MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT MAY POSE A RISK TO DAIRY CALF MORTALITY IN

KAKIRI SUB-COUNTY WAKISO DISTRICT, CENTRAL UGANDA.

BY

LUBOWA RONALD

12/U/522

212000584

A SPECIAL PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF A REQUIREMENT

FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION

TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT, MAKERERE UNIVERSITY.

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND.

Agriculture is the back bone of Uganda’s economy involving

about 2.5 million families and this account for approximately

22.9% of the county’s GDP (UBOS, 2012). The sector also

provides a foundation for a number of agro-based industries

and there are about five main sub-sectors of which these

include; food, cash crop, fisheries, livestock and forestry

with the livestock contributing 4% GDP (MAAIF 2006). 88% of

the total population of Uganda lives in the rural areas and

drives livelihood from farming (UBOS, 2008). According to the

Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development (2006),

7.6% of Uganda’s labour force is employed by the agriculture

sector of which three quarters are women and children. The

major challenges to livestock production at large is diseases

and Others are poor animal husbandry practices, high costs of

production input, feed scarcity, limited extension services,

limited capital, lack of accessibility to market and limited

market information (PMA and MAAIF, 2006).

In Uganda, the dairy sector contributes to up to 9% of the

total AGDP and 3% of the GDP. The exotic and cross breeds

contributes less than 20% of the total cattle population and

producing approximately up to 60 % of the total milk. The

exotic and cross breeds of cattle are dominant in the south

western and central regions of the country and thus the reason

as to why the western region leads in terms of milk production

(Heifer Project, 2008).

The smallholder producers own over 90% of the national herd in

Uganda of which 11.4 million cattle and small ruminants

produce over 80% of the milk in the country. Dairy farmers are

especially small scale farmers in Uganda and these are mainly

pastoralists and mixed crop- livestock farmers. They are

currently facing a number of problems in production and

marketing of their produce following the implementation of

various policy and institutional reforms. Recent policy

changes such as decentralization, privatization,

liberalization and globalization have generated new challenges

for small scale producers that need to compete with the global

giants in the market place. (Wozemba and Nsanja 2008).

There are various problems such as diseases, poor management

practices that have led to calf mortality but Infectious

livestock diseases remain a major threat to attaining food

security and are a source of economic and livelihood losses

for people dependent on livestock for their livelihood (Samuel

M Thumbi , 2013)

Calf mortality is a significant source of economic loss in the

livestock industry. In smallholder mixed crop livestock

production systems, the survival of female calves is required

for herd expansion and breed improvement, while that of male

calves is used as a source of income from sales or as draught

animals livelihood (Samuel M Thumbi , 2013). The average

mortality rate on calves under 3 month of age may be up to 20%

with the highest rates of death in the first two weeks of life

(Blood and Radostitis, 2000). Calf mortality is generally

attributed to inadequate care at calving, poor management and

post calving management of calves. Septiceamia, Respiratory

and Enteric diseases are most common causes of death during

the first week of life (Blood and Radostitis, 2000). However,

in most cases, the cause of calf mortality is multifactorial,

often due to a combination of dam factors, various infective

agents, and nonoptimal housing and management practices.

Gastrointestinal helminthes are important pathogens which

affect young livestock in many tropical and subtropical

environments (Keyyu et al. 2005, 2006). Treatment with

anthelminthics administered 2–4 times a year, depending on

climate and management practices, has been recommended for

helminth control (Keyyu et al. 2005, 2009). Diarrhea is one of

the most important constraints in food animal production (Lema

et al.2001). Its prevalence appears to be management related

especially when calves are housed in unhygienic conditions

(Wudu et al. 2008).Diarrhea may be nutritionally induced or

caused by infectious agents (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or

protozoa). Cryptosporidia is among the protozoa which cause

diarrhea, retarded growth, and death in calves. In Uganda, a

previous study revealed the prevalence of cryptosporidiosis to

be 19.7% in smallholder dairy cattle (Swai et al. 2007) and

1.5% of giardia (Kusiluka et al. 2005).

