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Productive identities and communityconditions for rural tourism in Mexicantropical drylandsMaxime Kieffera & Ana Burgosb

a Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores Unidad Morelia,Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Morelia, Mexicob Centro de Investigaciones en Geografía Ambiental, UniversidadNacional Autónoma de México, Morelia, MexicoPublished online: 22 May 2015.

To cite this article: Maxime Kieffer & Ana Burgos (2015): Productive identities and communityconditions for rural tourism in Mexican tropical drylands, Tourism Geographies: An InternationalJournal of Tourism Space, Place and Environment, DOI: 10.1080/14616688.2015.1043576

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Productive identities and community conditions for rural tourism in

Mexican tropical drylands

Maxime Kieffera* and Ana Burgosb

aEscuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores Unidad Morelia, Universidad Nacional Aut�onoma deM�exico, Morelia, Mexico; bCentro de Investigaciones en Geograf�ıa Ambiental, UniversidadNacional Aut�onoma de M�exico, Morelia, Mexico

(Received 7 January 2015; accepted 18 April 2015)

The presence of distinctive territories and identities are important assets for ruraltourism in addition to favorable internal conditions in host communities to reach agovernance tourism model. In Mexico, several rural tourism initiatives have shownweaknesses in the outcomes such as the emergence of new conflicts in hostcommunities, an incorrect inversion in infrastructure or deficient local organizationalcapabilities. This indicates the need of previous understanding in target territorieswhere rural tourism wants to be introduced. A geographical approach based onconcepts such as identity, territory, land cover and multi-scale provides an ex-anteassessment in rural spaces of tropical dry lands in Mexico where rural tourisminitiatives want to be encouraged. The ex-ante assessment allowed the identification offive productive identities clearly defined from an inside perspective which revealed ahigh countryside capital in the studied area. In the productive identities areas, differenttypes of tourism and activities could be developed based on the specificities found.Furthermore, heterogeneous internal conditions in communities into the entireterritory were found, which has implications for the creation of horizontalcollaborative networks among communities. The results offered new evidence aboutthe potentiality of the whole territory as well as the need of further intervention andanalysis to strengthen the social capital in local communities. This geographicalapproach to guide an ex-ante assessment is complementary to other conventionalapproaches for recognizing the feasibility of rural tourism initiatives or policies inrural territories.

Keywords: rural tourism; productive identity; community-based developmentex-ante assessment; Mexico; livelihoods

Introduction

Rural tourism is claimed to be an option to revitalize local economies in rural territories

and an opportunity of empowerment for depressed local communities (Barlybaev, Akh-

metov, & Nasyrov, 2009; Cawley & Gillmor, 2008; Fleischer & Felsenstein, 2000; Sharp-

ley, 2002; Wilson, Fesenmaier, Fesenmaier, & van Es, 2001). Interesting successful

experiences are in progress worldwide (�Avila, 2002; Bal & Sipahio�glu, 2013, Bardales,2004), but other initiatives have not been as flourishing as expected (Farthing & Zorn,

2007; Ghaderi & Henderson, 2012; Gasc�on, 2005; Santana, 2009).Latin American countries are relative newcomers in terms of rural tourism initiatives.

In Mexico, the rural areas constitute landscapes with high cultural, biological and agricul-

tural diversity that have been seen as an opportunity for encouraging rural tourism

*Corresponding author. Email: maxime.kieffer@gmail.com; mkieffer@enesmorelia.unam.mx

� 2015 Taylor & Francis

Tourism Geographies, 2015

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initiatives. In the last decade, an enthusiastic discourse about the suitability of rural tour-

ism emerged in governmental sectors, academic circles and non-governmental organiza-

tions (�Avila, 2002; Cer�on & S�anchez, 2009; Secretaria de Turismo [SECTUR], 2006,

2013). But often, rural tourism initiatives display difficulties in reaching expected goals

(Castillo, 2007; Guerrero, 2010; Kieffer, 2011; L�opez & Palomino, 2008; Zizumbo,

2007). Some are the emergence of new conflicts in host communities after the implemen-

tation of rural tourism activity (Daltabuit, Cisneros, V�azquez, & Santill�an, 2000;

Machuca, 2008), or the incorrect inversion in infrastructure despite the lack of

organizational capabilities for its management in communities (Institut Pluridisciplinaire

pour les �Etudes sur l’Am�erique Latine [IPEALT], 2011; Par�e & Lazos, 2004). These

recurrent failures show that policies and projects for rural tourism in Mexico are designed

with insufficient knowledge about regional territorial particularities, and strengths

and weaknesses in community contexts are ignored. Therefore, new approaches are

required in order to minimize erroneous policies and projects and avoid failures for rural

communities.

Scientific studies in the rural tourism field are usually performed after the introduction

of this activity in specific territories. These types of studies offer important lessons to

learn from what has already happened (Ashley, 2000; Farthing & Zorn, 2007; Ghaderi &

Henderson, 2012; Mitchell & Eagles, 2001; Salazar, 2012; Weaver & Lawton, 2007). But

the rapid growth of tourism, and the difficulties in reaching sustainable outcomes, demand

enriched planning processes that can be located inside the development planning (Ins-

keep, 1988). In this sense, ex-ante assessments must be performed for exploring features

and possibilities in territories where rural tourism initiatives have not been implemented

yet, and a better understanding of conditions is required before the elaboration or imple-

mentation of policies or projects. The feasibility analyses are often considered in tourism

development. But a significant problem with them is that too often the focus of the analy-

sis is on the market and the financial feasibility only, assuming these as the primary basic

objectives (Currie & Wesley, 2010). Other intangible assets such as community identities

and local conditions (LCs) are not usually considered. Specifically for rural tourism,

more integrative assessment tools must be designed in order to recognize features and

dimensions in territories of interest. More complete ex-ante assessments are used in a

wide range of projects in the field of sustainable development because they improve plan-

ning, decision-making and methodology (Bicak, Altinay, & Jenkins, 2005; Smeral, 2004;

Vergara & Arrais, 2005). But its application is almost non-existent for the assessment of

territories where rural tourism initiatives want to be motivated.

