Significance of Sexual Pleasure in Human Sexuality: An Understanding in the Light of Emphasis on...

SIGNIFICANCE OF SEXUAL PLEASURE

IN HUMAN SEXUALITY

An Understanding in the Light of Emphasis on

Sexual Pleasure in the Kāmasūtra

Department of Philosophy

SIGNIFICANCE OF SEXUAL PLEASURE

IN HUMAN SEXUALITY

An Understanding in the Light of Emphasis on

Sexual Pleasure in the Kāmasūtra

Vikas Prabhu

(Reg. No. 1124769)

DIRECTOR

Dr. Jojo Parecattil

A Thesis

Submitted to the Faculty of Philosophy

in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Master of Philosophy

Bangalore

March 2013

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE vi

INTRODUCTION: THE SEMANTICS OF HUMAN SEXUALITY 1

CHAPTER 1

THE SIGNIFICANT VALUE OF PLEASURE IN SEXUALITY

5

1.1. THE TWOFOLD NATURE OF SEXUALITY 6

1.2. THE CHANNEL OF INTIMACY 7

1.2.1. The Desire : Pleasure Axis of Human Sexuality 8

1.2.2. Kāma as Totality of Desire : Pleasure 9

1.3. THE PARADIGM OF SEXUAL PLEASURE 11

1.3.1. The Non-Dual Nature of Sexual Pleasure 12

1.3.2. The Nature of Sexual Intercourse 13

1.3.3. The Imperative of Orgasm 14

CHAPTER 2

THE EMPHASIS ON SEXUAL PLEASURE IN THE KĀMASŪTRA

17

2.1. THE CONTEXT OF KĀMASŪTRA 18

2.2. THE PREROGATIVE OF KĀMĀ 21

2.2.1. The Seed and Soul of Eroticism in Indian Tradition 21

2.2.2. Kāma as Puruṣārtha, an Inevitable End of Life 22

iv

2.3. KĀMĀSŪTRA’S SEXUAL INSIGHT WITH ETHICAL OUTLOOK 24

2.3.1. Situating Kāma within the Bounds of Dharma 25

2.3.2. Redefining Dharma in the Context of Kāma 27

2.3.3. Finality in the Model of an Egalitarian Sexual Dharma 27

2.4. THE EMPHASIS ON SEXUAL PLEASURE IN THE KĀMASŪTRA 28

2.4.1. The Emphasis on Detailed Preparation and Setup 29

2.4.2. The Emphasis on Erotic Tendencies 30

2.4.3. The Emphasis on Creativity and Perversions 31

2.4.4. The Emphasis on Courtesan Love 33

2.4.5. The Emphasis on Intensification through Mild Violence 34

2.4.6. The Emphasis on Virility and Aphrodisiacs 35

2.5. THE IDEAL SEX IS THE ONE BETWEEN EQUALS 36

CHAPTER 3

THE VALUE PROPOSITIONS OF SEXUAL PLEASURE

38

3.1. A VALUE THAT TRANSCENDS RATIONALITY 39

3.1.1. Freudian Toothbrush Example 39

3.1.2. Valuation in the Capacity of Overwhelm 39

3.2. THE VALUE PROPOSITIONS 40

3.2.1. The Innate Nature of Sexuality 41

3.2.2. The Inscrutable Origin of Sexual Reproduction 42

3.2.3. The Prevalence of Perversions and Role-Playing 43

3.2.4. The Fact of Female Orgasm 44

v

3.3. REFUTATION OF THEORIES DEVALUATING SEXUAL PLEASURE 45

3.3.1. Refutation of the Primacy of Procreative End 46

3.3.2. Refutation of the Gender Valuation of Sexual Pleasure 47

3.3.3. Refutation of Physiological Explanation of Sexual Pleasure 48

CONCLUSION: A FIRM VALUATION OF SEXUAL PLEASURE

FOR BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF SEXUALITY

50

GLOSSARY 53

APPENDIX 1

THE BIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL DEFINITION OF GENDER

54

APPENDIX 2

THE WILY HANDS OF NATURE

56

APPENDIX 3

THE PARALLEL BETWEEN MONOTHEISM AND MONOGAMY

58

BIBLIOGRAPHY 60

vi

PREFACE

Sexuality is one of mankind’s biggest preoccupations since the dawn of his

intelligence, and quite evidently prostitution is believed to be the oldest profession of

the world. The concept of sexuality has commanded a significant share in human

discourse of every century, either in the eagerness to explore it, or through fervent

attempts to define it or in the futile struggles to suppress or sublimate it. The

significance of sexuality in human nature is evident in the example of the Freudian

school of psychology which believed that agriculture itself was invented from an

understanding of the ‘rhythmic fertility’ or sexuality of Mother Earth. It is by

comparing every object of perception with sexuality that we have got a better sense of

all that we perceived.1 For instance, ancient cults believed rain to be the seminal seed

of the heavens, and further the Earth’s seasonal cycles were pictured in comparison

with menstruation in women.2 The thread of sexuality that runs through canons of

human literature, especially the romantic share of it, is testimony of the fact that

though human sexuality has its physical dimensions in pleasure and reproductive

capacity, metaphysically it forms a subtle and delicate aspect of human existentiality

itself.3 An awakening of sexuality arouses the placid body as well as sapped spirit. In

Kings 1:1-4, the old king David is revitalized by a young virgin lying in his bosom

and ministering to his needs.4

Sexuality has been a matter of focus in the Indian context, both historically

and philosophically. In the Ṛgveda, the word used for tilling the earth, parāhatā, has

clear sexual connotations, and so is the use of words denoting the wetness of a moist

earth, insinuating a sexual longing.5 Kāmasūtra, though belonging to the core of

Indian tradition, is recognized even in the west as the greatest treatise on sexual

philosophy. By focusing on the essence of sexual pleasure and through the usage of

1 Engler, “Sexuality and Knowledge in Sigmund Freud,” 222.

2 Bishop, Sex and Spirit, 16.

3 Chackalackal, “Editorial” to “Sex and Religion,” 6.

4 Cakravarti, Sex Life in Ancient India, 105.

5 Fiser, Indian Erotics of the Oldest Period, 44.

vii

the dry language of aphorisms, Kāmasūtra deftly avoids being included in the annals

of romantic literature,6 hence, earning for itself an academic and scientific evaluation.

This dissertation is a discourse on the constitution of sexuality from the

perspective of the role played by pleasure. Though there would be scattered allusions

to the metaphysical nature of sexuality, the dissertation will not pursue the

fundamental nature of sexuality itself, but only from the aspect of sexual pleasure.

The dissertation aims to establish its thesis using as its basis the emphasis laid on the

experience of sexual pleasure in Kāmasūtra. Through an esoteric reading of the

Kāmasūtra, the dissertation establishes the value of sexual pleasure, insofar as it not

only stands apart from other sensual pleasures by virtue of its detachment from sexual

desire, but also embodies a distinct ontological value in itself. The signification of

this value is further substantiated through arguments in favour of it as well as refuting

of contentions that devaluate it.

Apart from the two principal translations of Kāmasūtra, the dissertation has

involved a diverse reading in areas of philosophy, psychology, and moral theology. I

convey my deepest appreciation to the staff of DVK Central Library for assistance in

accessing these resources from their annals. I convey my heartfelt gratitude to Dr.

Jojo Parecattil, my director, for his meticulous guidance in matters of research and

formulation. A special gratitude is due, to Dr. Shaji Kochuthara for his timely advice

regarding the essential readings of Kāmasūtra and directions on its reliable sources. I

also extend my sincere thankfulness to faculty members Dr. Saju Chackalackal,

President, DVK and Dr. Jose Nandhikkara, Dean, Faculty of Philosophy, DVK for

their valuable inputs and references. Above all, I bow solemnly to the almighty God,

for breathing into me, an inquisitively irrepressible will that has been my deliverance

on many a despairing occasion.

March 2013 Vikas Prabhu

Bangalore Christ University

6 Kochuthara, “Kāma without Dharma?” 82.

1

INTRODUCTION

THE SEMANTICS OF HUMAN SEXUALITY

“We live in a sex crazed world… Not a day goes by without encountering

sexual images, innuendos or appeals.”7 Sex, in its different avatars, is as ubiquitous in

the contemporary world, as it has possibly been since time immemorial. Sex

infiltrates every new technology and culture that dawns upon us, and in a short span

of time ends up carving a niche for itself. When the age of internet bloomed and new

avenues of communication opened up, sex also flourished along with it. No statistic

is needed to show the level of reach that pornography has scaled up to. Schopenhauer

says sexual impulse is like the inner life of a tree, which is why it is so strong and

deep in us.8 Sexual desire, for him, constitutes the very nature of man.

9

There is a sense of unassailability in compulsions of sexuality. Through its

dictum, “let the ascetic not enjoy any object of sensual gratification,”10

the Vasiṣṭa

Dharma Sūtra underlines the insurmountable nature of sexual pleasure. It elucidates:

In ancient India, students and religious men were enjoined not only to observe strictly sexual

chastity, but also to restrain and control all their senses. For sensual excitements and

pleasures gradually led to sexual incontinence. And sexual pleasure is the climax of tactile

stimulation. The visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and tactual stimuli may all be effective

in arousing sexual excitement.11

This idea of sexuality prevailed, in India, right from Vedic times, as can be witnessed

in the sexual connotations imbued into the very concept of sacrificial rites. In the

Śatapata Brāhmaṇa, the construction of the sacrificial altar is correlated with the

union of a woman with a man, where the altar is viewed upon as the woman and the

fire as her male counterpart, and the overall rite as the woman embracing the man.

7 Hollinger, The Meaning of Sex, 11.

8 Schopenhauer, The Will to Live, 104.

9 Schopenhauer, The Will to Live, 106.



2

Similarly, the kindling of the sacred fire using friction-sticks is seen as a coition of a

pair of eternal lovers.12

Ancient Indians interpreted the world around them using

sexual themes. “Parjanya, the god of rain, is said to deposit the sperm in [the Earth]

like a bull… He refreshes (or ‘satisfies’) the Earth with his sperm… [Also] the act of

cosmic production is sometimes described in terms of the sexual intercourse of the

father Heaven with the mother Earth.”13

Furthermore, “sexual terminology as the

means of poetic embellishment is one of the striking phenomena of Vedic poetry and

we can quote many examples where the idea of copulation or sexual penetration was

chosen as the most appropriate expression for various processes observed the world

around.”14

Worshipping the phallus is a popular cult practised by many sects of the

Śaivaite group in India, yet “the phallus is not [just] an image of the male ego; it’s a

representation of earth’s potency and life’s capacity for creativity and pleasure.”15

Yet the rich cultural expositions and the variety of experiences over history

have lent ambivalence to the area of sexuality. “Modern society’s combined

moralism against and obsession with sex indicates that we have not yet discovered the

deeper meaning of sexuality.”16

In today’s times, “one word characterizes most

people’s attitude towards their own sexuality – confusion. They don’t understand

their attractions and desires… They sustain the hope that one day they will find

sexual bliss, but so far that hope has not been realized.”17

“The term eroticism is

ambiguous. It can designate, first, one of the components of human sexuality, its

instinctual and sensual component. It can also designate the art of loving built upon

the cultivation of sexual pleasure. But eroticism becomes a restless desire for

pleasure when it dissociates itself from the network of tendencies linked by the

concern for a lasting, intimate interpersonal bond, and at this point it becomes a

problem.”18

Sexuality is the avenue for humans to seek a pervading oneness in their

being. The meaning of sex is primarily about love, human flourishing, and self-

12

Fiser, Indian Erotics of the Oldest Period, 109. 13



Moore, The Soul of Sex, 42. 16



Ricoeur, “Sexuality and the Modern World,” 137.

3

actualization,19

and the spiritual experience of sexual pleasure is an avenue to reach

the promised land of sexual bliss. Consequently, sex has carried the symbolism of

expressing the experience of that ultimate togetherness called love,20

and the need of

the hour is to reintroduce this perception back into the realm of sex.

The paradigm of sexual pleasure is such that it does not present a concrete

limit for its experience. Its goodness, in terms of purity in its value, is unlimited.

When sexual pleasure is experienced in connection with its spiritual dimension, it

provides for a harmonizing of sexuality. One should approach pleasure with the

attitude of a connoisseur and not the selfish hankering of an addict. Nescient desire

for pleasure leads to it abuse, and it is the belief of this dissertation that a wholesome

understanding of the value of sexual pleasure will lead to its rightful experience. True

knowledge is always the precursor to rightful experience.

This dissertation is an analysis of the ontological value of sexual pleasure

within the realm of human sexuality. The Kāmasūtra is the one of most widely

accepted works on the ideals of human sexuality, and this dissertation proceeds with

the postulate that unearthing the emphasis laid upon the experience of sexual pleasure

by the Kāmasūtra is in itself a strong argument in favour of establishing its value.

With this value proposition as the core, a set of fringe arguments are proposed in

order to significantly establish the value of sexual pleasure, as a value that is not

subjugated to any causal relations and is a finality unto itself. This treatment of

sexuality is only from a metaphysical perspective, and the dissertation does not

attempt any ethical approaches whatsoever. Though the Kāmasūtra has significant

ethical standpoints in its exposition, this dissertation clearly avoids assimilating or

arguing upon any of its moral positions. Furthermore, in establishing the value of

sexual pleasure, there shall be no utilitarian approaches either.

The signification in the value of sexual pleasure is proposed to be arrived in

three stages. The first, being a general understanding of the nature of sexual pleasure

within the domain of human sexuality. The second, establishing the value through its

19

Hollinger, The Meaning of Sex, 57. 20

Kochuthara, “Conjugal Sex Pleasure,” 46.

4

comprehension in the Kāmasūtra, which is an established authority in its area. The

third, reinforcing the value through concerted arguments in its favour.