Good calf rearing is important as it ensures availability of

good future replacement stock. In Uganda, calves in most

smallholder dairy farms are not performing well. Most farmers

do not have enough knowledge on proper management practices

such (calf-feeding regimes, housing). Apart from those,

farmers aim to optimize income by selling more milk and calves

are, therefore, underfed. This is more serious in bull calves,

resulting lack of bulls in smallholder farms. However, studies

conducted on calf management and the impact management has on

these calves’ health in smallholder farms in Uganda are very

few. Hence, the primary objective of this literature is to

find the management practices that have led to calf mortality

in Kakiri Sub-county Wakiso district since most of the

available literature has only been able to look at the causes

of calf mortality and the best management practices

separately.

Problem statement

Dairy calf mortality in the tropics is very high mainly due to

poor management and the use of un acclimatized exotic animals

(Wudu et al, 2008). Often it’s as high as 50% but this almost

invariably denotes poor management (Payne and Williamson,

2001). Chamberlain (2003) said with good management, calf

death could be reduced to 5% of birth. There has been an

increase in the death of calves reported by farmers in Kakiri

Sub-County Wakiso district over the past five years (DVO,

kakiri, 2015). With government efforts to modernize

agriculture and alleviate poverty, farmers have adopted the

rearing of improved breeds of dairy animals but calf mortality

has remained a big challenge within the dairy sector.

Justification

The study is carried out so as to establish the loopholes in

management practices that lead to calf mortality. It will also

be in position to reveal the good calf management practices by

different farmers under different systems so as to generate

knowledge that could be used to improve the existing

information. Such findings can be used to enlighten the

farmers on how to minimize calf losses. This will lead to an

improvement of the living standards of farmers within Kakiri

Sub-county in wakiso district and the dairy sector at large.

General objective of study

The general objective of the research is to identify dairy

calf management practices among farmers in Kakiri that may

pose a risk to calf heath.

Specific objectives

I. To determine if farmers within Kakiri Sub County areknowledgeable of the proper calf management practices.

II. To identify and document the dairy calf managementpractices of farmers in Kakiri Sub County.

III. To determine the attitude of farmers towards proper calfmanagement practices in Kakiri Sub County.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Overview of calf mortality

Calves mortality will target those younger bovine species that

are one year of age and below. For the study on mortality in

East African shorthorn zebu cattle less than one year carried

out between October 2007 and September 2010 showed that in

Kenya and Tanzania, the main cause of calf death was

identified as East Coast Fever (ECF), accounting for 40% of

all deaths due to infectious diseases (6% crude mortality).

The second major cause of mortality was haemonchosis with 12%,

attributed to heavy infection with Haemonchus placei, a

hookworm that attaches to the abomasal wall sucking whole

blood and Heart water disease was identified as the third

major cause accounting for 7.2% of the infectious disease

deaths. ECF was a major disease affecting mainly calves,

causing mortality both in ranch (8.5%) and pastoral (8.2%)

herds. Other endemic diseases found and controlled by

vaccination were FMD, CBPP and blackquarter. In cattle, a

helminthosis was also causing mortalities, 3.3% and 0.8% among

calves in pastoral and ranches Mekonnen, S.M, (2007).

The National Dairy Heifer Evaluation Project sponsored by

National Animal Health Management System (NAHMS), reported

retrospective data on 1,811 dairy farms and prospective

surveillance data on 921 US dairy farms, pre-weaning calf

mortality was 8.4% and 6.8% for the prospective and

retrospective data respectively (synesson et al 2003).

Diarrhea accounted for 52.2% of mortality, followed by

respiratory problems (21.3%), trauma (2.4%), joint & naval

problems (2.2%) and other or unknown causes (21.9%). Morbidity

during the first 3 weeks of life was attributed to pneumonia

(25%), diarrhea (29%) and umbilical disease (29%) in data

obtained from 410 dairy calves born in 2000 on 18 commercial

dairy herds located in New York (Virtala et al, 1996). Calf

mortality and morbidity remain high in North America (USDA,

2008) and there have been few attempts to develop on farm

welfare assessments for dairy calves.

Calf management practices

Management of cows pre-calving

Dairy cows in the dry period are offered mineral and vitamin

mixes in order to prevent issues associated with deficiency in

both the cow and the calf. Some of these issues include

retained fetal membranes (RFM), lazy calving, calving

difficulty (dystocia), milk fever, calf death and poor calf

health. For example maternal deficiency of trace minerals and

Vitamin E in late pregnancy can compromise the immune system

of the calf Langford Fm (2003). This may increase

susceptibility to scour, pneumonia, navel-ill, joint-ill, etc.