Rural tourism has been proposed for territories that can provide the tourist a profound

experience associated with the rural life, its cultural, historical, ethnic and geographic

characteristics (Heneghan, 2002). Therefore, the presence of distinctive identities is

important assets for this activity. The identity in rural areas is place based, i.e. it comes

from the everyday life of farmers and is linked to the history, environment and country-

side (Sharpley, 2004).

In addition, achievements in rural tourism initiatives are more probable if the condi-

tions in local communities in terms of local vision, collective actions and other social fea-

tures are favorable (Akyeampong, 2011; Zizumbo, 2007). Additionally, an active social

capital is desirable as new activities and potential changes can interfere with the social

networks at local and regional scale, in which case an internal mechanism to prevent and

resolve new challenges is necessary (Barbini, 2008). Social capital is the combination of

social relations present into a durable network that establishes a frame of reference and

facilitates the actions of the people integrated in that structure (Coleman, 1988;

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Durston, 2002). Macbeth, Carson, and Northcote (2004) insist on the fact that the inclu-

sion of issues about social, political and cultural capital into the agenda of regional tour-

ism development opens up fruitful new ways of thinking, considering sociality as a

strategic resource for sustainable tourism development.

The assessment of local territories, identities and conditions in local rural communi-

ties can be performed from a geographical perspective. It allows the recognition of links

between people and their environments on one hand, and offers conceptual support to

change spatial scales with an integrative vision on the other. In order to contribute to ex-

ante assessments for rural tourism, the objective of this work is to apply a geographic per-

spective based on concepts such as identity, territory, land cover and a multi-scale

approach for recognizing the productive identities in a region as well as the initial condi-

tions in local communities. The framework is applied to the assessment of a rural territory

in tropical dry lands with high biological conservation in Mexico where governmental

agencies at federal and local level are interested in the implementation of rural tourism

initiatives.

Identity and local conditions for rural tourism

Identity is an important concept with several angles for discussion that is strongly related

with the concept of territory (Knight, 1982). In general terms, identity may be understood

as a social process that works as an open and dynamic symbolic-discursive construct

(Jenkins, 2000; Paasi, 2003). Identity takes place in real or imaginary spaces where it rises

and develops, creating collective cohesion and significance through shared symbols and

practices that result in a sense of community and belonging (Cohen, 1985). Identity refers

to the belonging to a social category that provides a definition of who one is in terms of

the specific characteristics of the category (Hogg, Terry, & White, 1995). In this sense, a

process of self-categorization takes place as a ‘basic cognitive process that operates on

social and non-social stimuli alike to highlight and bring into focus those aspects of expe-

rience which are subjectively meaningful in a particular context’ (Hogg et al., 1995,

p. 260).

Links between tourism and identity were analyzed for cultural, heritage or food

tourism (Bessi�ere, 1998; Palmer, 1999). In the case of heritage tourism, Ruiz and

Hernandez (2007) concluded that tourism affects and constructs identities, but identities

can also construct or obstruct tourism. In the case of food tourism, Everett and Atchinson

(2008) agreed on the existence of reciprocal relations in which well-defined local identi-

ties and the tourism activity influence each other. On the other hand, rural tourism is

important for reinforcing local identities (Kastenholz & Figueiredo, 2014) and allows ter-

ritories to become visible, promoting new marketing strategies. The revalorization of

local identities through rural tourism is a strong tendency that goes against the homogeni-

zation process at national scale to promote the country as a whole as a tourism destination

(Castells, 1997). In that way, the degree of belonging to a specific place influences rela-

tionships and collaboration between stakeholders (Kaj�an, 2014). As Dredge and Jenkins

noted (2003, p. 387), the social construction of new development processes is influenced

by inter-institutional interaction, collective representation, a common industrial purpose

and shared cultural norms and values. We can assume that the stronger the recognition of

a local identity, the better will be the cooperation and therefore the appropriation of new

economic activities such as community tourism.

The production of identities occurs at national, regional and local scales (Dredge &

Jenkins, 2003; Knight 1982). The recognition of the identity of a community whose

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heritage, food or culture want to be converted into a tourism resource is required to

understand in advance the level of coincidence or conflict that different territorial iden-

tities could reveal when the rural tourism project is started. The production of identities

corresponds with the subjective perspective of local actors, and might or might not

favor the appropriation of the tourism activity at local scale. For example, the percep-

tion of local people concerning the value of the resources that can be used for tourism

can differ from those of national government agents. The meaning that local people

give to monuments, traditional activities and customs is essential for the tourism activ-

ity and the comprehension of LCs before tourism is introduced (Lee, Kang, & Rei-

singer, 2010).

Productive identities in rural areas

Rural tourism requires a countryside in which to operate that must attract the visitor. An

interesting concept comes from Garrod, Wornell, and Youell (2006) who re-conceptual-

ized the rural resources as ‘countryside capital’, i.e. a set of tangible and perceptual com-

ponents that are the fabric of a rural area. Countryside capital is a fusion of natural and

social elements such as biodiversity, rural settlements and distinctive local customs, and

ways of life. For these authors ‘the quality of the rural tourism experience depends on the

quality of the countryside capital that supports it’ (Garrod et al., 2006, p. 119). The identi-

fication of productive identities of an entire rural area, viewed as a whole, is an important

starting-point in recognizing the countryside capital of an area. Productive identities are

herein defined as the distinctive combination of traditional local symbols and practices

for obtaining and transforming primary products. They express the intimate relationship

of farmers with the land and natural surroundings, productive modes, land use, and also

their food and dishes.

