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Pastoral Abandonment, ShrubProliferation and Landscape Changes: ACase Study from Gorkha, NepalLila Nath Sharma a , Ole Reidar Vetaas a , Ram Prasad Chaudhary b

& Inger Elisabeth Måren aa Department of Geography , University of Bergen , Norwayb Central Department of Botany , Tribhuvan University , NepalPublished online: 01 May 2013.

To cite this article: Lila Nath Sharma , Ole Reidar Vetaas , Ram Prasad Chaudhary & IngerElisabeth Måren , Landscape Research (2013): Pastoral Abandonment, Shrub Proliferationand Landscape Changes: A Case Study from Gorkha, Nepal, Landscape Research, DOI:10.1080/01426397.2013.773299

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Pastoral Abandonment, Shrub Proliferationand Landscape Changes: A Case Studyfrom Gorkha, Nepal

LILA NATH SHARMA*, OLE REIDAR VETAAS*, RAM PRASADCHAUDHARY** & INGER ELISABETH MÅREN**Department of Geography, University of Bergen, Norway **Central Department of Botany, TribhuvanUniversity, Nepal

ABSTRACT Seminatural grasslands have long been shaped and maintained by human-induced fireand grazing regimes in order to utilise extensive land areas, not suitable for intensive cultivation,for the production of protein for human consumption. Changes in either management regimeshave great implications for vegetation cover and composition. In this context, we qualitativelyexamined 18 grasslands used by transhumance agro-pastoralists in western Gorkha, Nepal, to1) show that the pastoral landscape is undergoing change due to shrub and tree encroachment;2) understand the role of change in grazing and fire regimes in shrub encroachment dynamics;and 3) discuss management practices and policy implications of shrub control. In this region,grassland abandonment and livestock population decline have been the overriding land-usechange trend over the last four decades brought on by out-migration of local people from thesemarginal areas. Our results revealed that Berberis shrub encroachment started approximatelythree decades ago and attained a problematic cover approximately 15 to 20 years ago. The shrubencroachment drivers are discussed in the context of changed fire and grazing practices. Weunderscore the necessity of management intervention to maintain the services provided by theseseminatural systems; and suggest synergistic application of burning, weeding and grazing, ratherthan sporadic single treatment.

KEY WORDS: Berberis, fire, grasslands, grazing, shrub encroachment

Introduction

Globally and locally, grasslands are important pasture ecosystems because of their rolesin harboring a diversity of floral and faunal species (Blench & Sommer, 1999) and forproviding livelihood resources to millions of people in the form of protein from live-stock husbandry (Costanza et al., 1997; FAO, 2005). Pastures are often located on theperiphery of the core agriculture areas where commercial agriculture is constrained dueto irregular support of water, such as subtropical dry lands and temperate mountain pas-tures. Pastures are controlled by a complex interaction between human and livestockpopulations with respect to the potential primary production in a given area. (Here

Correspondence Address: Lila Nath Sharma, Department of Geography, University of Bergen, Bergen, Nor-way. Email: lila.sharma@geog.uib.no

Landscape Research, 2013http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2013.773299

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grasslands and pastures are used synonymously/interchangeably throughout the text asall the grasslands under consideration are used as summer pastures.)

A current challenge for grasslands is land abandonment brought on by global migra-tion trends where people tend to migrate away from these marginal areas. Nepalesemountains are no exception, and migration from the mountains to the southern plainshas been prevalent over the last five decades (Conway et al., 2000; KC, 2003), leavingmany mountain pastures abandoned. Abandonment is associated with decline in stockdensity and changes in fire regime, which ultimately transforms the grassland land-scapes into some type of woody vegetation (Van Langevelde et al., 2003). Environmen-tal changes in pastures following abandonment have been documented mainly forEurope (Camacho et al., 2008; Chauchard et al., 2007; Lasanta et al., 2005; Mårenet al., 2008; Poyatos et al., 2003) and South America (Aide & Grau, 2004; Aide et al.,2000). Grassland pastures are dependent on a certain grazing intensity and/or fire man-agement to maintain their characteristic composition and prevent shrub encroachment(Bond, 2008; Briggs et al., 2005; McIntyre et al., 2003; Spasojevic et al., 2010; VanAuken, 2000; Wehn, 2009).