It is generally advised to feed dry cow mineral and vitamins

for approximately six weeks pre-calving. This is in order to

combat deficiencies in the total dietary intake. Grass silage

can be deficient in major minerals such as phosphorus (P) and

magnesium (Mg) and trace minerals such as iodine (I), copper

(Cu), selenium (Se) and cobalt (Co) NRC, (2001). The precise

amount and proportion of supplementary minerals and vitamins

depends on the nature and extent of any shortfall, potential

dietary interactions and on the intensity of production.

Drackleys (2008) said that analysis of your feed can identify

your specific problems more accurately and may indicate a

deficiency, or indeed a sufficiency of the minerals and

vitamins which you test for. An appropriate mix can then be

chosen. It is extremely important that you feed the mix as per

the feeding rate, as the feeding rate is specifically designed

to match the concentration of the minerals and vitamins in

your mix.

Care of the new born

After birth the navel of the calf is sprayed or dressed with

an antibiotic to prevent umbilical infection. The dam

offspring bond will be established by twelve hours post-

partum. The quality of calf management affects transfer of

passive immunity from dam to offspring which confer protection

against infection during the neonatal period. Calves are born

devoid of any significant resistance to the common calf hood

pathogens. To attain a sufficient level of resistance, calves

have to suckle or be fed adequate quantities of their dam’s

colostrum within the first 6 hours of life and feeding must be

continued for three to five days Von Keyserlingk and Weary

(2007). All newborn farm animals are more susceptible to

infection than their adult counterparts because the calves are

born without significant levels of immunoglobulins and they

absorb sufficient quantities of immunoglobins from the

colostrums (Blood et al 2000). According to (National Farm

Animal Care Council, 2009), colostrum is the first milk

produced by the dam shortly before and after a calf is born.

Colostrum is different from milk produced by the dam shortly

before and after a calf is born. Colostrum is different from

milk produced during the rest of lactation because in addition

to being excellent sources of essential nutrients, it contains

antibodies that provide protection against many diseases to

the new born (Blood et al 2000). Failure to ingest or absorb

adequate amounts of colostral immunoglobins is associated with

high mortality and morbidity from infectious diseases.

According to (USDA, 2008), normal passive transfer to Igs is

best accomplished by feeding 2litres of colostrum to a calf

with in the first 6 hours of life and feeding continued up to

the third day of life.

Feeding of calves on Colostrum

Proper colostrum management is one of the most crucial aspects

of a calf’s life, but can also be one of the most neglected.

Calves are born agammaglobulinemic, meaning they are born with

little to no antibodies, and an immature immune system. Full

maturity of the calf’s immune system does not occur until five

to eight months of age. There is a lack of immune system

making them more susceptible to harmful pathogens and

diseases. In order to develop their immune system they must

obtain antibodies which they ingest through colostrum, and

then absorb the immunoglobulins across the small intestine

(Lorenz et al., 2011).

This process of absorbing immunoglobulins is called passive

transfer of immunity. Optimal passive immunity transfer occurs

within the first four hours post-partum and gradually declines

until hour 24 due to its digestive track is receptive to

absorption within 24 hours. Feeding calves colostrum

throughout the first 24 hours is ideal to ensure they receive

as many immunoglobulins as their gut will absorb. Effective

passive transfer of immunity has proven to lower mortality

rates in neonatal and pre-weaned calves. Having successful

passive transfer of immunity can also reduce mortality in the

post-weaning periods, increase the rate of weight gain

complemented by reduced age at first calving and improving the

first and second lactation production (Godden, 2008). There

are three main classes of immunoglobulins present in

colostrum. “IgG, IgA and IgM accounting for approximately 85%

to 90%, 5%, and 7%, respectively” (Godden, 2008). “The

relationship between IgG concentrations and calf health is

best understood; thus, the concentration of IgG in colostrum

is considered the hallmark of evaluating colostrum quality”

(Conneely, 2013).

Nutrients are the second benchmark and most important element

of colostrum. Crude fat and casein are at significantly higher

levels in colostrum increasing the energy content which is

critical in thermogenesis, or heating of the body. The exact

cytokines and growth factors in colostrum are present and

important, but not completely understood or measured. Bacteria

are also present in colostrum adding contamination and

potential immunoglobulin absorption blockage. In order to

minimize the amount of bacteria and increase the quality it is

best to pasteurize the colostrum. Pasteurization of colostrum

increases the IgG absorption levels in calves resulting in a

higher effectiveness of the colostrum. The best pasteurization

protocol for colostrum is a low temperature long time approach

at 60oc for 60 minutes (Godden, 2008).

