Palaeontological, diagenetic and facies characteristics of Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary sediments...

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Cretaceous Research 26 (2005) 329e341

Palaeontological, diagenetic and faciescharacteristics of Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary

sediments in the Ordu, Yavuzlu andUzunisa areas, Eastern Pontides, NE Turkey

Aysxegul Yıldıza,*, Ali Gurelb

aNig�de University, Aksaray Engineering Faculty, Department of Geological Engineering, 68100 Aksaray, TurkeybNig�de University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Geological Engineering, Nig�de, Turkey

Received 1 December 2003; accepted in revised form 24 January 2005

Available online 24 March 2005

Abstract

The region discussed in this paper is located in the eastern part of the Pontide tectonic unit in north-east Turkey. From north to

south it comprises the Ordu, Yavuzlu and Uzunisa areas, which form part of the Pontide fore-arc basin. The region shows differentfacies developments through the Upper Cretaceous to the Eocene, and the K/Pg boundary section is represented by limestones,sandstones, and glauconitic sandstones. While investigating the palaeontological, diagenetic and facies characteristics of theboundary sediments, it was observed that the Maastrichtian age is represented by thicker successions than the Paleocene in the

northern and southern parts of the study area. By contrast, in the centre, the Paleocene epoch is represented by a thicker sequence. Itwas also determined that the area has become deeper from north to south, owing to rifting during the MaastrichtianePaleocene anduplift to the north.

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Keywords: Diagenesis; Eastern Pontides; Facies; K/Pg boundary; Turkey; Palaeontology

1. Introduction

The Black Sea Region was named the PontideTectonic Unit by Ketin (1966). The Pontides are aneastewest oriented orogenic belt, representing anamalgamated tectonic entity in which three tectonos-tratigraphically different sectors can be distinguished:the Western, Central and Eastern Pontides (Yılmazet al., 1997). The region investigated in this paper islocated in the Eastern Pontides, which are representedby the following eastewest-orientated tectonic zones:

* Corresponding author.

E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Yıldız).

0195-6671/$ - see front matter � 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2005.01.003

a volcanic belt, a fore-arc basin fill, a belt of meta-morphic massif, an ophiolitic suture zone, and a remnantbasin fill (Yılmaz et al., 1997). The study area is on thenorthern margin of the fore-arc basin fill (Fig. 1).Previous geological studies in this region and nearbyinclude those reported by Dewey et al. (1973), Adamiaet al. (1977), Tokel (1983), Bektasx (1983, 1986), Goruret al. (1983), Yılmaz (1993a,b), Korkmaz and Yılmaz(1994), Demir (1995), Korkmaz et al. (1995), Yılmazand Bektasx (1996), Arslan et al. (1997), Kandemir andKorkmaz (1997), Yılmaz et al. (1997), and Yıldız et al.(1998). Studies on MaastrichtianePaleocene outcrops inthe Eastern Pontides have been limited to the southernpart of the region; none has been made previously in thearea considered herein.

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330 A. Yıldız, A. Gurel / Cretaceous Research 26 (2005) 329e341

Fig. 1. Maps showing the location of the study area and the measured sections.

The main objectives of our paper are to: (1) presentpalaeontological, diagenetic, and facies characteristicsof the Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) boundary sedi-ments; (2) evaluate depositional environments basedon fossil associations and lithological features; and (3)determine changes in facies in the region during theMaastrichtianePaleocene period.

2. Material and methods

Our paper is based on an analysis of 60 samplescollected from three measured sections in the Ordu,Yavuzlu, and Uzunisa areas. These range from 10 to15 m in thickness and comprise limestones and sand-stones, some of the latter containing glauconite.

331A. Yıldız, A. Gurel / Cretaceous Research 26 (2005) 329e341

Fig. 2. Generalised stratigraphic section of the study area.

Petrographic characters of the samples were examinedunder an Ortholux polarizing microscope. Limestonethin-sections were analysed according to the methods ofDunham (1962) and Embry and Klovan (1971), andsandstones were determined according the classificationof Folk (1968). The definitions of the lithofacies arebased on Wilson (1975), Wilson and Jordan (1983) andFlugel (1992), and those of the biofacies on Sartorioand Verturini (1988). Estimated sea-level fluctuationsand interpretations of depositional environment weredetermined by comparing the distribution of lithofaciesand biofacies associations and diagenetic features.