Productive identities at regional scale may be derived from land use and its relation-

ships with livelihoods. Land use and livelihoods are concepts usually treated separately,

but both refer to social relationships of land production (McCusker & Carr, 2006). Land

use refers to a system of natural potentialities of land in addition to societies’ motivations

for transforming land cover, whereas livelihoods concern the material ways in which peo-

ple produce and reproduce their household economies (McCusker & Carr, 2006). Land

use and land cover are strongly related in geographical studies. Land cover comprises nat-

ural vegetation, croplands, and anthropogenic objects and structures on the surface of the

land, which may be discerned from satellite images and aerial photographs (Verburg, van

de Steeg, Veldkamp, & Willemen, 2009). The understanding of relationships among land

cover, land use and livelihoods requires the use of a range of scales and research techni-

ques. Land use may not necessarily be directly observed but may be inferred from the

geographical analysis of land cover in addition to socioeconomic information and knowl-

edge of local productive systems. This approach allows the recognition of the different

ways in which rural inhabitants use their ecosystems, and also permits the identification

of the main productive features that are particular to each place that displays strong

nature¡human interrelationships. For example, the strong relationship between landscape

and human interactions in the context of wine tourism in France and Australia creates a

‘winescape’ as a distinctive ensemble of landscape, productive identity and tourist prod-

uct (Mitchell, Charters, & Albrecht, 2012). The product of all physical determinants, the

cultural and socioeconomic adaptations, becomes materialized in the landscape, which

reflects specific social and productive identities.

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Local conditions for rural tourism

Prior to the implementation of a rural tourism initiative, a deeper knowledge about LCs in

the potential host communities helps to prevent problems, dilemmas and conflicts; even

giving insights to the design of an appropriated tourism governance model (Beaumont &

Dredge, 2010). Positive attitudes in receiving communities and experience for collective

actions have been reported as important pre-conditions for reaching successful outcomes

(Par�e & Lazos, 2004; Tosun, 2000; Zizumbo, 2007), as well as a communal sense of own-

ership and involvement (Stone & Stone, 2011; Akyeampong, 2011). At least three aspects

are particularly helpful to recognize initial conditions in receptor communities: (1) the

stored organizational experience previous to the new rural tourism initiative, (2) the local

interests and motivations about sustainable issues and (3) the local perceptions about local

tourist attractions.

The previous organizational experience of the community appears as an important

issue because the community-based initiatives usually leave a mark that favors some

kinds of actions and impedes others. Another aspect to consider when assessing LCs of

communities is the interest and motivations about sustainability issues. The rural space is

a fragile environment where the rural tourism activity irrupts and creates disturbances

that can damage biodiversity and functional support of local ecosystems. Therefore, this

activity must be integrated in wider initiatives of sustainable development including envi-

ronmental aspects such as water management, biodiversity conservation or mitigation of

impacts on agriculture (�Avila, 2002; Ca~nada, 2009; Par�e & Lazos, 2004). The ex-ante

assessment must help to understand the relationship of the community with such aspects

and interests in order to recognize contradictions that could emerge in the future between

development projects with opposite objectives. Finally, a third element of LCs that affect

the introduction of a rural tourism initiative is the perception of local people about their

resources that can be used for tourism. In the particular case of a rural tourism initiative

based on productive identities, local perceptions about the meaning that people give to

monuments, traditional activities and habits, certain aspects of their way of life, specific

places, etc., are essential for the comprehension of LCs before introducing tourism.

Research setting

Mexico has rural areas and traditions displaying a combination of natural attractions, pro-

ductive activities and cultural practices. Owing to the Agrarian Revolution of 1910, the

Mexican rural space is organized in a well-defined territorial structure based on agrarian

units called ejidos. The ejido is the central unit of communal land tenure with a defined

local territory and a group of farmers and their families who have legal recognition and

legitimacy for using land under norms and rules collectively established. Land use is

administered under common assets, and decisions about the territory are negotiated and

defined in communal assemblies by the commoners or ejidatarios. Ejidos have a great

potential for ecosystem management (Thoms & Betters, 1998). According to Litka (2013,

p. 365), the ejidal organization ‘remains a social, political, and economic force within the

community and functions as the backbone of daily life among locals’.

This study was developed in the State of Michoac�an in the lower section of the Balsas

River Basin, called Bajo Balsas; covering an area of 1300 km2 (Figure 1). The Bajo Bal-

sas belongs to the region known as Tierra Caliente, a larger area typified by its hot and

dry climate (Trejo-Vazquez, 1999), and its strong cultural traits (Para�ıso, 2007; 2011). Inthe Bajo Balsas, the main climate is Aw0 in the K€oppen classification (hot and sub-humid

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with dry winters), with annual rainfall between 600 and 900 mm concentrated between

June and November, promoting a strong seasonality. The region presents a mountainous

relief with scarce flat areas. At the regional base line, an artificial water body of 36,400

ha was created by the building of the Infiernillo Dam in 1963. In this water body several

species of tilapia fish (Oreochromis sp.) were introduced for diversifying the offer of pro-

tein source as well as the local economy (Espinosa-Lemus, Arredondo-Figueroa &

Barriga-Sosa, 2009). The territorial organization of the area is based on the existence of

the ejidos created in the 1940s by the expropriation of extensive private lands (hacien-

das). The whole region of Tierra Caliente (including the Bajo Balsas area) is a biological

reference by the extended presence of tropical dry forest, an ecosystem with a high biodi-

versity and endemic species with particular adaptations to drought. In this ecosystem, the

seasonal hydrological conditions impose restrictions for agriculture and other productive

activities (Maass & Burgos, 2011). In spite of the evident difficulties for reaching devel-

opment pathways, during the twentieth century the area was scarcely assisted by govern-

mental initiatives. In the 1990s, the implementation of neoliberal policies worsened the

regional socio-economic backwardness. The emigration of undocumented people to the

USA, mainly of men of productive age, and the proliferation of illegal activities linked to

drug traffic appeared as a way of surviving (Maldonado-Aranda, 2012). Nowadays, the

Bajo Balsas area displays acute social needs, few opportunities for the local population,

and a low human development index.

Studies in the State of Michoac�an investigating biodiversity areas identified the Bajo

Balsas as an extremely important area for protecting tropical dry forest ecosystem

Figure 1. Study area in the Bajo Balsas micro-region, Michoac�an, Mexico. Source: Personaldesign based on INEGI (2002).

