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Master’s Degree Studies in

International and Comparative Education

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Nongovernmental Organizations’ Perceptions on Inclusive

Education Implementation in Primary Schools

A Comparative Case Study between Cameroon and South Africa

Evelyn Neh Nde

Institute of International Education

Department of Education

Master Thesis 30 HE credits

International and Comparative Education

Master Program in International and Comparative Education

(120 credits)

Spring term 2016

Supervisor: Dr Jonas Gustafsson

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Abstract

This paper investigates, analyse and compare nongovernmental organizations’ perceptions

on inclusive education implementation in primary schools in Cameroon and South Africa

aiming to gain understanding of the challenges that nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)

face in the implementation phase. Inclusive education as concern regular education system

response to diversity in learners. However, inclusive education interpretation is debatable.

This paper argues that curriculum modification is central in inclusive education

implementation at school level (primary schools). NGOs’ perceptions concerning inclusive

education implementation in primary schools in Cameroon and South Africa as revealed

through the interviews, tells the state of inclusive education implementation offered by the

state as slow, lack of political will, funds and resources fuel by corruption, bad governance,

negative attitudes of mainstream teachers and public ignorance of the benefits of inclusive

education to the individual and community. As such, expectations for inclusive education

are high in both countries yet the implementation is slow or absent if action is not taken.

Ordinary citizens therefore came together to form non-for profit organizations known as

NGOs to be part of the solution. The NGOs volunteer in training primary school proprietors,

principals, head teachers, teachers and other school staff on curriculum modification or

adaptation as well as offer special educational needs 1support. Implementation is

challenging where teachers are ignorant about diversity teaching and have negative beliefs

and attitudes towards inclusion in education.

Keywords: Inclusive education, NGOs, Primary schools, diversity, curriculum and Special

Educational Needs.

1 Children’s Learning needs in school

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Contents Chapter one ................................................................................................................................ 8

1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 8

1.2 Background .................................................................................................................... 10

1.3 Aims ............................................................................................................................... 12

1.4 Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 12

1.5 Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 12

1.6 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................... 12

1.7 Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................ 13

1.8 Organization of the Study ......................................................................................... 13

Chapter Two......................................................................................................................... 14

Contextual Background ....................................................................................................... 14

2.1 Sub –Saharan Africa (SSA) ........................................................................................... 14

2..2 The Republic of Cameroon/ Cameroun ........................................................................ 17

2.2.1 Colonial and political background .............................................................................. 18

2.2.2 Socio- economic context ............................................................................................. 19

2.2.3 Education system in Cameroon .................................................................................. 21

2.2.4 Cameroon’s legislative framework for Inclusive education (IE) ................................ 24

2.3 The Republic of South Africa ........................................................................................ 25

2.3.1 Colonial and political background .............................................................................. 26

2.3.2 Socio-economic context .............................................................................................. 27

2.3.3 Education system in South Africa............................................................................... 29

2.3.4 South Africa’s Legislative framework for Inclusive education (IE) .......................... 32

Chapter Three........................................................................................................................... 35

Conceptual and theoretical frameworks............................................................................... 35

3.1 Curriculum ..................................................................................................................... 35

3.2 Curriculum Theory......................................................................................................... 41

Chapter Four ............................................................................................................................ 43

Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 43

4.1 Methodological Comments ............................................................................................ 43

4.2 The Research Strategy ................................................................................................... 44

4.3 The Research Design ..................................................................................................... 45

4.4 Sampling ........................................................................................................................ 47

4.5 Instruments and methods for data collection ................................................................. 48

4.6 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................. 49

4.7 Reliability and validity ................................................................................................... 50

4.8 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................... 50

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Chapter Five ............................................................................................................................. 51

Findings and Data Analysis ................................................................................................. 51

5.1 Findings from interviews with NGO ‘A’ ........................................................................... 51

5.1.1 NGO ‘A’ perceptions on inclusive education ............................................................. 52

5.1.2 Implementing inclusion in primary schools ................................................................ 53

5.1.3 Implementation Challenges face by NGO ‘A’ ............................................................ 54

5.2 Findings from the interviews with NGO ‘B’ ..................................................................... 54

5.2.1 NGO ‘B’ perceptions on inclusive education ............................................................. 55

5.2.2 Implementing inclusion in primary schools ................................................................ 55

5.2.3 Implementation challenges faced by NGO ‘B’ ........................................................... 55

5.3 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 56

5.3.1 Comparing NGO ’A’ and NGO ’B’ perceptions on inclusive education ................... 56

5.3.2 Nation and international comparison of NGOs’ perception on IE implementation in

primary school ..................................................................................................................... 58

Chapter Six............................................................................................................................... 63

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 63

6.1 Appraisal of Concept and theory ................................................................................... 63

6.2 Recommendations for further research .......................................................................... 66

References ................................................................................................................................ 67

Appendix 1 ............................................................................................................................... 72

Copy of Informed Consent................................................................................................... 72

Appendix 2 ............................................................................................................................... 73

Recommendation letter from my supervisor........................................................................ 73

Appendix 3 ............................................................................................................................... 74

Interview Guide ................................................................................................................... 74

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List of Tables

Table 1: Education indicators for primary education in SSA 16

Table 2: Cameroon economic sector 21

Table 3: Cameroon primary school curriculum 23

Table 4: South African economic sector 29

Table 5: South Africa basic education curriculum 31

Table 6: Curriculum codes 39

Table 7: Thematic representation of the findings from the interviews and

analysis

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List of Figures

Figure 1 Map of SSA 14

Figure 2: Map of Cameroon

17

Figure 3: Cameroon population pyramid 18

Figure 4: South Africa population pyramid

25

Figure 5: Map of South Africa

26

Figure 6: South African map of IE barriers

33

Figure 7: South African school categories with regards to IE

34

Figure 8: Text for pedagogy

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Figure 9: curriculum

37

Figure 10: Curriculum and context of reproduction

38

Figure 11: Bray and Thomas cube of units of comparison 46

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List of Abbreviations

BEC: Basic Education Curriculum

CAPS: Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement

CONFEMEN: Conference of Ministers of Education of French-Speaking Countries

CWD: Children with Disabilities

DoE: Department of Education

EFA: Education for All

EWP6: Education White Paper 6

FSS: Full Service Schools

GET: General Education Training

HIV/AIDS: Human Immunodeficiency Virus

HDI: Human Development Index

IE: Inclusive Education

IBE: International Bureau of Education

IIEP: International Institute of Education Planning

IMF: International Monetary Fund

NGOs: Non - Governmental Organisations

NQF: National Qualification Framework

OBE: Outcomes- Based Education

SASA: South African School Act

SADBE: South Africa Department of Basic Education

SAIE: South Africa Inclusive Education

SEN: Special Educational Needs

SSA: Sub-Sharan Africa

SSRC: Special Schools as Resource Centres

UDHR: Universal Declaration of Human Rights

UIS: UNESCO Institute for Statistics

UNDP: United Nations Development Program

UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNICEF: United Nations Children’s Fund

UPE: Universal Primary Education

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Acknowledgements

Words might not be adequate to express my gratitude and appreciation to all the people that

have inspired, mentor, supervised, helped, supported and encouraged me throughout this

study. Nevertheless, I thank my supervisor, Dr. Jonas Gustafson, Senior Lecturer at the

Department of Education for his professionalism, stimulation, guidance and insightful

contribution and feedback during the research process. My gratitude to the faculty lecturers:

Professor Meeri Hellsten, Dr. Mikiko Cars, Associate Professor. Ulf Fredriksson, Assistant

Professor. Christine McNab, and Student Counselor. Emma West who fully supported the

academic activities during the entire two-year program at the Department of Education in

Stockholm University.

I am grateful to Mrs Caroline Taylor, a staff of “Inclusive Education SA”, Dr Tani

Emanuel Lukong of the Foundation of Scientific Research, Community based Rehabilitation

and Advocacy on Inclusive Education Cameroon, Dr Nassuna Lucia, a lecture and

philanthropist in the field of Inclusive Education for their selfless participation, support,

understanding and collaboration in the research.

I appreciate my husband Mr Geoffrey Idumu for his love, support and sacrifice during my

studies. Your understanding and cooperation was really motivating and has yielded fruits.

Thank you.

I am also grateful to my classmates for the friendship and sense of belonging as a group. I am

grateful to Taryn Coop for reading and offering insightful input on the study.

Special thanks to Mrs Larisa Lacatus Mirabela of Salvation Army EU-migrant Center, Mr

Ban Aime Nde, Mrs Zita, Mrs Victorine Kwaine, Mutinta Sifelani, Deborah Komelafe and

my African Fellowship family in Stockholm. Your understanding and cooperation throughout

the course of my studies means a lot to me.

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Chapter one

1.1 Introduction Inclusive education is an approach in the provision of educational opportunities based on

rights. It aims at addressing the learning needs of all children, youths and adults especially

that of groups at risk of marginalization and exclusion within the regular education system. It

involves removing barriers that hinders access and full participation in education. These

barriers could be associated with ethnicity, gender, poverty, social status, disabilities

depending on the local context (UNESCO, World Conference on Special Needs Education:

Access and Quality, 1994). This conference was organised by the United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in cooperation with the

government of Spain. It brought together ninety- two governments, twenty -five international

organizations, nongovernmental organizations and donor agencies in Salamanca, Spain. The

conference participants reaffirmed everyone’s right to education as stipulated in article 26 of

the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In addition, they recommitted to advancing

the Education for All(EFA2) objectives of Jomtien, Thailand 1990. Furthermore, they

endorsed the framework of action on special needs education legitimating inclusive education

approach in designing and implementing educational programmes. Hence, they urge

governments to prioritize policy and funding to improve education systems to accommodate

all learners regardless of individual differences or difficulties (UNESCO, Salamanca

Statement and Framework of Action, 1994).

The Salamanca Statement and Framework of Action on Special Needs Education is a

vital referential document endorsing inclusive education as well as provide recommendation

for governments and stakeholders seeking to establish inclusive education systems. The

framework recognises the importance of providing educational opportunities to children,

youths and adults with special educational needs within the regular education system

(ibid,p.9) The Framework calls on governments to cooperate, collaborate, partner and

network with other governments, nongovernmental organizations and the international

community; represented by the United Nations and its specialized agencies namely:

UNESCO, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), International Labour Office (ILO),

the World Health Organization (WHO3), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

and the World Bank call to endorse the approach of inclusive schooling and support the

development of special needs education as a component within all education programmes

(UNESCO,1994).

It is from this backdrop that Mara Sapon-Shevin (2012, p.1148) argues that “Inclusive

education describes a way of structuring educational services so that all students regardless of labels or putative

disabilities are educated together in a shared community” (Sapon-Shevin, 2012). Hence, all governments

that are signatory to the Salamanca Framework of Action are expected to translate and adopt

at the national level inclusive principles into law or policy. However, Ainscow, (2005, p.111)

argues that policies are low leverage 4of change in the education sector, asserting: “they tend to

change the way things look but not the way they work” (Ainscow M. , 2005). Supporting this view,

2 Education for All 3 World health organization 4 Something you use, often unfairly to try to persuade someone to do what you want

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Brine, (20001, p.130) argues that “At every stage of policy implementation, people move within it in

many ways: adapting, resisting, confronting and ignoring, and even using it for unintended and quite

contradictory and occasionally liberatory ends. Both the detail of policy implementation and the broad focus of

policy intention are part of the same, highly contested, picture” (Brine, Education, social exclusion and

the supranational state, 2001). This accounts for the contradictory and unclear relationship

between inclusive education policy and actual practice (Banks, 2012; Brine, 2001; Lloyd,

2000; Rodda, 2002; Ali, 2014, Armstrong, 2011). As such, this kind of relationship often

result in poor implementation evident in the poor state of government provision of goods and

services as Harber (2014, p.191-192) argues “the provision of public education for all has

always been a problem in countries of the South as there is often insufficient funding from

the taxes for such provision. As a result, other providers are helping to fill the gap” (ibid,

p.191) For instance the nongovernmental organizations. According to Rose (2009) cited in

Harber (2014, p.192) argues that “NGOs are primarily involved in providing educational opportunities to

children excluded from government schooling like ‘hard to reach’ children possibly because of where they live,

way of life (nomadic, pastoral or street children) or status (orphans, child labourers, soldiers or children from

indigenous groups). This is exactly the reason why inclusive education model is imperative to

the achievement of education for all in the 21st century. The cooperation of all actors and

stakeholders is needed. As such, ordinary citizen groups otherwise known as non-for profit

NGOs offer goods and services to the disadvantage and at risk of exclusion groups on

philanthropic grounds. The NGOs are often funded by national and international donors.

Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs), a term coined by the United Nations referring

to legal non-profit organizations operating independently from the government. NGOs are

part of civil society that operate at international, regional, national and local or grassroots

level. (Andrea L. Stanton, 2012). This study seeks to understand and compare the perceptions

of NGOs in the implementation of inclusive education in primary schools of Cameroon and

South Africa. According to Holcomb (2008, p.1509), Nongovernmental Organizations

(NGOs) are non-profit organizations that either deliver public services or public policy or

both (Holcomb, 2008). In this context, NGOs are voluntary citizens’ advocacy groups that

promote change in corporate practices and public policy. The NGOs operate independently

from the government while working in collaboration, partnership and networking with

international organizations like UNESCO, UNICEF and international donor agencies and

stakeholders committed in upholding the right of every individual to education and

supporting inclusive approach in education. Pro-inclusive education NGOs are very

instrumental in voicing, articulating the needs of the poor, persons with disability and

disadvantaged masses and are willing to be part of the solution. The NGOs consist of

ordinary citizens who are willing to take an active role in the community to bring the change

they want to see in their communities by being the voice of the people advocating for their

best interest. These NGOs claim ownership of the inclusive education movement and take the

initiative to sensitize, advocate, educate the general public on the benefits of appropriating

inclusive values and principles in the provision of education and societal institutions in the

country.

The NGOs volunteer their expertise in offering services and training to school

proprietors, principals, teachers, school staff, students, parents and the community at large on

inclusive educational practices. They serve as mentors, collaborators, partners and helpers to

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schools on the concept of inclusive education and practices. The NGOs organises seminars

and workshops to enlighten school administrators, principals and teachers on inclusive

practices such as differentiated curriculum and problem-solving approach. The NGOs partner

and collaborate with the state and other stakeholders in education in testing inclusive

education implementation projects in selected ordinary schools known as ‘Pilot schools’ and

‘Full service schools’ in Cameroon and South Africa respectively. The plan is to strengthen

the capacity of these selected ordinary schools to accommodate all learners irrespective of

their differences, abilities and/or disabilities after which, these school staff will mentor other

schools until every school in the country is reached and are practicing inclusion.

This study intends to investigating perception of the NGO staff in Cameroon and

South Africa, their response could help in understanding the implementation of inclusive

education in primary schools in their respective context. Starting with a background to the

study that offers an orientation and the thinking surrounding the topic which is a springboard

to the study.

1.2 Background The psychometric5 and eugenics6 informed the way societies deals with people with

disabilities. On the basis of this thinking, education services were designed to segregate

persons with disabilities from the mainstream education. This led to the increase of special

education in the 1940s up till the 1950s (Banks, "Inclusive Education, International

Perspectives", 2012).

Historical developments in the field of special education in countries of the North in

the 1990s reveals that the ideologies backing segregation is becoming unpopular. Segregation

in the 20th century is considered marginalizing and oppressing leading to inequalities in the

society (Banks,2012, p.1152). Reacting to the changes, the special education staff in

countries of the North initiated the inclusive education movement as a rejection of separation

of students with disabilities from the mainstream regular education system and classroom.

They argued that some of the pupils in special schools can do well in mainstream school and

classroom. This view was Supported by advocates of students with disabilities and parents of

children with disabilities; protesting the exclusion of pupils with disabilities access and

participation in learning opportunities in the existing models of “mainstreaming” or

“integration” (Armstrong, 2010).

The inclusion movement caught international attention in the 1990s as echoed in the

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), global

campaign on Education for All (EFA). This brought together delegates from 155 nations, and

agents from 150 governmental and non-governmental organizations, committing at the World

Conference on EFA in Jomtien, Thailand 1990 to set targets and goals aimed at educating all

learners including making elementary/basic education open to all youngsters and to

enormously decrease ignorance before the end of the decade (UNESCO, EFA, 1990). To

further the objectives of EFA, UNESCO in cooperation with the government of Spain hosted

the Salamanca World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality in Spain

1994.This conference brought together 92 governments, 25 international organizations, non-

5 A test design to show someone’s mental ability, personality and opinions 6 The idea that it is possible to improve humans by allowing only some people to produce children

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governmental organizations and donor agencies who participated and endorsed the policy

shift that promote the approach of inclusive education. An approach that include all learners,

recognise and embraces differences in learners, support learners and respond to individual

needs (Unesco, www.unesco.org, 1994).

The ideologies express in all the international treaties and conferences align with

article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), Worldwide consensus

states that education as a basic human right. This implies, that education shall be free at least

at the elementary and fundamental stages. By interpretation, elementary education shall be

compulsory and free (UN, UDHR, 1948). This Worldview has been reinforced by the

Salamanca Statement and Framework of Action endorsing inclusive education principles and

approach in the provision of educational opportunities. Inclusion in education requires” systemic changes at the level of the school and the school district, as well as in the planning of educational

provision at the level of local and central government” (UNESCO,1994 P.30). Inclusion principles

initiate thinking patterns for curriculum codes define by Lundgren (1942, p.13) as “a set of

principles according to which the selection, the organisation and the method for transmission are formed”.

Inclusive education is an evolving concept, challenging to define and implement in

both countries of the South and of the North (Derrick Armstrong, 2011). Inclusion is

interpreted differently in various countries and contextual realities support or hinder the

process of establishing inclusive education systems and classrooms in each specific social

context. For instance, the impact of globalization on the sociocultural, economic and political

life in countries of the North, shaping inclusion thinking express in social reforms that puts

pressure on the existing education system. The understanding and interpretation of inclusive

education concept in countries, aligns with the expanded vision of inclusion that is not

limited to including persons with disabilities but is about a systemic change of the education

system to accommodate differences and/or diversities in learners. This understanding of

inclusion is effective in managing students by minimizing disruption of the regular classroom

and regulating failure within the education system (Armstrong, 2010).

While in countries of the South, the meaning of inclusive education is linked to post-

colonial connection and policy of economic development generated and financed by

international organizations and concerns persons with disabilities and/or having special

educational needs (ibid, p.29).

However, in the 21st century, historical development and changes in the society have

come to bear on education. Given that education is a fundamental human right, its provision

should be all inclusive on the basis of right and equity. To achieve this, the United Nations

granted NGOs consultative status and recognised the importance of governments partnership

and collaboration with non-state stakeholders like NGOs, voluntary citizens group or

grassroots organizations to implement, monitor and evaluate development projects globally

and locally. As such, NGOs in countries of the South are proactive in promoting inclusive

education as a response of participating in United Nation affiliated workshops and

conferences like (UNESCO, EFA, 1990) (UNESCO, Salamanca Statement and Framework

of Action, 1994) just to name a few. Nevertheless, education is a human right enshrine in

international treaties and conventions and legally binding on signatory states including

Cameroon and South Africa.

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The reason for comparing Cameroon and South Africa is based on the fact that they

are Commonwealth countries situated in Sub-Sharan Africa with dual colonial history:

Cameroon was colonised by the French and the British while the British and the Netherlands

colonised South Africa. In addition, Tomasevski (2006 p. 6) argues that “International human

rights law requires that primary education be free yet Cameroon and South Africa do not

have legal framework that guarantees free education rather, government policies

institutionalizes formal or informal charges” (Tomasevski, 2006).

It is from this backdrop that the research seeks to investigate, analyse and compare

NGOs’ perception7 concerning inclusive education implementation at the primary school

level in Cameroon and South Africa.

1.3 Aims To supplement the literature and information of how inclusive education policy is modified

into primary school curriculum in Cameroon and South Africa.

To gain understanding on NGOs’ perceptions concerning inclusive education implementation

in the two social contexts

1.4 Objectives To gain an insight on NGOs’ perception concerning inclusive education implementation in

primary schools in Cameroon and South Africa

To gain understanding on the challenges faced by NGOs in implementing process

1.5 Research Questions What are NGOs’ perception on inclusive education implementation at the primary level in

Cameroon and South Africa?

What kind of challenges do NGOs encounter in the implementation process?

1.6 Significance of the Study The process of teaching and learning in the context of schooling can be liken to modes of

production that are directly regulated by the conditions of the social context (Lundgren, 1942,

p.9). Different historical period requires a specific education model to meet the demands and

needs of the individual and the society Lundgren (1942, P.16). Inclusive education model is

appropriate in the 21st century to meet the needs and demands of citizens and community.

This study investigates, analysis and compare NGO staff perceptions on inclusive education

implementation at the primary level in Cameroon and South Africa. Their experience and

views in the field would expose specific needs and difficulties often overlooked by policy

makers and international donors. It could help initiate collaboration and networking between

the two NGOs and countries under study. Add to the stoke of knowledge on inclusive

education implementation in the region and the part played by NGOs. More so, NGOs staff’s

views on inclusive education is helpful in improving the education system and community

where they operate. The NGOs link the schools with international community, national

governments and policy makers, values and beliefs within the school and community.

7 Someone’s ability to notice and understand things that are not obvious to other people.

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1.7 Limitations of the Study

Circumstances beyond the researcher’s control shaped and modified the research. The first

constraint was time. The timeframe to complete the research; from January 18 to April 29,

2016 was insufficient to get traveling visa to the countries under study. Another issue was

financial. The researcher could not within short notice secure the necessary finance to travel

to both countries and conduct the research. As such, the researcher resorted to technology.

The use of technology in Africa is problematic; one, there is no guarantee of the availability

of electricity when needed. Two, most schools do not have access to computers. Three, due to

lack of computer knowledge, most school might have computers, yet most principals have

limited knowledge on internet services such as Facebook, and skype. Hence, the initial plan

that targeted principal’s perspectives8 on inclusive education implementation in primary

school level using NGOs as purposive snowball sampling, later changed to NGOs’ perception

on inclusive education implementation in primary schools of Cameroon and South Africa.

The decision to switch from principals to NGOs came as a result of delay in response from

the principals that were introduced to the researcher by the snowball contact persons working

with inclusive education oriented NGOs in the respective countries. Nevertheless, the

sampling process was limited to NGOs that are active online and willing to participate in the

study.

1.8 Organization of the Study

The purpose of the study is to investigate, analyse and compare NGOs’ perceptions

concerning inclusive education implementation in primary schools of Cameroon and South

Africa. The focus is to gain understanding of NGOs part in the implementation process at the

primary school level. The study consists of six chapters. Chapter One starts with

introduction, general background, aims, objectives, research questions, significance and

limitations of the study. Chapter Two presents the contextual background, sub-Saharan

Africa, Cameroon and South Africa colonial and political backgrounds, socioeconomic,

education systems and legislative frameworks for inclusive education. Chapter Three

focuses on conceptual and theoretical framework: Curriculum and Curriculum Theory.

Chapter Four argues the methodology, research strategy and design, sampling, instruments

and methods for data collection, data analysis, reliability and validity, ethical considerations.

Chapter Five reveals the findings from the interviews with the NGOs from the two

countries, compare and analysis results. Chapter Six is conclusions, appraisal of concept and

theory and recommendations for further research.

8 A particular way of considering something

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Chapter Two

Contextual Background A contextual background is fundamental to gain understanding of the setting and topic under

study. This chapter gives an overview of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and the educational

context within which Cameroon and South Africa are singled out for comparison in this

research. The colonial and political backgrounds, socioeconomic, education systems and

legislative frameworks for inclusive education are presented in this chapter.

2.1 Sub –Saharan Africa (SSA)

SSA is the region south of the Sahara Desert and comprises of 47 countries out the 54

countries in the continent of Africa. SSA is sub-divided into four regions namely: West

Africa, East Africa, Central and Southern Africa. Kouega, (2007, p 21) citing Greenberg,

(1966) and Chia, (1983) alluded that the languages of Africa have been grouped into four

families namely: Afro Asiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Kordofan and Khoisan. Geographically,

Afro-Asiatic languages are spoken in the area stretching from northern Cameroon through

Niger and Chad to Sudan. The Nilo-Saharan family includes the languages of Ethiopia and

Egypt; Niger-Kordofan languages are spoken in the Black African area, excluding South-

Africa, where Khoisan languages dominate. Of these four languages phyla, the first three are

represented in Cameroon.

Figure 1: Map of SSA

(UNESCO-UIS, 2011) page 13

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According to UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS,2015), globally, the number of out- of –

school children of primary school age has dropped to about 59 million in 2015 compared to

100 million in 2000. Approximately, 43 million of the 59 million school-age children are in

SSA. Despite registering a 20 percent increase in net enrolment ration from 2000 to 2015.

Nevertheless, millions of pupils who enter primary school do not make it to the last grade of

primary school. Approximately, 28 million children in SSA drop out every year with only

one in three (34 percent) transiting to secondary school; which is the world’s lowest level. A

total of 1.2 million additional teachers are needed in the region to reach the internationally

agreed goal of getting all children into primary school by 2015. Those often excluded in

education are girls, the poor, street children, working children, children with disabilities, sick

children, and children living in remote rural areas and/ or speaking a minority language, and

children living in conflict zones (UIS, 2016).