3. Stratigraphy

The oldest rock units in the study area are LateCretaceous sandstones and mudstones interbedded withbasaltic lavas and pyroclastics, a succession that isapproximately 1000 m thick. These rocks are overlainby 750 mofLateCretaceous brown, grey-white, greenish-and pinkish-grey trachyandesite-andesite lavas and py-roclastics. This unit is overlain by 750 m of an alternatingsuccession of limestones, marls, mudrocks, sandstones,

conglomerates and tuffs of Late CretaceouseEocene age.In general this unit is grey-white to grey-green in colour. Itis in turn overlain by Eocene sandstones, mudstones,marls, andesite, basalt lava and pyroclastic accumula-tions more than 1000 m thick. All of these volcanic andsedimentary rocks have been cut by Late Cretaceous andTertiary intrusions. The succession is topped by Quater-nary alluvium (Figs. 1, 2).

4. Lithofacies and biofacies features

of K/Pg sediments

The thickness of the K/Pg boundary sediments rangesbetween 10 and 15 m in the area studied. Based onlithological features and fossil associations in limestonesthe following four facies were identified: (a), packstoneswith miliolid foraminifera and algae; (b), boundstonesand packstones with corals and algae; (c), rudstones andpackstones with orbitoid foraminifera and Siderolites;(d), packstones with planktonic foraminifera (Figs. 3e7,10, 11A).

Fig. 3. Lithological log of K/Pg boundary strata, facies and distribution of fossils, Ordu section.

Fig. 4. Lithological log of K/Pg boundary strata, facies and distribution of fossils, Yavuzlu section.


Fig. 5. Lithological log of K/Pg boundary strata, facies and distribution of fossils, Uzunisa section.

4.1. Facies a

This facies represents an inner shelf (SF8) environment(Wilson, 1975; Wilson and Jordan, 1983; Sartorio andVerturini, 1988). It is composed of packstones thatgenerally contain green algae, miliolids, peloids, ostra-cods, and gastropod fragments. In commonwith Facies c,it was encountered at the bottom and around the middleof the Yavuzlu section (Paleocene: DanianeSelandian) inthe YK-2eYK-8 limestone samples collected frombetween 0.93 and 11.81 m (Figs. 4, 6B, 7, 10A, B).

4.2. Facies b

This facies represents an outer shelf (SF5e6) environ-ment (Wilson, 1975; Wilson and Jordan, 1983; Sartorioand Verturini, 1988). It is composed of boundstonesand packstones that contain mainly coral fragments(Actinacis sp.) and red algae (Ethelya alba Pfender), andoccasionally, benthonic foraminifera (Anomalina sp.,miliolids, Textularia sp.) bryozoan, echinoderm andgastropod fragments, ostracods and green algae. Thefacies was encountered at the top of the Ordu section inthe ORK-1 and ORDU limestone samples of Paleoceneage collected from between 10.31 and 11.5 m, and in theYavuzlu section in the YK-9e10 limestone samples fromPaleocene (DanianeSelandian) levels between 11.81 and15 m, as for Facies c (Figs. 3, 4, 6B, 7, 10C).

4.3. Facies c

This facies consists of rudstones and packstones thatcommonly contain red algae (Ethelya alba Pfender),hippuritid fragments, Orbitoides sp. and Siderolites sp.,and occasionally, benthonic foraminifera and othermicrofossils [Anomalina sp., Kathina sp., Marssonellasp., Marssonella oxycona (Reus), Pithonella ovalis(Kaufmann), Rotalia sp., Selimina cf. spinalis _Inan,Textularia sp.], bryozoan, echinoderm and bivalvefragments, planktonic foraminifera [Globotruncana sp.,Globigerina sp., Morozovella angulata (White), Planor-otalites sp., Subbotina pseudobulloides (Plummer)] andgreen algae. The facies represents a slope (SF3e4)environment (Wilson, 1975; Wilson and Jordan, 1983;Sartorio and Verturini, 1988). It was encountered inthe O-1e13 limestone samples of Maastrichtian agebetween 0 and 10.31 m in the Ordu section, andthroughout the MaastrichtianePaleocene (DanianeSelandian) Yavuzlu section (Figs. 3, 4, 6A, B, 7, 10D).