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(Velazquez et al., 2009). At the end of 2007, the Biosphere Reserve of Zicuiran �nfiernillo was created covering 263,000 ha of natural and cultural landscapes (Diaro

Oficial de la Federaci�on, 2007). Since then, a major interest of conservationists increases

the knowledge about its biodiversity (Monterrubio-Rico et al., 2011; Nu~nez-Perez et al.,

2011; Charre-Medellin et al., 2014) and the rate and impacts of land-use change was ana-

lyzed (Cuevas & Mas, 2008; Ya~nez-Arenas et al., 2012). In addition, initiatives to

advance local development projects have been applied by governmental programs and

NGOs using participatory approaches for encouraging community-based conservation

(Camou-Guerrero, Ortiz-Avila, Ortiz-Avila, & Odenthal, 2013). Watershed management

and community-based monitoring programs for attending issues of water availability and

its quality are also in progress (Burgos, Paez, Carmona, & Rivas, 2013). An NGO (Grupo

Balsas A.C.) impelled the constitution and operation of community-based cooperatives

for organic production and commercialization in selected markets (Burgos, unpublished

data). But information about the potential of the area for new economic activities such as

the RT was, at that moment, non-existent. Therefore, an ex-ante assessment for rural tour-

ism was pertinent for this area. However, criteria for the appraisal of conditions at the

regional and the local level, such as the productive identities and the internal conditions

of communities to be involved in economic activities without putting at risk the conserva-

tion status of regional ecosystems, were required.

Methodological framework

The ex-ante assessment for rural tourism initiatives in the Bajo Balsas was based on a

geographical approach using a multi-scale method (Kieffer, 2014). In this work we pres-

ent two components of our approach: (1) at the regional level, the identification of pro-

ductive identities and (2) at the local level, the assessment of initial conditions in the

ejidos (agrarian units) for facing new rural tourism initiatives (Figure 2). The activities

and procedures are explained below.

Recognition of productive identities

Productive identities at the Bajo Balsas level were established from a land-cover map,

scale 1:100,000, based on SPOT 5 images from the year 2008. On the basis of previous

information about the relationship between land cover and land use (Burgos et al., 2010),

productive activities were associated to land-cover type. A map of potential zoning of

productive identities as a cartographic hypothesis was generated with a Geographic Infor-

mation System (GIS) at scale 1:250,000. The validation of the cartographic hypothesis

was done gathering the perception of local inhabitants. An open survey was applied for

gathering productive activities and feelings of belonging to different local productive tra-

ditions. The survey included thirteen questions and graphic material in the form of maps

and photographs of the vegetation types corresponding to the legend of land-cover map.

Interviewers were leaders (men over 50 years old) who occupied positions of social

responsibility in their communities. They were asked about the landscape in the zone

where they lived, the productive and economic activities, lifestyle and identity, and the

perceived limits where changes of productive activities occur. The survey was applied to

between one and three informants in 22 localities within the boundaries of adjacent zones

in the cartographic hypothesis. Finally 41 surveys were obtained and processed. The

boundaries of each productive zone were adjusted according to the descriptions of pro-

ductive identities reported by the informants. The new information was integrated in a

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GIS for building a map of productive identities in the entire study area (1000 km2) at scale

1:250,000. The qualitative information collected from the surveys was used to determine

the profiles of each productive identity zone. Additionally, the everyday activities of rural

life for each zone were also recognized in order to link their affinities with different types

of tourism. Eventually, these profiles were linked with different types of tourism.

Figure 2. Methodological framework for the tropical drylands ex-ante assessment for rural tourismin Mexico.

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Identification of initial conditions at community level

The final map of productive identities was superimposed on spatial information about the

territorial limits of the ejidos of the Bajo Balsas area, resulting in 60 territorial units scat-

tered across all recognized identity zones. Taking into account the biological context and

the presence of the Biosphere Reserve Zicuiran-Infiernillo, we considered important to

perform the identification of initial conditions in those ejidos where a communal attitude

toward the environmental conservation and the collective action could have been stored

in the recent memory of the community. Therefore, a sample of thirteen ejidos was

selected covering the productive identity zones considering those that developed in the

past at least one project addressing environmental issues such as water, ecosystem conser-

vation or agriculture and, additionally, where confidence relationships with external

actors were possible (Table 1).

The social approach to the ejidos was supported by a local NGO (Grupo Balsas A.C.)

that has been working in the area since 2003 and has established strong relationships with

local leaders. Three key aspects were assessed in view of their importance for a commu-

nity-based rural tourism plan with high probability of success: (1) the local organization,

(2) the vision of the community concerning environmental and sustainability issues, and

(3) the tangible and intangible touristic attractions within the local territory. A semi-struc-

tured interview was applied between January and April 2010 to 37 active local leaders

aged over 40 in the thirteen selected ejidos (Table 2). The interview incorporated ques-

tions about six attributes (two per key aspect) in order to reflect the community’s pre-

existing conditions for the implementation of a rural tourism plan. The responses were

processed according to a linear arithmetical scale of entire numbers for each attribute. In

the scale, the highest value in each attribute denotes the optimal condition for rural tour-

ism activities. An indicator of LC was built based on an additive and unweighted model:

LCDA1 CA2 CA3 CA4 CA5;

where A1 D organizational level, A2 D local perception of previous collective activities,

A3 D previous conservation initiatives, A4 D interest and motivation for conservation,

and A5 D local natural attractions.

A sixth attribute (A6) expressed the previous ideas held by the respondents about rural

tourism with a binary response (Yes/No). Although it was not considered in the calcula-

tion of LC, it had a qualitative weight in the final assessment of pre-existing conditions in

the evaluated communities. The LC indicator was dimensionless and had values between

0 and 18, where zero represented the lowest level of pre-existing conditions for the imple-

mentation of a rural tourism plan. The validation was done by the comparison of the eji-

dal ranking generated by the indicator (fed by independent information from the

interviews) and the perception that the members of the local NGO (Grupo Balsas A.C.)

had about the existing internal conditions in the same agrarian units in terms of the social

cohesion and local capacities for facing new collective activities.

Results

The two components of the ex-ante assessment presented in this work gave complemen-

tary and differential information about the Bajo Balsas area. At the regional level, five

different productive identities were clearly identified; at the local level, the assessment of

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Table1.

Characteristicsofthethirteen

agrarian

units(ejidos)wheretheassessmentoflocalconditionswas

applied.