The structure of education system in SSA is 3+6+3+3+3 corresponding to three years’

pre-primary, six years’ primary, three years lower secondary, three years upper secondary

and three plus years’ higher education for both grammar and vocational education. Cameroon

and South Africa are among the 19 countries in SSA in 2000 without pre-primary education.

This situation changed after the World Conference on EFA in Dakar 2000. Many countries

abolished fees in primary/basic education with the hope of extending the abolition of fee to

other education sector. Learners were given second chances in a program known as ‘catch-

up’ where people that have never been to school can access formal education. These

innovations and changes were aided by International Development Assistance (IDA)

supported by financial pledges and commitment by donors to basic education in the region

(Dakar, 2014). Financial issues have always plaque and hinder access to equitable and quality

education in SSA. The international community pledge to make available financial resources

so that this region could provide educational opportunities to all learners at least at the

elementary level (ibid, p.9). The provision of this aids in the beginning of 2000 was high but

later dropped and even stagnated by 2012 which made it difficult to achieve the 2015

Universal Primary Education (UPE) target. With the pledges and commitment of

international community to assist every country financially to achieve the EFA target and

meet the goal of UPE by 2015, most SSA countries still struggle financially to achieve UPE

by 2015. Talk less adopting as a matter of principle inclusive approach in the provision of

public goods and services such as education, health, infrastructure, nutrition, water and

electricity, just to name a few.

To foster the implementation of EFA, three new decades relating to EFA have been

launched namely: United Nations literacy decade (2003-2012), the United Nations decade of

education for sustainable development (2005-2014) and the second decade for education in

Africa (2006-2015). These decades are relevant in mobilizing political will and resources,

enforce international action and cooperation, welcome and encourage new players to join

efforts to achieve educational targets and goals as well as foster the contextualization of

worldwide values and policies in the provision of educational opportunities in the Continent

and most especially monitor the progress of implementation.

The primary gross enrolment rate (GER) in SSA on average is 82 percent with

significant gap between regions (Central Africa, 67 percent and Southern Africa, 100

percent). Cameroon is situated in Central Africa while South Africa is situated in Southern

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Africa and according to International Institute for Education Planning (IIEP), Dakar indicator

database, South Africa’s data is not included in the above statistics (Dakar, 2014).

Table 1: Education indicators for primary education in SSA and by regions in 2000

were:

Primary

Indicators West

Africa

East

Africa

Central

Africa

Southern

Africa

SSA

Gross

Enrolment

rate (GER)

82% 80% 67% 100% 82%

Access rate 71% 110% 71% 114% 94%

Completion

rate

43% 45% 34% 69% 47%

Source: (IIEP- Dakar, 2014 p.4).

The average Human Development Index (HDI), measurements of internal inequalities

in health, education and income; value of 0.475 for SSA in 2000 was the lowest compared to

other regions of the world. Nevertheless, this value improved between 2000 and 2012 as the

region showed an average annual growth of 1.34 percent with Ethiopia and Sierra Leone

scoring high in SSA. According to Gender Inequality Index (GII) measurements of national

data in terms of (labour market, reproductive health, and women empowerment) gender

inequality is greatest in SSA, South Asia and the Arab states. Most countries in SSA rank

highest in Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI). Multidimensional poverty refers to all

household factors portraying poverty apart from income (HDR, 2015).

The shift in the measurement indicators of development from economic growth to

human growth has resulted in a ‘human – centred’ development approach that measures

equality in access to public goods and quality of resources available to individuals in a nation,

region and the world at large. Given the importance human development and the worldwide

view that education is an empowering tool for individuals and nations to attain higher heights

socially, economically, politically, culturally and more. This means everyone should be

educated in a system known as ‘inclusive’, a system that include all in the formal teaching

and learning process. Inclusive education is vital in eliminating societal inequalities that exist

between and within nations, regions and the world as a whole. However, the challenges in

providing educational opportunities and services in SSA are many.

Developing countries of SSA face a lot of difficulties financing and managing the

education systems that they inherited from their colonial masters. This has intensified

financial and expatriate dependency in educational provision and delivery and also

contributing in slowing the development of inclusive education systems in the region. An

overview of the countries under study is needful in laying foundations for comparison;

starting with Cameroon.

17

2..2 The Republic of Cameroon/ Cameroun Cameroon is located in Central Africa, bordered by Chad in the North-East, Nigeria in the

West, Central African Republic in the East and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo

Brazzaville in the South. It is a country of over 23 million inhabitants. It should be noted that

in 2000, the population was estimated at over 15 million. This is evidence of high growth rate

in the country and Africa as a whole. The country is endowed with diverse ethnic groups,

languages and beliefs. The country is sub-divided into ten regions with ten “administrative

provinces, namely: Adamawa, Centre, East, Far North, Littoral, North, Northwest, South,

Southwest and West” (Kouega, 2007). The capital city is Yaoundé in the centre region. The

richness of the country’s ecosystem has earned it the name ‘Africa in miniature’. More than

70 percent of the population are employed in the agricultural sector and live in the rural areas.

The country is rich in natural resources.

Figure 2: Cameroon map

Source: Maps of net, (2016).

A map of Cameroon showing its ten provinces, cities and rivers. The countries that share

borders with Cameroon are also visible in this map

18

Figure 3: Population distribution pyramid for Cameroon

(CIA, The World Factbook,2016)

Cameroon has a high youth population with a high demand for educational services which

government is struggling to supply. The supply of educational opportunities to all is costly

especially as Cameroon runs three educations sub-system namely: The Francophone sub-

system, the Anglo-Saxon sub-system and the special education sub-system.

Historical and political ideologies influences thinking patterns on education models in

a given setting as evidence in the case of Cameroon and South Africa.

2.2.1 Colonial and political background

According to Kouega, (2007), the territory was name by Portuguese trader after seeing a

“shoals of migrating prawns” in the Wouri River at the coast of the territory. They named it

“Rio dos Camarões” (River of Prawns). The territory became Camarões to Portuguese traders

and “Camerones” for Spanish traders, who followed the Portuguese. The Germans called it

Kamerun, the French Cameroun and Cameroon by the British in the order in which they

arrived and later colonised the territory.

The Germans were the first to colonise the territory known as Cameroon (English) and

Cameroun (French) in 1884 till 1916. Germany lost the country to France and Britain as a

result of losing World War One (WW1). 9The League of Nations transferred Cameroon to

France and Britain, which they partitioned unequally with France in charge of 80 percent

9 World War 1

19

while Britain 20 percent which she governed indirectly from Nigeria. The League of Nations

was replaced with United Nations after World War 11 (WW11). This body reaffirmed the

1919 League of Nations’ decision of transferring Cameroon to France and Britain.

France applied a system of governance known as ‘Assimilation’ in all her colonies.

This system aims at acculturating the indigenous people into French citizens. Meanwhile

Britain governed its Cameroonian territory from Nigeria in a system known as ‘Indirect role’.

When French Cameroon and Nigeria got independent in1960, British Cameroon was asked to

choose between joining French Cameroon or Nigeria in the 1961 plebiscite. This was a

difficult position for British Cameroon. Independence with Nigeria would be accepting to be

slaves or ‘underdog’, independence with French Cameroon is accepting assimilation. British

Cameroon split in two, with the Northern part choosing independence with Nigeria while the

Southern part chose independence with French Cameroon reluctantly into a Federal Republic

of Cameroon led by Ahmadou Ahidjo and later both sides voted for unity in 1972 to become

United Republic of Cameroon and eventually assimilated into French Cameroon in 1984

when the country took the name Republic of Cameroon. In principle, French and English are

official languages yet the reality affirms that Cameroon is a Francophone country. The

interest of the Anglophones in Cameroon are represented by Nigeria in the Commonwealth

and/or Commonwealth refers it to la Francophonie.

Ahmadou Ahidjo resigned due to ill health in 1982 and Prime Minister Paul Biya

according to constitution took power and ruled unopposed till 1990 when he introduced

multiparty politics. However, the bicameral government led by Paul Biya is semi –

authoritarian characterised by bad governance, corruption and neglect which has brought the

country to a point of “ticking time bomb” (Amoah, 2011).

All aspects of society interact and influences education planning and implementation,

for instance the socioeconomic situation of the nation as a determinant factor.

2.2.2 Socio- economic context

The economy of Cameroon grew slowly but surely from the year 2003 by an average of 3.3

percent and in 2006, the country the World Bank /IMF heavily indebted poor countries

initiative completion point, qualifying for debt-relief worth US$1.3 billion (Commonwealth,

The Commonwealth, 2016)

The indigenes speak diverse ethnic vernaculars depending on where in the country

they are located. For instance, the nomadic group in the North and Far North region of the

country speak Fulani, Arabic and Hausa and those in the West and Northwest speak Bantu

dialects whereas those South of River Sanaga speak Equatorial Bantu as well as English

and/or French and/or Pidgin English. According to Biamba (2012), there are over 160 ethnic

groups speaking over 220 local languages. Cameroonians could be sub-group in their belief;

40 percent practice indigenous belief, 40 percent Christian and 20 percent Islam (Biamba,

2012).

The Human Development Index (HDR) value of Cameroon is 0.512 (2014) ranking

the country at 153 out of 188 countries and territories (UNDP, Cameroon, 2015). This place

the country in the low human development group more or less as Ghana and Madagascar.

Life expectancy has increase from 52 years in 2000 to 55.5 years in 2014. Expected years of

20

schooling also has increase from 7.1 in 2000 to 10.4 in 2014 likewise mean years of school

from 4.8 to 6.0 as well as Gross National Income (GNI) per capita Purchasing Power Parity

(PPP) in dollars from 2,251 in 2000 to 2,803 in 2014. More than half of the Cameroon’s

population is employed in the agricultural sector with 52.9 percent working poor living below

US$ 2 per day Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) with 54.1 percent suffering intensity of

deprivation. While 41.7 percent of children age 5-14 are involved in child labour and 10.8

percent of youth age 15-24 who are neither in school nor employed (UNDP, HDR, 2014).

HIV/AIDS prevalence in the country is 4.3 percent according to United Nations AIDS

(UNAIDS) statistics accounting for 600,000 HIV- positive people in Cameroon (Tribune,

2016).

Commonwealth, (2016) and Amoah, (2011) records that the 1996 constitutional amendments

proclaim Cameroon as a unitary republic with an executive President; elected every seven

years. The president appoints the Prime Minister and council of ministers. The President also

appoints the provincial governors, the judges and government delegates in main towns. In

April 2008, Cameroon’s parliament approved a constitutional amendment allowing the

President to serve for more than two terms. Presidential elections must then be conducted not

less than 20 days or more than 120 days following the vacancy. In the bicameral legislative

government, the National Assembly is made up of 180 members, directly elected every five

years by universal adult suffrage, and has three sessions a year, in March, June and

November. The constitution also provides for an upper house, the Senate, with 100 members,

70 per cent of whom are elected every five years by electoral colleges comprising local

government councillors and 30 per cent nominated by the President. Each region is thus

represented in the Senate by ten senators, seven of whom are indirectly elected and three

appointed by the President. Elections to the Senate were held for the first time on 14 April

2013. However, Cameroon is plaque with bad governance, corruption, violation of human

rights, poverty, segregation and marginalization of the Anglophones fuel by general

discontentment with the government of Paul Biya. It is just a matter of time before chaos

erupts.

21

Table 2: The economic sector

(Commonwealth, The Commonwealth, 2016)

2.2.3 Education system in Cameroon

Cameroon inherited two distinct education systems (Francophone and Anglo-Saxon

education sub-systems) and languages (French and English) from her colonial masters:

France and Britain. The education system is segregated along linguistic and disability line

with 80 percent of the population having French as language of instruction in the

Francophone education sub-system and 20 percent using English in the Anglo-Saxon

education sub-systems plus a special education system for Children with Disabilities (CWD).

The constitution was revised in 1996 and a significant change in the language policy was

made by the Biya government: “The official languages of the Republic of Cameroon shall be

English and French, both languages having the same status. The State shall guarantee the

promotion of bilingualism throughout the country. It shall endeavour to protect and promote

national [indigenous] languages” (Presidency of the Republic of Cameroon, 1996). Language

plays a vital role in the education system due to its capacity to fashion an individual’s identity

and thinking. For instance, in the interpretation and translation of ‘Inclusion’ as ‘Integration’

in French (Thomazet,2009). This is problematic for the unification of policy and practice in

22

schools and the country as a whole. Furthermore, the two educational subsystems coexist

each retaining its specificity in assessment methods and certifications. Language affects the

standardization, certification and testing (regional and/or international testing such as

Programme for the Analysis of Educational Systems of CONFEMEN10 Countries (PASEC),

Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ)11

and/or Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), Trends in International

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) (Unesco, Dakar, 2015).