The amount of high quality colostrum that should be fed to a

calf is approximately 10% to 12% of their birth weight;

therefore a 40kgs calf would be fed 4L at zero hours. At 12

and 24 hours calves should be fed 2L of colostrum for a total

of 8L of colostrum in the first 24 hours, or the equivalent

depending on their body weight. It is best to hand feed the

calf instead of letting her suckle from the dam (Stull and

Reynolds, 2008).

Hand feeding provides the exact measures of colostrum that the

calf has consumed. In order for the esophageal groove reflex

to properly trigger and absorb the molecules, it is suggested

to nipple bottle-feed the calf versus esophageal tube feeding.

Because there is a known amount of colostrum that the calf

should be fed, it is best to nipple bottle-feed as much of the

bottle as the calf will drink (Godden, 2008). Esophageal tube

feeding should only occur if the calf does not finish her

bottle or does not want to suckle at all. It may be a faster

way to feed the calf, but it can lead to an upset stomach and

improper absorption of nutrients. Nipple feeding also

acquaints the calf with a bottle from the start minimizing any

future teaching that may be necessary if the calf does not

take to the bottle when being fed milk.

Roughage and concentrate feeding

According to (Godden, 2008), one goal of pre-weaning feeding

program is to stimulate rumen development. The calf needs to

consume dry feed to initiate this process. The growth of rumen

papillae is stimulated by volatile fatty acids. Another

function for pre-weaning feeding program is to stimulate an

increase in rumen capacity this is related to the fiber or

bulk provided by dry feed. The fiber can be provided by solely

concentrate (calf starter). A complete calf starter is one

that contains some forage products such as ground alfaalfa

hay. A good calf starter mix should be high in energy and

contains 16% and 18% crude protein (Bath et al, 1981). From

about 2 weeks of age roughage is introduced gradually as the

calf’s appetite builds up. Roughage should be in form of good

quality hay and hand full off green fodder, roughage for

calves under 2 month of age should not be inform of silage as

this will cause diarrhoea. Concentrate (calf starter or young

stock meal) is introduced at about the same time roughage

feeding begins. Concentrate supplies additional nutrients

required by the calf because as it grows milk will no longer

be sufficient to meet body requirements. Feeding level is

gradually increased so that by 12 weeks of age the calf is

receiving 1-1½ kg per day. Any change of the feed type(s)

should be gradual for at least 3-5 days. To maintain proper

growth of the calf early supplement with vitamins and minerals

is advisable when roughage / concentrate feeding is delayed

because milk is deficient in many of these vital elements and

calves are born with negligible body reserves.

Water

The most critical nutrient for calves is water, which is often

overlooked on many dairy farms. Calves are required to consume

additional water beyond what is already consumed in their

liquid diet. There is so much in the calf’s life that is

affected by the amount of water consumed. For example, the

amount starter feed intake is dependent on the calf’s water

consumption. Water also helps cleanse the calf internally and

continue to help develop the rumen and digestive system. With

that being said, the best water management practice for calves

is an ad libitum supply of water. The method of providing

water to the calf (through a nipple or open bucket) does not

affect the total water consumption. Calves from 1-4 month of

age consume an average 9L, 2-24 month of age consume 25L on

average of water daily. During weaning the water consumption

increases from 2L and continues to increase until just after

weaning (Huuskonen et al., 2011). In cold climates where water

may freeze, it is suggested that at minimum calves should have

warm water available immediately after each feeding and once

midday. It is best to separate the water and dry feed

containers physically to decrease the amount of wasted dry

feed from calf slop (Drackley, 2008).