Nam

eoflocal

community(ejido)

Areaofejidal

territory

(ha)

Elevation

(ma.s.l.)No.oflocalities

into

theterritory

No.ofejidatarios

(peoplewithlandrights)

No.ofinhabitantsin

the

localities

ofejido(2005)

No.of

houses

No.ofinhabitants

>15years

LosCopales

741

840

135

263

67

195

ElBaral

3300

700

135

169

31

88

ElPlatanar

3542

700

150

231

49

132

ElSalitre

5038

660

9145

980

160

588

Poturo

5042

500

2139

1177

272

742

Cayaco

4305

460

589

495

102

145

SantaRosa

1007

440

133

92

29

55

ElCapirito

1193

320

126

168

41

106

Cumuato

2914

280

150

�6

�Algod� on

deOropeo

4871

260

385

374

94

270

ElAhuijote

1147

240

150

126

28

72

GuadalupeOropeo

2135

210

489

509

141

257

LlanoOjo

deagua

2750

200

050

Peoplelives

inaclose

smalltownthatisnotinto

theterritory

boundaries

Source:Based

onDiaro

OficialdelaFederaci� on,2007andBurgosetal.,2010.

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Table 2. Criteria to assess internal conditions in local communities for the implementation of arural tourism proposal.

Dimension Attributes Value Description

Organizational A1: Social and economicalorganizational level (What isthe level of collectiveorganization existing in thelocal community?)

0 No organizational experience,no fixed dates for regularcommunal assemblies andno co-operative enterpriseexists.

1 Low organizational experience.Communal assemblies occurbut they are irregular in time.

2 Local community has a regularoperation with localauthorities, well-establishedand monthly communalassemblies, but lacks someeconomical organization.

3 Local community has a regularand sustained operation. Italready has a legallyconstituted cooperative, butthis is at an early stage.

4 Local community has a regularand sustained operation andit shows a high capacity towork together. It has alegally constitutedcooperative that functionsactively.

A2: Local perceptions aboutcollective initiatives (What isthe impression of local peopleabout initiatives forcommunity development?)

0 Very bad: previous experiencesin collective initiatives leftonly negative effects.

1 Bad: previous experiences incollective initiatives leftmore negative than positiveeffects.

2 Neutral: previous experiencesin collective initiatives leftas many negative as positiveeffects.

3 Good: previous experiences incollective initiatives leftmore positive than negativeeffects.

4 Very good: previousexperiences in collectiveinitiatives left only positiveeffects.

Environmental A3: Community initiatives (Hadthe community conductedinitiatives for environmentalconservation?

0 No initiatives.

(continued)

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Table 2. (Continued )

Dimension Attributes Value Description

1 One or two previous initiatives.

2 Three or four previousinitiatives.

3 Five or more initiatives.

A4: Interest and motivation (Towhat extent are local peopleinterested in issues ofsustainability?)

0 Very low: the communityalways rejects initiatives forenvironmental conservation,or nobody participates.

1 Low: the community frequentlyrejects initiatives forenvironmental conservation,or only few peopleparticipate.

2 Medium: the communityaccepts initiatives forenvironmental conservationbut the participation is veryvariable.

3 High: the communityfrequently acceptsenvironmental initiatives andmost people participate butnot all.

4 Very high: the communityaccepts and promotes localinitiatives for environmentalconservation and everybodyis willing to participate.

Touristic attractions andcommunitybackgrounds fortourism

A5: Local attractions (Are thereplaces in the local territorythat are identified as attractiveby local people?)

0 Local people do not recognizeany place as being attractive.

1 Local people recognize one ortwo places as beingattractive.

2 Local people recognize three orfour places as beingattractive.

3 Local people recognize five ormore places as beingattractive.

A6: Background (Had thecommunity thought about thepossibility of getting involvedin tourism activities?)

Y Yes: the community had beforeconsidered the possibility ofexploring tourism as a newactivity.

N No: the community has neverconsidered the possibility ofexploring tourism as a newactivity

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thirteen ejidos showed that initial conditions were moderately good but heterogeneous for

this enterprise, and weaknesses and strengths were recognized.

Productive identities zones

The cartographic hypothesis based on the relationship between land cover and land use

initially distinguished five different productive identities: (1) crops-gathering-cattle;

(2) crops-cattle; (3) cattle-crop; (4) fishing-gathering; and (5) mechanized crop produc-

tion (Figure 3(a)). In this classification system, the first category listed in each productive

identity indicates the dominant productive activity. Of the 41 informants, 75% recognized

the same productive identity as that expected, showing a relatively good correspondence

among land-cover type, land use and productive identity. However, several segments of

the boundaries of adjacent zones were corrected (Figure 3(b)). For example, in productive

identity I (crops-gathering-cattle) farmers of some localities (e.g. Mata de Platanos, Los

Copales and Naranjo de Jorullo) gather palm fronds as a part of their livelihoods. In con-

trast, farmers living in nearby villages in the same land-cover area (e.g. Agua Blanca, El

Palmar and Cerro Colorado) did not recognize themselves as gatherers even though their

territories included extensive palm groves. A similar situation was found in productive

identity IV (fishing-gathering) where the boundary was moved slightly further north to

include the community of Las Cruces where respondents clearly belonging to the fishing-

gathering identity that had been initially considered to be in the cattle-crops zone. In this

survey, the local farmers expressed clear feelings to identify their present productive

identity, and this created boundaries within the geographic continuum.

Figure 3. Hypothetical (a) and final (b) maps of productive identities zones in the Bajo Balsasmicro region (Michoac�an, Mexico). Source: Personal design based on INEGI, 2002.

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The productive identities appeared closely related to the altitudinal gradient that in

turn explains land cover and natural restrictions for agriculture activities.

(1) The ‘crops-gathering-cattle’ productive identity (I) corresponded with a mixed

and diversified livelihood including crops-gathering and cattle raising; it was

located at higher elevations of the entire study area (1000 and 700 m a.s.l.). Land-

scape is dominated by corn crops grown among groves of Sabal pumos, a pal-

metto locally called Palma Real. Local farmers gather its fronds for sale or for

making handicrafts. Some families have a few cows but it is not the main activity.