The structure of the Francophone education sub-system is 2+6+4+3+3 representing

two years of pre-primary, six years of primary, four years of lower secondary, three years of

upper secondary and three and more years of tertiary education while that of the Anglo-Saxon

sub-system is 2+6+5+2+3 epitomizing two years’ pre-primary, six years’ primary, five years

lower secondary, two years upper secondary and three and more years’ higher education.

The education sub-systems are administered through a ‘top-down’ hierarchy of three

ministries: The ministry of national education (from pre-primary to upper secondary), the

ministry of technical and vocational training and the ministry of higher education. The

ministry of national education at the national level formulate education laws and/or policies

which are interpreted and translate at the provincial and divisional level, then the delegates of

education together with the inspectorates at the sub-divisional and district level disseminate

to the schools in the community. However, Tchombe (2000) cited in Biamba (2012),

regarding recent development with regards to administration and management of the

education system following the decree 2005/140 of April 25th 2005 setting up the

organization of the ministry of national education ushering in a decentralized system of

administration started in 2005 with the establishment of regional education offices in every

regional capital, divisional headquarters and district offices in all the 149 districts in the

country. Education stakeholders in the country are government, religious organizations,

private, civil society organizations and international agencies. Language of instruction in

school influence parent’s choice when picking school for their children; for language

influence the way a person thinks and act in the society. Primary education has been free of

charge and compulsory in both sub-systems since 2000 for school-age children (age six and

above). Yet parents pay fees to Parents Teacher Association (PTA) and uniforms.

The primary school in Cameroon is the main training system providing education

outside of the family. The state prioritizes the provision of basic education as foundation for

lifelong training and development of all Cameroonian children upon which other levels of

education and training are built. As such, its objective is to instill the essential learning skills

(reading, writing, speaking, counting, problem solving) and learning content fundamentals

(knowledge, skills, values , and attitudes) that Cameroonian youth need to solve the

immediate problems of survival and learning throughout life. Particular attention is paid to

language skills (English and French), hygiene, health and nutrition.

The laws of 1998 and 2001 give the new education system in Cameroon guidelines

with the following objectives:

10 Conference of Ministers of Education of French-Speaking Countries.

11 Reading and maths assessment administered to grade 6 formal school children.

23

“The training of citizens rooted in their culture, but open to the world and respectful

of the general interest and the common good;

- The promotion of science, culture of social progress;

- Strengthening the sense of ethics and national consciousness;

- The promotion of democracy and development of the democratic spirit;

- The development of creativity, sense of initiative and entrepreneurship;

- Training and management development;

- The promotion of bilingualism and control of national languages;

- The pursuit of excellence in all areas of knowledge;

- Physical training, sports, arts and culture of the child;

- The hygiene promotion and health education;

- Education for family life” (Cameroon, Child Law Resources, 1998).

Table 3: Cameroon primary school curriculum.

English Curriculum: French Curriculum

French Basic Learning Cycle (CP-CE1)

English French

Mathematics Physical Education and Sport

Civics Mathematics

Geography Modern Languages

History Art and History of Art

Human right Discovery of the World

Environmental education

Health education Consolidation Cycle (CE2 - CM1 - CM2)

Home education French

Moral education Mathematics

Information Technology Modern Languages

Out of class Activities Physical Education and Sport

Handwriting (1/week or 2/month) Experimental Science & Technology

Painting (1/week or 2/month) Humanities

Sewing (1/week or 2/month)

Marking (1/week or 2/month)

Art and History of Art

History-Geography-Civic and Moral

Education

Physical education (1/week or 2/month)

24

Comparatively, these two systems overlap as well as distinct from one another.

According to Bell and Grant, (1977) “No two systems enjoys the same relationship”.

2.2.4 Cameroon’s legislative framework for Inclusive education (IE)

There are inclusion laws enshrine in Cameroon’s education orientation document;

“Article 6 L'État assure à l'enfant le droit à l'éducation. Article 7 L'État garantit à

tous l'égalité de chances d'accès à l'éducation sans discrimination de sexe, d'opinions

politique, philosophique et religieuse, d'origine sociale, culturelle, linguistique ou

géographique” (Cameroon, Law on Education in Cameroon, 1998).Translated as ‘the state

assures children’s right to education and guarantees to all equal access to education without

discrimination of sex, political opinion ,beliefs and religion, social origin, culture, linguistic

or geographic’. Worthy of note here is the absence of persons with disabilities. Meanwhile

the constitution protects and promotes the rights of persons with disabilities. “The Nation

shall protect and promote the family which is the natural foundation of human society. It shall

protect women, the young, the elderly and the disabled”. Furthermore, the Cameroon

government declared primary education ‘free and compulsory in 2000 for all school-age

children (six years and above) in accordance with point 18 of the Cameroon constitution

which states that “the State shall guarantee the child's right to education. Primary education

shall be compulsory. The organization and supervision of education at all levels shall be the

bounden duty of the State…” (Cameroon, Cameroon Constitution, 1996). The government

created a specific ministry in charge of basic education (nursery and primary schools) to

supervise this new endeavour and achieve the goal of Universal Primary Education for all by

2015.

Ironically, Cameroon is a signatory to all international treaties and conventions on

inclusion in education. Yet at country level, ratification and adoption of these international

laws and policies on inclusive education is slow, challenging and still at the initial stage

despite international assistance and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) intervention.

For instance, law No. 022/2004 of July 2004, established rules governing the organization

and functioning of private education, private institutions must ensure the same equal

opportunities and treatment in education as those enforced in public institutions (Unesco,

Implementing the Right to Education, 2010).

Parliament passed a law in 2010; law no. 2010/002 Of April 2010 concerning the

protection, education and welfare of persons with disabilities and other special needs. In

addition, law no 2011/018 of July 15th 2011 on the promotion and organization of sports and

physical activities which mandates the practice of physical and sporting activities including

institutions for the re-adaptation of persons with disabilities as well as the recruitment of 110

grade one teacher’s in 2010, 2011, train to work with children with disabilities. The

government gives scholarship grants to persons with disabilities attending vocational training

and learning. These laws are contradictory, unclear and ambiguous albeit, having an inclusive

education undertone. Consequently, the practitioners in the field bear the task of inclusion in

education and society.

25

The General Director of UNESCO signed an agreement with the University of Buea

(Anglo-Saxon University) establishing a UNESCO Chair in Inclusive Education in

Cameroon. According to Tchombe (2010), the university was “charged among other

functions, with the provisions of an enabling environment and educational opportunities that

will increase the participation of special needs persons in the politico-economic and social

development of society after graduation”.

The work of inclusion is mostly in the hands of Inclusive education oriented NGOs;

for instance, in Cameroon, they are instrumental in the field as mentors, advocators,

educators and monitors as well as evaluators. There are three categories of schools in the

Cameroon inclusive education system with regards to provision of resource and support

namely: Mainstream schools, mainstream schools as pilot centres and special schools for

pupils with high level needs.

2.3 The Republic of South Africa The Republic of South Africa is situated in the Southern part of SSA. She shares land borders

with: Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Swaziland. Its sea borders are with

the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Lesotho is enclosed within its land area. The country

has eleven official languages: Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga,

Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu and nine provinces: Eastern Cape

(provincial capital Bhisho), Free State (Bloemfontein), Gauteng (Johannesburg), KwaZulu-

Natal (Pietermaritzburg), Limpopo (Polokwane), Mpumalanga (Nelspruit), Northern Cape

(Kimberley), North-West (Mafikeng) and Western Cape (Cape Town) with a total population

of over 54 million in 2014 compared to over 43 million in 2000. The capital city is Pretoria.

(Commonwealth, South Africa, 2016).

26

Figure 4: Population distribution pyramid for South Africa dominated by children and youths

liken to that of Cameroon who are most in needs of education.

Online source (CIA, The World Factbook, 2016).

Figure 5: Map of South Africa

Source: http://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/south-

africa#sthash.khQtP4du.dpuf

2.3.1 Colonial and political background

The Portuguese were the pioneer Europeans to come in contact with the indigenes of South

Africa in the 15th century. The Dutch were the first European settlers who established the

Dutch East India Company to offer provisions to passing ships in the 16th century. Followed

by the British in the 17th century, they occupied the Cape as a strategic base against the

French, controlling the sea route to the East. Worthy of mention is the fact that the Dutch and

British settlers colonised, enslaved, oppress and segregated the indigenous people of South

27

Africa. The gold rush in Johannesburg resulted in the Anglo-Boer between the British and

the Dutch settlers, now known as the Afrikaners, from October 1899 to May 1902. The

aftermaths of this war was the union of South Africa followed by South Africa becoming a

republic and, with the rise of an all Afrikaans extremist government, an intensification of

racial segregation ideologies and subsequently an establishment of ‘Apartheid’ in 1948 till

1994. The African National Congress (ANC) founded in 1912 protesting white

marginalization of black South Africans. In 1943, ANC founded a youth league with figures

such as Anton Lembede, AP Mda, Nelson Mandela, Oliver Tambo and Walter Sisulu, who

were to inspire the struggle for freedom for decades.

According to The government of South Africa (2016), an important step that had

positive impact in the struggle against Apartheid was the emergence of non-racialism

formation of the Congress Alliances, consisting of the ANC, South African Indian Congress,

the Coloured People's Congress, and a small white congress organisation (the Congress of

Democrats), together with the South African Congress of Trade Unions. The cooperation

gave formal expression to a developing solidarity crosswise over racial and class lines that

was showed in the Defiance Campaign and different mass dissents, including against the

Bantu training of the Apartheid period combined with ladies' resistance in a composed

gathering known as the Federation of South African Women (Government, 2016).

By 1994, international pressure forced the Apartheid government to conduct a

democratic election. This election was organised in April 1994, which ANC won with Nelson

Mandela as the First elected democratic president of the Republic of South Africa, hence

ending Apartheid (Africa R. o., History, 2016). The post-apartheid South African leaders:

Nelson Mandela (1994- 1999), Thabo Mbeki (1999-2008), Kgalema Motlanthe (2008-2009)

and Jacob Zuma (2009 till date) have been in the process of transforming the apartheid

system into an egalitarian, inclusive and stable society. The government is bicameral

legislature comprises the 400-seat National Assembly – elected every five years by universal

adult suffrage under proportional representation – and the 90-seat National Council of

Provinces with direct representation of members of provincial governments. The president is

elected by the National Assembly and can serve a maximum of two five-year terms. The

deputy president and cabinet are appointed by the president. Nevertheless, the legacy of

apartheid is still a threat to development and societal harmony especially with the class and

language division that has replaced race. Hence the country is a ‘ticking time bomb’ in terms

of dissatisfaction with education, service delivery and poverty.

2.3.2 Socio-economic context

South Africa is an upper middle income nation with a Gross National Income (GNI) of

US$343.2bn, Gross National Income per Capita (GNIPC) of US$7,190 and Gross Domestic

Product (GDP) growth of 1.9 percent per year from 2009.The country is the second richest in

Africa after Nigeria. The country’s Human Development Index (HDI) value of 2014 is 0.666,

giving it a ranking of 116 out of 188 countries and territories qualifying it for a medium

human development group comparatively with Namibia and Congo. South Africa’s progress

in each of the HDI indicators. Between 2000 and 2014, reveals a slow but surely increase in

28

life expectancy at birth of 1.5 years, mean years of schooling by 1.1 years and expected years

of schooling increased by 0.4 years. South Africa’s GNI per capita increased by about 3

percent between 2000 and 2014 with 16.1 inequality in education with 39.6 percent people

with multidimensional poverty and 31.4 percent youths age (15-24) who are neither in school

nor employed (UNDP, hdr, 2015).

Apartheid left South Africa with unequal distributions of income, distorted patterns of

population settlement, imbalances in skills, low productivity and a large and inefficient

bureaucracy. However, increase in domestic demand, as a result of rising disposable income

and wealth, has driven the good steady growth during the 2000s, averaging 4.7 per cent per

year during 2004–08, with relatively low inflation. This long period of good growth was

interrupted by the world economic downturn of 2008–09. The economy expanded by 3.6 per

cent in 2008 and contracted by 1.5 per cent in 2009. It soon recovered, maintaining average

growth of about 2.5 percent yearly from 2010 –15.

According to the population census of 2001, racially, the population of South Africa

comprises of 79 percent black, 9.6 per cent white, and 8.9 percent Cape Coloured and 2.5

percent Indian. The linguistic groups comprise IsiZulu (23.8 per cent of the total population),

IsiXhosa (17.6 percent), Afrikaans (13 percent), English (9.6 percent) and SePedi (9.4

percent), SeTswana (8.2 percent), SeSotho (7.9 percent), SiTsonga (4.4 percent), SeSwati

(2.7 percent), TshiVenda (2.3 percent). The ‘coloureds’ include descendants of slaves

brought from Malaya, Indonesia and Madagascar, and the Khoi-Khoi people of the Cape.