Naval Antiseps

Antisepsis of the calf’s naval, or umbilicus, is an extremely

important protocol that should occur immediately after the

calf is born. An exposed naval is a major passage way for a

plethora of bacteria and harmful pathogens to enter the calf’s

body. To prevent naval ill, or infection through the naval, it

is best to keep the maternity pen clean, reduce the time the

calf is in an unhygienic area, ensure intake of quality

colostrum and naval antisepsis (Lorenz et al., 2011). An

untreated naval can lead to infection, illness and reduced

growth factors. There are many benefits that come from naval

antisepsis including, but not limited to, preventing

mycoplasma and respiratory diseases resulting in a lower calf

mortality rate. With each passing minute that the naval is

exposed the calf has an increased risk of naval ill (Mee,

2008). Proper naval antisepsis has been shown to reduce the

calf death loss by a half. The best practices are to dip the

naval into a clean vessel containing fresh iodine for

disinfecting both the internal and external surface of the

umbilicus (Gorden and Plummer, 2010). When treating a naval

using a mild antisepsic such (povidone iodine, phenol, 2-4

dichlorobenzly alcohol, acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide) helps

clean the area and dry up the naval. Using a strong antisepsic

such as (Ammonia, thymol, carbolic soap, monarda didyma, and

electrotherapeutics) may cause over drying, irritation and

inflammation of the naval and surrounding areas (Nagy, 2009).

Housing and Environment

Calves should be removed from the mother within the first 24

hours of life and housed alone in a clean, dry and warm

environment where they can adapt to the outside world. Once

the calf is moved from its mother, studies have shown that

calves experience dramatic temperatures changes due to the

change in their environment. If calves are immediately removed

from their mother’s post-partum, they need to be provided with

warmth so as to enable it adapt to new environment (Nagy,

2009).

Having a sustainable housing environment for the calf is

beneficial to their thermal, physical and behavioral comfort.

Being in a stressful environment can cause predisposition of

the calf’s health comprising their immune system and affecting

their growth rates. Unsafe and frustrating environments can

cause stress on the calf resulting in a negative impact on

their immune system. Calves should also be housed individually

to minimize the spread of diseases and reduce pathogen

transmission. Isolated housing provides easier observation for

the calf feeder to maintain the health and provide any

necessary medical attention for each individual calf (Stull

and Reynolds, 2008).

Group housing is an option, and may be used when necessary.

However, group housing often leads to cross contamination that

leads to the spread of diseases from calf to calf, and makes

it difficult to get rid of the bacteria throughout the herd.

The most important benefit to a sustainable environment is

thermal comfort which ensures that the calf is kept at a

temperature that is neither too cold nor too hot, especially

during times of weather of intensity. Thermalneutral zone is

the optimal temperature ranging from 13°C to 25°C for calves

up to three weeks of age. After three weeks of age, calves are

more competent to withstand temperatures as low as of 5°C

(Drackley, 2008). If temperatures reach below thermalneutral

zone the calf must divert energy to maintain the optimal body

temperature (Stull and Reynolds, 2008).

Physical comfort is the second most important aspect of the

calf’s environment focusing on the quality and conditions of

the space available. The open space should be approximately 32

square feet of space for calves to be able to exercise and

move around their pen at their leisure.

Calves spend much of their time lying down especially at

younger ages, therefore, the dryness and cleanliness of their

resting area is important. Straw, sand or shavings should be

added to the inside of the hutch as bedding for the comfort of

the calf (Drackley, 2008).

Sand can also be beneficial to their health due to its organic

composition, which reduces the spread of bacteria if properly

maintained and cleaned. Regardless of the season or the

bedding, wet or soiled bedding should be removed and replaced

with clean bedding once or twice weekly. Even more frequently

during the rainy season (Stull and Reynolds, 2008).

Keeping the hutches away from muddy areas during the rainy

season will also help with minimizing how wet the bedding gets

resulting in lower cold stress on the calf.

Good ventilation is a critical aspect of management and can

profoundly affect respiratory health (Callan and McGarry,

2002).

Behavioral comfort is the last key quality in sustaining the

environment in which a calf is housed. Feed and water should

be easily accessible for the calf to minimize any frustrating

situations. Ensuring the safety of the calf will also help

with preventing negative behavior. It is also beneficial for

the caretaker to provide personal interaction with the calf to

provide future social assistances for the forthcoming herd

interactions (Stull and Reynolds, 2008).

Weaning.

Weaning is a critical point in a calf’s life because of the

amount of stress that takes place during that time. In a

recent study done by Soberon et al. (2012), results exhibited

that there was a positive correlation between average daily

gain in pre-weaned calves and the heifer’s first lactation

yield. It has also proven to be correlated with age at first

calving directly linked to breeding age. Age at first calving

and the first lactation milk yield are large factors when

deciding to cull heifer’s, therefore, providing her the proper

nutrients at a young age is key to her productivity on the

farm as a cow (Soberon et al., 2012).In North America the

average weaning age is 8.4 weeks (Hill et al., 2009). However,

it is suggested that calves only be weaned after they can

consistently consume 1kg of starter daily (Drackley, 2008).