One of the contemporary environmental challenges of grassland management is therapid expansion of woody species—shrub encroachment—which has brought conspicu-ous changes in the species composition and physiognomy of grasslands. Land-usechange in terms of changed fire and grazing regimes are the two most cited causesbehind shrub proliferation in grasslands in America, Africa and Australia (Archer, 1995;Briggs et al., 2005; Gardiner et al., 1998; McIntyre et al., 2003; Spasojevic et al.,2010; Van Auken, 2000; Wehn, 2009). Some report that the introduction of new live-stock breeds and increasing stock density are potential drivers (Archer, 1989; Brown &Archer, 1989). Increased grazing suppresses fire in grasslands by reducing the herba-ceous biomass needed to fuel the fire and may lead to shrub proliferation (Briggs et al.,2005; Heisler et al., 2004). Fire suppresses woody species in grasslands by preventingseedling establishment of fire sensitive species, and this has been shown empirically byfire suppression experiments that have resulted in shrub encroachment in grasslands(Archer, 1995; Bond & Midgley, 2012; Briggs et al., 2002). Others claim that grazingreduction and herbivore population crash may lead to shrub encroachment (Costelloet al., 2000; Olsson et al., 2000; Prins & van der Jeugd, 1993) because a certain thresh-old of grazing is needed to maintain the balance between woody and grass species.

The majority of studies on shrub encroachment focus on arid and semi-arid grass-lands in America, Africa and Australia (see references in Archer, 1995), and henceAsia, including the Himalayas, is understudied in comparison. However, a few studiestouch upon the subject in the temperate zone of the Indian Himalayas (Singh & Joshi,1979, cf. Archer, 1995; Kala & Shrivasta, 2004; Nautiyal & Kaechele, 2007). Only onestudy, by Baral and Thapa (2004), has reported shrub encroachment from the Nepalesegrasslands, though the causal factors still remain unexplored. Consequently, it is neces-sary to explore the shrub encroachment scenario for this particular landscape where it iseither unexplored or overlooked. Current rangeland policy documents (e.g. ‘RangelandPolicy of Nepal 2012’), have not mentioned shrub encroachment as a problem at all.Therefore, it is pertinent to elucidate the processes of shrub encroachment to be able toimprove rangeland management. This study aims to understand the role of grazing inlocal scale landscape processes, and on larger scale, we aim to elucidate this process ina context of global labour migration. The latter trend of male labour migration and the

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subsequent abandonment of pastures have created new challenges for the managementof grasslands (e.g. Negi, 2007). Consequently, we also want to elucidate the underpin-ning cause behind the local landscape change that is directly related to the global pro-cess such as labour migration. Understanding the encroachment scenario and thedriving forces behind the changes in a global context may be instrumental for the futuremanagement of these pastoral resources in order to sustain ecosystem services.

Methods and Materials

Study Area

The study area was located in the Kharibot Village Development Committee (VDC) inGorkha District in central Nepal (elevation range 1300 to 3900 meter above sea level[masl], Figure 1). Physiographically it lies on the southern face of the Lesser Himalayasand geologically it has metamorphic rocks consisting of gneisses, schists and migma-tites (Uprety & Yoshida, 2005). The climate of this area ranges from subtropical to cooltemperate with warm and wet summers and dry and cold winters. Precipitation insummer is dominated by the monsoon and in winter by snowfall at upper elevation.

Figure 1. Location map of study area and the 18 grasslands (red dots) studied in the KharibotVillage Development Committee, western Gorkha, central Nepal. Grassland names were insertedin the map based on the coordinates recorded during field visit. This map is based on the landuse map of 1996 (map source, Department of Survey, 2001).

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Vegetation is composed of laurels and oaks up to an elevation of 2300 masl.Dominant tree species include Quercus lamellosa, Q. glauca, Litsea species, Neolitseapallens, Lindera pulcherrima and Rhododendron arboreum. R. arboreum formsmonodominant stands above 2300 masl. Mixed forest of Abies spectabilis and Rhodo-dendron species occurs above the altitude of 2700 masl up to 3200 masl. R. barbatum,R. campanulatum and Juniperus recurva, along with A. spectabilis, are dominantwoody species from 2700 to 3500 masl. Altitudes above 3700 masl are devoid of treespecies. The forest is used as winter pasture and is subject to selective felling, lopping,and logging for fuel wood, fodder, litter collection and timber.