Furthermore, the census reveals that 80 percent of the population are Christian with range of

denominations; although, traditional and Christian forms of worship are often blended.

Meanwhile, the rest of the population are either practicing Muslims, Hindus and Jews

religion. HIV/AIDS12is still a major problem in South Africa having implications in the

education sector as teacher and learners fall ill.

12 Human Immunodeficiency Virus / Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

29

Table 4: The economic sector

(Commonwealth, South Africa, 2016)

2.3.3 Education system in South Africa

South Africa’s democratic government inherited a divided and unequal system of education

from the apartheid regime. Apartheid South Africa had nineteen different educational

departments separated by race, geography and ideology. This education system prepared

children in different ways for the positions they were expected to occupy in the social,

economic and political life. The curriculum in each department, was instrumental in

reinforcing inequality. How and what children were taught differs according to the roles they

were expected to play in the wider society. The apartheid education system privileged white

South African children. They received free quality schooling, while their black counterparts

had only "Bantu education",13 in which the language of instruction was to be Afrikaans, a

keystone of the overall apartheid system.

13 A sub-standard education that equips the learners with skills to better serve and maintain the status quo created by the apartheid regime.

30

The post-Apartheid government of South Africa embarked on redressing the injustice

of the past characterise by seclusion, segregation, exclusion, discrimination, marginalization

of other race by whites South Africans emphasise by the ‘Bantu Education’ Act. Amoah

(2011, p 100) argues that “South Africa has cross the first phase of correcting the ills of

apartheid. Yet the majority of the wealth, business, industry, the education system and land

are still in the hands of white minority”. However, going by the Bill of Rights of South

Africa's Constitution, which states that “all South Africans have the right to a basic

education, including adult basic education and access to further education. The state has an

obligation, through reasonable measures, to progressively make this education available and

accessible” (SAinfo, 2015).The government spent about 7 percent of Gross Domestic Product

(GDP) and 20 percent of total state expenditure on education. This amount is high compared

to what the government spent on other sectors. Although the post-apartheid government is

working hard to rectify the apartheid imbalances in education, time and money is needed to

redress the huge backlogs left by 40 years of apartheid education. Equity has yet to be

achieved: almost 58.5% of whites and around 51% of Indians enter higher education. The rate

for coloureds is 14.3%, while blacks are even lower at 12%. The greatest challenges for

schooling is in the poorer, rural provinces such as the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal.

Schools are generally better resourced in the more affluent provinces such as Gauteng and the

Western Cape (Education D. o., 2016). The South African School Act (SASA/84/1996 was

amended by the Education Laws Amendment Act, 2005 (Act 24 of 2005), which authorises

the declaration of schools in poverty-stricken areas as “no-fee schools”, and by the Education

Laws Amendment Act, 2007 (Act 31 of 2007), which provides for the functions and

responsibilities of school principals. The Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) Act,

2000 (Act 52 of 2000) regulates adult basic education and training; provides for the

establishment, governance and funding of public adult learning centres; provides for the

registration of private adult learning centres; and provides for quality assurance and quality

promotion in adult basic education and training. Furthermore, South Africa introduced an

Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) in 1997 to overcome the curricular divisions of the past,

but the experience of implementation prompted a review in 2000. This led to the first

curriculum revision: The Revised National Curriculum Statement Grades R-9 and the

National Curriculum Statement Grades 10-12 (2002). The purpose of this process was mainly

to lay the foundations for a single national core syllabus (Education D. o., 2002). The

curriculum has since been changed once more to the Curriculum and Assessment Policy

Statement (CAPS) and has been fully implemented since 2014.

According to southafrica.info education, online (2016), South Africa's National

Qualifications Framework (NQF) recognises three broad bands of education: General

Education and Training (Grade R to 9), Further Education and Training (Grade 10 to 12), and

Higher Education and Training. School life spans 13 grades, from grade 0, otherwise known

as grade R or "reception year", through to grade 12 or "matric" – the year of matriculation.

General Education and Training runs from grade 0 to grade 9. Under the South African

Schools Act of 1996, education is compulsory for all South Africans from the age of seven

(grade 1) to age 15, or the completion of grade 9. General Education and Training also

includes Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET), which is available to adults who want

31

to finish their basic education. Further Education and Training takes place from grades 10 to

12, and also includes career-oriented education and training offered in other Further

Education and Training institutions – technical colleges, community colleges and private

colleges. Diplomas and certificates are qualifications recognised at this level.

Since 2009, the national Department of Education has been split into two ministries:

Basic Education (primary and secondary education, as well as early childhood development

centres), and Higher Education and Training (tertiary education up to doctorate level,

technical and vocational training, as well as adult basic education and training). Each

ministry is responsible for its level of education across the country as a whole, while each of

the nine provinces has its own education department. The split also saw the sector education

and training authorities (SETAs) move from the Department of Labour to Higher Education,

aiming to foster a more co-operative approach to skills development. The central government

provides a national framework for school policy, but administrative responsibility lies with

the provinces. Power is further devolved to grassroots level via elected school governing

bodies, which have a significant say in the running of their schools. Private schools and

higher education institutions have a fair amount of autonomy, but are expected to fall in line

with certain government non-negotiables – no child may be excluded from a school on

grounds of his or her race or religion.

Table 5: Basic education: GET Grade R to 9 Curriculum

Grade R-3 (Foundation

Phase)

Intermediate Phase Senior Phase

Home Languages Home Language Home Language

South African Sign

Language

First Additional

Language

First Additional

Language

First Additional

Language

Mathematics Mathematics

Mathematics Natural Sciences and

Technology

Natural Sciences

Life Skills Social Sciences Social Sciences

Beginning Knowledge Life Skills Technology

Creative Arts Creative Arts Economic Management

Sciences

Physical Education Physical Education Life Orientation

Personal and social

well-being

Personal and Social

Well-being

Creative Arts

Source: (DBE, Curriculum and Assement Policy Statement, 2012).

Each Learning Area Statement addresses the relationship between human rights, a healthy

environment and social justice. The Learning Area Statements provide a guideline of

requirements and expectations from Grade R to 9 for schools in the General Education and

Training band emphasising on the principles of social justice, a healthy environment, human

32

rights and inclusivity. The curriculum is sensitive to issues of poverty, inequality, race,

gender, age, disability, and such challenges as HIV/AIDS.

The Revised National Curriculum Statement adopts an inclusive approach by

specifying minimum requirements for all learners. The Revised National Curriculum

Statement express values such as nurturing a culture of communication and participation in

school, role-modelling, promoting commitment as well as competence amongst educators.

Ensuring that every South African is able to read, write, count and think. Infusing the

classroom with a culture of human rights. Making Arts and Culture part of the curriculum.

Putting history back into the curriculum. Learning about the rich diversity of cultures, beliefs

and world views within which the unity of South Africa is manifested. Making

multilingualism happen. Using sport to shape social bonds and nurture nation-building at

schools. Ensuring equal access to education. Promoting anti-racism in schools. Freeing the

potential of girls as well as boys. Dealing with HIV/AIDS and nurturing a culture of sexual

and social responsibility. Making schools safe to learn and teach in and ensuring the rule of

law. Promoting ethics and the environment. Nurturing the new patriotism, or affirming a

common citizenship. The Constitution expresses the nation’s social values and its

expectations of the roles, rights and responsibilities of citizens in a democratic South Africa.

In a multilingual country like South Africa it is important that learners reach high

levels of proficiency in at least two languages (Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati,

Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu), and that they are

able to communicate in other languages. The Languages Learning Area Statement follows an

additive or incremental approach to multilingualism: All learners learn their home language

and at least one additional official language. Learners become competent in their additional

language, while their home language is maintained and developed. The Languages Learning

Area Statement covers all official languages as: Home languages First additional languages

Second additional languages Learners’ home languages should be used for learning and

teaching whenever possible. This is particularly important in the Foundation Phase where

children learn to read and write. When learners have to make a transition from their home

language to an additional language for learning and teaching, careful planning is necessary.

2.3.4 South Africa’s Legislative framework for Inclusive education (IE)

The landmark document legitimating inclusive education in South Africa is The Education

White Paper 6 (EWP6) on Inclusive Education (2001), Special Needs Education: Building an

inclusive education and training system. This document brings together the principles and

values of the bill of rights enshrined in the constitution (109/1996), South Africa School Act

(SASA) and White Papers on Education and Training. EWP6 lay emphasis on the principles

of human rights and social justice for all learners, the right to basic education, equality of

opportunities and redress of past educational imbalances and ensure participation and social

integration, equal access to the curriculum, access to an inclusive education system which is

cost-effective, supported by community involvement and the collaboration of all stakeholders.

It provides a paradigm shift from learners with special needs to ‘barriers’ in education

institutions to learning and participation in education. It also emphasis a shift of focus from the

33

learner to the education system, schools and their communities to strengthen their capacity to

include and provide services to all learners in a school culture where differences are respected

and valued. This policy framework aims to bring about systemic measures to change schooling

and provide educational support in the following ways:

“Increasing access to quality education and support for all

Strengthening and changing role of special schools to Resource Centres

Building capacity of mainstream schools for improved support services

Strengthening districts schools to make more cost effective use of scarce resources

Strengthening framework for teacher development

Strengthening mechanisms for accessible curriculum

Overhauling the screening, assessment and admissions policy to focus on making

support available in ordinary schools and centrally involving parents and teachers in

decision making and advocacy on inclusivity” (Department, 2002).

The following categories of barriers were identified as interfering with teaching and learning

process. These are: Systemic, societal, pedagogical and intrinsic referring to barriers within

the education system and within the socio-economic and political context, within the school

and within the learner.

Figure 6: Map of IE barriers, (SADBE, 2001).

• To create an affordable inclusive education system, the South African Department of

Basic Education (SA DBE) has concentrated resources in specific schools namely:

Special Schools as Resource Centers and Full - Service Schools (SSRC and FSS). These

resources are not only for the benefit of the schools that ‘host’ them but for the use and

benefit of all schools in the system.

• Therefore, in the SA IE system schools are grouped according to the level of

concentration of resources in each school.

• The unified education system is able to provide varying levels of support and resourcing

through its schools. Depending on whether the learner requires low level, moderate

level, or high level support will determine where they access the support.

Barriers

Systemic

Societal

Pedagogical

Intrinsic

34

• The three types of school are: (1) Mainstream Schools (2) Full Service Schools and (3)

Special Schools as Resource Centers.

Figure 7: School categories with regards to IE

Source: (DBE, Inclusive education, 2016).

White Paper 6 still depends on a deficit approach to support for diverse educational

needs. It distinguishes between learners with low level support who will receive support in

mainstream schools from learners with moderate level support who will be accommodated in

full-service schools, and learners who require high level educational support who will

continue to be accommodated in special schools as resource centres (`DoE 2001, 2005c;

Engelbrecht and Van Deventer 2013). There were 280,000 disabled children under the age of

18 and out of school in SA in 2001 and a short-term plan of converting and strengthening the

capacity of 500 out of 20,000 primary schools to full service schools “beginning with the 30

districts schools that are part of the national district development programme” (education,

2001) at the launching of WP6. The system plans to facilitate the inclusion of vulnerable

learners and reduce the barriers to learning through targeted support structures and

mechanisms that will improve the retention of learners in the education system, particularly

learners who are prone to dropping out (Africa S. , 2015).

35

Chapter Three

Conceptual and theoretical frameworks This chapter presence the concept and the theory which the researcher used in explaining and

analysing the phenomena in the study.

3.1 Curriculum

The concept that guides this study is that of curriculum. Lundgren, (1942), argues that

“curriculum covers the text produced to solve the representation problem”. Therefore,

curriculum is a set of principles of the way in which knowledge and skills are to be selected,

organised and transmitted” in the process of schooling. Lundgren argues that curriculum is

socially constructed to solve the problem of representation that arises from the separation

between production processes and reproduction processes. Initially, production and

reproduction processes in the society were inextricably interwoven with each other such that

the problem of reproduction is intimately link to the problem of production; since the learner

learns knowledge and skills necessary for production by participating in the production in a

unified social context. In such unified social context, teaching and learning process does not

need a special language of instruction nor thoughts on objectives, goals or methods of

teaching. When the social context is separated, two social contexts are formed creating a

social division of labour between production processes and reproduction processes thereby

creating a representation problem. To solve the representation problem, Lundgren identify

five interrelated concepts:

“Production processes; the creation of the necessities for social life and the creation

of knowledge from which production can develop.

Reproduction processes; the re-creation and reproduction of knowledge from one

generation to the next; the reproduction knowledge and skills for production but also

the reproduction of the conditions for production.