This usually occurs between five and six weeks of age when

consuming a palatable starter (Lorenz et al., 2011). Once

weaned calves should be moved into group hutches in small even

numbers to help with their transition and development of the

socialization skillset. Therefore, weaning is a very stressful

time in a calf’s life.

Disease prevention and control

Disease

Diseases in calves have a major impact on the economic

vitality on dairies. This economic impact stems from the

direct cost of the calf losses and the cost of treatment of

the calves, both dead and alive. Often times, treating calves

can influence their long-term performance as a cow (Lorenz et

al., 2011). Below are some diseases whose causes are

multifactorial.

Diarrhea (scours)

Even though the immune system of a calf is functional at

birth, it is less responsible than that of an adult cow and is

naïve and easily overwhelmed by the bacteria, viruses,

parasites in the environment. New-born calves are vulnerable

to infection due to their poor immune capacity. The primary

sources of infection for calves faeces of infected animals.

The calves obtain the organism from contaminated beddings,

other diarrheic calves, overcrowded Conditions and from skin

around the udder of their dams, contaminated feeds and water

(Syensson et al, 2003).Prolonged exposure or an increased

level of exposure occurs when susceptible dairy calves remain

in the calving area, have continued contact with adult cattle

or are housed in facilities that are under bedded, warm, damp,

humid, or poorly ventilated. Calves that are in close contact

with manure or other liquid runoff will have continuous

exposure to pathogens in the environment. Warm, damp, humid

calf housing with compound bedding contaminated problems

especially when there is calf to calf contact, inadequate

sanitation between successive occupants of an individual pen,

accumulation of waste in porous stall base, or dumping of feed

refusal into calf pen (Sheila, 2007). Calving in confinement

during the muddy, wet season also predisposes calves to

infection (Richard, 2001). This can be a serious problem and

common killer of young calves several days after calving.

Calf pneumonia

The main environmental factors predisposing calves to

respiratory disease is poor ventilation in calf housing. Cold,

humid condition, sudden changes in temperature, stress due to

different causes and change in the environment has also been

associated with outbreak of pneumonia in young calves

(William, 2007). Overcrowding, draft and poor sanitation are

other conditions responsible for pneumonia (Richard 2001).

This is commonly in intensively managed calves about 3-16

weeks old. It is caused by bacteria and viruses. Enzootic

pneumonia in young calves is multifactorial disease that

occurs mainly in two different systems. Housed dairy calves

reared for replacement or in housed calves reared for beef in

herd other than the herd of origin. Dairy calve are likely to

suffer from disease at any age, with it manifesting itself as

chronic, coughing pneumonia, or is more acute, enzootic calf

pneumonia. Older dairy calves are also vulnerable after

housing in the autumn. The symptoms showed include dullness,

severe diarrhea, impendences, as indicated by sunken eyes

(Morrison 2013). This condition can be fetal if not treated.

Treatment involves use of antibiotics with increased fluids

intake as with common scours.

Coccidiosis

Coccidiosis is contagious enteritis caused by infection with

Eimeria species and occurs in all domestic animals. Source of

infection is faeces of infected animals. Its characterized by

diarrhea, dysentery, anaemia, emaciation and tenesmus. There

mild fever in early stage but later temperature becomes normal

to subnormal. The perineum and tail are smudged with faeces

and there is inappetance to complete anorexia. It’s common

where animal are confined in small areas. Most animals in

group become infected but only a minority develops clinical

disease. Thus the infection rate is high but the rate of

clinical disease is usually low (10-15%). Mortality is

relatively high (10-15%) but morbidity rate are usually low.

Eimeria species pathogenic cattle include; E. Zuernii, E.

bovis and E.ellipsodlis. Specific immunity to each Eimeria

species develops after infection so that young animals (2-12

wks of age) exposed for the first time are more likely to

develop a severe infection and clinical disease than older

animals (Epe C, et al, 2005). Transmission is through

ingestion of contaminated feeds and water with faeces and

licking hair coat contaminated with infected faeces.

Intestinal sulfornamides like sulfamethazine and amprolium are

considered effective for treatment (Clarence et al, 2001).