The first chapter seeks the value of sexual pleasure in connection with the

channel of intimacy between human partners. Further investigation into the nature of

sexual intercourse and the experience of orgasm leads to a deeper understanding of

the singularity in the nature of sexual pleasure. The second chapter undertakes a

comprehensive reading of the Kāmasūtra in an attempt to unearth its emphasis on the

experience on sexual pleasure. Kāmasūtra is a world renowned authority in the area

of sexuality and hidden beneath its moral façade is a treasure of metaphysical

expositions. The prerogative placed upon sexual experience and the emphasis laid

upon the value of its pleasure in the Kāmasūtra forms the basis of establishing its

irrefutable value. The third and final chapter serves to appraise and establish the

irreconcilability of sexual pleasure through arguments in its favour as well as in

refuting the arguments that deem to devaluate its position in human experience. It is

envisaged that at the end of the third chapter, a true understanding in the value of

sexual pleasure would be established.

Once a firm understanding of the value is established, two potential areas of

further research can be envisioned downstream. One would be to put the value of

sexual pleasure to a test of its limits. The application of the law of diminishing

marginal utility in the domain of sexual pleasure would help in providing a better

understanding of the dynamics of waning interests in typical pair bonding

relationships. Another area of research would be to study the bearing of changes in

value perception of sexual pleasure, taking Hein’s analysis as a starting point, which

says: strong erotic bonds are essentially the glue of a social community, and a rise in

sexual inclinations of the community members is the society’s defence against its

internal disorganization.21

The results of these two streams of analysis would serve to

enhance relationships in both the conjugal as well as communitarian domains, through

the channel of application of the understanding of the value of sexual pleasure.

21

Hein, “Rādhā and Erotic Community,” 120.

5

CHAPTER 1

THE SIGNIFICANT VALUE OF PLEASURE IN SEXUALITY

The word ‘sex’ is a veritable mongrel in the English language. On the one

hand, it denotes the gender of the person; hence, a standalone entity necessarily

determined by the anatomy of the person; while on the other hand, sex is an act of

intimacy, necessarily involving more than one person. Thus, in popular mindset, sex

has connotations referring to the two antipodes of personality, that of subjectivity as

well as inter-subjectivity. Sexual words and phrases find usage in new contexts with

every passing day, not just in the realm of the two extremes but in the continuum

spanning all human emotions and feelings. Its ramifications are various, carrying

sometimes, the squalid detestations of a pariah, and sometimes, the familiarity of a

house pet. Therefore, it would not be unreasonable to claim that it is the gamut of

sexual vocabulary that lends English its glamour and renders it lively and dynamic in

tune with the times. Sexuality, born in this background of sex, has inherited a similar

heritage.

Sexuality is often defined as the state of being sexual, which is the process of

recognizing one’s sexual identity based on anatomical gender. Such a gender based

definition of sexuality is a highly primitive interpretation, and may not bear

ontological accuracy until gender itself is redefined in a non-discrete continuum,

bearing in the bio-psychological domain of the human person.22

However, attaching

sexuality to gender is a parochial perspective in itself, as it grossly understates the

essence and dynamics of sexuality, belying the passion espoused by endless

discourses on sexuality throughout centuries of human civilization, as well as

disembodying it from the dynamics of pleasure that inhabit the core of sexuality.

Sexuality is the “aspect of humanity that seems to link us variously to animals and to

22

See Appendix 1, 54.

6

gods”23

and its ideal definition is one that simultaneously upholds its metaphysical

fabric and also plunges into the depths of its pervasiveness. For Freud, sexuality was

a model where “the philosophic antipodes, body and soul, were clearly overcome.”24

1.1. THE TWOFOLD NATURE OF SEXUALITY

Sexuality possesses the dual natures of immanence and transcendence. The

immanent aspect facilitates in creating an awareness of the innate individuality, while

in its transcendent state, it aids in distending human nature in order to facilitate its

encounter and interaction with the correspondingly distended identities of others.

“The individual, who always tends to close in on himself, as if he were a totality, is

opened by sexuality to his fellows.”25

The dual nature of sexuality forms a coalescing

undercurrent to the dualistic subject-object understanding of reality, as a bridge that

connects the reality of one’s self with the inter-subjective reality of other individual

selves. “Human sexuality beyond its mere physical dimensions both in terms of

genital pleasure and reproductive aspects, is a very subtle and delicate human

existential power capable of effecting mutually enhancing human relationships,

primarily through the intense but lifelong commitment and love;”26

“at its height, the

state of being in love threatens to obliterate the boundaries between ego and the

object.”27

Freudian school of psychoanalysis believed love to be an aimless form of

sexual urge. Though critics of Freud may have some merit in differentiating love as a

cultural product, it would be a depreciation of love to insulate it from sex altogether,

as feelings of ‘primitive love’ are usually nothing else but raw sexual desire itself.28

Sexuality as a force is most widely recognized in the sexual impulse or libido.

Libido is a pure force, in so far as it awakens the spirit with a longing whose end is

23

Nye, “Introduction” to Sexuality, ed. Robert A. Nye, 3. 24

Engler, “Sexuality and Knowledge in Sigmund Freud,” 221. 25

Ricoeur, “Sexuality and the Modern World,” 149. 26

Chackalackal, “Editorial” to “Sex and Religion,” 6. 27


Fiser, Indian Erotics of the Oldest Period, 17.

7

none other than its own realization, or fulfilment, to use a sexuality-laden phrase.

Sexual impulse can be directed towards oneself as forcefully as it is directed towards

others irrespective of the age, gender or species of the counterpart. The dual nature of

sexuality is duly reflected in this manifold expression of human libido. Though

sexuality links variously to the innate core of being human, yet through the channel of

the sexual act, it bridges the gap between individual and collective identity.

Consequently, sexuality is not just the key to understanding the world but also to

being an integral part of it. As per Schopenhauer, “that which presents itself in the

individual consciousness as sexual impulse in general… is in itself, and apart from the

phenomenon, simply the will to live.”29

1.2. THE CHANNEL OF INTIMACY

Sexuality carries its potency through the channels of love and intimacy.

“Human beings are sexual beings whether or not they engage in acts of sex… [Sex] is

the act of intimacy reflecting our sexuality.”30

Like Guru Pitka, in the movie The

Love Guru (2008) says: ‘Intimacy is really, into-me-I-see’. Intimacy is the ground of

love in so far as it influences the feeling of love in a human person. Intimacy is felt at

different levels, the primary being the act of sexual intercourse. Through the channel

of intimacy, an individual not only establishes a ground of inter-subjective connection

but also initiates a process of exploring the depths of his or her own personality.

Intimacy is the conduit through which the dimension of self merges with the

dimension of the other. “It is not enough for a man to know his women; the seducer

must know himself.”31

Psychologist Sidney Callahan believes, “sexual pleasure

inclines those who enjoy it not toward a state of selfish isolation but toward the world.

Sexual activity is essentially boundary-blurring…”32

29

Schopenhauer, The Will to Live, 73. 30


Thomas, Hindu Religion Customs and Manners, 116. 32

Kochuthara, “Conjugal Sex Pleasure,” 53.

8

The grand attention laid on sexual intercourse is precisely due to the peak of

intimacy that can be reached through it. “Sexual intercourse is an interpersonal union

of love in which at the moment of consummation, the [partners] are one and at the

same time separate persons.”33

Heightened experience of intimacy carries a human

person on the path to realization of his or her sexuality, and it is precisely with this

objective of achieving the peak that humans feel the compulsion towards desiring

concupiscence with a hunger that often transcends rational limits. Winner views the

intimacy of intercourse as “the only physical state other than pregnancy where it is

hard to tell where one person’s body stops and the other’s starts.”34

1.2.1. The Desire : Pleasure Axis of Human Sexuality

Sexual desire comes embedded with an aspect of irresistibility; one that

fervently exposes the face of human weakness, and it is this seeming caveat of

embarrassment to humanness that has impelled moral and religious authority to shun

sexuality as a whole. The diktats urging sexual continence, prevalent in the moral and

religious canons of east and west alike, are not a demonization of sexual pleasure, but

subtle curbs placed with the objective of stemming the origin of sexual desire. It is an

incorrect notion to view religious abnegation of sexuality as a mortification of sexual

pleasure, while considering sexual desire as an inevitability that can only be

controlled by suppressing it altogether. “[Sexual] pleasure is not damaging to God-

experience; there is no conflict between pleasure and moral life.”35

Though “psychological theories have tended to emphasize the frustrated state

of sexual desire and to construe sexual pleasure as a relief from that state,”36

the

interplay of desire and pleasure, in the realm of sexuality, is not on the one-

dimensional plane of cause and effect. Sexual desire, like any other sensual desire,

33

Kochuthara, “Conjugal Sex Pleasure,” 49. 34

Winner, Real Sex, 37. 35

Kochuthara, “Kāma without Dharma?” 90. 36

Ruddick, “Better Sex,” 86.

9

could be viewed as a cause, in so far as sexual pleasure is its motivator and the object

of the desire is to pursue satisfaction through the channel of sexual pleasure; yet this

is not the complete picture, as sexual desire has a higher conceptual value beyond

mere hankering after pleasure.

Sexual desire, though a seeming function of physiological needs, is a curious

instinct that cannot be categorized with the other inborn instincts. At the moment of

its culmination, sexual excitement has proved to desensitize the individual towards all

other instincts, even to the extent of circumventing the fear of death.37

Sexual desire

is the compulsion of man to realize his unity, by participating in an act, such as coitus,

where all dimensions of the self, higher and lower, spiritual and physical are

inextricably woven, entailing both physical and mental components and as such

becoming the appropriate vehicle for the essence of the self.38

Sexual pleasure, on its

part, embodies a value much beyond the mere satisfaction of sexual desire. Thus, in

the realm of sexuality, sexual desire and sexual pleasure, though joined by the axis of

a sexual experience, are not seen to be linked by mere causal connections. The

philosopher Arnold Davidson insinuates this causal detachment between sexual desire

and sexual pleasure when he says:

While ars erotica is organized around the framework of body-pleasure-intensification,

scientia sexualis is around the axis of subject-desire-truth. It is as if one could say that the

imposition of true discourses on the subject of sexuality leads to the centrality of a theory of

sexual desire, while the discourse of pleasure and the search for its intensification are exterior

to the science of sexual desire… [Leading] to detach the experience of pleasure from a

psychological theory of sexual desire.39

1.2.2. Kāma as Totality of Desire : Pleasure

The Vedic Indians embodied an open culture in terms of their sexuality.

Sexual life was predominantly heterosexual, while there is a silence on homosexual

37



Davidson, The Emergence of Sexuality, 211.

10

relations and bestiality.40

This does not attest to the absence of homosexual practices.

Incest was consented to as a matter of fact,41

while premarital intercourse was

accepted,42

and extra-marital relations were practised unbridled.43

“There were no

rules demanding virginity of women at time of marriage.”44

Such was the Indian

tradition, and the word they used to denote the essence of their sexuality was kāma.

Kāma, the Sanskrit noun, denotes the whole range of possible experiences

within the sphere of love, sex, sensual gratification, and delight.45

The multifaceted

nature of kāma is similar to dharma, which through its variegated meanings

esoterically spans the spectrum from religious duty to moral righteousness. In its

various depictions and symbolizations, kāma stands for both a desire for pleasure,

sexual and otherwise, as well as the experience of pleasure itself. Texts like

Bhagavadgītā, Manusmṛti and the various Dharma Sūtras portray kāma as the force

of lustful desire, while for Kāmasūtra and its ilk, kāma is the more metaphysical

“consciousness of pleasure that arises from the contact [of organs of sense with its

objects].”46

Thus, the desire-pleasure continuum which forms the core of human

sexuality is encapsulated by Indian philosophy in just one word, kāma. Such

conceptualization is testimonial of the wisdom of ancient Indian sages, who not just

sought to affirm a seamless continuum from desire to pleasure in sexuality but also

categorically symbolized its essentially non-dual nature.

In the Kāmasūtra, kāma is defined as the enjoyment of pleasure by the senses

with assistance from the mind and in collaboration with the soul. Furthermore,

Vātsyāyana also goes on to say that kāma is that which is learned from the Kāmasūtra

as well as through the tenets generally practised by citizens.47

This subtly underlines

the nature of sexuality as the overarching noumenon between mind, body and soul,

40

Fiser, Indian Erotics of the Oldest Period, 64 41





Kapoor, ed., Encyclopaedia of Indian Heritage, vol. 45: Vatsyayana, 48. 46


Vātsyāyana’s reference to citizens is that of a Nāgaraka, the ideal, well-bred social citizen,

who is ably learned, well-groomed, and bearing a pleasant mannerism. The Nāgaraka is aware of his

moral frame and duly fulfils the responsibilities required of him at various stages of his life, especially

that of Brahmacarya and Gṛhstha.

11

and the role played by human creativity therein. Creativity is that which adheres to

standards while also trying to go beyond them, in order to create systems of higher

intelligence with better experiential dimensions. The experience of pleasure in

sexuality, after thorough understanding, can be codified into a model and its nature

can, to an extent, be well defined, yet, it does not remain limited to them. It strives

forever to go beyond and establish newer heights. The Kāmasūtra attempts to create

a holistic treatise on the nature of sexual pleasure, yet makes room for its creative

aspect, that cannot be preordained. The axis of desire and pleasure then, according to

the Kāmasūtra, can be drawn from end to end, but its definition cannot be limited to

just a straight line between those ends.

1.3. THE PARADIGM OF SEXUAL PLEASURE

“Pleasure is the erotic dynamic of the cosmos.”48

The Greek philosopher

Epicurus described it as ataraxia, sometimes translated as tranquillity or peace of

mind.49

The nature of pleasure is such that it can be seen to be infinitely more

religious, sacred and virtuous than any of its contraries.50

“Pleasure is not an enemy

of the ultimate ends of life but a natural and necessary step towards it. The value of

sexual pleasure does not depend on its utility for some other end… it is a good in

itself…”51

Even the Gods were fabled to have experienced sexuality in its pleasing

aspect, and not merely for its coital aspect. In chapter VII of the Ṛgveda, the gods

Mitra and Varuṇa, excited by the praises lavished on them, start emitting sperms, not

in the manner of ejaculation of coition, but rather an effusion of semen owing to a

heightened excitement.52

“Pleasure is enjoyable independent of any function

pleasurable activity fulfils.”53

Sexual pleasure, for Freud, was a channel where the

48






Ruddick, “Better Sex,” 86.