The social and cultural context; the world and the social fields in which we live,

including symbols used to give life a meaning and rules to regulate social life.

The conditions for social context; the objective constraints within which social and

cultural life are formed and regulated.

Patterns of thinking; our subjective representation of the world about us” (ibid, P.10).

These interrelated concepts link production processes to reproduction processes

indirectly and communication would depend mainly via text. The knowledge and

skills necessary for production are classified, selected and transformed into texts that

can be used in the context of reproduction.

36

Division of Labour

Representation

Problem

Text

Figure 8: Text

Source: Lundgren, (1942, p 12)

According to Lundgren (1942, P. 12), “curriculum is a selection of contents and goals for

social reproduction, referring to a selection of what knowledge and skills are to be

transmitted by education. It is also an organisation of knowledge and skills as well as an

indication of methods concerning how the selected contents are to be taught, sequenced and

controlled. Hence, a curriculum includes a set of principles of the way in which knowledge

and skills are selected, organised and transmitted”.

Social context for

production

Production

processes

Social context of

Reproduction

Reproduction

processes

37

Social Division of Labour

Representation

Text

Curriculum

Selection

Organisation

Method for transmission

Figure 9: Curriculum

(ibid, P.13).

The set of principles informing the selection, organisation and the methods for transmission

embedded in a curriculum are referred to as curriculum codes. The process of making a

curriculum give rise to two separate context of reproduction namely: context of formulation

and context of realisation.

Context of

production

Social

production

Context of

Reproduction

Social

Reproduction

38

Social Division of Labour

Text

Curriculum Curriculum Codes

Selection

Organisation

Method for transmission

Figure 10: Curriculum and Context of reproduction (ibid, P.13).

Changes in the society influences curriculum codes resulting to the establishment of

curriculum for reproduction. It comprises of content, subjects, sequence and objectives taught

in school. Curriculum codes helps in the understanding of the patterns of thinking about

pedagogy and the establishment of curriculum for reproduction.

Curriculum definitions are influenced by thinking patterns, politics, pedagogy, cultures, and

values and so on. In retrospect, ideas about education and text for pedagogy were formed in

the ancient Greek culture and according to Lundgren (1942), it is the formative period

characterised by dominating social strata with the priest at the top and education was mainly

for the elites. Then the mass education period with the establishment of compulsory schools

yielding to the pragmatic period and expansion period and to the reification14 period that

determines the pattern of thinking for the establishment of curriculum codes to solve the

representation problem. Curriculum codes such as classical, realistic, moral, rational and

invisible has shaped and modify curriculum to reproduce the society in a given period. The

classical curriculum code laid the foundation for organising knowledge in the ancient Greek

culture. Knowledge was divided into two blocks namely: trivium consisting of (grammar,

14 The act of changing something abstract (existing as thoughts or ideas) into something real

Context of Social Reproduction

Social Reproduction

Context of

Production

Social

Production

Context of

Formulation

Context of

Realisation

Teaching

39

rhetoric and logic) and quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and physics). This

division of knowledge in the classical period still exist in recent days’ curricula.

Table 6: Curriculum codes

The formative

period

The mass education

period

The pragmatic

period

The expansion period The

reification

period

Church

schools

Compulsory

schools

Vocational

schools

Comprehensive

schools

Remedial

teaching

State

schools

Hierarchical

ordering in

schools

Compensatory

programs

Bourgeois

schools

Special

education

The Classical Curriculum Code The Moral Curriculum Code The Rational Curriculum Code The Invisible Curriculum Code

The Realistic Curriculum Code

Source: Lundgren, (1942, P, 34).

Curriculum codes according to Lundgren (1942), “are to be seen as a set of basic principles

by which curriculum is built up. Curriculum as a text for pedagogy bridges the gap between

production processes and reproduction processes in a social context. Therefore, to solve the

representation problem of the 21st century, Lundgren asserts that “it is important to analyse

how these curriculum codes were established and how this influence the solutions to the

representation problems to come” (ibid, P.15). Given that societal transformation slowly

changes the structure and modes of production, the conditions regulating various social

contexts and the creation of pedagogical texts or curriculum are bound to be unique to

specific social context. This explains the variation in the understanding and interpretation of

the concept of inclusive education resulting in unique implementation in different context yet

focusing on negotiating ideologies of schooling within a ‘child- centred pedagogy’15.

Lundgren, (1942) argues that “Curriculum is to be understood as part of the social

and historical processes by which the social relationships necessary for production are

reproduced”. Curriculum texts are ideological within a social context, communicating and

connecting context of formulation (text) to context of realisation (schools/society) bearing

15 A term used to refer to ways of teaching and treating children in which the child’s needs and wishes are the most important thing

40

traces of the struggle between state and society, policy and practice and/or ‘input’- ‘output’ of

educational phenomena.

Inclusive education implementation requires a rethinking on the ideologies and

principles guiding the processes of schooling. This has implication on curriculum. The

process of establishing an inclusive education system that “cater for the diverse needs, previous

experiences, interests and personal characteristics of all learners. It attempts to ensure that all students are part of

the shared learning experiences of the classroom and that equal opportunities are provided regardless of learner

differences” (IBE, 2013), starts with curriculum codes.

Curriculum codes fuel the thinking behind curriculum construction with the tendency

of evolving over the years. Historical, socioeconomic, and political changes in the society

influences the formulation of principles embedded in the curriculum codes. This influence

has implications on the decision about the content, subject and values to be taught in schools

articulated in the curriculum. Curriculum has evolved from exclusive and conformity oriented

based on the assumption that formal education is for the privileged few with the purpose of

making people conform to the ideologies of the educated group, to progressive, inclusive

value oriented and child-centred in the 21st century. These ideologies are associated with

democratic values resulting in debates on an educational curriculum which Kelly (2014),

mentioned other people’s claim that;

“within a democratic society, an educational curriculum at all levels should be concerned to provide a liberating

experience by focusing on such things as the promotion of freedom and independence of thought, of social and

political empowerment, of respect for freedom of others, of an acceptance of variety of opinion, and of the

enrichment of the life of every individual in that society, regardless of class, race or creed”. While a “curriculum

is a totality of the experiences the pupil has as a result of the provision made” (ibid, 3).

In the same line of thinking, an inclusive education is concern about developing an

educational curriculum that meet the needs of both the individual and the society irrespective

of their differences. According to UNESCO, (2009) inclusive education is “a process of

strengthening the capacity of the education system to reach out to all learners and can thus be

understood as a key strategy to achieve Education for All...” (IBE, 2013). Its implementation

requires a philosophical and psychological paradigm shift in the conceptualization of the

purpose of education to individual and societies as a whole. Hence, portraying education as a

production mechanism (input – output process) with aims, objectives and goals as well as

forecast of expected outcome benefits to individuals and/or society. The philosophy and

psychology guiding the decisions and plans on the education process is referred to as

education planning. The plan is written in a text otherwise known as curriculum in the field

of education.

Curriculum is central in the establishment of inclusive education systems. Curriculum based

on a ‘child-centred pedagogy’ has potentials of successfully educating all children, including

those who have serious disadvantages and disabilities” (UNESCO, 1994) and producing,

reproducing inclusion in education and society as a whole.

Curriculum as a social construction articulate the goals and objectives necessary to

meet and sustain the needs of individuals in a given social context. The concept of curriculum

41

therefore forms a gestalt16in our minds on the process of schooling as “pedagogic

transmission forms a gestalt that is connected with the economic, social and cultural

structure” (ibid, P.11). Furthermore, Lundgren (1984) argues that there is a relationship

between the modes of production and the content of human thinking that is transformed on

the one hand by the conditions of our social and cultural context created by production

processes, and on the other by the way in which education and upbringing (cultural

reproduction) are formed. How to represent production processes so that they can be

reproduced is the focus of educational discourse and eternal problem of pedagogy at the

school level.

3.2 Curriculum Theory

Rose (1953, p.52) defines a theory as “an integrated body of definitions, assumptions, and general

propositions covering a given subject matter from which a comprehensive and consistent set of specific and

testable hypotheses can be deduced logically”. Asserting to this, Bryman, (2012) argues that “theory

provides the framework within which social phenomena can be understood and the research

findings interpreted”. Therefore, Lundgren’s view that “curriculum theory is concern with the

analysis of the relationship between the external and internal functions of education”

(Lundgren,1942, p.35) is appropriate for this study. Adding to this, Lundgren (1972) argues

that “if by curriculum theory we mean systematic relations between different concepts as to

why the teaching shall have a certain content and why it shall be carried out in a certain way,

we find two ways of approaching the problem.” One way to approach the problem according

to Lundgren is “through the values underlying curriculum decisions, another is by way of

actual information on the effects of the principles expressed in the curriculum”. This

approach to curriculum theory is “philosophically oriented and its application must include

both the assumptions of values and the process of deduction” (ibid, p 31). Concurring with

Lundgren, Bellack (1969) asserts that “it is impossible to separate curriculum development

from cultural development” and The appropriate way of applying it is to describe the

“concrete type of curriculum they have led to” (ibid 32). This is suitable in the case of

inclusive education implementation were an inclusive curriculum is central in realizing

inclusion in school.

Curriculum theory is therefore relevant in this study because it helps in the

understanding and explaining the relationship between external and internal educational

phenomenon. Macdonald (1971) argues that curriculum theory is concern with philosophies

guiding the decisions on what to include or not to include in education and/or done during the

educational process (ibid, p.197). Furthermore, curriculum theory is concern with

“knowledge, realities (focus upon the social, cultural, and personal context and fabric which

is interwoven into a complex mosaic of living and being) and statements about valued

activity”. Understanding these phenomena and the thinking patterns in education is

imperative in the establishment of a curriculum capable of meeting the demands of

individuals, state and society such as “inclusive curriculum” which this research proposes has

16 Something such as a structure or experience that when considered as a whole has qualities that are more than

the total of all parts.

42

the potentials of changing thinking patterns and culture of teaching and learning. MacDonald,

(1971), captures John Dewey’s claim that “educational philosophy was the essence of all

philosophy because it was “the study of how to have a world”, likewise Curriculum theory in

this light might be said to be the essence of educational theory because it is the study of how

to have a learning environment” (ibid, p 199).

Curriculum concept and curriculum theory is relevant to gain understanding of NGO

staff perception on inclusive education implementation in primary schools of Cameroon and

South Africa. Instrumental in analysing and explaining educational phenomena in the two

social contexts.

43

Chapter Four

Methodology This chapter focuses on the procedure for the collection and analysis of data with regards to

the aims and objectives of the study. Starting with methodological comments, research

strategy, design followed by sample selection, instruments and methods for data collection,

data analysis, reliability and ethical consideration.

4.1 Methodological Comments It is worth mentioning here that the initial plan was to interview all actors involved in

implementing inclusive education in public basic/elementary schools in Cameroon and South

Africa. Since the 1994 Salamanca argument for inclusive education is that “it is the

responsibility of the regular education system to educate all learners” (Unesco, Unesco.org,

2005). Learners should attend the neighbourhood school that they would normally attend if

they did not have a disability and/or were different. For most countries in the South,

transition from exclusionary education systems to inclusive education system is problematic

due to ignorance and/or reliance on the medical model of disability, lack of political will,

funding, resources and negative attitude and the list continues. Nevertheless, as United

Nation (UN) members, participants and signatories to international treaties/agreements

endorsing inclusive education, Cameroon and South Africa together with other UN members

are obliged by law to provide equitable, quality educational opportunities to all learners on

the bases of right in an inclusive education system.

Strengthening the capacity of educational systems to accommodate all learners is still

a challenge to governments around the world especially those in SSA. This region is slowly

but surely accepting the social model of disability that blames the society for the barriers to

equitable access to learning opportunities. Nevertheless, the medical model of disability

argument is still strongly held among mainstream education stakeholders and practitioners.

This has slowed the implementation rate of inclusive educational best practices in the region.

Hence, an inquiry is necessary at the school level to foster inclusive education

implementation in the post 2015 SDGs goals. Perhaps this inquiry would be instrumental in

exposing the lop-holes of the ‘tod-down’ model (from policy makers to implementers) of

implementation of inclusive education that has been ineffective and slow in making inclusion

a reality for all by 2015.

It is expected that each UN member state would ratify and adopt the international

policies and/or laws on inclusion in education to suit the specific social context. Given that

policy sets the foundation as well as offers guidelines for the establishment of an inclusive

system. However, attitudinal changes on the part of practitioners and the wider community

coupled with commitment and collaboration of all actors and stakeholders is vital to make

inclusion happen in the education system, schools and classroom.

The researcher therefore uses snowball purposive sampling to select inclusive

education oriented NGOs located in the countries under study. The plan was that the NGOs

would connect the researcher with the principals of the public schools that they collaborate

44

with and the principals would in turn connect the researcher with the staff or the inclusive

education coordinator of the respective schools.

