that early stage biface production flakes are more likely than

mid- to late-stage thinning flakes to be potentially useful. Many of the lithic scatters that we argue were used to support trapezoidal microblade pro duction are at or near chert outcrops, where early stage reduction would have previously taken place. Also, because people would not have been using the flakes as tools themselves; the acute and frag ile edges of the flakes would not have been a deter rent. These edges would have been removed

initially as triangular unprepared microblades before one or more trapezoidal microblades were

removed.

Although both Bamforth (2000:282-283, 2003:283) and Keeley (1980:158) have argued that usable flakes from earlier tool manufacture were

relatively few, both recognize that they must have been produced incidentally, if only on the scale of a few useful flakes out of hundreds. Considering the expediency manifested in the early periods of

microblade manufacture, the fact that many of the lithic scatters that were revisited are relatively near to their initial outcrops and were sites of early stage reduction, and the sheer quantity of flakes pre sent, we argue that it was quite possible for these flakes to have supported the initial stages of a microblade industry characterized by independent, dispersed, and opportunistic tool production that revolved around field processing (Arnold 1987, 2001a, 2001b; Arnold et al. 2001; Kennett 2005;

Perry 2003).

Mining and Microblade Production in the Late Period (A.D. 1300-1782)

The dispersed and opportunistic nature of the begin ning of the microblade industry contrasts signifi cantly with the intensified production, increased

standardization, and greater circumscription of the Late period (Arnold 1987, 1992a, 1993, 2001a, 2001b; Arnold and Graesch 2001; Preziosi 2001). Evidence of the TDR form is associated with inten sive chert exploitation at a smaller number of quar ries, supporting interpretations of intensified




manufacturing efforts and increased circumscrip tion. Field processing seems to have been a com

mon practice during the late Middle period, when it appears that microblades were manufactured in their entirety at the source of raw material. During the Late period, after initial reduction, the remain

ing stages of production appear to have been most

frequently conducted at coastal residential bases.

Trapezoidal microblade production took place at 16 quarries ranging in size from small to large,

most of which are located in the interior at higher elevations around El Montanon. Comparable data for the TDR microblade industry of the Late period is limited to five quarries, of which two (SCRI-392 and Potato Harbor) are located directly on the beach and three (SCRI-610, SCRI-611, and SCRI-630) are very large and dense quarries in the vicinity of

Scorpion Canyon. In contrast to the pattern on El Montanon, TDR

microblades are the dominant form at the two quar ries that are situated directly on the beach, CA SCRI-392 at China Harbor and an unrecorded

quarry area at Potato Harbor. For both sites, large boulders of chert eroded downslope and became

partially buried in sediment, subsequently mimic

king in situ outcrops (Arnold 1987:100). Both quar ries are associated with dense shell middens and are most easily accessed by boat (Arnold 1987:206). Combined with radiocarbon dates from

middens at China Harbor, their use appears to date

primarily to the Late period. Both of the beach

quarries appear to reflect aspects of the increasingly maritime-oriented activities of the late Holocene, as their exploitation makes sense only in the con text of regular boat use. Decreased transportation costs and the ability to transport heavier loads, mak

ing load weight a much smaller concern, may have transformed these quarries from being regarded as

inaccessible or not worth the effort, to lucrative

(see Ames 2002; Andrefsky 1994). In fact, Potato Harbor is located along the major boat route between Scorpion Anchorage and China Harbor, and could have been accessed from either direc tion.

Arnold (1987,2001a, 2001b) and Dietler (2003) interpret variability in the spatial distribution of

microblade types in the context of the industry's intensification from the late Middle to Late period.

Arnold (1987:235-241) argues that in association with the transition from trapezoidal to TDR microb

lade production, islanders increasingly invested in

transporting raw material or chert nodules back to their village sites to intensively manufacture

microblades, rather than conducting the initial

stages of microblade production at the quarries. Such interpretations are supported by evidence from Late period coastal villages and quarries including the village complex at China Harbor,

which seems to have been established in associa tion with the microblade industry (Arnold 1987, 2001a, 2001b; Dietler 2003; Hoover 1971; Kennett et al. 2000; Olson 1930).

Conversely, chert once attractive to microblade makers may have been subsequently ignored because the demand for larger quantities of high quality materials made the higher transportation costs to coastal villages impractical or inefficient. The high-quality chert at quarries on El Montanon is commonly found along narrow ridgelines with limited access. Exploited intensively during the late

Middle period, when the microblade industry was more opportunistic and individually motivated,

they played a less significant role during the Late

period. Although more chronological data are needed to evaluate this hypothesis, we posit that the mining pits at the quarries around Scorpion Canyon reflect Late period pressure on larger chert

quarries closer to the coast. Resulting from increased circumscription, and presumably changes in boat transportation, intensified quarry ing at these locales is consistent with Kennett's observations that "decreased residential mobility also promotes more intensified use of localized resources" (2005:32).