12

human self experiences itself as a psychosomatic whole.54

Augustine believed, “so

possessing indeed is [sexual] pleasure that at the moment of time in which it is

consummated, all mental activity is suspended.”55

1.3.1. The Non-Dual Nature of Sexual Pleasure

Most pleasures of our world fall into the bracket of a pleasure – pain duality.

It is only a small set of unique pleasures that do not have pains associated with it, and

sexual pleasure, as can be seen at the outset, belongs to this class. The value of this

class of pleasures is underlined in Plato’s words when he says: “Life is not worth

living for pleasures, whose enjoyment entirely depends on a previous sensation of

pain.”56

In his book With Pleasure, the sexologist Paul Abramson asserts that “we

have no memory for sexual pleasure (or any other sort of pleasure, for that matter)

[and that sensation of pleasure] is simply not represented in the human brain.”57

Though this argument may be accepted, there is no denying that humans have a deep

sense of memory associated with pain. Pain leaves an impression so strong, in

humans and animals alike, that it draws an influence upon the psychic personality of

the creature. Consequently, the priority of desire gradually turns from a pursuit of

pleasure to an avoidance of pain.

This pain-shunning aspect, given the non-dual nature of sexual pleasure, can

never be attributed to sexual desire. Thus sexual desire is innate to human nature,

pursuing a pleasure with an a-priori metaphysical value. In this respect, sexual desire

can be viewed as a subtle desire for perennial youth that arises in human beings for

the purpose of uninterrupted enjoying of sexual bliss.58

54


Augustine, City of God, 464. 56

Plato, Phaedrus and Letters VII and VIII, 69. 57

Abramson, With Pleasure, 144. 58

Agarwal, The Philosophy of Sex, 2.

13

1.3.2. The Nature of Sexual Intercourse

Sexual intercourse is the hallmark of sexuality. It “has an altogether special

complexity for the reason that it involves a level below that open to consciousness.”59

The desire for sexual intercourse is innate in a human being. It is neither the function

of a tension within sexual organs, owing to factors of age, culture or season, nor is it

the result of any accumulation of hormonal chemicals or reproductive juices. All

sexual activity, including sexual intercourse, is essentially of psychic origin.60

The nature of sexual intercourse is to provide mutual pleasure; to give sensual

pleasure to the other and receive sensual pleasure from the other, which, is the

apparent ideal of the sexual exchange.61

Its esoteric value is to create a ground that

consequently strengthens the conjugal union. In the sexual union of a couple, “two

bodies are never [more] closer: penetration has the mystique of union, and the

orgasmic finale is the exploding climax of one person’s abandonment to another, the

most fierce, and yet most sensitive experience of trust.”62

Intercourse may sometimes

invoke the dynamics of sadomasochistic perversity in order to fulfil its nature of

pleasure, but when done with mutual consent it serves to heighten the intimacy by

opening the personality of one partner with a frank innocence toward the other. This

essential aspect of intimacy that is so gloriously personified in the act of consensual

sexual intercourse is so vivid that even the visual arts such at dance, painting and

sculptures are greatly inspired by it. Freud goes on suggest a model of hypnosis that

draws a parallel with the act of intercourse: “The essence of hypnosis lies in an

unconscious fixation of the subject’s libido to the figure of the hypnotist, through the

medium of the masochistic components of the sexual instinct.”63

Nature seems to play its cards close to its chest, making it nearly impossible

for humans to understand its workings by putting its pieces together; in this respect,

59

Oraison, The Human Mystery of Sexuality, 124. 60



Smedes, Sex for Christians, 112. 63

Freud, The Essentials of Psychoanalysis, 295.

14

some of the works of Mother Nature, with a risk of attracting reprobation, can be

called dodgy, wily or dicey at the least.64

Religious discourse has shifted the focus of

intercourse from its value of pleasure towards the object of procreation. In pursuing

its legitimate interest of protecting humanity from the burning flame of desire,

religious morality appears to have fallen prey to the crafty ways of the nature of

evolution. “If there is a single common denominator underlying human sexual

expression, it is pleasure, [and] not reproduction.”65

Ample proof of this is in the

simple fact that sterility has not been as much an impediment to marriage as

impotence has been.66

1.3.3. The Imperative of Orgasm

Though the nature of sexual intercourse, through the experience of mutual

sexual pleasure, makes it an important ground for sexuality, self-stimulation or

masturbation provides an alternative way to attain the same pleasure without the

involvement of a mutual partner. Yet it can be stated with certainty that irrespective

of the means employed for achieving sexual pleasure, the culmination of them all

remains the same single point, the fact of experiencing orgasm. In this respect,

orgasm functions as a classical conditioning agent,67

in being the only aspect of sexual

pleasure that can influence the inclination of sexual desire towards its experience, and

hence, orgasm seems to be precisely the ground on which the new phase of human

sexual evolution would re-emerge, wherein “sex is much more likely to be

pleasurable than pro-creative.”68

“Orgasm comes from the Greek ‘orgas’ meaning a rich, fertile tract of land

sacred to the gods.”69

The dictionaries invariably use the word height or peak for

64

See Appendix 2, 56. 65





Moore, The Soul of Sex, 145.

15

orgasm lending a sense of transcendence to it, through a channel of intense pleasure.

By using the word ‘venereal’, which is an adjective form for Venus, the dictionary

unintentionally lends a divine framework to orgasm.70

Orgasm is a moment of

supreme intimacy that shreds the last bits of self consciousness.71

Gudorf correlates

orgasm to mysticism when he says, for many persons the experience of orgasm is the

clearest experience of divine and in an orgasm they know the depth of their souls.72

It is a common mistake to equate orgasm with ejaculation, as they appear to be

concomitant for the common mind which dwells at the level of genital eroticism. As

Agarwal insists, “ejaculation is not synchronous with orgasm. Ejaculation is the

physical phenomenon occurring in genital region while orgasm is a mental feeling for

enjoying sex. Orgasm takes place somewhat earlier than ejaculation.”73

To which

Abramson emphatically agrees: “Orgasm and ejaculation are independent

phenomenon. For example, prepubescent boys can get erection and orgasm but not

ejaculation. In men with spinal cord injuries orgasmic capacity is retained even after a

loss of ejaculatory competence.”74

Lloyd also supports the view that orgasm needs

sexual excitement but is not an automatic result of it, as the evolutionary account of

female sexual excitement is clearly distinct from the accounts concerning orgasm.75

Hence, while ejaculation is merely the physical process of genital expulsion, the

ontological value of orgasm is in enabling the human person to scale the experiential

peak of sexual pleasure. As Hollinger puts it, “the physical pleasure of an orgasm is

natural evidence that we were wired for pleasure in sex. If God made us that way, it

is an affirmation that pleasure is a legitimate and good end of his gift.”76

Sexuality moves a being through the channels of pleasure towards a

realization of itself. In retrospect, Moore sees even celibacy, the most asexual of

them all, as being just a different way of living one’s sexuality, by sublimating it into

a dedication towards beauty and the world. Celibacy, for him, is a life motivated by

70




Agarwal, The Philosophy of Sex, 202. 74


Lloyd, The Case of the Female Orgasm, 39. 76

Hollinger, The Meaning of Sex, 114.

16

broader love and extended pleasures.77

Hence, sexual pleasure, clearly the ground of

every sexual act, is seen as a backdrop for intentionally asexual acts too.

In his introduction to Burton’s translation of Kāmasūtra, Spellman says:

“Sexual desire is an obvious innate urge in all creatures, including mankind. There is

no point in attempting to ignore this; indeed, that would be harmful. Sexual pleasures

are also one of the most delightful joys of which man partakes. That they should

become a dull routine chore merely for the purpose of reproduction is not only a

tragedy in a very real sense; it is a gross denial of what we are.”78

It is in

acknowledgment of this metaphysical value of sexual pleasure that Kāmasūtra stands

testimony. Its author-compiler Vātsyāyana,79

who is believed to have lived the life of

a celibate, has diligently doled out a discourse on sexuality laced with obvious ethical

and social directives but heavily permeated throughout with subtle guidelines for the

enhancement of pleasure as a whole and sexual pleasure in particular.

Sexuality, as we have seen, is of multifaceted nature, yet what lends it the

ability to harmonize itself in tune with a person’s identity is the ground of pleasure

that it stands upon. Sexual pleasure, through its non-dual actuality, forms the

substratum for a unified and harmonized human sexuality. Thus, sexual pleasure

stands at the core of a human being’s experience of his or her sexuality, forming a

significant part of it.

77


Spellman, “Introduction” to The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, by Vatsyayana, 19. 79

Two Vātsyāyanas are widely recognized to have existed in ancient Indian history. They

may not have been contemporaries though. One is Mallanāga Vātsyāyana, the author of the Kāmasūtra,

and the other is a much lesser known author of the Nyāya Bhāśya, a commentary on Gautama’s Nyāya

Sūtra. All references to Vātsyāyana in this dissertation point to the author of the Kāmasūtra, unless

explicitly specified otherwise.

17

CHAPTER 2

THE EMPHASIS ON SEXUAL PLEASURE IN THE KĀMASŪTRA

The Kāmasūtra, ever since its inception, has been treated as a canonical text in

any field of art where love had to be treated.80

Though Vātsyāyana claims lineage of

ultra-historical descent to his knowledge and inspiration, the parts concerning the

claims of origination directly from Brahmā up to the expounding into a thousand

chapters by Nandi, can forthrightly be stamped down as myth. The rest of the

historical accounts in the introductory chapter of the Kāmasūtra, if we are to

subscribe to it, would render Vātsyāyana to merely be the compiler and not the author

of Kāmasūtra. Furthermore, there is considerable disagreement prevailing among

experts on the date of origin of the Kāmasūtra with markers being laid over a diverse

period ranging from the fourth century B.C. to the sixth century A.D. Despite the

inconsistency over its origin and regardless of the nature of its historical background,

even to the extent of not firmly having established the veracity of the authority and

identity of Vātsyāyana himself, the Kāmasūtra, nevertheless, remains unanimously

affirmed by analysts world over, as a seminal work in the field of sexuality.

This dissertation is primarily concerned with distilling the subtle, yet

evocative, emphasis on sexual pleasure in the text containing the aphorisms on sexual

love, and hence, there shall be no debating upon historical inconsistencies or any

conclusion thereby. It shall suffice in the context of this dissertation to affirm that

Kāmasūtra has been duly recognized as a definitive work on human sexuality and that

it has eclipsed all other authoritarian sources, mythical and otherwise, that preceded it,

partly due to the earlier sources, like the work of Auddalaki Śvetaketu and Babhravya

Pāñcāla not coming down to us, and partly due to such a comprehensive treatment of

the subject of kāma doled out by Vātsyāyana, that in effect, the Kāmasūtra is accepted

80

Kapoor, ed., Encyclopaedia of Indian Heritage, vol. 45: Vatsyayana, 26.

18

as one of the principal sources, the other two being Manu’s Manusmṛti and Kauṭilya’s

Arthaśāstra, for the earthly triumvirate81

of the puruṣārthas.

2.1. THE CONTEXT OF KĀMASŪTRA

Kāmasūtra, which is rightfully counted in the present day amongst the greatest

works on sexual love, coming out of India, is unfortunately facing a gross

misinterpretation in most quarters of the society today. Glamour glorifying marketing

strategies, which survive by creating frenzied and tantalizing phenomenon in the

minds of society, have succeeded in relegating the didactic image of Kāmasūtra into a

mere sex-manual. It is not an unusual sight in most modern day bookstores to find

illustrated manuals, in their adult section, generously featuring snapshots of seeming

couples displaying their intimacy, poised in various sexual postures, being marketed

as the original Kāmasūtra. This is indeed a blatant misappropriation of the sacred

work. The traditional Hindu view of sex is almost sacramental; it is viewed as the

human counterpart of the divine act of creation.82

In this respect, “Kāmasūtra is not a

treatise on hedonistic sexual pleasure, but a treatise on culturing sexuality.”83

Vātsyāyana himself categorically mentions that Kāmasūtra defines approaches to

erotic practice along rules of conduct, so that human sexual act stands apart from that

of animals, which is done without conscious intervention (Kāmasūtra 1.2.18:20).84

Contrary to popular belief, the sixty-four arts spoken of in the Kāmasūtra are

not sexual postures. They are, rather, several proficiencies that one should possess in

order to display one’s capacity at accomplishments, and this, he suggested, would

provide anyone, both male and female, with a solid backing to survive in any

81

Among the four puruṣārthas, dharma, artha and kāma are recognized as the ends of earthly

life while mokṣa enjoins with matters beyond. As the former three go hand in hand during earthly

existence, the Kāmasūtra treats them as a triad on their own. 82



All quotations are from Vātsyāyana, The Complete Kāma Sūtra, trans. Alain Daniélou. This

work is the standard reference for aphorism level quotations. The format of quotation reference is

(a.b.c:d) where a is the part number, b is chapter number, and c and d are the starting and ending verse

numbers respectively. When only one verse is being referred to, the quotation format shall be (a.b.c).

19

environment and state. Vātsyāyana may have chosen the number sixty-four, as it

seems to have a queer connection with the Ṛgveda, which was also known as

catuḥshashṭi85 due to it being divided into eight aṣṭahas of eight chapters each,

86 yet

this does not take away the essence of Vātsyāyana’s aim from the sixty-four arts,

which was to make man cultivated in body and mind so that he has a disciplined and

cautious approach to enjoyment.87

Vātsyāyana proposes, through the arts, the benefit

derived by women is to enable them to survive without the support of a husband, in

case the situation arises (Kāmasūtra 1.3.20) and the benefit endowed upon men is to

help them in building relationship with women (Kāmasūtra 1.3.21).