It happens that, the principals that were approach and invited to participate in the

research by the NGOs in Cameroon, did not understand “why they should be interviewed on

inclusive education and not special school principals?” According to these principals, “this is an issue

that concerns special schools”. Nevertheless, one principal participated in the study via email and

the summary of the response reveals ignorance of the concept of inclusive education. Other

principals were approached at an inclusive education seminar and workshop organised by

government to disseminate the concept of inclusive education. These principals do not grasp

the concept nor see its relevance to mainstream schools since according to the principals “it

has to do with special school learners”. A staff member of one of the public schools in Cameroon

said:

“I do not support the idea of accommodating all learners in the same school. This is because of negative attitude

of school mates and/or classmates. If other children do not accommodate difference in learners, it would affect

the child with a disability/difference self-esteem and performance in school. Therefore, introducing inclusive

education in mainstream education is a ‘bad idea’”.

While in South Africa, one out of six principals that were contacted showed interest in

participating in the research but could only participate by email. Yet, when the interview

guide, copy of informed consent and letter of recommendation from the university was

emailed to her, she never responded. The above response is eye-opening enough to resort to

investigating NGOs’ perceptions on inclusive education implementation in primary schools.

Communication between researcher and NGOs staff suggest they understand the concept of

inclusive education and are pro-active within the respective countries to make it a reality for

all learners.

4.2 The Research Strategy

Inclusive education is debatable within and across educational systems and its

implementation is problematic both in the countries of the North and South (Armstrong,2011,

p.29). Research and contributions have been made in this field from various point using

different research methods depending on the topic under study (Lloyd, 2000; Brine, 2001;

Thomazet, 2009; Armstrong, 2011) just to name a few. Consequently, the research strategy

suitable to answer the research questions in this study is a qualitative research strategy. This

strategy has the potentials to facilitate the collection of rich deep information for further

analysis on a specific country context (Bryman,2012, p.408).

Qualitative research strategy, unlike quantitative research strategy which use numeric

data to answer questions, qualitative make use of words to answer questions. Qualitative

research seeks to understand human and social behaviour from the insider’s perspective, that

is, as it is lived by participants in a particular social setting, for example, a culture, school,

community, group, or institution (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh 2002). From the qualitative

approach’s point of view, research is always value-bound, and it can never be value free.

Qualitative inquirers believe that it is impossible to develop a meaningful understanding of

human experiences without taking into account the interplay of both the inquirers’ and the

45

participants’ values and beliefs. Bray and Mason, (2007, p 43) asserts that, “a fundamental

purpose of qualitative research is to capture the research subject’s perspective and views of values, actions,

processes and events” (Mark Bray et al, 2007).

Since the study is about the way NGOs view inclusive education implementation in

primary school, their opinions and points of view are subjective to reality experience which

varies from person to person, context to context. Hence, the data collected only express the

views of the NGO staff concerning inclusive education implementation in primary school as

such the findings is not generalizable to inclusive education implementation in the country as

a whole. An inductive approach is used in this study in relation to theory and data because the

use of theory in this study is to support and explain the findings (Bryman, 2012). The study

focuses on analysing and comparing points of view of NGOs staff.

4.3 The Research Design

According Bryman to (2012), a research design provides the researcher with a supporting

structure around which data is assembled and analysed. McMillan and Schumacher (2010)

argues that research design describes how the study will be conducted. It summarizes the

procedures for conducting the study including when, from whom, and under what conditions

the data will be obtained. This research design indicates the general plan as to how the

research was set up, what happened to the participants and what methods of data collection

were used. A research design also determines how the data will be analysed. Qualitative

research designs emphasize gathering data on naturally occurring phenomena, and can be

classified as interactive or non-interactive. This research combines case study design defines

by Christensen (2008, p.406) as simply a design that “provides detailed account and analysis of one

or more cases” (Christensen, 2008) or better still by Bryman (2012, p.66) “detailed and intensive

analysis of a single case” and comparative designs which entails studying two contrasting cases using

more or less identical methods (Bryman,2012, p.72). Adding, “it embodies the logic of comparison, in

that it implies that we can understand social phenomena better when they are compared in relation to two or

more meaningfully contrasting cases or situations” (Bryman, 2012). As such, a combination of case

study and comparative design is appropriate in this study. However, this combination in

qualitative research is better known as a multiple- case study because it entails the

investigation of more than one case (ibid, p.74). it facilitates the collection of rich deep

information for further comparison within and across nations (Cameroon and South Africa).

The Bray and Thomas’ comparative education framework offers a foundational guide for

comparison of one or more phenomena as portrayed by the cube in figure 12.

46

Figure 11: A framework for comparative education analysis cube.

Source: Bray & Thomas (1995, p. 475) referred in Bray & Mason (2007, p 9).

The main dimensions of the cube are: non-locational demographic groups, aspects of

education and of society and geographical/locational levels. Geographical/locational levels

could be subdivided into macro and micro level. The macro level consists of world regions/

continents, countries and states, while the micro level comprises districts, schools, classrooms

and individuals. Aspects of education and society looks at curriculum, teaching methods,

educational finance, management structures, political changes, labour market or other aspects

while non-locational demographic groups points to ethnicity, age, religion, gender, or entire

population. (Bray & Mason, 2007, p. 9). The cube offers a multifaceted and multilevel

comparison of educational phenomena. The Bray and Thomas cube framework for

comparative education analysis was used in this study as it has the potentials of “recognizing

the ways in which patterns at the lower levels in education systems are shaped by patterns at

higher levels and vice versa” (Mark Bray B. A., 2007). This research focuses on lived

experiences, on society and contextual realities on inclusive education implementation as

perceived by NGO workers in Cameroon and South Africa.

This design is appropriate in this study as it offers the foundation for comparing, analysis

and synthesizing similarities and/or differences and patterns across two or more cases that

share a common focus or goal. To be able to do this well, the specific features of each case

should be described in depth at the beginning of the study

Level 1: World Regions / Continents

Level 2: Countries

Level 3: States / Provinces

Level 4: Districts

Level 5: Schools

Level 6: Classrooms

Level 7: Individuals

Nonlocational Demographic

Groups

Cu

rric

ulu

m

Tea

chin

g M

eth

ods

47

4.4 Sampling

The goal and research questions of the study necessitated a purposive sampling approach for

the selection of participants with the hope of reaching other participant via snowball17.

Bryman, (2012) asserts, it’s a non-probability sampling technique used by researchers to

identify potential subjects in studies where the subjects are hard to locate. This contact person

has the potential to connect the researcher to other participants that would otherwise be

difficult to reach for the collection of data. The sampling process has been structured in two

levels to better answer the research questions in a qualitative multiple-case study design. At

the beginning of the research, the country context was identified first based on colonial

history and membership in the Commonwealth yet with outstanding differences. Cameroon is

an autocratic nation while South Africa is a democratic nation. Cameroon and South Africa

are both signatory to international treaties and conferences endorsing inclusive education.

Yet, South Africa has an inclusive education policy. South Africa is famous in this region

because of its democratic government and whole system approach to inclusion captured in

the 2001 inclusive education policy popularly known as “Education White Paper 6” (DoE,

2001). Cameroon doesn’t because inclusive education concept is difficult to grasp in

countries of the South; particularly in SSA. Even when ‘school age children’ (6-15 years) in

this region are reported to be out of school (UIS, UNESCO, 2015). More so, inclusive

education argue that mainstream education systems should strengthen their capacity to

accommodate all learners irrespective of their differences and/or difficulties

Next sampling was the NGOs. The NGOs selected are located in the capital city, are

not-for profit legally registered in the nation. The NGOs were targeted due to easy access to

technology and because they work with primary schools. The NGOs selected for the study

are representative in nature due to the fact that they address all barriers to access and

participation in education and society. These NGOs are referred to in this study as “Inclusive

Education Oriented NGOs”. Furthermore, these NGOs were chosen for the study in

alignment with Yin’s argument cited in Bryman (2012, P,70) that “they exemplify a broader

category of inclusive education hence epitomizes and serve as representative case suitable to

answer the research questions in this context”. They are advocators and implementers as well

as collaborators and partners with other inclusive education stakeholders. According to

Harber (2014), education is the” key social institution believed to make a significant and

positive differences in the way individuals and society think, behave and develop”. (Harber,

2014). Concurring with Harber, the international community acknowledge the fact that

everyone should work together to achieve education for all; especially as the state provision

of education is exclusionary in practice and often of poor quality. Besides, there has been a

long- standing tradition of non -state provision of education in developing countries mainly

through religious institutions and NGOs. Rose (2009) cited in Harber (2014) argues that

NGOs are primarily involved in providing educational opportunities for children excluded

from government schooling such as children who are hard to reach; probably due to where

17 Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by researchers to identify potential subjects in studies where the subjects are hard to locate (Bryman, 2012).

48

they life (remote rural areas), way of life (nomadic, pastoralist, street children) or their status

(HIV/AIDS infected, orphans, child soldiers, child labourers and indigenous group). Giving

grounds for an inclusive education model that would cater for the educational needs of all

learners. NGOs are non-for profit and philanthropic oriented. They are more flexible and

responsive to community needs than the state. They support a child-centred teaching method.

The institution of Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) is internationally recognised and

acknowledged for its contribution in the well-being and development of society as seen in the

contributions of NGOs Internationally, nationally and locally as observed with the NGOs in

this study.

The sample size in qualitative research is contestable as such, the researcher took the

advice of Bryman (2012, p.426) “to better state clearly the sampling method employed and why? Also to

explain why the sample size decided is appropriate” The initial plan was to interview five NGOs in

each country context but due to scepticism and lack of time to participate in the research, one

NGO in each context was studied in detailed such that the research questions were adequately

answered. The sample size in this study is “Key person + n” (Bryman, 2012).

4.5 Instruments and methods for data collection

The main tools for data collection in this study are interview guide, reading of documents

online, tablet voice recorder and internet (skype). The aim of the study is to gain

understanding on NGOs’ perception concerning inclusive education implementation in

primary schools. Since the focus is on the point of views of the NGO staff concerning

inclusive education and what they think of the implementation process at the primary level,

semi-structured interviews were administered to the participants. This method is vital in this

research for its ability to maximize reliability and validity of key concept measurement.

According to Bryman (2012), the researcher has an “interview guide” comprising of list of

question or fairly specific topics to be covered. The interviewee in this case has a great deal

of leeway in how to reply; equally, the interviewer has a great deal of flexibility in asking the

questions on the list. Nevertheless, all the questions will be asked and similar wordings will

be used from interviewee to interviewee (ibid, P. 471). Heeding to this, the researcher

prepared an interview guides that would provide answers to the research questions. This

helped in ensuring that all interviewees respond to similar questions. The questions were

carefully formulated to minimize misunderstanding and misinterpretation from both sides.

The questions were open-ended; thereby allowing the interviewee the freedom to discuss

freely. The interviews were planned to last 30 minutes and were to be via skype and would be

recorded using tablet voice recorder and later transcribed manually. The researcher also took

notes when necessary.

The data collection started with formulation of an informed consent stating the”

purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, alternative procedures and limits of confidentiality” (Christensen, 2008,

p.109). Social research ethical considerations demand that the researcher gives an informed

consent to the participants before they can participate in the study and the participant must

consent before the researcher can use the participants’ records for research purposes (ibid).

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Agreeing to participate in the study after being informed of its purpose, risks etc., shows

credibility and trustworthiness of the NGOs especially the willing participants.

Next was the formulation of an interview guide. This include open-ended questions

deemed appropriate by the researcher to effectively answer the research questions. Supported

by a recommendation letter written by the supervisor. The Informed consent (Appendix 1) the

recommendation letter (Appendix 2) and interview guide (Appendix3) were then send via

email to the participants. The participants in South Africa were easily reached via skype than

in Cameroon. However, the participants created time to participate in the study despite all

odds.

Furthermore, the researcher read documents. Bryman (2012) argues that the

researcher needs to verify that the documents used are authentic, credible, meaningful and

representative or of relevance to the research topic. Heeding to this advice, the researcher

used relevant documents on Inclusive education published by United Nations, World Bank,

UNESCO, UNICEF, AU, Ministry of National education of both countries, Ministry of basic

education of both countries, Act of parliament and official reports such as constitution, policy

regarding inclusion and/or Inclusive education oriented laws/ policy documents.

The documents selected and used in this research are mostly official documents published

online and within the timeframe of the research covers (2000-2015). The researcher made

sure that the documents studied were relevant to the research topic and questions. The

documents were analysed using UNESCO’s definition of inclusive education, the Salamanca

statement and framework for Action and policy guidelines for inclusive education and

recommendations for implementation as point of reference and comparison. Worthy of note

is the fact that Cameroon and South Africa are both signatories to the 1994 Salamanca

Statement and Framework for Action and other inclusive education oriented conventions and

treaties. Therefore, it is expected that these countries would immediately ratify, adopt and

implement inclusive education in alignment with international standards.