Additionally, this zone is signaled by the Jorullo volcano, a small young monoge-

netic volcano born in 1759. Copious springs related to the volcano complement

the precipitation, and the zone offers a more exuberant and evergreen aspect than

other zones of the Bajo Balsas area (Figure 3).

(2) The ‘crops-cattle’ productive identity (II) corresponds with settlements at eleva-

tions between 1200 and 600 m a.s.l. (Figure 3). Precipitation is the only source of

water but the temperatures are not extremely high and rain-fed agriculture can be

developed with reasonable yields. Under these conditions, the Sabal pumos

groves disappear from the landscape restricting the activity of gathering. People

recognize themselves as croppers more than as cattle raisers. The agricultural

labors include corn and roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) crops, and some sorghum

production to sustain the cattle; in addition, the families usually cultivate tropical

fruit trees in their backyard orchards. Land cover includes temperate forest, tropi-

cal sub-deciduous forest and tropical dry forest. Some villages embedded in the

mountains have a strong culture of self-sufficiency, resulting in the preservation

of traditional foods and community-based customs.

(3) The ‘cattle-crop’ productive identity (III) appears between 600 and 240 m a.s.l

(Figure 3). Land cover is mainly tropical dry forest and rainfall is not enough for

the cropping of corn, so cattle raising is the main productive activity. Cattle man-

agement, milking and cheese manufacture characterize the local lifestyle, which

is supplemented with a few fields of crops tolerant to water deficit. During the

rainy season (June to October), roselle and sesame (Sesamun indicum) crops are

important in the social and cultural life of the communities because all family

members are involved in some stage of the cultivation and harvesting.

(4) The ‘fishing-gathering’ productive identity (IV) is located at altitudes between

240 and 160 m a.s.l., the lowest of the Bajo Balsas micro-region (Figure 3). Land

cover is dominated by tropical dry forest and thorny vegetation. Here, the higher

temperatures and lower precipitations hamper or make risky the sowing. Corn

crop is not feasible but small areas (<1 ha) are used for cropping roselle, sorghum

or sesame. Forage for livestock is scarce, but small herds of goats are also main-

tained. In 1965 an artificial reservoir, the Infiernillo Dam, was built which pro-

moted fishing as a differentiated livelihood. This particular identity appears

because it is now the main productive activity. All year round, the local people

catch an introduced species locally called mojarra tilapia (Oreochromis aureus).

However, the very low income from this activity needs to be supplemented with

the seasonal gathering of fruits of the wild pitire cactus (Stenocereus quevedonis)

between April and June. The specific food resources support culinary traditions

based on fishery products (ceviche and other fish dishes) and local dishes very dif-

ferent to those of the other zones.

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(5) The ‘mechanized crop production’ productive identity (V) corresponds with large

irrigated expanses in flat areas (Figure 3), where extensive orchards of mango,

watermelon, citrus fruits, papaya and cantaloupe are established at 160 m a.s.l.

The owners contract external workers for agricultural labor. This zone did not

show interesting traits for a rural tourism proposal, and hence was excluded from

the following research stages.

The productive identities showed the occurrence of distinctive features within a short

distance of 30 km between the north and south extreme points that is coupled to a strong

decreasing altitudinal gradient (1200 to 160 m a.s.l.). In some cases, differences in produc-

tive identities were manifested as subtle variations in natural conditions or cultural practi-

ces. For example, an informant belonging to the cattle-crops productive identity (IV) in the

community of El Capirito indicated that ‘from Arronjadero up to north, the taste of the

milk changes’, and another affirmed that ‘in the village of Las Cruces - located at less than

5 Km from his own village, El Capirito - people have another lifestyle based on the fishing

activity, their daily activities are very different from here’. These geographic drivers are

the physical basis of contrasting natural settings and diverse cultural responses.

The four zones showed differences in their everyday activities. The agricultural

labors, the food production, traditions and community events create contrasts that can

attract visitors interested in the contact with different lifestyles and livelihoods, or for

those attracted by different tourism activities (Table 3). For example, in the zone with

crop-gathering-cattle identity (I), the presence of a palmetto tree (locally called Palma

Real) is related to cultural processes in the local communities such as the recollection of

palm leaves and the fabrication of handicrafts by the old men. Also, the area presents a

mountainous agro-landscape that combines different natural vegetation types, corn crop

fields and pastures. These conditions offer interesting settings for trekking and aesthetic

contemplation in lookouts. In the zone of crop-cattle identity (II), communities present a

marked culture of self-sufficiency and they conserve Creole varieties of corn and beans.

Special dishes are based on natural inputs such as cream, milk and corn flavors that are

interesting for the profile of food tourism visitors (Table 3). In the zone of cattle-crop

identity (III), the agricultural activities are based on the roselle and sesame organic crops.

The production of roselle is very important in the social and cultural community life

because all family members are involved at some stage of the cultivation and harvesting.

Regarding the landscape, during the months of September and October the fields acquire

a red color due to the blooming of the roselle flowers. In November, the whole commu-

nity is involved in the harvesting, drying process of the flower, packaging and commer-

cialization of the product. This particular period offers a high potential for agrotourism

when tourists can visit families and learn about the process of the roselle agriculture,

organic production and cooperative organization. Another distinctive activity of this zone

is the artisanal fabrication of fresh cheese. In addition, tropical dry forests offer distinctive

views thanks to the transition between the wet and dry seasons. Finally, in the zone of

fishing-gathering identity (IV), different activities linked to the fishing show affinity to

agro-food-tourism type (Table 3). In this zone, rooted cultural practices such as horse rid-

ing, traditional folk dance and traditional harp music (son calentano) could also be inte-

grated in a heritage tourism product.

Community internal conditions

The LC indicator showed values from 7 to 12, covering the middle values of the scale

(0�18; Table 4). Five communities reported internal conditions at a medium-low level

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Table3.

Particularactivitiesthatcanbeoffered

inthefourproductivezones

andclassificationbytourism

types.