Control measures include;

Good hygiene

Avoid over crowding

Separating young from adult and

Maintain dry clean pens with bedding removed and replaced

regularly.

Prophylactic administration of drugs is helpful.

Vaccination

Due to the complexity and immaturity of the calf’s immune and

management systems developing an effective vaccination program

is essential. Calves are born with a functional yet very

immature immune system that responds to antigens as long as

maternal antibodies are not present. If maternal antibodies

are present it is difficult for the calf to properly respond

to the vaccinations. Overcoming maternal antibodies can occur

through administering vaccines intranasal. Vaccines

administered intranasal help with the development of immune

proteins on the mucosal surface. The mucosal surface is a

major pathway for potential pathogens to invade the body. The

antibody in the vaccine neutralizes the infectious agents at

the entry point on the mucosal surface preventing the

infection from further transfer into the body. Intranasal

vaccines also reduce the interferon release, which provides an

antiviral environment in the mucosal surface and possibly

stimulates immune system maturation (Gorden and Plummer,

2010). Some vaccination labels give suggested directions on

when to vaccinate, but the right time may vary from farm to

farm.

Calves should not be vaccinated during times where they are

easily disease susceptible or stressful times. Vaccinating

calves when their immune system may be impaired causes calves

to potentially becoming sick. Administering the booster

vaccination should also occur prior to any stressful

circumstances to ensure that calf can respond to the vaccine.

Vaccinating causes stress on the calf internally because it is

building up the immune system. Vaccinating calves when they

are comfortable, healthy and feel safe in their environment is

the best time (McGuirk, 2008). Some of the common vaccines

available in Uganda and East Africa include Anthrax, FMD,

Black leg, ECF, Lumpy skin disease, Contagious bovine

pleuroneumonia and Brucella vacinne).

Deworming (internal parasitic control)

The need to control internal parasites will exist as long as

cattle are grazing pastures. However, parasite levels are not

the same on all pastures or in all cattle. Pastures that are

heavily stocked generally have a higher parasite burden than

lightly stocked ones. Cattle in a dry lot are less likely to

have heavy worm infections than those on pastures. Young

cattle will typically have more internal parasites than older

cattle. Therefore, the methods of controlling internal

parasites should be developed to fit individual production

situations. Strategic deworming starts with understanding the

life cycle of problem parasites, identifying seasonal changes

in parasite burdens and implementing cost-effective control

(NAHMS 2009). A successful deworming program, along with good

overall herd management, will increase milk production in cows

and thereby increase weaning weights of calves and also

reducing the number of those dying due to internal parasites.

The effects of internal parasites on cattle will vary with the

severity of infection as well as age and stress level of the

animal. In general, younger animals and animals under stress

are most likely to show signs of parasitism. Mature cows

acquire a degree of immunity to parasites that reside in the

lower gastrointestinal tract. Mature cows should be treated at

least one time per year. The best time to treat the mature cow

is near calving.

Treatment of calves should begin as soon as they start feeding

on roughages and this should be repeated after three to four

months. Yearlings can be treated on a seasonal basis, spring

and fall, until they are mature cows (a mature cow is

generally recognized as an animal pregnant with her second

calf). If calves are back grounded in a dry lot, one initial

treatment should be sufficient (NAHMS, 2008, 2009)

Tick control

When tick control is used to achieve control of tick borne

disease, a complicating factor is the desire to achieve

endemic stability (Bock and de Vos, 2001). Tick control

reduces exposure of livestock to the target ticks within a

specific area and time. All eradications and most controls of

ticks are to protect livestock; hence the predominantly

veterinary focus of this review. For this review it is

necessary to assume that effective treatments to kill ticks

are available as acaricides, including anti-tick vaccine

(George et al. 2008), their increasing relative cost is

considered the main problem (Graf et al. 2004). Some of the

tick borne diseases in the tropics include diseases caused by

viruses lyme disease, anaplasmosis. East coast fever,

babesiosis (E.Katunguka-Rwakishaya, 2006)

There are three common methods of tick control and these

include of biological, chemical and physical. Biological

control of ticks; It involves the use of the natural enemies

to the ticks such as predator birds (bubulcus ibis, cattle

tyrants and oxpeckers) that feed on these ticks thus reducing

on the number of ticks, some species of wasps that deposit

their eggs on ticks and end up killing ticks and finally some

bacteria and fungi kill ticks (George et al, 2008).