Land Use Practice and Grazing System

The forests and grasslands are used by agro-pastoralists residing in nearby settlements.Local people are subsistence farmers, practising sedentary agriculture and transhumancepastoralism, much like the European summer farming system (Lasanta, 2010; Vandvik& Birks, 2004) and the Andean mountain’s migratory grazing (Quiroga Mendiola,2004). Transhumance grazing is an important and traditional livelihood option for peo-ple living in high altitude regions of the Himalayas, including Nepal (Dong et al.,2007; Vashin, 2011). Settlements and crop fields are generally located at lower altitudein the study area around 1300 to 1800 masl, while mosaics of forests and grasslandsand herders’ sheds, goths, are located at higher altitude. The term ‘goth’ meanstemporary or permanent outhouse that may be used for domestic animals, herders orboth, made near home, in the forest or in the pastures. People also use this term to referto the grassland patches. The migratory pastoralism practised in the Himalayas is a cyc-lic process of vertical movement between goths located at the village, mid-altitude andhigh altitude. It is the dominant form of forest and grassland use in the area. The migra-tion of livestock takes place from the village and to the grasslands up to 4000 masl.Summer pastures are located in high altitude, generally above 2500 masl, and winterpastures are located near the village or in the crop fields. Buffaloes, cows, goats andsheep constitute the major livestock breeds and per capita livestock may vary across theherders. Sheep goths usually occupy the lands above the cattle. Migration of sheep isfollowed after a few weeks by cattle while moving upward and vice versa while mov-ing downward between summer and winter pastures.

Livestock are kept around settlements during winter, that is, November to January, atmid-altitude during February and March, and at high altitude summer pastures duringApril to September. From September to October, livestock are again kept at mid-altitudepastures while descending towards the village or winter pasture.

Sampling Design

Grasslands and Shrub Cover Estimation

Grasslands in the study area were intermixed with forest in a mosaic. Eachgrassland unit was separated from adjoining grassland by either forests or any visiblegeographical boundaries like rivers, mountain ridges or trails. Each grassland unit had alocal name and was used by certain herders. The size and livestock composition variedto some extent between grassland units. We identified 18 grasslands used as summer

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pastures by people from Kharibot VDC, which were analysed. The percentage of shrubcoverage in grasslands was estimated by ocular observation by transect laid across thelongest side of the grassland, passing through the centre. All encroaching shrub and treespecies were recorded for all the grasslands. Shrub and tree canopy coverage across theforest grassland ecotone was also estimated by the use of belt transects.

Herders’ Interviews, Meetings and Discussions

Semi-structured to open-ended interviews (n = 30) were carried out to explore informa-tion on the shrub encroachment, fire regime, grazing system and history, and trends inthe numbers of grazing animals. Informants were household heads who were attendinggoths and animals in the pastures, and they were mostly elderly men. We also visitedand interviewed elderly people (n = 6) in Kharibot and Khmpu villages who used toherd animals in the past. Average age of our respondents was 58 years. After gettinginformation from the individual interviews we organised a key informant meeting(seven people were involved) and discussed the shrub encroachment history.

Photo Elucidation

Recent photographs from the grasslands were shown to people in villages who used toherd animals in the past. They were asked if they had observed the current stature ofBerberis species (Barberry) shrub during their time as herders in the past. Manyhouseholds migrated to the Chitwan district (Tarai) in the southern plains of Nepal, andwe presented photographs to them to obtain information about the history of thesegrasslands.