4.4. Facies d

This facies represents a basin (SF1e2) environment(Wilson, 1975; Wilson and Jordan, 1983; Dario Sartorioand Verturini, 1988). It is composed of pack-stones that contain abundant planktonic foraminifera


Fig. 6. Schematic representation of the distribution of lithofacies and biofacies for the Maastrichtian (A) and Paleocene (B) within the study area

(modified from Wilson, 1975; Wilson and Jordan, 1983; Sartorio and Verturini, 1988).

[Globigerinelloides sp., Globotruncana sp., Contusotrun-cana contusa (Cushman), Hedbergella sp., Heterohelixsp., Planorotalites compressa (Plummer), Planorotalitespseudomenardii (Bolli)] and, occasionally, benthonicforaminifera [Larrazetia chartacea (des Moulins), Pla-norbulina sp., Sulcoperculina dikersoni (Palmer)]. It wasrecognized in numerous U-4e1 samples of Maastrich-tianePaleocene (DanianeSelandian) age taken fromlimestones in the Uzunisa section (Figs. 5e7, 10E).

5. Palaeontological features

The Ordu section consists of 11.5 m of limestones.The association of Globotruncana sp., Lepidorbitoides

sp., Marssonella oxycona (Reus), Marssonella sp.,Orbitoides apiculatus Schlumberger, Orbitoides medius(d’Archiac), Orbitoides tissoti Schlumberger, Orbitoidessp., Orbitoidiformis sp., Pithonella ovalis (Kaufmann),Pseudosiderolites vidoli (Douville), Pseudosiderolites sp.,Selimina cf. spinalis _Inan, Siderolites calcitropoidesLamarck, Siderolites denticulatus Douville, Siderolitessp. and hippuritid fragments from the bottom ofthe section to 10.31 m indicate a Maastrichtian age.The uppermost 1.19 m of the section (i.e. 10.31e11.5 m)is dated as Paleocene (DanianeSelandian) on the basisof the presence of Anomalina sp., coral fragments(Actinacis sp.) and Textularia sp. (Figs. 3, 9A, B, DeH).

The Yavuzlu section consists of 15 m of limestones.The age of the lowest part, between 0 and 0.93 m, is


Fig. 7. Correlation of the lithofacies and biofacies of the K/Pg boundary interval in the study area.

determined as Maastrichtian, based on the occurrence ofOrbitoides sp., Siderolites sp. and hippuritid fragments.The overlying deposits to the top of the section are datedas Paleocene (DanianeSelandian) owing to the occur-rence of Anomalina sp., Globigerina sp., Kathina sp., thered alga Ethelya alba Pfender, Morozovella angulata(White), Planorotalites sp., Rotalia sp. and Subbotinapseudobulloides (Plummer) (Figs. 4, 8AeF).

The Uzunisa section consists of 10 m of alternatingsandstone and clayey limestone. Within the latter,assemblages of Contusotruncana contusa (Cushman),Globigerinelloides sp., Globotruncana sp., Hedbergellasp., Heterohelix sp., Planomalina sp. and Sulcoperculinadikersoni (Palmer) indicate that the section up to7.69 m is Maastrichtian in age. Within this part of thesection, specimens of Pseudolituonella reicheli Marieand Valvulinidae have also been found. They arereworked CenomanianeTuronian forms. The sectionabove 7.69 m is considered to be Paleocene (DanianeSelandian), based on assemblages of Planorotalitescompressa (Plummer) and Planorotalites pseudomenardii(Bolli). In addition, Globigerinelloides sp., Globotruncana

contusa (Cushman), Hedbergella sp., Heterohelix sp.,Larrazetia chartacea (des Moulins), Pseudolituonellareicheli Marie and Sulcoperculina obesa de Cizancourtwere also encountered; all are reworked Late Cretaceoustaxa (Figs. 5, 8E, 9C).