Control of TBDs through immunization; this can be established

through natural exposure to the infected ticks, vaccination or

combination of the two. Proper feeding of animals especially

of younger animals should boost body immunity of the calves.

(C.M. Rubaire, 2006). Control of ticks on pastures;

Cultivation of the infested pastures and growing on to these

areas crops can help to reduce on and in the long term

eradicate ticks. Controlled burning of grass helps to reduce

on the tick population which act as vectors and because of

this has helped to reduce on the vector that spread the TBDs.

(C.M. Rubaire Akiiki, et al 2006)

Record keeping

A producer may well know a lot about the animals he keeps.

However, keeping information in one’s memory is not reliable

enough since anybody can easily forget something. Keeping

written records helps to avoid loss of useful information.

Record keeping is an essential part of good animal farm

business management. A combination of high production and

efficient production is the key to a profitable operation

(Penn, 2004). On-farm records are essential in evaluating and

improving the performance of farm operation. A good record

keeping system can assist a farmer to make informed business

and management decisions. Producers should have a record book

in which all records are kept. This should be stored in a

place where it will not become soiled or wet, making the

records useless. The format should be simple and readily

understood. Simple record keeping need not take too much time

and the advantages are numerous. Recording is made easy if

animals have some form of identification. Thus, animal

recording and identification are inseparable Desta, (2009).

There are numerous different types of records that can be

kept. However, the producer should keep records of information

relevant to the type of enterprise he/she is operating and

limited to information that can be utilized. There are three

basic types of farm records; inventory records, Production /

health records and financial records (Penn, 2004). For the

case of treatment records, one can easily tell when to start

and repeat treatment of animals since tends to control cases

of under/over dosage.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Area of study

The study will be carried out in Kakiri Sub-County, Busiro

County, Wakiso district. Kakiri is located in the western part

of wakiso district, of which it’s boarded by; Namayumba sub-

county in the west, Masulita Sub-County in the north, Wakiso

town council in the east and Mpigi district in the south.

Kakiri Sub-County has got total population 19,449 individuals

with 4727 households (Uganda National population census 2014).

I decided carry out my study in this area since there are many

farmers involved in dairy cattle rearing with complains about

calf mortality and also easily accessible from the author’s

home.

Sample size

The actual proportion of the farmers experiencing calf

mortality was not known, but from the information got from the

district veterinary offices, it was estimated to be

approximately 93% leaving only 7% who don’t experience calf

mortality with an allowable error of 5% and confidence level

of 95%.

Martin et al, (1987) gives the sample size n required as;

n= 4PQ/L

Where;

N= sample size

P= proportion of households rearing cattle.

Q= proportion of households not rearing

L= allowable error

P + Q = 1

Hence: n = 4 x 0.93 x 0.07 = 104

0.052

Sample size (n) = 104

Sampling procedure

Farmers will be selected at random and a random sample of

farmers chosen for study by administration of questionnaire.

Data collection

An introductory letter to carry out the research was drafted

and endorsed by CoVAB which was taken to the sub-county

productions department for authorization.

All the necessary information was to be collected through

interview and using a questionnaire to selected farmers plus

direct observation. On some occasion the data was collected

from district veterinary records and sub- county veterinary

records.

Interviews

This involves face to face question and answer exercise. Face

to face interviews will be used to obtain relevant and

accurate information. This will be used in accordance with

respondents who may have difficulties in filling in the

questionnaires. It provides rich information because of its

flexibility in nature and also allows the researcher to

register extremely rich responses.

Questionnaires

This is a set of printed questions that are set along certain

themes with the aim of getting responses without face to face

answers. The questionnaires that will be employed will bear

both open ended and closed questions.

Document Analysis

This involved reviewing of the sub-county production

department documents particularly those in relation to

livestock most especially dairy calves, care and management

practices. This tool will be useful in triangulating what the

interviewees will state. Besides it will involve reviewing of

related literature in the books, brochures, journals and

newspapers with articles on management of dairy farming.

Data analysis and management

Quantitative data: after collection, data will be edited and

coded. Editing is where the data is examined for errors and

omission and corrected where necessary and possible. In the

coding process, data will be organized into categories after

which numerals will be assigned to each item before entering

it into the computer and to software packages called SPSS and

micro soft excels for analysis used to generate quantitative

results in form of percentages, frequencies, means and

averages.

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