Furthermore Vātsyāyana’s attribution of the origin of his seven chapters to

seven historical authorities, namely Chārāyana, Suvarnanābha, Ghotakamukha,

Gonardīya, Gonikāputra, Kuchumāra, and Dattaka, in the same order, may diminish

his credibility as an author of his own rank, but it does add wholesome credibility to

the essence of sexuality promulgated by the Kāmasūtra as such, which duly serves the

purpose of this dissertation.

The wont of the urban megacities of present day is their role in transfusion and

transformation of cultures. Great cities are the frontiers where the current of

modernity meets the dam of tradition, the latter trying to resist change and the former

pressing civilization towards new horizons. This persistent churning creates fault-

lines which become the harbinger of new cultural systems. Such was the scenario of

Vātsyāyana’s India too, where great thriving cities had spawned a breed of breakaway

traditions. Towards his north was the famous Pāncāla country where polyandry was

prevalent. Draupadi¸ the daughter of its king, Drupada, was herself married to the

five Pāṇḍavas. The existence of transgender sex also seems to have been in

recognition at this time, as is evident from the account of Śikhandin, who was the

transgender child of Drupada.88

Polygamy, too, appears to have been prevalent in

Vātsyāyana’s days, especially among the wealthy. Kings generally considered it a

privilege to have a crowded harem. The principal Buddhist texts Lalita-vistāra and

85

The number sixty-four in Sanskrit dialect. 86

Chakladar, Social Life in Ancient India, 4. 87


Chakladar, Social Life in Ancient India, 4.

20

the Buddhacarita also say the same things about this period.89

The concept of incest,

which invites abhorrence even to this day, seems to have been accepted among the

Vedic gods. In Ṛgveda X.10, Yāmi solicits her brother Yama for sexual union. In

Ṛgveda X.61.5.9, Prajāpati has union with his daughter Ushā. In Ṛgveda X.162.5,

conception by brother (bhrātā) is mentioned. In Atharvaveda VIII.6.7, father and

daughter, brother and sister incest is indicated.90

“The gratification of carnal needs and sensuous desires was at the centre of the

worldly interests of the Vedic people.”91

Vātsyāyana must have pondered over this

prevalent attitude of sexuality and foreseen the naked indulgence of the Indian mind

into sexual matters taking a dangerous turn. Hence, the Kāmasūtra must have taken

shape, a treatise whose aphorisms were meant to treat of sexual love and pleasure,

within the normative sandbox of religious and ethical dimensions.

Kāma, a Hindu God has much in parallel with Eros of the Greeks. For the

Greeks, Eros was “nothing less than the magnetism that holds the entire universe

together and human love in its many forms is simply a participation in that greater

Eros.”92

In the Kāmasūtra, Vātsyāyana’s attempt is ontologically similar to the Greek

approach; he attempts to curb the inordinate ballooning of sexuality, that was getting

overshadowed by an aesthetic lust for pleasure and consequently leading itself into

dangerously new frontiers of experience through the channel of unbridled creativity,

by holding its hands and leading it towards harmonizing human nature, which in turn

was aimed at ensuring well-being of the society. It is in order to achieve this goal that

Kāmasūtra was necessary for its times, as much as it is still relevant in the present

society.

89


Cakravarti, Sex Life in Ancient India, 65. 91



21

2.2. THE PREROGATIVE OF KĀMA

Kāma is the pravṛtti (mental inclination) towards the sensual pleasures

especially that of touch, which sexual pleasure primarily consists of (Kāmasūtra

1.2.11). It is a selfish pleasure that finds finality in itself (Kāmasūtra 1.2.12).

Though the Ṛgveda mentions that “the principle of kāma precedes the creative

word,”93

the desire-pleasure axis of kāma has not always been treated with reverence

in the eastern tradition. For instance, Bhagavadgītā classifies kāma as one of the six

doṣas – as the lust that indiscriminately goads the senses in pursuit of gratification,

with a compulsion so insatiable that it ends up destroying one’s clarity of thought and

discriminative judgment.94

In the philosophy of Sikhism too, kāma finds similarly

degraded attributions. Such reprobation notwithstanding, kāma has found its due in

works of art, in philosophical treatises of the erotics and, with a cautious

subordination to dharma, in some religious canons as well.

Kāmasūtra, being the cornerstone on matters related to kāma, has inspired

legions of erotic literature that provide detailed expositions on the subject of

sexuality, the notable of which are the Ratirahasya by Kokkaka, Anañgaraṅga by

Kalyāṇamalla, Ratimañjary by Jayadeva, and Ratiśāstra by Nāgārjuna. Kāma as the

desire stemming from our inmost essence has been a strong fascination for poets and

artists alike, spawning numerous works of art in post-Kāmasūtra India, of which the

famed poet Kālidāsa’s works are a glowing example.

2.2.1. The Seed and Soul of Eroticism in Indian Tradition

“To study the tantric cults of late medieval Hinduism and Buddhism, without a

good understanding of erotic principles, is unthinkable.”95

Popular tāntricism

93

Vātsyāyana, The Complete Kāma Sūtra, 18. 94

Yogananda, The Bhagavad Gita, 92. 95


22

emphasized orgiastic rites involving addiction to the five makarās – matsya (fish),

māṁsa (meat), madya (intoxicating drink), maithuna (sex), and mudra (physical

gesture). As tāntric cults enjoy widespread presence in India, rampant eroticism can

be witnessed in its temples, notably those in towns of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan

(e.g., Bavka, Motap, Sunak, Galteshvara, Dabhoi, Eklingaji, Nagda, etc.), Orissa

(Bhubaneshwar), Karnataka (Halebid, Begali, and Belur) and Tamilnadu (Madura and

Kanchipuram). These portrayals reach their peak in the inscriptions at Konark and

Khajuraho. Erotics occupied such a prominent place in literature that even Bhartrihari

in his Vairāgyashataka, a treatise devoted to the renunciation of pleasures of sense,

seems to be displaying, as it were, a lustful longing for ripe breasts and thighs of a

beautiful woman and her devastating glances.96

The Śiva Purāṇa says the power to

create comes from eros.97

Thus, erotic symbolism is generously distributed all across

Indian scriptures and traditional manifestations, and it is in these attempts of the

ancients to explain metaphysical and religious truths through analogical

symbolizations of sexuality, that one can note the pervasive nature of sexuality and its

closeness with human minds.

2.2.2. Kāma as Puruṣārtha, an Inevitable End of Life

Looking at the sexual connotations spread esoterically in the narratives over

volumes of knowledge and mythology that originated from the ancient pre-Kāmasūtra

world, one may conclude that the Kāmasūtra is merely a distilled form, of all those

expositions that tread along the desire – pleasure axis. Earliest references to sex life

are in Aṭharva Veda, which contains charms and spells to attract and keep a beloved

under one’s control. There are also spells to selectively secure or destroy one’s

virility.98

In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, the sexual act is compared to a sacred

sacrifice. In the Bṛhdāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, it is stated that the embrace of a beloved

96

Jha, Early India, 208. 97


Kuppuswamy, Elements of Ancient Indian Psychology, 237.

23

has the same feeling of oneness as in embracing oneself. The Ṛgveda calls kāma as

the earliest seed of the spirit.99

These along with countless other sexual references

peppered all over Indian philosophical manuscripts are but messages that subtly dwell

on the nature of sexuality, the essence of which finally precipitated into the

Kāmasūtra. Thus, while the western world translated sexuality from its form of ars

erotica into the domain of scientia sexualis, effectively inscribing sexuality from the

realm of pleasure into an ordered system of knowledge, as if suspecting sex of

harbouring a fundamental secret,100

the Indian traditions continued to tread the path of

artistic ministry, propelling sexuality into ever deepening metaphysical realms, albeit

with measured tones of ethical concern. India pursued the ars erotica where “truth is

drawn from pleasure itself understood as practice and accumulated as experience;

pleasure is not considered in relation to an absolute law of the permitted or forbidden

nor from point of view of utility, but first and foremost in relation to itself – evaluated

in terms of its intensity, duration, and its reverberations in the body and soul.”101

Kāma, in the Hindu pantheon, is a God pictured with pleasant demeanour

frolicking around with his arrows made of flower stalks, tipped with the irresistible

power of love, aiming them towards beings at his will. Even Gods have not been

immune to the flowery arrows of Kāma, whose attack is said to have broken the

penance of the archetypal ascetic-solitary, Śiva himself, and consequently effected his

union with Pārvatī.102 Kāma is traditionally seen as the first-born of the Gods with

Vasantha, the spring, as his commander-in-chief; it is Vasantha that brings bloom and

softens creatures in preparation for the sweet attack of Kāma.103

Furthermore, Kāma

has a designated mate in Rati, who is “love laced with lust and sexual delight.”104

Kāma and Rati form the antipodes of love making. While Kāma, as lust, seeks

egoistic gratification, Rati, as love, seeks to satisfy the other.105

99


Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1: The Will to Knowledge, 69. 101

Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1: The Will to Knowledge, 57. 102



Kuppuswamy, Elements of Ancient Indian Psychology, 236. 105

Kuppuswamy, Elements of Ancient Indian Psychology, 245.

24

The allegory of spring wind being an ally of Kāma is not just indicating the

flowering time of the year but also the productive years of a man’s life.106

This has a

direct connotation towards the gṛhstha stage of a Hindu’s life, which through its

conjugal and social activities, is the most generative of the four stages. Expression of

kāma within the bounds of dharma precisely accedes to the duties of a gṛhstha.107

Thus, the model of Kāma’s close association with Vasantha, esoterically emphasizes

not only that that desire is inherent in a middle-aged householder’s life, but also that

the experience of pleasure constitutes an inevitable component in the fulfilment of the

gṛhstha stage. Kāma and Vasantha, together, underline the importance of enjoying

pleasure in family life, and given the conjugal connection, the pleasure is undoubtedly

that of sexual nature. Consequently, kāma finds its place as an ideal of life. In

practising the arts of the Kāmasūtra, a man realizes his aim of life (Kāmasūtra

2.10.34:35).

2.3. KĀMASŪTRA’S SEXUAL INSIGHT WITH ETHICAL OUTLOOK

Vātsyāyana was no Epicurus, yet he was no puritan either. While his

hedonism was buoyed by humanistic inclinations, it was also weighed down by an

assiduous respect towards morality and ethical conduct. Vātsyāyana firmly situates

his work in the socio-religious context of his times. He envisioned a society that

functioned harmoniously without undue suppression, one that recognized and pursued

its ends while never losing the bearing on its limits. Vātsyāyana lived at a time when

great cities with economic prosperity thrived across the Indian nation,108

and hence, it

was imperative to re-establish the boundaries of society in accordance with ever

changing value systems. The Kāmasūtra endeavoured to provide a direction for the

Indian society to balance itself on such shifting moral grounds.

106



Chakladar, Social Life in Ancient India, 148.

25

2.3.1. Situating Kāma within the Bounds of Dharma

The Bṛhdāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, in chapter I.4:1-3, says the first embodied being

felt a longing for a mate (Sah dvitīyam icchet) and split into male and female halves to

delight in the company of the beloved.109

Thus, according to Bṛhdāraṇyaka, the first

act of creation occurred when the self-originated seed of being realized that “he was

alone: he did not enjoy: one alone does not enjoy: He desired a second, and became

like a man and woman in close embrace”110

Kāma is the wish that aspires for artha.

Kāma is the wish that creates a need for dharma. One who is destitute of kāma can

never feel and wish. For this reason and for it being a prerequisite to the act of

creation itself, kāma should be the foremost of the three earthly puruṣārthas and

consequently everything should by pervaded by the principle of kāma.111

Hence, it

seems logical that kāma should serve as the foundation of dharma and artha, as “their

essence and womb and [hence,] the innermost core of the world.”112

But the

Kāmasūtra vehemently denies this stand.

The Mahābhārata says neither should dharma be sidelined nor should artha

or kāma be neglected in the right way.113

The Kāmasūtra agrees: a man must pursue

the three aims (puruṣārthas) without one being prejudicial to another (Kāmasūtra

1.2.1). It pleads for a balance between extremities. Neither does it exhort one

towards excessive sexual indulgence nor does it refrain from condemning

promiscuity, while at the same time insisting that knowledge broadens the horizons of

pleasure.114

Moral objections do not resist the mounting of passion (Kāmasūtra

5.1.44), yet one cannot give oneself over to pleasures without restrictions; a lewd man

lives in vain, his exaggerated sexual life destroys him as well as his relationships

(Kāmasūtra 1.2.32:34). A firm ground of morality is prerequisite for any material

pursuits of life, whether it is acquisition of wealth or delectation of any sensual

109


Bishop, Sex and Spirit, 144. 111




Spellman, “Introduction” to The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, by Vatsyayana, 19.

26

pleasure. Vātsyāyana’s objective is that of a legitimate moralist. The book, according

to him, is not to be merely an instrument for satisfying desires but rather to obtain

mastery over one’s senses in order to co-harmonize kāma with dharma and artha.115

Wisdom is in pursuing pleasure in such a way that it does not lead one to ruin

(Kāmasūtra 1.2.40).

The ascendancy of moral righteousness from Vātsyāyana’s perspective can be

seen in his gradation of the earthly puruṣārthas. He defines relative values to be

taken into account. Money and social success (artha) are more important than love

(kāma), while virtue (dharma) is more important than them all (Kāmasūtra 1.2.14).

Vātsyāyana was never in favour of blind indulgence in social accomplishments and/or

personal gratifications; he always viewed their necessity under the restriction of a

moral framework (Kāmasūtra 1.2.32). Yet, the fact that he took the pains to author a

treatise on love, while himself being a celibate ascetic, shows the indispensable

significance attached to material and sexual pursuits. Sexuality is essential for man,

Vātsyāyana says, just as food is essential for bodily health (Kāmasūtra 1.2.37).