Identity

productivezone

Localactivityorfeature

Potentialactivityforvisitors

Tourism

type

Crop-gathering-cattle

RecollectionofPalmaRealleaves

Walksin

palm

groves

forthegatheringof

palm

leaves

withlocalfarm

ers

Agro-tourism

/nature-based

tourism

Fabricationofhandicrafts

Visitsto

craftsman’sworkshopswherehats,

chairsandbroomswithpalm

leaves

are

made

Heritagetourism

Presence

ofJorulloVolcanoand

traditionalcelebrations

Hikingto

thevolcanoacross

nativevegetation

andgeologicaltraces

such

aslavaspillsand

volcanicrocksandform

s

Nature-based

tourism

Celebrationofthebirth

oftheVolcanoonthe

29thofSeptember

Heritagetourism

Agro-landscapes

withnatural

vegetation,corn

fieldsandpastures

inamountainoussetting

Guidingwalkswithlocalpeople

Nature-based

tourism

Cropcattle

ProductionofCreolevarieties

ofcorn

andbean

Participationin

everyday

agriculture

activities

Agro

tourism

Highdiversity

ofcorn-based

food

Tastingofspecialcorn-based

localfoodsuch

astortillas,corundas,toqueras

Foodtourism

Highlocalknowledgeaboutlocaluses

ofbiodiversity

Guidingwalkswithlocalpeople

Nature-based

tourism

Landscape:mountainsandforests

Guidingwalkswithlocalpeople

Cattlecrop

Organicproductionofroselleflower

andsesame

Visitorinclusionin

thefamilyactivities

duringharvest(N

ov-D

ec)

Agro

tourism

Guidingwalksin

cultivated

fields

Fresh

cheese

production

Fabricationofcheese

andtastingduringthe

meals

Foodtourism

Activecooperativeorganizations

Talksaboutcooperativeactivitiesandlocal

organization

Educative-tourism

(continued

)

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Table3.

(Continued

)

Identity

productivezone

Localactivityorfeature

Potentialactivityforvisitors

Tourism

type

Fishinggathering

Fishingwithtraditionalnetsandsm

all

boatsin

Infiernillo

Dam

DiscoveringtheDam

withfishermen

onsm

all

boats

Agro

tourism

Productionofcevicheandother

traditionalfish

based

meals

Participationin

mealpreparations

Foodtourism

Horseriding,traditionalfolk

dance

and

harpmusic(soncalentano)

Horseriding,culturaldem

onstrations

Culturaltourism

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(LC 7 or 8), another three at a medium level (LC 9 or 10), and five more at a medium-

high level (LC 11 or 12). Regarding the behavior of individual attributes, the attribute

A2 (local perception about collective activities) was the best positioned in our sample

with a value of 69.5% of the potential maximum; this reflects a positive perception of

past experiences in community activities. The worst positioned attribute was A5 (local

perception about tangible and intangible attractions inside the local territory), with a

value of 41%.

Particular strengths and weaknesses were shown in each community belonging to the

different productive identity zones. Some of them showed marked weaknesses in organi-

zational capability, such as Los Copales and Santa Rosa (Table 4). Los Copales, belongs

to a very attractive zone with the hallmark of the Jorullo volcano and palmetto groves

that could function as a ‘flagship’ attraction sensu Sharpley (2007). However, a rural tour-

ism initiative necessarily should be preceded by an adequate intervention strategy to

strengthen community organization. In other productive zones, communities such as

Poturo and Platanar performed better than Los Copales because the community members

understood and developed adequate projects in the past and were able to organize them-

selves in an efficient way. Finally, the community of El Capirito showed the stronger

communitarian organization and the higher positive perception on previous collective

projects, and was representative of the cattle-crop identity (Table 4). The results gener-

ated by this indicator agreed with the perception of the local NGO (Grupo Balsas A.C.)

that has been working in the area for twelve years.

Table 4. Values of the attributes assessed in the thirteen agrarian units1.

Attributes of local condition indicator2

Productive identity Ejido (Agrarian unit) A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 LC

Crop-gathering-cattle Los Copales 1 2 2 2 2 No 9

Crops cattle Poturo 3 3 1 3 1 No 11

Santa Rosa 1 3 1 1 1 No 7

El Salitre 2 3 1 1 1 No 8

El Baral 2 3 1 1 1 No 8

El Platanar 2 3 1 2 2 No 10

Cattle crops El Capirito 4 3 2 1 2 Yes 12

Algod�on de Oropeo 3 4 2 2 1 No 12

Palmita de Cayaco 2 3 1 2 1 Yes 9

Fishing gathering Guadalupe Oropeo 4 3 2 2 1 Yes 12

Cumuato 2 2 1 1 1 No 7

El Ahuijote 2 2 1 2 1 No 8

Llano Ojo de Agua 3 2 2 3 1 No 11

Total 31 36 18 23 16 � 124

Maximum possible value of attribute for all cases (n D 13) 52 52 39 52 39 � 234

Regional performance (%) 59.6 69.2 46.2 44.2 41.0 � 53.0

1Values indicate the level in each attribute according with criteria in Table 2.2A1 D organizational level, A2 D local perception about collective initiatives, A3 D previous conservationinitiatives, A4 D interest and motivation for conservation, A5 D local attractions, A6 D background about RT;LC D local condition.

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Discussion

The results indicate that a variety of well-differentiated productive identities coexist in

the Bajo Balsas area at short geographical distances and assist in understanding how

locals perceive their identity and the distinguishing daily activities. Distinctive identities

were recognized by local inhabitants who clearly defined the spatial limits of belonging.

Despite that all the interviewed identified themselves as inhabitants of Tierra Caliente

region, they recognized at the same time the existence of distinctive lifestyles. This brings

new elements of analysis to explore the components of a regional identity � understood

as the conscious auto-recognition of local people of their identities characteristics. The

distinctive lifestyles are based on particular productive identities, ecosystems and land-

scape changes inside this regional territory. The multi-scale recognition of identities facil-

itates the introduction of new policies of collective action. In this sense, Paasi (2003, p. 2)

noted that the process of being conscious of its identity ‘introduces actions that stem from

two intertwined contexts: ’from above’ in the form of territorial control/governance, and

‘from below’ in the form of territorial identification and resistance’. Therefore, the find-

ings gave an important clue for the design of future rural tourism policies and initiatives

in order to minimize the mismatch between institutional interventions and local feelings.