6. Diagenetic features

Fibrous calcite cement, which reflects reef-relatedmarine diagenesis, was observed in the Ordu samples.This indicates that concurrent in situ sedimentation,marine cementation, and bioerosion have long been themost important factors controlling the nature of earlymarine lithification within the reef environment (Davies,1977; Petta, 1977; Walls et al., 1979; Mazzullo, 1980;James and Klappa, 1983; James and Choquette, 1983;Walls and Burrowes, 1985; Schroeder and Purser, 1986;Kerans et al., 1986; Rabat et al., 1986). Drusy cement,which coats most sedimentary grains in a thin fibrouslayer, cements them together. In nearly all cases theearly cements are abruptly overlain by sparry calcite


Fig. 8. A, Actinacis sp., Yavuzlu sample YK-10. B, Kathina sp., Yavuzlu sample YK-6. C, Miscellenea sp., Yavuzlu sample YK-4. D, Paraketete

aspavati Pia, Yavuzlu sample YK-1. E, Planorotalites compressa (Plummer), Uzunisa sample U-1. F, Rotalia sp., Yavuzlu sample YK-4. Scale bars

represent 0.2 mm.

cement, which fills the bulk of the intergranular spaces.The syn-sedimentary druse has two forms.1. Short, closely packed, fibrous cement. Sedimentarygrains may be coated with a single thin layer of closelypacked calcite crystals. Most crystals are the samelength, giving the drusy layer a remarkably isopachouscement. Adjacent crystals are in contact throughout thegreater part of their length, being closely packed, andare terminated by obtusely pointed faces. Short, fibrouscalcite cement is the most common type of early cementin the grainy MaastrichtianePaleocene limestones of theOrdu area. The first short calcite isopachous cement isrich in inclusions and generally overlain by a younger,sparry calcite that sometimes does not contain inclu-sions. The contact between the early and later cement isgenerally sharp, and there is no transition between theshort fibrous cement and the overlying coarser sparrycalcite (Fig. 11B).2. Micro-stalactic cement. Coarse-grained packstonesand boundstones occasionally exhibit cement that is

asymmetrically distributed around the grain, beingconstantly thicker on the underside of the particles. Indetail, the cement consists of a finely laminated layerenveloping individual grains, the laminae being con-stantly thicker and more numerous on the lowersurfaces of grains. This drusy mosaic is asymmetrical.On the underside of grains, where the layer of druse maybe several millimetres thick, it grades from the smallestcrystals at the top to the largest at the bottom.Asymmetrical cementation is interpreted as being dueto alternate wetting and drying of these coarse sediments(Fig. 11C).

A meteoric, phreatic cementation model, in responseto sea-level fluctuations, is inferred from samples fromthe Yavuzlu section. It is reasonable to expect thicksedimentary sequences to be diagenetically altered bymoving the meteoric lens up or down in response torising or falling sea levels (Wagner and Matthews, 1982;Humphrey et al., 1986; Matthews, 1987). Meteoric,phreatic pore-fill cements generally occur in a more


Fig. 9. A, Globotruncana sp., Ordu sample O-7. B, hippuritid fragments, Ordu sample O-2. C, Globigerinelloides sp., and Heterohelix sp., Uzunisa

sample U-3. D, Lepidorbitoides sp., Ordu sample O-13. E, Orbitoides sp., Ordu sample O-3. F, Siderolites calcitropoides Lamarck, Ordu sample O-12.

G, Pseudosiderolites sp., Ordu sample O-9. H, green algae, Ordu sample O-5. Scale bars represent 0.2 mm.

homogeneous distribution pattern than their vadosecounterparts. Isopachous rims, consisting of equantrhombohedral calcite crystals, are the normal fabric.Crystal size varies, but phreatic cement crystals can bea little larger than those of vadose cements (Halley andHarris, 1979; Longman, 1980; James and Choquette,1984; Saller, 1984). In the rudstone textural limestonesamples from the Yavuzlu section sparry calcite is thedominant cement. Diagenesis of calcite has occurred

in two phases. At first, dog-tooth calcite cementprecipitated vertical to the surfaces of the grains. Drusemosaic calcite then formed mostly around the dog-toothcement. It has a pore-fill shape as the crystals grew largefrom the pore-membrane to the centre. Large quartz(O20 mm) cement has been observed together withdiagenetic sparry calcite in the limestone samples. Theseare idiomorphic, xenomorph crystals that from place toplace replace sparry calcite in the pore cavities. It is


Fig. 10. A, packstone with miliolid and algae, Yavuzlu sample YK-5, facies a. B, peloids, Yavuzlu sample YK-1, facies a. C, packstone with coral and

algae, Yavuzlu sample YK-10, facies b. D, packstone with orbitoids and Siderolites, Ordu sample O-9, facies c. E, packstone with planktonic

foraminifera, Uzunisa sample U-2, facies d. F, sandstone with glauconite, Uzunisa sample U-5. Scale bar represents 1 mm.

presumed that the quartz cement arose from amorphoussilica in the sediments, or from dissolved quartz androck fragments in the rock (Fig. 11D).