Conclusion

Chert quarries and habitation sites on Santa Cruz Island reflect significant changes in lithic exploita tion and tool production through time that relate to broader shifts in subsistence, residential mobility, and exchange in the northern California Bight. The transition from foraging to collector-based strate

gies, and from mixed marine-terrestrial to inten

sively maritime-focused activities, is manifested in which quarries were targeted and the intensity of their use. Throughout this time, East End residents were engaged in the regional economy of the Santa Barbara Channel through the production of chert tools including bifaces, microblades, and macro



REPORTS 193

drills for making canoes, fishhooks, digging stick

weights, and other equipment (Arnold 1987,2001a, 2001b; Arnold et al. 2001; Kennett 2005). In return, islanders imported a variety of products, including finished chipped tools of mainland obsidian, chert, and fused shale, as evidenced even at chert quar ries such as CA-SCRI-93 (Arnold 1987).

One of the most extensively researched aspects of the prehistory of the northern California Bight has been the development of exchange and com

plexity, particularly as evidenced by the highly vis ible microblade and Olivella shell bead industries

(Arnold 1987, 1992a, 1993, 1995, 2001a, 2001b; Arnold and Graesch 2001; Arnold and Munns

1994; Dietler 2003; Kennett 2005; Kennett and Kennett 2000; Preziosi 2001). Although the impor tance of chert sources on eastern Santa Cruz Island to the microblade industry of the late Holocene has

long been known, and biface production in the VAFB region has been well documented, the man

ufacture of chert bif aces on the Channel Islands has

largely gone unrecognized (Erlandson et al. 2008). Continued excavation of middle Holocene habita tion sites near chert quarries (e.g., CA-SCRI-611 and SCRI-724) will undoubtedly result in greater insights into the biface industry and its relationship to residential mobility and resource use. In certain

contexts, such as at Punta Arena (SCRI-109) and

SCRI-724, hunting sea lions, seals, and dolphins appears to have been an important aspect of mid dle Holocene subsistence (Glassow 2002, 2005a, 2005b; Glassow et al. 2008; Porcasi and Fujita 2000). Through future lithic and faunal analyses we will be able to better understand how this was con ducted as well as the preferential roles of local and

imported bifacial tools in associated activities. Fur

thermore, as more middle Holocene sites are doc umented on the northern Channel Islands, different models of residential mobility and trade may be evaluated through the intra- and inter-island distri bution of chert tools.

Ongoing investigations into variability in chert

exploitation on eastern Santa Cruz Island have sig nificant implications not only for the prehistory of the northern California Bight, but also for lithic studies throughout North America. Lithic studies

comparable to those conducted in the Santa Bar bara Channel may involve a range of lithic mate rials and/or distinct chert sources separated from each other by distances as large as hundreds of

kilometers (e.g., Andrefsky 1994; Austin 1996; Beck et al. 2002; Beck and Jones 1990; Gramly 1980; Hoard et al. 1993; Jones et al. 2003; Julig 1988; Julig et al. 1992; Luedtke 1979; Moore 1989;

Newman 1999; Tankersley 1998). Eastern Santa Cruz Island provides the rare opportunity to explore questions of procurement strategies and mobility in a relatively small, bounded landscape that is dominated by a single type of toolstone. Whereas other lithic materials such as obsidian had to be

imported via boat from the mainland, imposing certain standardized costs, on-island chert pro curement varied considerably depending on the

availability of material, amount of effort required to access it (e.g., mining pits), functional require

ments of different tool morphologies, and trans

portation.

What makes toolstone useful depends not only on the desired tool type and its function, but on the size and quality of the raw material (Bamforth 1992; Beck et al. 2002:491). Whether a particular quarry is used also depends on the mode and dis tance of transportation as well as residential mobil

ity. Studies commonly focus on how

decision-making regarding lithic exploitation was

influenced by broader settlement and subsistence

patterns, or "the limitations and complexities of the overall resource procurement and mobility strat

egy" (Beck and Jones 1990:287; Beck et al. 2002; Jones et al. 2003). However, Andrefsky (1994), among others, has argued that raw material avail

ability may have greater direct influence on tool

production than settlement strategies. Especially interesting is how the beginning of the microblade

industry was seemingly influenced by the distrib ution of materials discarded during biface manu facture and other flint-knapping activities in the middle Holocene. Earlier periods of chert exploita tion on Santa Cruz Island are analogous in some

ways to high mobility among late Pleistocene/early Holocene populations of the Great Basin, in which lithic procurement was "embedded in the Paleoar chaic subsistence schedule" (Beck and Jones 1990; Beck et al. 2002:483; Jones et al. 2003). Future research on chert exploitation on the northern Chan nel Islands, with particular attention given to the

early and middle Holocene, will undoubtedly pro vide comparative data for mainland studies, but with very different mobility and transportation con straints.