Dharma alone is insufficient in fulfilling the essence of life; even Lord Kṛṣṇa,

in Bhagavadgītā, says that perfect yoga enjoins appropriate enjoyment and not pure

renunciation.116

An austere focus on dharma is strictly enjoined only during the

stages of Brahmacarya (Kāmasūtra 1.2.6), devoted to study, and Sanyāsa (Kāmasūtra

1.2.4), whence the finality of mokṣa gains predominance. Sexual continence is

promulgated for sainthood in Dharmaśāstras, Purāṇas and early Buddhist literature

too. Patañjali in Yogasūtra II.38 emphatically upholds that one gains liberative

energy only through continence,117

and Vātsyāyana, in the specific sanyāsa context

agrees with them. Likewise, in the exceptional cases of kings and courtesans also,

Vātsyāyana allows overriding dharma with artha and kāma respectively (Kāmasūtra

1.2.15), as the duties of kings and courtesans have social implications and their

societal duties gain prominence in their context.

115



Cakravarti, Sex Life in Ancient India, 86.

27

2.3.2. Redefining Dharma in the Context of Kāma

Kāmasūtra, while it speaks of restricting kāma within the bounds of dharma,

subtly upholds its domain of sexuality by redefining dharma favourably in its required

context. For instance, no reprobation is placed upon a woman marrying a man out of

love for his money, even though he may already have other wives and his qualities are

questionable (Kāmasūtra 3.4.49). Likewise, though Vātsyāyana prescribes strict caste

compatibility for a marriage that bears progeny, he does not put the same limitations

on sex for sake of pleasure. A man can have intercourse with higher or lower caste

woman for pleasure alone.118

Such relations are not absolutely condemned as

pleasure is the guiding motive in such connections.119

Thus, Vātsyāyana manages to

deftly preserve the creativity of sexual pleasure by drawing a comfortable and crafty

compromise between an erotic insight and ethical outlook.

2.3.3. Finality in the Model of an Egalitarian Sexual Dharma

The combination of dharma and kāma in the narrative of the Kāmasūtra

envisages an egalitarian society where sexualities of male and female counterparts are

valued in equal measure. Its version of dharma can be termed as ‘kāmo-dharma.’

The stress on equality begins right from the point of choosing a befitting

partner in marriage. The Kāmasūtra advocates a union that comes close to the

gandharva type of marriage, the hearts and glances of the partners are united

(Kāmasūtra 3.1.13) and the couple share similar tastes in pleasures and amusements

(Kāmasūtra 3.1.23). “Marriage by mutual selection, based on ardent libido for each

other, was regarded iridescently celestial”120

and this “libidinous union of a loving

118



Cakravarti, Sex Life in Ancient India, 63.

28

pair is heavenly beatitude.”121

One can also find Vātsyāyana’s attempts at gender

equality in his categorizations of male and female sexuality types and in his enjoining

in the coupling of equal types.

Vātsyāyana advocates free social intercourse and mutual respect between men

and women. For instance, he says that men should drink wine only after the women

have been served.122

The sixty-four arts discussed in the Kāmasūtra are

recommended for both men and women, in order to gain each other’s favours.

Similarly, though an elaborate code of conduct is prescribed for the wife, the

relationship with her husband is not one of inferiority. Reserving the innermost, and

hence, the most prestigious, sanctum exclusively for the wife is ample proof of this.

Vātsyāyana’s emphasis on the duties of a wife is solely directed towards harmonizing

the conjugal relationship, which is undoubtedly the goal of his model of sexuality too.

2.4. THE EMPHASIS ON SEXUAL PLEASURE IN THE KĀMASŪTRA

The emphasis on sexual pleasure starts right from the Upaniṣads. The

Bṛhdāraṇyaka Upaniṣad in chapter VI says that the sexual act should be deliberate

and thoughtful, lest it end up merely as an animal act. Furthermore, the same chapter

also speaks of coitus interruptus procedures.123

Vātsyāyana had thoroughly

recognized the ontological value of sexual pleasure, that “without wellbeing and

sexuality, no form of life can exist [and that] like ethics and prosperity, sexuality is

one of the bases of civilization.”124

The Kāmasūtra was created to precisely celebrate

this fact. It aims to elevate the enjoyment of pleasure in the sexual act from a mere

animal level to the realm of human experience. Animals have a low level of

consciousness in sexual matters, they are urged on merely by instincts in tune with

seasonal factors (Kāmasūtra 1.2.20). “The Kāma Śāstra teaches that the final aim of

121




Vātsyāyana, The Complete Kāma Sūtra, 17.

29

sexual pleasure is spiritual. The development of the transcendent aspect of human

love in the couple, together with mutual progress, is not possible for animals, birds, or

insects. Men who do not understand the ultimate meaning of sexual pleasure behave

like animals.”125

Through methodical emphasis on various pleasurable facets of sexual

experience, the Kāmasūtra realizes its vision of creating a methodology of

experiencing pleasure in higher planes, thus endowing a humane face upon human

sexuality altogether. Those facets, which the Kāmasūtra draws in order to highlight

its emphasis are as follows:

2.4.1. The Emphasis on Detailed Preparation and Setup

A starving man gives more importance to the quantity of food, rather than its

quality. Similarly, for a full appreciation of sexual experience, one needs to be fully

prepared and not in a desperate state of mind. Good taste, optimal environment and

psychic tuning of both partners are main prerequisites.126

Detailed preparation

according to the peculiarities of both parties is crucial for erotic success.127

“Although erotic techniques concern all men, the refinements of the art of love are

only possible if one possesses a pleasant dwelling with comfortable beds, bathrooms,

reception rooms, gardens, flowers, and scents.”128

Hence, the subject matter of the

Kāmasūtra is directed exclusively towards individuals, like people of noble origin and

those in power, courtesans and well-bred townsmen, who possess the capacity and

inclination to dedicate time and effort in setting up a congenial atmosphere for the

sexual act.

Vātsyāyana endows special concern upon the townsman, called nāgaraka. He

is one who has acquired a comfortable means of livelihood and has settled down in a

125





30

refined manner (Kāmasūtra 1.4.1), whose dwelling is vast, pleasant and has a special

bed built for games of love (Kāmasūtra 1.4.4). The setting should have a natural feel,

surrounded by gardens, resounding with the pleasant chirping of birds because

sexuality, being a natural instinct, feels at home in such surroundings. In such a

setting, the nāgaraka’s preparation for the sexual act proceeds thus: He invites the

woman to drink with him, and they commence drinking together. He strokes her hair,

slowly opens the folds of her loins and embraces her in a libidinous way. He amuses

her with stories, music, and dancing and makes her laugh. Once pleasure is awakened

through all this, he proceeds with the erotic act (Kāmasūtra 2.10.1:5). On the part of

the woman, she should dress up luxuriously with many jewels and flowers. She must

scent herself well; bad smell from sweat or residue between her teeth can be

despicable to amorous desire (Kāmasūtra 4.1.23:24).

Part two of the Kāmasūtra deals with preliminary sexual acts in detail.

Vātsyāyana speaks of four kinds of caresses and embraces. Merely hearing or talking

about these embraces excites sexual ardour in men (Kāmasūtra 2.2.29). There are

several kinds of kissing, scratching and biting, all serving to heighten the excitation

(Kāmasūtra 2.4.31). These acts of preliminary love-play focus on the erogenous

zones on the persons of the other, and are recommended, some for lovers who are

previously acquainted and some for those who are strangers to each other. These

preliminaries establish confidence and inflame desire, but they should be used

prudently, and never be overindulged into, even when the excitation is evident

(Kāmasūtra 2.3.3).

2.4.2. The Emphasis on Erotic Tendencies

The Kāmasūtra’s classification of men and women is an attempt to endow

scientific basis to the wildest instinct in man, by specifically delineating the various

kinds of people according to their identification of erogenous zones as well as the

31

waxing and waning of their erotic tendencies. 129

The same three-fold classification is

also found in the Anañgaraṅga,130

which underscores its acceptance.

Erotic tendencies are dealt with in detail in part two of the Kāmasūtra. Men

and women are divided on the basis of their sexual dimensions, ardour and capacity to

perform. This is a crucial step because, even though the nature of sexual pleasure is

the same in man and woman (Kāmasūtra 2.1.23), their departure lies in their workings

(Kāmasūtra 2.1.25). A man enjoys the woman, while the woman sees herself as

being enjoyed (Kāmasūtra 2.1.26). There is a difference in their attitude and

experience, but not in enjoyment. Furthermore, a man’s passion is high in the

beginning and reduces with repetition of orgasm, while a woman follows the opposite

tendency (Kāmasūtra 2.1.35). This pattern, though universal, has subjective

variations and hence, the classification of men and women into subdivisions. For

instance, the padmini type of woman may be approached at any part of the day but

she hates dalliances in the dark, while the hastini type loves the night.131

The desire, which has been duly stimulated due to attention to the

preliminaries, serves to enhance the experience of pleasure, especially when the

sexual act is optimally balanced by partners who complement each other in their

erotic tendencies, in terms of their organ size, moment, and mood. Unmatched

relations make for bad copulation and should be shunned. The practicality of a

relation should be ascertained with awareness of the mutual equalities between the

tendencies of the involved partners.132

2.4.3. The Emphasis on Creativity and Perversions

Sexual passion feeds on variety. Just like how treatises on war speak of the

need of a diversity of weapons, the Kāmasūtra uses variety in love making to foster

129





32

mutual attraction (Kāmasūtra 2.4.25). It is highly recommended to diversify human

copulation by studying the movements of domestic and wild animals, as well as that

of insects (Kāmasūtra 2.6.51). In order to heighten the amusement of the partners, it

is suggested to imitate animal acts like mounting the woman like an ass, playing with

her like a cat, attacking her like a tiger, stamping her like an elephant, riding her like a

horse, or pounding the ground like a pig (Kāmasūtra 2.6.41). Furthermore, group sex

is also allowed, as is copulation in water, called as water-games (Kāmasūtra

2.4.42:44). Group sex is spoken of, both in the context of one man with multiple

women, typically the case of a king in his harem (Kāmasūtra 2.6.48), as well as one

woman with multiple males, like a prostitute enjoying with many boys (Kāmasūtra

2.6.47).

“The sexual positions prescribed in the Kāmasūtra were not always

penetrative.”133

Creativity is recommended, even to the extent of being perverse in

nature, to heighten the experience of pleasure. For instance, dildos are recommended

when the erotic dimension of male is lower in comparison with the female

(Kāmasūtra 2.6.6). Homosexuality and sodomy are spoken of without keeping a

prohibitive tone. Fellatio is not just spoken of as pleasurable; it is even termed as

superior coition (Kāmasūtra 2.9.3). Fellatio, or buccal coition, is mostly performed

by the third sex, preferably the ones who dress as women (Kāmasūtra 2.9.1). Eight

ways of practising fellatio on men are illustrated (Kāmasūtra 2.9.12:24), it is done by

men on women too (Kāmasūtra 2.9.37). The inverted position between man and

woman, performing mutual buccal coition, is also referred to (Kāmasūtra 2.9.38).

Role inversion is encouraged in order to keep the mood and tempo from

waning. When the boy becomes wearied, the girl descends to his anus and, with the

aid of an accessory, imposes her virile behaviour on him (Kāmasūtra 2.8.1). In the

gynaecium, female slaves dressed as men use carrots, fruits, and other objects to

satisfy their desire (Kāmasūtra 5.6.2). Similarly, when men have no women to sleep

with, they satisfy themselves with other kinds of vulvas, or with dolls, or else just

masturbate (Kāmasūtra 5.6.5).

133

Bishop, Sex and Spirit, 135.

33

2.4.4. The Emphasis on Courtesan Love

“Prostitution can play an important role in the development of erotics, owing

to a practically unlimited choice of partners, varied sexual techniques and, last but not

least, impending competition.”134

Courtesans, accordingly, held an important position

in social strata. “They enjoyed special privileges, and even kings paid homage to

well-known courtesans. The prostitutes’ quarter was the pride of every medieval

Hindu city.”135

Kapoor enunciates:

In the time of Buddha, we hear of famous courtesans like Ambapali who held a high position

in the great city of Vaiśāli. It was in her grove that the Blessed One stayed during his visit to

the city… In the Jātaka tales there are many stories which indicate that learned and

accomplished courtesans were held in respect and esteem. Kauṭilya’s Artha Śastra bears

witness to the fact that courtesans held high positions near the person of the king and held

over him the royal umbrella and the yak fans – both emblems of sovereignty.136

Yet there was always a distinction made between ganikas (cultured courtesans) and

veśyas (mere prostitutes).137

Prostitutes who are beautiful, intelligent, and well

educated have an honoured place in society and are known as courtesans (Kāmasūtra

1.3.17). The essence of being a ganika was her in-depth knowledge of the

Kāmasūtra, which not only endowed her with specialized skills but also made her “an

indispensable and estimable factor in all public functions of the town as well as in the

life of the aristocracy.”138

Sexual relations are normally prohibited with women outside of one’s

marriage, but in the case of widows and courtesans, it is allowed when done for the

sake of pleasure alone (Kāmasūtra 1.5.2). A courtesan gains both money and

pleasure from a man (Kāmasūtra 6.1.1). Before she gets involved with a man, a

courtesan tests his level of amorous passion through a go-between (Kāmasūtra 6.1.22)

and, if possible, first arranges for him to sleep with a gigolo (Kāmasūtra 6.1.24).

134





Kapoor, ed., Encyclopaedia of Indian Heritage, vol. 45: Vatsyayana, 237.

34

The prevalence of courtesans in the Hindu society was significant. A man

does not enter into connubial relationship with a courtesan, and hence, procreation is

out of question and a license to sleep with her is purely for experience of pleasure. “A

careful study of the sculptures at Konark, Khajuraho and other famous temples will

show how closely the artist in most cases has followed the sūtras of Kāmasūtra,”139

and it is very likely that these erotic sculptures depicted almost always the lives of

courtesans.