Goth Number and Livestock Population of the 1970s

First-hand data on the current number of goths and livestock were gathered from theherders’ interviews and cross-verified by counting the number of animals inside the cow-sheds. Due to lack of data on past livestock population, it was explored indirectly byherders’ discussions in each of the different grasslands (remembrance data). We firstasked the herders about the number of goths during the 1970s in that particular grasslandbecause it is simple and accurate to recall their neighbours. Then they were requested torecall the number of livestock kept during the 1970s. Herders first discussed and thenreached a consensus figure of the past livestock populations. This information was alsocross-verified by visiting people who have abandoned grasslands or migrated to Chitwan.We assume that this estimation is close to reality as our interviews incorporated manyindividuals who were herders during the 1970s or attended the herds in their youth.Moreover, we assume that the nature of herders’ dependency on livestock during thatperiod also strengthens their ability to recall the livestock numbers. We also estimatedthe cattle (cow and buffalo) population (estimated data) based on current livestock popu-lation, assuming that the average number of cattle per goth was the same over the lastfour decades. First, we calculated the average number of cattle per goth in 2009 and theobtained figure was used to estimate the past population of cattle (estimated data) as thenumber of goths of each grassland in the past was known.

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Data Analyses

Descriptive data on grazing, fire history and shrub encroachment were analysed bydescriptive statistics. The individual interview responses on ‘when shrub encroachmentstarted’ were first categorised into intervals of five years. The most frequent category(most frequent answer) was corroborated. We also tested if the goth number and cattlepopulation was different during the 1970s and 2009 by using a t-test. We also comparedthe means of remembrance data and estimated data to see if they were statistically dif-ferent. Changes in goth numbers and cattle population are presented by box plots.These, analyses were performed in R 2.14.1 (R Development Core Team, 2011).

Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA), an ordination analysis, was performed toillustrate that Berberis shrub was present in the grasslands. DCA, an indirect gradientanalysis, is suitable for displaying floristic gradients and composition (Lepš & Šmilauer,2003). Ordination analysis was carried out by CANOCO version 4.5 (ter Braak & Smil-auer, 1997–2002).

Results

Grazing History and Grassland Abandonment

Interviews revealed that the mosaics of grasslands were the outcome of forest clearanceand transhumance grazing over the last two centuries or more. Since theirestablishment, these grasslands have been under continuous use. Grassland abandon-ment started approximately four decades ago and is still a continuous process. Duringthe 1970s there were altogether 80 goths and currently only 30 goths remain (Table 1).Mean number of goths per grassland in the 1970s was 4.4, while it was 1.7 for the year2009. The goth number varied enormously during this period (d.f. = 34, p < 0.001; Fig-ure 2). Based on the trend in goth abandonment and livestock population decline, thegrasslands can be divided into two types; 1) the majority of the grasslands experiencedreduction in goth numbers as well as in the livestock population; 2) some goths werecompletely abandoned, hence leaving them without grazing animals. Although the live-stock population fluctuated throughout the history of these grasslands, the markedreduction after the 1970s was substantial. Cattle population also declined very sharplybetween the 1970s and 2009 and the change was significant (d.f. = 30, p < 0.001; Fig-ure 3). Farmers’ remembrance data and our estimates from current cattle data did notdiffer significantly (t = -0.8212, d.f. = 30, p = 0.418; Figure 3). Like cattle, the popula-tions of sheep and goats have declined almost by two-thirds (Table 1).

Table 1. Changes in goth and livestock numbers in the Kharibot area of Gorkha, Nepal, duringthe 1970s and in 2009.

Particulars 1970s 2009

Goths 80 30Cattle 800/760a 300Goats and sheep 2700 1000

a This is an estimated figure from the current cattle holding/goth.

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Fire Regime

Interviews and discussions with herders revealed that summer pastures have two distinctfire regimes. Grasslands for cow and buffalo were located below 3500 masl and thesewere never burned before the onset of shrub encroachment; however, these grasslandshave been burned in recent decades as an attempt to control the shrub encroachment.Grasslands for sheep were located above 3500 masl. Contrastingly, these grasslandshave a long history of fire management (Table 2) and are still under fire management.Herders reported that sheep prefer grass rather than herbs and dwarf shrubs, and this isfacilitated by managed burning in the dry season.

Figure 2. Box plot comparing goth (cowshed) numbers in grasslands of the Kharibot area, Nepal,between 1970s and 2009.

Figure 3. Box plots showing changes in livestock population in grasslands of the Kharibot area,Nepal, between 1970s and 2009 (estimated and remembrance data are from the 1970s).