Micritic cement, which reflects diagenesis in thedeep-marine environment, was observed in samplesfrom the Uzunisa section. Open marine waters, distantfrom carbonate shelves and platforms, support adominantly calcite planktonic community of coccolithsand planktonic foraminifera. Abyssal plains are,

therefore, generally covered with calcite-dominatedpelagic sediments (Scholle et al., 1983). Fine-grained,metastable carbonates originating in the shallowwaters of the platform are commonly swept off itand deposited as peri-platform ooze (Berner et al.,1976). In the Uzunisa samples they exhibit a micro-crystalline matrix. This matrix often overlies the earlyovergrowth cement and closely resembles a fine in-tergranular muddy matrix, giving the rock a packstone


texture. These samples also contain sedimentary mudesilt-sized intergranular microcrystalline calcite and clayminerals, which may, however, be distinguished fromdiagenetic microcrystalline matrix by its less homoge-neous texture, owing to the presence of fine skeletaldebris. Their distribution as a crust below the bioclastsclearly indicates that their main origin is syn-sedimen-tary (Fig. 11E).

7. Discussion

The area under investigation represents the northernmargin of the fore-arc basin in the volcanic belt of theEastern Pontides. During the Mesozoic Era, the EasternPontide Tectonic Unit was broken up by rifting, and

deeper depositional environments developed as riftingcontinued during the Cenozoic.

Limestones, sandstones and glauconitic sandstoneswithin the Upper CretaceouseEocene volcanic andsedimentary succession that crops out in the study areainclude the K/Pg boundary. Both the fossils and thelithologies recorded from the sections examined indicatethat in the most northern (Ordu) and most southern(Uzunisa) parts of region the Maastrichtian successionwas thicker than that of the Paleocene. The reverse istrue in the central (Yavuzlu) part. During the Maas-trichtian, the Ordu and Yavuzlu areas were situated ona slope whereas the deposits of the Uzunisa area havea basinal character, the sediments that accumulatedcontaining fossils and glauconitic sandstones that werereworked from shallower and older deposits into the

Fig. 11. A, rudstone, Yavuzlu sample YK-2. B, fibrous calcite cement, Ordu sample O-6, (a) bioclast grain (red algae), (b) short fibrous cement, (c)

overlain by sparry calcite. C, micro-stalactic cement, Ordu sample O-7, (a) asymmetrically graded drusy mosaic, (b) smallest crystals, (c) and (d)

coarser crystals. D, meteoric phreatic cementation, Yavuzlu sample YK-9, (a) bioclast, (b) dog-tooth cement, (c) overlain by druse calcite, (d) coarse-

grained siliceouse cement. E, micritic cement, Uzunisa sample U-2. Scale bar represents 0.5 mm.


basin. Typically, glauconite occurs in the Uzunisa areaas bright green and rounded pellets in the silt to sand-size range. Magmatic grains of glauconitic facies occurmainly deeper than 50e80 m, and are most abundantbetween depths of 150 and 300 m. At greater depths,they are often considered to be reworked from shallowerdeposits. Their occurrence indicates that during theMaastrichtian, the Uzunisa area was in a tectonicallyactive region (Figs. 3e7).

During the Paleocene, the Ordu area was elevated,the depositional environment becoming an outer shelf,whereas conditions in the Yavuzlu and Uzunisa areasremained largely unaltered. The Uzunisa section againcontains fossils and glauconitic sandstones that wereoriginally deposited in older and shallower environ-ments. These data suggest that tectonic activity contin-ued during the Paleocene. It is concluded that the studyarea deepened from north to south as a result ofMaastrichtianePaleocene rifting (Figs. 3e7).

Fibrous calcite druse that reflects reef-related marinediagenesis was observed in Ordu samples. Meteoric,phreatic cementation, in response to sea level fluctua-tions, was determined from Yavuzlu samples. Micro-crystalline calcite cement, which reflects diagenesis in thedeep-marine environment, distant from carbonateshelves and platforms, was observed in Uzunisasamples, and interpretation supported by the occurrenceof a dominantly planktonic assemblage of coccolithsand foraminifera in this section (Fig. 11).

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