2.4.5. The Emphasis on Intensification through Mild Violence

Vātsyāyana does not view pain as antithetical to pleasure, yet his idea of pain

is totally opposed to that of Marquis de Sade, who believed that the source of most

delicious voluptuousness was through experience of vice alone.140

Vātsyāyana

advocates a subtle and congenial form of violence in the form of biting, scratching,

and mild blows being delivered upon the partner. “Aggressiveness in sex blurs the

boundary between the male and female and allows each sex to experience the

violence of the other.”141

Violence has a charm that thrusts the soul to bare itself in

irascible abandon, creating the ground to unleash oneself upon the other. The zenith

of sexual pleasure is when informed and cautious intent optimally combines with

mindless rage of passion. It is, thus, the meeting point of the consciousness of pain

and sensuality of pleasure.

Violence, in Vātsyāyana’s approach, is the stepping stone to achieve higher

forms of pleasure. But to guard against the propensity of human nature to escalate the

nature of violence, he endeavours to keep a check by employing two ways. Firstly, in

the balance of forceful and gentle advances. Secondly, by advocating imploring

methods of coaxing a reluctant partner instead of using threats to extract forceful

139



Kakar, The Ascetic of Desire, 124.

35

submission. A girl who is fearful should not be utilized until she is made to relax.142

She should be assuaged with words, vows, and protestations and finally falling at her

feet, begging for her assent. An embarrassed woman always gives way (Kāmasūtra

3.2.11). One must not go too far in the direction of the weft or woof. Success is

achieved through moderation (Kāmasūtra 3.2.31).

2.4.6. The Emphasis on Virility and Aphrodisiacs

Virility is a prerequisite to sustain multiple copulation sessions – the concept

of flowing in a stream of sexual pleasure. By nature, women attain their sexual

ardour slowly and across multiple orgasms. Sometimes out of passion, or

temperament, a woman may invert the situation (Kāmasūtra 2.7.23), but it becomes a

necessity when the man’s fire begins to ebb. Virility is suggested for a woman,

irrespective of whether she is in a heterosexual or lesbian relationship (Kāmasūtra

2.8.11). In the case where one husband has many wives or in the king’s harem, many

of the wives often go unsatisfied. In such cases, they tend to obtain pleasure on their

own (Kāmasūtra 5.6.1); they may also go out and sleep with boys who do not appear

to be men (Kāmasūtra 5.6.4).

The entire part seven of Kāmasūtra is dedicated to occult practices for

enhancing one’s virile strength. There are aphrodisiacs enjoined for improving

success in love making, for developing the power to bewitch a sexual partner, and for

enhancing general erotic strength. For a man with weakened sexual power, it is

suggested to perform foreplay upon the woman using his hands and mouth in order to

excite her and make her damp (Kāmasūtra 7.2.2:4). When a dildo has to be used, its

preferred dimensions and shapes are suggested (Kāmasūtra 7.2.24). There are

specific treatment procedures to increase the size of the penis (Kāmasūtra 7.2.25),

which is believed to enhance the pleasure of both the partners involved in coition.

142


36

Thus, perusing the above emphases, it can be noted, that the detail in

preparation, variety in approach, intensification through diverse practices and the

conscientious dealing into the various stages of love-making have, but, one intent

alone – to make the lover experience every ingredient of love, so that the cup of love

is drank down to the dregs.143

2.5. THE IDEAL SEX IS THE ONE BETWEEN EQUALS

The ideal sexual experience is one where partners involved in the act have

matching attitudes and temperament. The attempt to classify men and women

according to their sexual capacity is a means to achieve this goal of sexual

complementarity. The hero and heroine involved in the act should share equally, in

the qualities of intelligence, character, uprightness, gratitude, foresight, awareness of

local customs, civilized conduct, and knowledge of the Kāmasūtra (Kāmasūtra

6.1.14).

There are three types of sexual union ritualistically symbolized in the Hindu

tradition. The first type is that represented mainly by the conjugal union of Viṣṇu and

Lakṣmī, where the woman is subordinate to the man. The second, represented

famously by the Rādhā – Kṛṣṇa couple as well as the image of Śiva Ardhanārīśvarā,

is one of perfect equality between the partners. The third, though occurring rarely, is

one of female domination, represented by Kālī standing on an image of Śiva, who is

then called Śavā.144

From a religious-ethical perspective, “Rādhā’s blissful sexual union with

Kṛṣṇa means that religion is always a matter of loving relationship,”145

but from the

esoteric view of sexuality, their love is not to be seen as mediating between the

models of male and female dominance, but as transcending the realms altogether, as

143


Marglin, “Types of Sexual Union and Their Implicit Meanings,” 298. 145

Hein, “Rādhā and Erotic Community,” 116.

37

taking place outside time and the wheel of birth and death.146

Kṛṣṇa’s erotic dalliance

with Rādhā (or the other gopīs) had no ulterior purpose or consequence. It existed for

itself, in itself, with pleasure being the only goal. It is kāma that escapes the wheels

of saṃsāra.147

Such a subtle relationship, full of kāma connotations, being popularly

celebrated across India bears testimony of the significant undertones of a cultured

sexuality thriving unconsciously in the sexual life of the country, precisely the one

that Kāmasūtra intends to uphold and uplift.

Human sexuality works on various levels: “on the carnal plane, it operates

through the mystery of sex, on the highest, it is the will of the creator [himself].”148

The battlefield of human sex is less the bed than the imagination of lovers engaged in

intercourse.149

There is a difference in the behaviour and characteristics of the man

and woman involved in the sexual act, but the final effect is the same upon both

(Kāmasūtra 3.2.27) – the enjoyment of pleasure. The Kāmasūtra’s emphasis on

sexual pleasure is a conduit to enhance the sexuality in human beings, aimed at a

moral eroticism that leads towards spiritual realization, and not the mere satiating of

passions,150

thus guiding its followers towards improving their self-image, in so far as

it is influenced by sexuality, and in turn serving and preserving the fabric of an

equitable and balanced society.

146




Kakar, The Ascetic of Desire, 123. 150


38

CHAPTER 3

THE VALUE PROPOSITIONS OF SEXUAL PLEASURE

The Anañgaraṅga can be considered the template for almost all subsequent

sex guides.151

The Kāmasūtra being written for lovers in all different forms,

including that of conjugal love, stands as a precursor to the Anañgaraṅga itself. The

emphasis on experience of sexual pleasure in the Kāmasūtra, both exclusively and

insinuatingly as discussed in the previous chapter, has established beyond doubt the

focus of sexuality in the Indian society.

Akin to the approach of Indian litterateurs, value propositions on sexual

pleasure were abound in erotic literature the world over. It was the subject matter of

contemplation from the days of the ancient Greeks. Hesiod, in his celebrated work

Theogony, conceives Eros as that immortal force, which overpowers the intelligence

of Gods and humans alike and derails all of their shrewd plans.152

Writers through the

ancient and medieval periods devoted volumes of literature on conception of sex, love

and pleasure. Plato’s most famous work, Republic, delves into the nature of sexual

pleasure through an allegorized debate between Socrates and Glaucon:

Socrates: … tell me, does excessive pleasure go with self-control and moderation?

Glaucon: Certainly not; excessive pleasure breaks down one’s control just as much as

excessive pain

Socrates: Does it go with other kinds of goodness?

Glaucon: No

Socrates: Then does it go with violence and indiscipline?

Glaucon: Certainly

Socrates: And is there any greater or keener pleasure than that of sex?

Glaucon: No, Nor any more frenzied.153

What Glaucon calls frenzied is a connotation towards irrationality that goes above and

beyond rationality altogether – an evaluation may be viewed as relative

irreconcilability in value of sexual pleasure.

151

Bishop, Sex and Spirit, 132. 152

Hésiode, Hesiod, 130. 153

Plato, The Republic, 164.

39

3.1. A VALUE THAT TRANSCENDS RATIONALITY

Sexual pleasure, essentially unreachable to human inquiry, clearly lies in a

domain outside of human rationality.

3.1.1. Freudian Toothbrush Example

Freud provides a classic example154

of lovers’ attitudes in different

circumstances to highlight that the value of sexuality goes beyond the realms of

rationality. He talks of a pair of lovers deeply involved in their amorous act. During

the course of their erotic dalliance, the lovers indulge into several instances of

intimate kissing, mostly involving a carefree exchange of their salivary fluids and

other buccal remnants along with. The lovers seem least perturbed and, in most cases,

the salivary exchange spurs them on to indulge in even more heightened kissing. Let

us suppose that once the sexual act is consummated, the partners take to the bath for

brushing their teeth. Consider the situation where one of the partners’ toothbrushes

turns out missing. If he or she is suggested to use the toothbrush of the other, it will

almost certainly evoke feelings of disgust and outright denial. That is the point at

which rationality kicks in. The same individuals, who were blissfully exchanging oral

fluids when egged on by the wave of sexual pleasure, find the same thing detestable

when seen from a rational point of view.

3.1.2. Valuation in the Capacity to Overwhelm

Under the force of sexuality, individuals are seen to commit acts that would

seem outright unreasonable otherwise. For instance, opportune courtesans have been

154


40

known to exploit the vulnerability of kings and other powerful members of society,

during the moments of their orgasm and, as a result, manage to elicit huge favours for

themselves. A courtesan arouses desire, brings pleasure and goes away devouring all

the money of the one she seduces (Kāmasūtra 6.2.76). Riding the wave of pleasure, a

king’s generosity would breach reasonable limits as he would liberally shower

priceless gifts upon his mate. There are legends of a prostitute who ended up so rich

that she could go to the extent of buying an army to restore a fallen king.155

Sexual crimes committed by people with background of good repute are ideal

examples of sexual pleasure transcending human rational nature. Statistics show an

increase in sex crime rate despite raising the severity of applicable punishments. An

individual, poised on the brink of committing a sexual transgression, would typically

be conscious of the immorality of the act that is going to be committed as well as the

severe reprimands that would follow the act, yet the value of the sexual pleasure

incites an urge that he or she finds unable to suppress. Ideally, a human being is

expected to listen to one’s rational voice, but statistics of sex crimes in the present

world clearly underline that the voice is falling on deaf ears, or in other words, ears

that have been shut by a mind which has succumbed to the value of sexual pleasure.

3.2. THE VALUE PROPOSITIONS

The relative irreconcilability of sexual pleasure, in so far as it overshadows the

rational control upon the nature of man, having been established, the dissertation

seeks to demonstrate absolute irreconcilability through ontological autonomy. In an

attempt to present an evaluation of the ontological measure of sexual pleasure, four

arguments are put forth. They are as follows:

155

Thomas, Hindu Religion Customs and Manners, 120.

41

3.2.1. The Innate Nature of Sexuality

Human beings are born with sexual impressions, which are simple at birth and

complicate as they grow.156

Sexuality is innate; it is imprinted, at birth, in a nascent

form of incipient dimensions. As awareness of sexuality grows, buttressed by

experiential avenues, an individual forms a better picture of his or her sexuality.

Freud was a vehement believer in the innate nature of sexuality. He says:

As a matter of fact, the new-born infant brings sexuality with it into the world… This period

of life [childhood], during which a certain degree of directly sexual pleasure is produced by

the stimulation of various cutaneous areas (erotogenic zones)… is designated by one

expression introduced by Havelock Ellis as the period of auto-eroticism. Puberty merely

brings about attainment of the stage at which the genitals acquire supremacy among all zones

and sources of pleasure, and in this way presses eroticism into service of reproduction, a

process which naturally can undergo certain inhibitions; in the case of those persons who later

on become perverts and neurotics this process is only incompletely accomplished.157

Extrapolating backwards from autoeroticism, the primitive form of sexuality may be

conceptualized as an untapped potential for the experience of sexual pleasure. The

gradual awakening of sexuality is, in fact, the gradual recognition of the face of

pleasure, which as per Freud, happens through the medium of erogenous zones.

Freud suggests the child starts originally with a desire for pleasure, unlinked to

any sexual identification. In due course, its interaction with its caretakers determines

this archetypal child’s later interest in particular pleasure-satisfying objects and sexes.

Furthermore, in the light of Freud’s work, Bloch observes that autoeroticism is almost

always a precursor to completely developed sexuality, and manifests itself a long time

before puberty.158

The genesis of eroticism starts from an originally polymorphous

child, which focuses on the satisfaction derived first from its own body, specifically

the oral enjoyments associated with sucking of the mother’s breast, moving on to the

charms of the anus, and, later, on the delights linked with the father and phallus – a

journey, through the autoerotic, to the heterosexual or homosexual.159

156


Freud, The Sexual Enlightenment of Children, 19. 158

Bristow, Sexuality, 35. 159

Katz, The Invention of Heterosexuality, 74.

42

Thus, biological sexuality, which started as an innate seed of undifferentiated

pleasure, can be seen evolving through four stages – autoeroticism, homosexuality,

heterosexuality towards elders and heterosexuality towards peers,160

with every stage

retaining a valuation of sexual pleasure, while gradually escalating in complexity of

its experiential dimension.

3.2.2. The Inscrutable Origin of Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction is the mechanism of propagation for all higher forms of

life on earth. It necessarily involves the participation of two complementary gametes,

one designated as the functional male and the other as the female, with each bearing

half the key to life. Their union, which combines their half-keys and facilitates the

completion of the chromosomal structure, becomes the starting point of the sexual

reproduction cycle. Only the primitive unicellular organisms, like amoebae, delve

into asexual reproduction even to this day. Human beings reproduce through the

sexual process and, hence, sexuality holds the key to survival of the human species.

Yet, the origin of the methodology of sexual reproduction remains shrouded in

mystery. Various branches of science that deal with the study of evolution of life on

Earth, which have convincingly established the Darwinian theory of evolution, remain

mute on the origins on sexual reproductive cycles. No evidence has been discovered

so far, which would decidedly put a finger on a particular point in time, or an era or

eon, where sexual reproduction was adopted by life on Earth.