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Grassland Encroachment and Encroaching Species

Among the 18 grasslands studied, the 16 located below 3500 masl were encroached byshrubs (Table 2) and these were no longer pure grasslands. The shrub cover of Berberisspecies constituted between 40 and 80% of the area of the encroached grasslands(Table 2; Figure 4), creating discontinuities in the grazing area. Vegetation cover

Table 2. Grazing, fire and shrub cover of grasslands in the Kharibot area of Gorkha, Nepal

Sampled grasslandsElevationrange (masl)

Shrubencroachment/coverage

Grazinganimals Fire regime

Ghairunge, Mobromadi,Murkha Ghari

2900–3100 Yes (60–80%) Completelyabandoned

Started only afterencroachment

Galchhi, Chharmesa,Chheu Khanda, KaiDanda, Nyarku, Padui,Thulo Aule, Sano Aule,Tui Kharka, Syol Ghari,Nyarku, Morle, Yarmu

2700–3500 Yes (40–70%) Cow,buffalo,goat

Started only afterencroachment

Tabi, Markuse 3600–3900 No (<5%) Sheep Long history

Figure 4. Densely distributed patches of Berberis shrubs in the grassland at Kai Danda kharka(kharka-meadow/pasture/grassland) located at 2900 masl in Gorkha, Nepal (August 2009).

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analysis at ecotone revealed that shrubs were present only in the grassland and insidethe forest, shrub cover was almost absent (Figure 5). Herders and local residents havewitnessed the complete transformation of grasslands into shrubland and woodland, andreported that 40 years ago the area was either completely devoid of shrubs or they werein very low abundance. More than 55% of the respondents replied that shrubencroachment occurred during the last 16 to 20 years (Figure 6) and this result wasconsistent with findings of the key informant discussion. Currently, the shrub layer hasattained a dense stature, creating problems for livestock grazing.

Four species of Berberis were recorded from the area: Berberis angulosa, B. aristata,B. concinna and B. insignis. Among these, the first three species were encroachingspecies in the grasslands (Figure 7). Although grasslands were chiefly dominated by a sin-gle species of Berberis, two or more species were typically present. B. aristata wasdominant below 2700 masl, B. concinna between 2700 and 3100 masl, and B. angulosaabove 3100 masl. Besides Berberis species, Juniperus recurva, Rhododendron arboreum,R. campanulatum and Abies spectabilis were tree species regenerating in the grasslands.

Farmers’ Management Initiatives

Shrub coverage in grasslands has not only shrunk the grazing area but it has alsoreduced the grasses and forbs available for livestock to graze. Thorny shrubs havecaused physical harm to livestock. Herders reported that thorns have caused wounds inmouths and blindness of calves and goats. There were some cases of death of calves asthey were stuck inside the shrub. Farmers have responded to the shrub problem bymaking efforts to control the shrubs. They have started manual removal and introducedmanagement burning. Such efforts come about individually or as collective action.

Figure 5. DCA diagram showing that Berberis cover is predominantly present in the samplingplots from grasslands but absent inside the forest (circles: forest plots, square: grassland plots).

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Figure 7. Close up photograph of Berberis concinna, an encroaching shrub species found ingrasslands in Gorkha, Nepal.

Figure 6. Frequency diagram showing herders’ notion (no. of mentions) of the time of shrubencroachment in years.

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Discussion

Our results clearly demonstrate that shrub encroachment has occurred in most of thestudied grasslands in recent time and it is an ongoing process. The local process ofshrub encroachment may be driven by livestock grazing and burning, whereas theunderpinning process of migration from rural mountain areas, including global labourmigration, influence the number of people engaged in the local pasture management.