Continued studies of chert exploitation on the northern Channel Islands will also provide addi tional insights into microblade industries through out North America (see Odell 1994). The

microblade industry most similar to that docu mented on eastern Santa Cruz Island was concen

trated at the very large urban and economic center of Cahokia (Arnold 1987; Dietler 2003; Yerkes

1983:499), indicating that the relevance of this

study is not confined to hunter-gatherer societies. The example of Cahokia is particularly interesting because of the many parallels that it has with craft

specialization on Santa Cruz Island, including dis tinct spatial differences between where microliths and shell beads were manufactured (Mason and Perino 1961:554; Yerkes 1983:500). Further research is needed to better understand the striking similarities between the two microlith industries and their antecedents despite the substantial envi ronmental and cultural differences between Cahokia and the northern California Bight.

Finally, boats and coastal environments rarely are specifically incorporated into models of hunter

gatherer foraging, although Ames (2002) and oth ers have considered the differential costs of field

processing and boat transportation, among other

factors, based on archaeological and ethnographic accounts from the Northwest Coast of North Amer ica. Traveling by boat would have been faster than

walking in some cases, and would have decreased

transportation costs by requiring fewer trips for the same amount of material. As the costs of trans

porting unprocessed materials decrease, so too do the advantages of field processing (Ames 2002; Beck et al. 2002:486,492). On Santa Cruz Island, reliance on boats to travel to and from quarries as

well as transport quarried materials is implied by the exploitation of chert outcrops at Potato Harbor

and China Harbor. The use of boats also explains the prevalence of chert at Xaxas at Prisoners Har

bor, which at over 15 km away from the nearest

large quarry would have been a strenuous hike but

less substantial paddle. Further study of these quar ries and their by-products can provide important

perspectives on the relationship between craft spe cialization and regular boat use on the northern Channel Islands and in other littoral settings.

Chert studies in the California Bight can be con

ducted on different scales of analysis from inter

village, to intra-island, to inter-island, to

island-mainland, providing different levels of com

parison with those of mainland North America. Different spheres of trade and interaction, both local and regional, can be explored, including those

involving boats. Furthermore, it is possible to eval uate changes in chert exploitation through time, since some of the same quarries have likely been used from the earliest occupation of the islands to the early 1800s, and thus offering perspectives on

developments in quarrying practices and tool tech

nologies in the broader context of cultural change. In sum, island chert quarries and the industries with which they were involved will continue to yield important insights into diachronic changes and syn chronic variability in chert quarrying and tool pro duction in the California Bight, as well as their

dynamic interrelationships with subsistence, resi dential mobility, exchange, and complexity.

Acknowledgments. We are most grateful to the following

people who assisted us in research pertaining to the chert

quarries: Ahmed Ali, Bill Duncan, David Daniels, Ciara

Fernandez, Emily Gable, Dan Gladwell, Kristin Hoppa, Lisa

Hosales, Gary Jones, Ian Lindsay, Talin Lindsay, Erica

Maier, Amy McManus, Ellen Moody, Elyse Rodriguez, Katie Ryan, Ian Stonerock, and Alan Theng. Conversations

with Jeanne Arnold, Matt Des Lauriers, Mike Glassow, Doug Kennett, Dustin McKenzie, and Sam Spaulding have been

very insightful. We thank Karin Klemic for illustrating the

artifacts in Figure 4, as well as Jeanne Arnold and the

University of Utah Press for granting permission to reprint the illustrations in Figure 2. We greatly appreciate the very

helpful comments and suggestions of Douglas Bamforth, John Dietler, Kenneth Tankersley, and two anonymous reviewers. We also extend our gratitude to Ann Huston,

Kelly Minas, Lulis Cuevas, and Channel Islands National

Park, as well as the Haynes Foundation for funding part of

this research.

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Notes

1. Although "microlith" is the most appropriate term for

this artifact class, for historical reasons we employ the fol

lowing terms, most often used in the archaeological literature

in the Santa Barbara Channel: microblades, microblade cores,

and microdrills. Arnold, Preziosi, and Shattuck (2001:114) define microblades as "whole or fragmentary microlithic

specimens (narrow and <50 mm long) produced from formal

microblade cores, with no bits." Microdrills are "modified

microblades and must include some or all of a retouched bit

to be so classified."

2. According to Arnold et al. (2001), trapezoidal microliths are "broad, thin, and trapezoidal in cross-section"

and "detached from cores exhibiting many overlapping microblade scars" (2001:115). The triangular with dorsal

retouch type, also referred to as TDR, is "narrow, thick, and

triangular in cross section and exhibits multiple, small dorsal

flake scars. These microblades were detached from cores that

were prepared by percussion retouch along a prominent

ridge" (2001:116). There are also triangular undiagnostic microliths that are "triangular in cross section but lack dorsal

retouch" (Arnold et al. 2001:116).

Submitted April 28, 2009; Revised July 2, 2009; Accepted October 20, 2009.



Spatial and Temporal Variability in Chert Exploitation on Santa Cruz Island, California

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