Furthermore, it is not just the point of origin that remains unclear, but the

purpose of its adoption too. August Weismann, in an essay written in 1892, proposed

that sexual reproduction facilitates an intermingling of two different hereditary

tendencies, thus avoiding a stagnation of the gene pool, hence, enabling the

diversification of a species in its attempt to achieve better adaptability. In conflict

with this, Freud claimed that the conjugation of two protista, which brings forth a sort

160

Agarwal, The Philosophy of Sex, 68.

43

of rejuvenation, is the fore-runner of sexual reproduction.161

The theories of Freud

and Weismann, both appearing seemingly plausible effectively places the purposes of

sexual reproduction into a grey area.

Given the atmosphere of tentativeness regarding the foundation and inception

of sexual reproduction, it would be irrational to claim sexual pleasure as subjugated to

the procreative end. “Even though it is certain that sexuality and the distinction

between the sexes did not exist when life began, the possibility remains that the

instincts which were later to be described as sexual, may have been in operation from

the very first, and it may not be true that it was only at a later time that they started

upon their work.”162

Thus sexual pleasure, regarding its purpose and origin, may be

said to possess its own ground of ontological necessity, subservient to no other end.

3.2.3. The Prevalence of Perversions and Role-Playing

Perversions are normally defined as those sexual practices, which “find

satisfaction through activities disconnected from the procreative end.”163

In this

respect sadism, masochism, and homosexuality are the most popular perversions

prevalent in the world today. Aquinas also recognizes these perversions as vices

contrary to nature, in his theory of six lusts,164

detailed in the Summa Theologica. To

this list, Aquinas adds bestiality, sodomy, and masturbation. Freud generalizes

further by denoting those acts as perversion which “extend, in an anatomical sense,

beyond the regions of the body that are designed for sexual union, or linger over the

intermediate relations to the sexual object which should normally be traversed rapidly

on the path towards the final sexual aim.”165

According to Freud fetishism also falls

under the purview of perversion. Fetishism is either preferential sexual attraction

161

Freud, Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 79. 162

Freud, Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 75. 163

Davidson, The Emergence of Sexuality, 76. 164

Davidson, The Emergence of Sexuality, 100. 165


44

towards an inanimate object, like shoes, undergarments, etc., or an undue obsession

with a particular body part not among the erotic zones, like feet, armpits, etc.166

Apart from perversions, which clearly do not have the intention of

impregnation, even the partners involved in the intentional act of sexual intercourse

are known to indulge into various instances of digressive role-playing. Couples

routinely apply mild violence, such as scratching, biting and delivering blows on each

other, in order to heighten their sexual arousal.167

Such ritualized excursions are

recommended by Vātsyāyana too (Kāmasūtra 2.4.12:21, Kāmasūtra 2.5.4:18,

Kāmasūtra 2.7.2:3). Furthermore, there are various stylized postures of sexual

congress, mostly imitating animals in copulation, as well as participation in group sex

activities (Kāmasūtra 2.6.37:43), which are recommended to intensify the pleasure of

coition, yet are not known to enhance fecundity in any way.

The prevalence of the above deviations to plain intercourse, though not ably

supported by statistics, is a clear indicator of the basic human need to experience

pleasure in the sexual act, despite an earnest intention to procreate. A brief glance at

visitors’ comments on any pornographic website or a quick scroll through the

exchange of messages in a public chat room on the internet will throw ample light on

the hunger for sexual pleasure rife among the generations. The prevalence of such

wayward fantasies as well as acute perversions is an undeniable affirmation of the

value of sexual pleasure.

3.2.4. The Fact of Female Orgasm

Female orgasm is a fact proved beyond doubt. In respect of the time taken,

studies of masturbation have shown that, if suitably stimulated, women can

potentially achieve orgasm in the same amount of time as taken by men.168

166



Lloyd, The Case of the Female Orgasm, 25.

45

If the function of the male orgasm, as has often been argued, is primarily to

induce ejaculation and fulfil the purpose of procreation, then female orgasm remains

wholly unexplained in the same line of argument. There has been no irrefutable

explanation to the female orgasm to this date, and “the history of evolutionary

explanations of female orgasm is a history of missteps, misuse of evidence, and

missed references.”169

The pair-bonding hypothesis stands as the most widely

accepted170

among all attempted explanations, and this argument speaks more in

favour of the value of pleasure than anything else. As per this argument, the presence

of female orgasm creates a balance between the male and female involved in the

sexual act, so they can mutually reciprocate each other through the reward of

complementary pleasures. If both have orgasms to achieve, then both have equal

stakes going into the intercourse.

Austrian sexologist Wilhelm Reich has proposed that adulthood should be

associated with orgiastic potency, instead of merely identifying with chronological

age. The potential to experience a complete, uninhibited orgasm is what makes one

fully adult.171

Reich’s proposal puts the basic tenets of human personality on the firm

base of sexual pleasure, which along with the other value propositions stated above,

thus, establish a clear autonomy in the value of sexual pleasure.

3.3. REFUTATION OF THEORIES DEVALUATING SEXUAL PLEASURE

Sexual pleasure has not received a positive evaluation in all domains, mostly

in religious and ethical circles. It has been viewed as a vicious force contrary to true

human nature, one that leads to ruin and ought to be resisted at all costs. Though the

detractors have mostly targeted sexual desire in their admonitions, the denigration

applies equally to pleasure as well, as the condemnation is clearly a denunciation on

using sex for sake of pleasure alone. Having established a sense of irreconcilability in

169

Lloyd, The Case of the Female Orgasm, 257. 170


Bishop, Sex and Spirit, 110.

46

the valuation of sexual pleasure through arguments of positive affirmation, the

dissertation now seeks to refute the detractors of its value. The scope of this

dissertation is limited to ontological arguments and there shall be no foray into ethical

or utilitarian defence of sexual pleasure.

The chief ontological devaluations of sexual pleasure are subordinating it to

the primacy of procreation, subjecting it to gender dynamics, and attempting to

explain it away in terms of physiological processes. At the outset, the very fact that

attempts have been made to devaluate sexual pleasure serve as primary proof of its

value quotient; devaluation presupposes value.

3.3.1. Refutation of the Primacy of Procreative End

According to Augustine, intercourse for procreation has a rational basis,

because “the man then would have sown the seed, and the woman received it, as need

required, the generative organs being moved by the will, not excited by lust.”172

Arguments which advocate the primacy of procreative end to human sexual

intercourse tend to treat sexual pleasure dismissively. The exclusive focus on the

intent to create offspring enjoins a subjugation of the experience of pleasure

altogether.

Animal species perform their sexual act with relatively low level of

consciousness; urged on by instinct and controlled by seasonal factors (Kāmasūtra

1.2.21). Human sexuality rises from the animal level in being a conscious act, not

controlled by forces of nature. It is in the various creative excursions of performing

the sexual act, through recognition of mutual exchange of pleasure between the

partners, that human sexuality obtains its emancipation. When intercourse is

prescribed solely for procreation, it takes away the creative freedom. For instance, the

probability of conception of a woman is biologically said to be highest at the time of

her ovulation, which subsists barely for a few days in the middle of her menstrual

172

Augustine, City of God, 472.

47

cycle. Sex, when done for procreation alone, should be limited only to these days,

and hence, severely restricts the sexual freedom of the conjugal couple. Furthermore,

there is no assurance of impregnation even when intercourse is performed exactly

during the ovulation period.

At the outset, pleasure and reproduction are physiologically distinct. Infertile

persons also experience the same pleasure, and vasectomy patients experience even

higher pleasure from intercourse. Finally, prepubescent children are capable of

orgasm. Hence, sexual drive and pleasure persist in the absence of reproductive

capacity.173

Sexual pleasure has been seen to transcend rational limits and hence, it is

an incorrect estimate to place it subservient to procreation. Both pleasure and

procreation are distinct realms with individual tenets of their own, and they cannot be

evaluated in relation to each other.

3.3.2. Refutation of the Gender Valuation of Sexual Pleasure

Gender definition presupposes corresponding normative variations in

sexuality. This dichotomy, once established in gender bifurcation, carries over to the

capacity for sexual experience in men and women and consequently the nature of

their experience and their attitude towards it. It is a common misconception to base

sexuality upon gender dynamics. As highlighted in Appendix 1174

, sex is a

physiological concept and gender is a psychological construct. Difference of sex is

merely a fact of birth; there may be difference in attitude and experience but not in

enjoyment of sex (Kāmasūtra 2.1.26).

Males and females experience sexual pleasure in the same way (Kāmasūtra

2.1.23); the only difference being that men, normally, achieve orgasm within a short

duration, while for women it is experienced continually over a long period

(Kāmasūtra 2.1.22). It is not true, as is generally believed, that men have a higher

173


See Appendix 1, 54.

48

coefficient of irresistibility towards sexual gratification than women. Vātsyāyana, as

well as Manu, recognized the inability of women to protect themselves against sexual

temptations, and they also go to the extent of recommending a restraining guard

(niraṅkuśatva) on women.175

The differences in patterns of arousal and stimulation

are due in part to physiological and anatomical variations and in part to the bio-

physical component of sexuality, which is the emotional level of the individual,

educated mainly through environment and interactions.176

A difference in behaviour does not imply a different in result; there may be

variation in characteristics of he, who acts, and she, who submits to the act, but the

effect is the same (Kāmasūtra 2.1.27). It is not possible for two beings belonging to

same species and practising the same act to not feel the same pleasure (Kāmasūtra

2.1.25). Because they belong to the same species (jāti), man and woman seek the

same pleasure in sexual relations (Kāmasūtra 2.1.30). There are varieties, like beings

with low passion, middling ones and the high ardour types, but these are shared in

equal measure and not exclusive to any one sex. When a man and woman unite for

the purpose of enjoyment in sex, it would be wrong to say that the pleasure they both

receive from the union could be of different nature (Kāmasūtra 2.1.28).

Thus, the nature of sexual pleasure being the same, across gender lines,

strongly underscores the irreconcilability in its value, as it highlights the unity in its

nature and an unbreakable, non-transferable continuity in its essence.

3.3.3. Refutation of Physiological Explanation of Sexual Pleasure

Science has tended to explain pleasure in physiological terms, much like its

attempts to explain the working of the human mind through neurochemical reactions

and behavioural moods through hormonal imbalances. These attempts have invited

widespread indignation and censure to say the least. Human sexual desire is under the

175


Clark, Being Sexual and Celibate, 24.

49

influence of something other than physiological factors. Extrapolating human

behaviour from animal experimentation involves a great deal of naiveté.177

Physiological models of sexuality attempt to explain the experience of sexual

pleasure purely as a combination of hormonal reactions. By merely knowing the

science well they claim to have full grasp on the nature of sexual pleasure. The

human sexual act, according to the Masters and Johnson model, accomplishes itself in

four phases.178

The brain perceives sexual imagery and releases dopamine, the

chemical intended to initiate arousal and induce tension within the various body parts,

notably penile erection in males and vaginal dilation in females. Once a certain level

of arousal is attained, oxytocin is triggered, which creates an atmosphere of mutual

attachment and facilitates a joint performance of pleasure exchange.179

Blood rushes

into the pelvic region and creates a tension in the muscles, which is released with

rapid, highly pleasurable contractions during orgasm.

The physiology of sexual pleasure suffers the same transgression on the part of

science that it is notorious, in various other domains, for. The entire dynamics of

pleasure is explained in terms of mechanical realities. Neurochemical components are

claimed to paint the entire picture. Oxytocin, a hormone aiding in sexual pleasure, is

heightened to the status of ‘love chemical’, that which controls all feelings of love in

human relationships, even the bond between a mother and child.180

When science enters a territory, it claims sole ownership. In metaphysical

realms, where the value of sexual pleasure is situated, this claim becomes unfounded.

Science remains blind to the spiritual component of sexual pleasure, which breaches

the boundaries of identity, annihilates egoistic control, and elevates the individual into

a spiritual realm beyond body-mind duality. The value of sexual pleasure is in the

domain of the individual. Neither man nor woman can know the pleasure experienced

by the other; when one cannot perceive the other’s feelings, how can describe the

sexual enjoyment of the other? (Kāmasūtra 2.1.13)

177


Haeberle, “The Sex Atlas” [Online]. 179

Kuszewski, “The Science of Pleasure” [Online]. 180

Kuszewski, “The Science of Pleasure” [Online].

50

CONCLUSION

A FIRM VALUATION OF SEXUAL PLEASURE FOR BETTER

UNDERSTANDING OF SEXUALITY

Kāma, the Eros of India, in all its myriad forms, is the driving force behind the

dynamics of the universe; and it is not just in the animate beings. The sprouting of a

plant in the direction of the sun, the symbiotic inherence between various biological

processes, the affinity of chemical elements to one another, the strong nuclear

bonding, and even the seeming inclination of inert matter to evolve into higher forms,

can all be explained as manifestations of kāma. In the sexual act of human beings,

kāma reaches the pinnacle of its glorious complexity. It is the timely fermentation of

kāma along with other aspects of human nature, that clarify into a coagulation of

spirituality. In his narrative on the metaphysics of human sex, Moore says:

The erotic images on the temples of India have a special grace, but we could add to them the

sexual themes in Greek and early Mediterranean art, the churches and pagan centres of the

British Isles and Europe, the estates and streets of Pompeii, the paintings of Japan, the

sculptures of Africa, the sacred sexual images of Peru. Around the world religion and sex

have come together to create graphic images of sex that sublimate it creatively by granting it a

spiritual context and purpose.181

The influence of sexuality upon structures and fortunes of humanity is immense. It

seems very few people realize the energy they devote to activities to which they have

been impelled by sexual drives.182

The field of aesthetics finds its roots in

sexuality,183

as the faculty of beauty, which lies at its heart, has a strong connection

with the perception of pleasure in the domain of sexuality.184

Even human rationality

can be seen as “an objectification of his sexual life, from which it is derived and to

which it points.”185

Moore says the soul of sex provides resolution and fulfilment to

181





Engler, “Sexuality and Knowledge in Sigmund Freud,” 222.