Pastoral Abandonment and Shrub Encroachment

The grazing pressure has varied in these mosaic grasslands due to fluctuating livestockpopulations. Currently, more than half of the goths have been abandoned and the over-all livestock population of the area has been reduced by two-thirds compared to the1970s. Our estimates of sheep agree with the national data (CBS, 2008), while for cattlethey contradict these data. At national level, the cattle population has increased inrecent decades and they is due to the introduction of the commercial milk productionprograms in the Tarai and the middle hills. The number of goths sharply declined withthe increasing migration of people to the Tarai region, following the malaria eradicationprogram of the 1950s (KC, 2003). This is an ongoing process, leading to negative pop-ulation growth rates in some districts of the Middle Hills and the high mountains (CBS,2011). Beside the national migration from the mountains to the lowlands, the labourmigration to Middle Eastern countries after 1990 has also contributed to the decliningnumbers of goths. We conclude that these landscapes were subject to maximum anthro-pogenic pressure during or prior to the 1960s, before the onset of the gradual mass out-migration. In this period, the villages had high human populations directly dependenton farming and livestock husbandry and they maintained maximum livestock popula-tions as farming and livestock husbandry were the only livelihood options and themajor economic activity. Consequently, it is reasonable to conclude that the dependencyon grasslands and forests have ceased in tune with economic diversification and out-migration. Similarly, Mahat et al. (1986), who based their study on similar mountaindistricts, also argue that pressure on these resources was at its maximum before the1950s. Therefore, it seems that shrub encroachment started in grasslands following thedecline in stock density because of abandonment.

Grazing Pressure and Shrub Encroachment

Grazing is a very important landscape process in shaping structure and composition ofgrasslands in various parts of the world (Bond, 2008; del Pozo et al., 2006; Grace &Jutila, 1999), and shrub encroachment is often connected with intense grazing as wellas its cessation. The introduction of cattle and intense grazing has been suggested as afactor for shrub proliferation in many arid and semi-arid grasslands, where cattle act asefficient vectors for seed dispersal and contribute to reduce fire-loads (Archer, 1989,1995; Brown & Archer, 1989). In the grasslands of Gorkha, no new livestock typeshave been introduced in a long time, nor has the livestock density increased during thelast five decades. Therefore, changes in livestock composition and increase in densityare not likely causes of the local shrub encroachment.

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Baral and Thapa (2004) made a brief descriptive study in the same area arguing thatshrub encroachment is a consequence of decline in grazing pressure. A threshold levelof disturbance by livestock (Briske et al., 2005, 2006) can control shrub expansion byconsuming the above ground biomass, including propagules like fruits and seeds, andalso by trampling and physically damaging the seedlings (Austrheim et al., 2008).Berberis seedlings and fruits are palatable to cattle and goats (Figure 8) and were mostlikely effectively removed when stocking densities were higher.

Fire Regime

Fire is one of the most cited landscape processes that play a crucial role in determiningthe diversity and composition of grasslands (Briggs et al., 2005; Heisler et al., 2004;McCarron & Knapp, 2001; Van Auken, 2000). Fire helps to control the spread ofwoody plants in grasslands and savanna; it maintains the boundary between grasslandsand the adjoining forest, as well as the balance between herbaceous and woody species.In the present area, all the grasslands lie within the geographical range of the encroach-ing species, and landform is more or less similar across sites. We should, therefore,expect all the grasslands to be encroached by Berberis, however, the existence of fewgrasslands free from shrub problem may be explained based on fire practice. There iscontrasting fire histories in encroached and unencroached grasslands. In encroachedareas fire was not a common practice before the shrub encroachment occurred. Whilegrasslands which are free from encroachment are burned by management fires duringthe dry season and this practice has been carried out over a long period of time. Thesegrasslands are grazed by sheep and herders burn these to promote the growth of grasses

Figure 8. Goats browsing Berberis shoots (August 2009, Gorkha).

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and herbs. Therefore, it seems that long history of fire in unencroached grasslands hasplayed a role in protecting these from encroachment. This result agrees with Heisleret al. (2004), however, their study area and species were completely different. Tshering(2004) also states that fire has prevented shrub encroachment in the Bhutanese moun-tain pastures. Although fire may protect high elevation grasslands from encroachment,reduced or changed fire regime is not the main cause behind the shrub encroachment.

In many arid and semi-arid grasslands, shrub encroachment started because of theinterplay of fire and grazing (Archer, 1995; Van Auken, 2000). Increased grazing leadsto the reduction of grass biomass and to the subsequent loss of fuel for the fire.Reduced burning finally leads to the establishment of seedlings of woody species(Bond, 2008; Briggs et al., 2005; Roques et al., 2001; Van Auken, 2000; Van Vegten,1984). In contrast to this, the studied area experienced shrub encroachment, not withcattle introduction or fire suppression, but after the reduction of the livestockpopulation.