The identification of diverse productive identities supports the concept of countryside

capital that Garrod et al. (2006) pointed out in the context of rural tourism. In this case, a

high countryside capital was evident and indicated an opportunity to develop strategies

based on complementary places and communities, maintaining at the same time a diverse

but cohesive geographic whole. The profiles of productive identities and the everyday

activities indicate potential tourism types for the tourism development in the area. Within

the rural tourism typology, subtypes such as agro-tourism, food-tourism (Bessi�ere, 1998;Everett & Atchinson, 2008; Palmer, 1999), cultural rural tourism (MacDonald & Jolliffe,

2003) or heritage (Chhabra, Healy, & Sills, 2003) can be integrated. In the whole region,

the rural tourism proposal should integrate these subtypes of tourism that could comple-

ment each other, according to the identified identity zones. Armesto & G�omez (2006,

p. 166) indicate that ‘agro-food products can be considered as gastronomic tourism resour-

ces that enable tourism both to be developed and to become a tool itself for promoting and

commercializing quality and agro-food products’. This is exactly the case in this study area

where organic crops are cultivated and create an opportunity for the design of thematic

routes based on productive resources in dispersed rural areas (Briedenhann & Wickens,

2004). Additionally, all of the productive identity zones show interesting elements for the

development of heritage tourism (Ruiz & Hernandez, 2007). Activities such as exploring

the traditional Mexican country lifestyle, the gastronomy and the daily life activities are

particularly interesting. To complement this offer, other activities based on the natural

attractiveness of the region such as hiking in the mountains, bird watching, horse riding,

biking, etc. can also be proposed to tourists. For example, the Volcano Jorullo flagship

may be an effective means for catalyzing a tourism activity based on the ecotourism type.

The assessment of initial conditions in communities belonging to different productive

identities complemented the spatial analysis in the studied area. In addition, it revealed

internal features of the target communities such as previous experiences that are neces-

sary LCs for new collective experiences. This kind of assessment is not systematically

performed before the implementation of rural tourism policies and initiatives in Mexico

nor has been reported for international cases. The results could prevent the implementa-

tion of rural tourism policies and initiatives in communities without favorable internal

conditions. The ex-ante assessment also indicated a baseline about the internal features of

communities before the development of a rural tourism activity. The use of a categorical

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indicator in addition to qualitative perception of other actors strongly linked to communi-

ties such as the local NGOs, were further information sources.

The precedents of communities to deal with collective projects inform us about the

willingness to create social capital. From the community-based approach to regional tour-

ism systems proposed by Macbeth et al. (2004), a rural community is unlikely to progress

very far in creating a viable and sustainable tourism industry without significant social,

political and cultural capital. These authors proposed that:

Communities that have a strong sense of identity and value their own ‘culture’, heritage andlifestyle are in a good position to design a tourism ‘product’ that will fit their own sense ofcommunity value and be attractive to potential tourists. (Macbeth et al., 2004, p 510)

The social capital for facing tourism initiatives in communities can be identified with

the analysis of factors linked to the existence of internal cooperation, norms, trust and net-

works (Park, Lee, Choi, & Yoon, 2012). The pre-existing social capital (built by the local

actors and the context in which the tourism project will be started) is a useful indicator to

understand local dynamics about development projects, independently of their nature.

The ex-ante assessment provided in this work constitutes a preparatory work, which is

recommended particularly in weaker communities. In addition of this preparatory work,

the building of a shared vision and an analysis of social capital has been reported in

Kieffer and Burgos (2014).

Conclusions

This study applied a geographical approach to perform an ex-ante assessment for a rural

tourism proposal in a tropical rural territory in Mexico. It improved the information and

understanding about the opportunities and weaknesses for facing future rural tourism ini-

tiatives, and revealed an overview of the entire territory at several scales.

The approach to define productive identities is a new tool that easily assists in the

understanding of an entire territory at several scales. It also completes other conventional

studies of feasibility of rural tourism initiatives in rural territories. The relationship

between land cover and land use was extended to explore at the same time its relation-

ships with livelihoods and productive identities. These categories are cornerstones of the

concept of countryside capital that is important for the implementation of rural tourism

initiatives. The concept of productive identity proposed in this paper contributes to the

conceptualization of rural identities and should be taken into account more frequently in

rural tourism research. The link existing between productive identities, everyday activi-

ties and the cultural traits of each zone, and the potential tourism types that could be

implemented in new territories constitute a contribution to the study field of rural tourism.

In addition, the recognition of initial conditions in rural communities with a more sys-

tematic tool is a contribution that can be improved or adapted for other cases. The lack of

analysis of the LCs previous to the implementation of rural tourism has been reported as

a cause in the failure of the development of rural tourism in Latin America, and especially

in Mexico. Thus, this paper helps to provide a new methodology and determine with

higher precision the potential and the weaknesses of collective groups to implement a

tourism initiative. Such assessment of target territories before the implementation of rural

tourism initiatives, i.e. in an ex-ante mode, improves substantially the understanding of

LCs and gives some keys for future interventions and policies. It indicates the kind of

intervention that must be followed in order to trigger a participatory process involving

local communities from the outset.

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The approach used in this study is replicable in other rural contexts in both developing

and developed countries where land-cover/land-use information is available. In addition,

it orientates the combination of procedures that usually are applied in participatory action

research and social sciences. Further studies covering usual topics included in tourism

studies must be integrated such as the identification of the projected image of the area for

several market niches, the profile of potential tourist sectors and market studies.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Mexican NGO Grupo Balsas para Estudio y Manejo de Ecosis-temas A.C. for providing economic and logistic support for the field research. A special acknowl-edgement is addressed to local communities for their interest and participation in all the process ofthis research. We are also grateful to Ann Grand and Neige Sinno for their critical reviews of thismanuscript and assistance with English language.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding

This work was supported by the Secretar�ıa de Relaciones Exteriores in Mexico under a Grant forPhD research from 2009 to 2012; the Minisit�ere des Affaires �Etrang�eres in France under a Grant forPhD research from 2009 to 2012; and the Coordinaci�on de Estudios de Posgrado of the UniversidadNacional Aut�onoma de M�exico under Grant for PhD research from 2012 to 2013.

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