51

both religion and materialism, by providing an axis of deep sensation that runs the

spirit into a loftiness, which essentially complements our horizontal pragmatic lives

with a source of deep satisfaction and spiritual comfort.186

The influence of sexuality is entrenched deep into our being, both in our

concrete existence and in the unbroken link of our historical processes. Its scale is so

vast that on the one side it elevates to the sublime level of spirituality, where sexuality

working with the human need to see unity in the world can be seen to have spawned

the culture of monogamous marriages,187

while on the other side, it descends right

down to the emotional level of the individual, giving rise to feelings of love,

togetherness and bonding, primarily towards those relations which work through the

channel of sexual intimacy.

Yet, as highlighted in the beginning of this dissertation, human sexuality is

presently going through a disharmonious phase, with rampant abuses and

transgressions of its exalted nature. This is partly due to sexuality having a value of

its own, which cannot be subjugated by rational arguments and ordered through

rational discourses, and partly due to the complexity of its own nature, which remains

“impermeable to reflection and inaccessible to human mastery.”188

Through a clear

understanding of the nature of sexual pleasure, and an irrefutable appraisal of its

value, this dissertation attempts to provide a stepping stone, so that future generations

may be able to get a better view of human sexuality, thus empowering them to

emancipate themselves, from a whirlpool of sexual degradation.

A hunger for pleasure is, seemingly, endowed upon every kind of life, and the

consequent gratification thereupon. The more intelligent the animal, the more

resourceful is its way of self-gratification, especially in sexual matters.189

Hence, the

elaborate sexual rituals developed by various cults and sects of humanity. It may be

true that humans are capable of diverting their sexual energy towards the pursuit of

186


See Appendix 3, 58. 188

Ricoeur, “Sexuality and the Modern World,” 140. 189


52

other interests,190

but such an attempt also leaves those individuals looking for

avenues to experience the charm of sexual pleasure in some equivalent form.

Rudrayāmala and Brahmayāmala say Vasiṣṭha was unable to obtain siddhi after many

years of austerities. Then he meets Buddha in China where he enjoyed meat, wine and

sexual union with orgasm and instantly becomes a yogi.191

Eroticism is mainly a search for pleasure, with the goal of attaining a

paroxysm of infinite delight, which the Upaniṣads see as embodying a divine state.192

It is when a man masters his senses and saves himself from becoming a sensualist

living just to satisfy one’s passions, that he succeeds in pilgrimage of life (Kāmasūtra

7.2.57:58). This dissertation focuses purely on establishing and reinforcing the pure

value of sexual pleasure, or in other words, the experience of pleasure in the domain

of human sexuality. At the same time, in keeping with the original intent of

undertaking a purely metaphysical discourse with no moral implications whatsoever,

there has been no attempt to sanctify or justify sexual pleasure in any ethical or

utilitarian measure. The essence of this disinterested demonstration is the belief that

true understanding of the value of sexual pleasure will serve to clarify the general

perception of sexuality as a whole, and endeavour to kick-start moral discourses in the

sexual domain with renewed interest and vigour. Ethical evaluations are expected to

be the logical next step to the value emphasis laid by this dissertation.

A renewed perception of sexuality, standing on a firm valuation of sexual

pleasure, will enable a holistic understanding of sexuality itself and create inroads for

the improvement of human nature through the channel of a harmonized sexuality. “If

our sexuality is free of anxiety, everything is in life maybe comfortably creative, but if

our sexuality is crude, then the whole of life suffers a parallel lack of refinement.”193

Better understanding of sexuality is the next level of human evolution.

190





53

GLOSSARY

ars erotica and

scientia sexualis

Two approaches to sexuality discussed in Michel Foucault’s 3-

volume ‘History of Sexuality’; ars erotica is viewing sex as an

art, exemplified by the ancient eastern cultures, while scientia

sexualis is the scientific view of sexuality, adopted

predominantly in the west.

Brahmā The God of creation, among the Hindu trinity of Brahmā, Viśṇu

(sustainer) and Śiva (destroyer).

coitus interruptus A crude method of birth control involving withdrawing the

penis from the vagina just before the ejaculation of semen, so as

to avoid depositing it in the birth canal of the female partner.

Nandi The principal companion to Śiva, the God of destruction. Nandi

is the first follower of Śiva and is believed to have taken the

form of a bull in order to serve as Śiva’s vehicle and gatekeeper.

Nomothetic

theories

A class of personality theories where it is believed that though

each person is unique, there are traits common to all men194

and

that these traits can be defined and studied as generic categories.

Puruṣārtha The four goals of human life, namely dharma (righteousness),

artha (material wealth), kāma (desire), and mokṣa (liberation).

The Kāmasūtra, for the subject matter of its discussion, only

considers the earthly triumvirate of dharma, artha, and kāma.

194

Whittaker, Introduction to Psychology, 460.

54

APPENDIX 1

THE BIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL DEFINITION OF GENDER

Sexuality, the quality of being sexual, is an integral part of our identity. We

are all invariably sexual beings, but the experience of sexuality is not merely on a

physical plane. As the philosopher-priest Keith Clark puts it: “I’ve experienced three

distinguishable levels of my own sexuality. I identify these as the biological, bio-

psychological and personal or spiritual. I have experienced these in a jumbled

way.”195

It is precisely this jumbled experience that has led to a shallow conception

of gender, and consequently, a misinterpretation of human sexuality.

In the chronological development of a human person, the stage of infancy

comes first. An infant would not be fully developed on the psychological and

spiritual planes; thus, it can be reasonably assumed that the babe identifies its

sexuality with bodily experience and its physical attributes. This physical attribution

of sexuality “is almost always a precursor to completely developed sexuality, and

manifests itself a long time before puberty.”196

The popular understanding of gender in a strictly polar context of male and

female becomes a mere projection of the infantile understanding. This immature

concept of gender, which has unfortunately served to greatly simplify demographic

profiling, has led to shortfalls in government policy formulations and led to an

imperfect understanding of human nature. As a consequence of this, human society is

polarized into two classes that view each other as exclusive and antagonistic, with the

female being popularly branded as the ‘opposite sex’ of male, while a third generic

class called transsexuals has been created, where all the non-polar specimens are

slotted and conveniently subject to horrid and inhuman alienation.

195

Clark, Being Sexual and Celibate, 21. 196

Bristow, Sexuality, 35.

55

Gender ought to be redefined in line with nomothetic personality theory

concepts. According to one of the widely accepted personality models proposed by

Raymond Catell, there are numerous surface traits to human personality, but these are

derivations from about fifteen cardinal source traits. The source traits themselves

belong to one of two types: those moulded by the environment and those constituted

by hereditary nature.197

Gender should similarly be seen as a function of certain pre-

identified base modes of human nature. In order to build a consistent and objective

model of gender, once the basal modes are established, a measuring mechanism,

similar to an objective questionnaire, should be developed. The result of the

questionnaire should be a clearly graded scale, which shall be representative of the

person’s gender.

The male and female gender definitions prevalent today shall be reduced to

norms, representative of the two behavioural extremities of human nature, and the

‘measured gender’ of human beings would fall in the continuum between them. As a

crude proposal: dominant, extraverted, vigorous and rational characters shall be

labelled as the ideal male, while the subservient, introverted, sensual and emotional

traits shall be labelled as the ideal female. Gender, in the new system, would not be a

definite male or female but a number, lying between these extremes, as per the

specimen’s inclinations with respect to the basal modes.

These definitions, having derived from psychological attributes rather than the

physical ones, would accommodate all samples of the population, including the

hitherto sidelined transsexuals. The new definition would present a true picture

especially of those people whose psychological traits are in stark contrast to their

anatomical gender designations. Such a gender-normalized society would entail a

paradigmatic shift in the insight towards human sexuality as well; providing human

sexuality with the psycho-spiritual basis necessary to integrate it into higher

discourses on human nature.

197

Whittaker, Introduction to Psychology, 468.

56

APPENDIX 2

THE WILY HANDS OF NATURE

Nature is not always a straight-forward simpleton at work; it can be a wily

charmer too. Any attempt to infer its working by merely putting together the pieces

of its evidences in the corporeal world runs the risk of taking a wrong turn.

Darwin, in his seminal work on the evolution of species, elucidates an instance

which provides an excellent example of the wily hand of Nature. He observers that

the sutures in the skulls of young mammals, which allow for movement in the skull

segments and a consequent contraction in the skull size, have classically been viewed

as a beautiful adaptation for aiding parturition, the process of passing of a mammalian

offspring through the birth canal at the time of birth. It may appear that the sutures

are indispensable for this act. But before drawing any conclusion, one needs to look

at a significant anomaly. The sutures occur in the skulls of young birds and reptiles

too, which have only to escape from a broken egg. Thus, one is led to “infer that this

structure has arisen from the laws of growth, and has been taken advantage of in the

parturition of the higher animals.”198

The fact which confirmed to Darwin that Nature

took advantage of existing sutures in mammalian evolution was that birds and reptiles

existed on Earth even before the mammals appeared. Darwin goes on to cite several

more examples of similar nature, one of them being the climber palms of Malay

Archipelago whose hook-like extensions at the ends of their branches seemed like a

contraption suited for effective climbing, while the case of various non-climbers

having similar growths, points out they were more likely to be adaptations to ward off

foraging herbivores instead.199

The school of Teilhard de Chardin may attribute it to divine intelligence

guiding the hand of nature, but the cause of it notwithstanding, Darwin’s example is a

198

Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 235. 199

Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 235.

57

positive indication of the fact that natural processes seem to possess the tactic of

employing piggy-backing, a process of optimizing wherein a new feature is loaded

upon an established process in order to save effort of setting up new adaptations.

Such optimizations can occur anyplace where existing processes have attained a high

level of efficiency.

The process of experiencing sexual pleasure is one such area. Sexual pleasure

attained a status of irreconcilable value by virtue of being at the core of human

sexuality. Consequently, it became a fact of existence for human beings and thus

became the first choice for Nature, when it wanted to make reproduction an

imperative for human beings. Naturally, human beings are endowed with rational

intelligence, and a blind dedication towards extension of their species would not have

been achieved in the face of limited resources and other means of preoccupation for

the race. By artfully interweaving procreation into orgasm, Nature seems to have

very artfully aimed at its goal of making reproduction a prerogative for the species.

The fact that origin of sexual reproduction still remains a mystery to human

understanding and also that sexual pleasure has a wider aura of experience, much

beyond the realm of reproduction, vehemently support the argument that procreation

was added by Nature much later into human sexuality, taking advantage of the potent

conditioning that sexual pleasure had already established.

As Foucault observed in his History of Sexuality, the evolution of sex seems to

have infused two orders of knowledge: the biology of reproduction, which developed

according to scientific norms, and a medicine of sex conforming to quite different

rules of formation; with absolutely no reciprocity from one to the other.200

By

concluding reproduction to be the primary aim of sexuality and consigning pleasure to

the flames of apostasy, human intelligence seems to have committed a mistake of

hasty conclusions, similar to the one admitted by Darwin over the reason for brain

sutures. This has just been one of those classic cases of humans having played into

the wily hands of Nature.

200

Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1: The Will to Knowledge, 54.

58

APPENDIX 3

THE PARALLEL BETWEEN MONOTHEISM AND MONOGAMY

“Monogamy is an aberration in the evolutionary scheme of things,”201

because

evolutionary biology strongly argues that polygamous urge is a natural instinct in all

animals, including humans. Alfred Kinsey was the first to argue that humans are

essentially polygamous and monogamy is really an artefact of culture.202

A look at the ancient cultures of the world is testimony of our inevitably

polygamous nature. In the Vedic society of ancient India, the well-to-do chieftains

and learned priests freely practised polygamy. Kings had multiple wives as a rule.

Marriage was primarily a social contract to beget children, who were seen as assets.

Adultery was not a heresy upon God’s commandments.203

In the western world of

pre-Christian times, promiscuity and prostitution were not seen as condemned and

sexual relations with partners of same as well as opposite sex were freely accepted. In

Plato’s Symposium, Socrates, along with his varied friends, can be seen eulogizing on

matters of love, especially of men’s love towards beautiful young boys.

According to the Old Testament scholar Richard Davidson, “exclusivity in the

marriage relationship is ultimately rooted in the monotheistic nature of God [and]

civilizations embracing [polytheistic] religions had no standard in marriage.”204

The

history of monogamy starts with monotheistic religions, whose ideals of unity in their

perceptions of concrete as well as abstract notions of everyday life formed a basis for

unity in sexual matters too.

Monogamy may also have a scientific basis in the need for males to maintain

sexual possessiveness over their female partners. As men are merely the donors of

201




Davidson, The Flame of Yahweh, cited in Hollinger, The Meaning of Sex, 67.

59

the seed and women being the receptacle and the consequent bearers of the foetus,

when many men breed with a single woman, its hereditary outcome tends to be

tentative. Hence, it was imperative for men to protect and safeguard their wives and

maintain sexual exclusivity, in order to gain control over the continuance of their

hereditary line. This argument, which has unfortunately come to favour the concept

of gender discrimination and subjugation of women in family matters, has, at the

same time, not discouraged polygamy on the part of men in any way. It has only

served to restrict women from indulging into polyandrous affairs. Monogamy, thus,

was not a result of sexual possessiveness; rather, it was a by-product of attempt by

civilization to establish metaphysical unity across all domains of human experience.

All monotheistic religions of the world are also strong advocates of

monogamous marriages, with Islam being an apparent exception. Islam has adopted

polygamy due to a tenet in the Koran which permits men to support disadvantaged

and disowned ladies, and care for them through the institution of marriage. The

polygamy permitted in Islam is purely to preserve and uplift social harmony and not a

medium to promote sexual indulgence, establish male dominance or enhance

procreation.

60

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