Shrub Attributes and Management Failure

Berberis shrubs have many biological and physical attributes that make them a noxiousweed in grasslands. Animals browsing the thorny shrubs may suffer from mouthinfections, wounds in the eyes and blindness, and in some cases, it has even led to thedeath of calves (personal observation of first author). Two species of Berberis shrubs(B. concinna and B. angulosa) are clonal and perennial with multiple shooting and pro-fuse branching. Berberis produces large numbers of seed during late autumn and earlywinter and these seeds are edible to the avifauna and other vertebrates, and seeds aredispersed by birds and livestock, as well as other herbivores. Berberis shrubs proliferatenot only from seeds but also from underground roots. A Berberis shrub is robust andconsists of multiple shoots. Herders have attempted to eliminate them by manualremoval. Herders have also started fire in dry season in encroached grasslands (fire isintroduced in encroached grasslands after shrub problem in recent years) to get rid ofshrub problem. Both of these attempts turned out to be unsuccessful as the former islabour intensive and associated with high costs and the latter method is insufficient dueto the deep root system of shrub that cannot be harmed by surface fire once the shrubis firmly rooted.

Pasture Management

Current grasslands, where Berberis shrubs have encroached, are part of a cultural land-scape which is shaped by centuries of human activities and local ecological processes.These grasslands, along with forests and agricultural lands, play an important role insustaining rural livelihoods, agriculture and livestock husbandry. Local herdsmen havebeen using these grasslands for centuries and they have de facto user rights over theseresources, however, these grasslands are legally property of the national government(GoN, 2012). Therefore, national government agencies, along with local people, havethe management responsibility of these grasslands.

The spatial extent of the shrub encroachment has exacerbated the situation for poorsubsistence farmers and livestock by reducing grazing areas and accessibility to grass.Consequently, it is most urgent to take initiatives for shrub controlling mechanisms to

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help herders and to maintain the ecological function and biodiversity of this uniquepastoral landscape. However, recently endorsed ‘Rangeland Policy of Nepal’ (GoN,2012) does not incorporate shrub encroachment as an immediate management challengeand land abandonment as the underlying cause behind the problem. This documentadvocates the conventional view, such as ‘over stocking’, ‘excessive use of resources’and ‘mismanagement’ as the main rangeland problems. Although it has set strategiesand program for action, it does not incorporate site-specific problems to address thelocal scale problem.

Experiences have shown that increased stock pressure, manual removal and burning,individually, may not prevent shrub encroachment, but if used simultaneously they mayreduce shrub cover. Hence, all these management tools should be used synergisticallyto control the shrub encroachment. Strengthening and institutionalising the existingloose and informal local institutions could bring in local hands in managing theseresources. Local people are key stakeholders in managing these resources, as they areprimary users of these resources for livelihood. We propose to address the local scaleand site-specific social and ecological challenges in future rangeland management andconservation programs.

Conclusion

Decline in livestock pressure as a consequence of out-migration of people and subse-quent pastoral abandonment seems to be the plausible explanation for the recent shrubencroachment. It is evident that migration as a global phenomenon has visible localenvironmental impacts in marginal areas such as in high mountains. However, furtherknowledge on the ecology of the Berberis species, along with its interaction with herb-aceous cover, edaphic changes, livestock density and fire will help us to understand thisprocess more clearly. Land cover changes brought about by shrub and tree encroach-ment have exacerbated the lives of the remaining herders, and the persistence of theseshrubs in grasslands may pose a serious threat on the continuation of traditional occupa-tion of herders. We urge the development of knowledge-based management schemesand continued research on the ecology of the encroaching species and their effects inorder to maintain ecosystem services and biodiversity of these seminatural landscapesfor the future.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all the herders and villagers from Kharibot area whoparticipated in meetings and discussions to share their knowledge on grasslands andgrazing history. We are grateful to two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions onan earlier draft of this paper. We also like to acknowledge financial support from theNOrad’s Program for Masters Studies (NOMA) at Central Department of Botany,Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal, to conduct the field study. The work waspartly funded by the Norwegian Research Council (190153/V10) and Grolle OlsensLegat.

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