4.6 Data Analysis

This study makes use of primary and secondary qualitative data. The researcher recorded the

interviews which was later transcribed, coded and analysed thematically. The documents

relating to inclusive education policy and practice in Cameroon and South Africa

emphasising on NGOs’ perception concerning inclusive education implementation at the

primary school level were also group into thematic categories for better understanding.

An ongoing thematic process of data analysis to make sense of the information gathered

was simultaneous with data collection. Ryan and Bernard cited in Bryman (2012, P, 580),

argues that a theme is:

A category identified by the analyst through his/her data

That relates to his/her research focus (and quite possibly the research questions)

That builds on codes identified in transcripts and/or field notes; and

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That provides the researcher with the basis for a theoretical understanding of his/her

data that can make a theoretical contribution to the literature relating to the research

focus.

The themes relating to the research questions were identified and categories into similarities

and differences. The findings of Cameroon were presented first followed by that of South

Africa. The findings of the interview were then compared supported and enrich with the

information obtained from reading documents coupled with theoretical framework. The

results are then represented in a matrix.

4.7 Reliability and validity

Guba and Lincoln cited in Bryman (2012, P, 390) argue the realist view that there are

absolute truths about the social world and it is the job of the social researcher to reveal.

Rather, they are of the opinion that there can be more than one accounts of the social world.

Hence, they propose two main criteria for assessing a qualitative study namely:

Trustworthiness and authenticity. Trustworthiness is measured in terms of credibility,

transferability, dependability and confirmability which is equivalent to internal validity,

external validity, reliability and objectivity.

The researcher ensured the credibility of the study by respecting the rules of good

practice and submitting research findings to the participants for confirmation. It is important

to present the reality of the participants on inclusive education implementation and

contribution in the given social world under study correctly. This is to asserting respondent

validation. Furthermore, Lincoln and Guba argue that a “thick description or a rich account of

the details of a culture provides others with what they refer to as database for making

judgement about the possible transferability of findings to other milieu” (Bryman 2012, P,

392). The researcher heeded to this and provided a rich account of the social context (world)

under study. In addition, the researcher adopts an auditing approach which records a step by

step trail of all phases of the research process; starting with problem formulation, selection of

research participants, interview transcripts and so on in an accessible manner. This also go a

long way in establishing confirmability and/or objectivity since the researcher focused only

on analysing the findings in relation to the conceptual and theoretical framework of the study

and avoiding subjectivity of researcher’s values and beliefs (ibid).

4.8 Ethical Considerations The researcher was mindful to protect the participants in line with ethical principles of doing

social research. Hence an informed consent was drafted and sent to potential participants. The

aims and objectives of the research were communicated to the participants. This is to make

sure there is no manipulation or deception of participant nor invasion of privacy. The

researcher assures the participants of the benefits of participation, their rights as participants

will be respected and they risk nothing if they chose not to participate or wish to withdraw at

any time their best interest is at stake. The researcher also made sure that the participant is

protected from all harm either physical and/or emotional (Bryman 2012, P, 135). The

researcher changed the names of the NGOs to safeguard harm (physical and emotional) to

participants.

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Chapter Five

Findings and Data Analysis

This chapter presents and analysed data derived from interviews with staff of NGOs, in

Cameroon and South Africa concerning inclusion in primary schools. The data from

Cameroon and South Africa were examined, analysed and presented thematically in

alignment with the research questions beginning with Cameroon presented as NGO ‘A’

followed corresponding themes in South Africa referred to as NGO ‘B’.

After the1990 World Education for All conference in Jomtien, Thailand, the international

community legitimated and recognised importance of partnership and collaboration with

NGOs in achieving the EFA targets/MDGs as stipulated in paragraph 8 point (iii) of the

Dakar 2000 World Education Forum framework of Action” ensuring the engagement and

participation of civil society in the formulation, implementation and monitoring of strategies

for educational development” (UNESCO, The Dakar Framework of Action, 2000)

5.1 Findings from interviews with NGO ‘A’

This is a local inclusive education oriented NGO with an international profile. Operating at a

global-local nexus perspective. It has been advocating for inclusive education implementation

in the country legally for over eight years. The NGO aims to facilitate access to an inclusive

education system for all learners in the country. Build inclusive rehabilitation platform to

promote equal participation of persons with disabilities and disadvantage groups in the

country and community.

According to the interviewee, the NGO’s main activities are:

Conducting research to prove to the government that there is need to invest in inclusive education in

the country

Organising seminars with policy makers where they are presented with proposals on how to embark

on inclusive education implementation

Organising capacity building workshops to enlighten school principals, head teachers and teachers on

ways to promote inclusive education through reflective teaching methods and curriculum

differentiation.

They also engage in discussions with the delegations of contractors to promote inclusive concepts in

the planning and building of schools and society as a whole.

Encouraging the various ministries of education that teacher education curriculum be revised to

include all components of inclusive education.

Supporting adaptable teacher capacity building workshops in developing inclusive schools.

Provide training to rehabilitation professionals and community-based rehabilitation project managers.

The goal according to the interviewee “is to get all actors to embraces the concept and work together

to make it a reality in the country with the hope of creating an inclusive education university wherein

inclusive education professionals will be trained”.

The interviewee adds that: “they are currently active in two out of ten provinces in the country with

hope of expanding to other provinces eventually. They offer inclusive education oriented support to the

community in areas such as health, education, livelihood and social empowerment with particular focus on

persons with disabilities”.

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5.1.1 NGO ‘A’ perceptions on inclusive education

At the beginning of the interview, the researcher asks the participant; how would you define

the term ‘inclusive education’ and how would you describe inclusive education

implementation in state regular primary schools?

In response, the interviewee states that “inclusive education describes ways of

improving regular schools to welcome and meet the learning needs of all learners regardless

of individual differences and disabilities”. Concerning implementation, the interviewee said

“it is difficult”. Difficult in that: inclusive education is a new concept in the country and still in the

introductory phase. Policy makers and practitioners are ignorant about inclusion in education and the benefits,

talk less how to make it happen”.

Seeking to gain understanding on NGOs perceptions and contribution in the

implementation process in primary schools, the researcher asks the participant: “what is your

opinion concerning inclusive education implantation; particularly in primary schools?” The

interviewee explained in details the policy, psychological, cultural and funding constraints

plaguing inclusive education implementation. Never the less, pilot projects to introduce

inclusive education ideologies in schools are ongoing.

“It is ironical indeed to think that Cameroon is a signatory to most of the international treaties and agreements

legitimating inclusion in education and society yet as we speak, there is no legislative framework on inclusive

education. Cameroon is yet to ratify, adopt and implement inclusive laws and policies that offers equitable

quality educational opportunities to all learners in an inclusive education system irrespective of their differences,

abilities and/or difficulties However, there are laws protecting the right to education for all.”

“psychologically and culturally, the Cameroon government and the general public do not see the

need to change the provision of educational services. The medical model of disability still influences thinking

patterns on way of having schools and teaching. Tradition, negative beliefs and attitudes towards differences and

disabilities hinders and slows down inclusive education implementation in the regular education system”.

“Although, the constitution guarantees everyone’s right to education, it is not enough to make inclusion

in school and society happen. The government needs to allocate appropriate funds to meet the needs of the

learners as well as the needs of the teachers. A curriculum reform would be necessary to reproduce in schools

the change in the society and meet the demands of the society now and in the future. The general public needs to

be sensitize on the concept and its benefits to the individual and the community as a whole. The NGOs are

putting pressure on the government to invest on inclusive education implementation in the country”.

The response of the interviewee reveals that the government is not doing enough to

put establish inclusive laws or policies fundamental to implementation. Governments

political will and leadership for inclusive education is lacking in terms of policy, thinking and

funding. Explaining further, “the responsibility automatically falls on practitioners at the

school level. ordinary citizens who sees the needs of the disadvantage groups in the

community have therefore volunteered to be part of the solution by coming together to form

not-for profit organization to give assistance to the practitioners and community and also to

advocate, pressure the government to include disadvantage groups in the planning and

provision of good and services in the country.

The point of view of the participant is that government should ratify and adopt

inclusive education policy. Develop inclusive curriculum for teacher training institutes.

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Establish an inclusive education institute for pre-services training of practitioners interested

in improving skills in diversity teaching. Develop an inclusive curriculum for inclusive

education system in the country. Include practitioners in policy making process. To articulate

the needs of both teachers and leaners so as to make available sufficient funds and resources

for inclusive education implementation at all levels of the education system.

5.1.2 Implementing inclusion in primary schools

Curious to gain understanding of NGOs involvement in the implementation process, the

researcher poses a follow-up question about NGOs assisting practitioners at school level with

the implementation of inclusive education; what kind of assistance and at what level of the

education sector? The interviewee explains that;

“the NGO is committed in strengthening inclusive education practices in primary schools and

classrooms by involving in mapping out primary schools for pilot projects for the introduction of the

concept of inclusive education.

organise training and workshops programs that brings together primary schools proprietors, principals,

head teachers and teachers to create awareness and teach them inclusive education methods such as

identification and assessment procedures of students with disabilities and diversity teaching methods

like curriculum adaptation and/or differentiation.

volunteer in initiating and supporting inclusive projects in schools. For instance, the NGO staff teaches

and support schools on 'inclusive practices and in developing local strategies, staffing schools with

support teachers to provide collaborative help to classroom teachers, developing information packages

on "best practices" and disseminating the knowledge and forming partnerships between schools, parent

groups, NGOs, and government and professional groups to advocate for inclusive education

implementation at political and system level.

The NGO focuses on teacher inclusive education profile laying emphasis on differentiated teaching to

address classroom diversity, enabling environment, reflective teaching strategies, facilitating access to

resources to enhance the participation of all in the teaching -learning process, teacher-parent

collaboration and so on.

As part of the broader civil society coalition, network and alliance on education, the NGO promote and

support full ownership of inclusive education approaches in schools and collaborate with other actors

in education to eradicate charity perspective, exclusive laws and policies in the provision of educational

opportunities. Initiate national consultative seminars and workshops to ensure that schools, curricular,

assessment procedures, teaching and learning materials are accessible to all and for all”.

Deducing from the response, the NGO has claimed ownership of inclusive education in

the country and are pioneering in creating awareness, initiating and organising workshops

and projects to enlighten policy makers, practitioners, stakeholders and the general public

of the benefits of inclusion in education. The NGO staff are active in primary schools

training and supporting teacher on diversity teaching methods focusing on curriculum

modification, differentiation /adaptation.

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5.1.3 Implementation Challenges face by NGO ‘A’

The challenges that the NGO encounter in fostering inclusive education implementation in

primary schools according to the interviewee are uncountable; to begin with, the general

public is ignorant of the meaning and benefits of inclusive education. The teachers and

parents are negative towards inclusion. High student -teacher ratio of 65+:1 is problematic for

classroom inclusion. Funding is not sufficient and the funding system in the country is

hierarchical plaque with corruption and poor governance. There is lack of resources to sustain

educational support for those in need. No inclusive curriculum for teacher nor for learners;

The curriculum is rigid and teacher-centred.

That notwithstanding, the interviewee mentioned inclusive initiatives taking place in

the country such as the 68 pilot schools in the country wherein IE concept have been

introduced and diversity teaching approach such as curriculum adaptation/ differentiation is

currently being taught. The pilot schools staff are expected to disseminate this knowledge

with other colleagues in other schools. Hopefully, by 2020, inclusion in education would be

achieved for there is increase inclusive education awareness among practitioners and society

as a whole which might force government to be proactive in terms of policy and budgetary

allocation for inclusion. There are plans to revise the national curriculum to suit all learners

irrespective of their differences and /or disabilities come 2017. Consequently, the NGO’s

priority is to ensure policies, programmes and practices that pave the way for an inclusive

educational system in Cameroon. The objective is to make the right to education inclusive

and support education for all, with emphasis on removing barriers to participation and

learning for children with disabilities.

5.2 Findings from the interviews with NGO ‘B’ All the relevant responses relating to the research question are presented thematically.

This NGO has been legally advocating and assisting schools and government in

implementing inclusive education in schools for over 20 years. The participant has a special

educational needs child.

According to the interviewee,

” the organization is run by an elected management committee comprising of 21 staff. The NGO is committed

in supporting and promoting positive models of inclusive education in pre-primary and primary schools and

other centres of learning. The NGO also work collaboratively with other organisation with similar aims and

training objectives. In addition, work with all actors within the education system such as school administrators,

teacher in all phases of schooling, district support staff, parents and related professionals like therapist and so

on. Furthermore, the NGO responds to express needs; targeting socially and geographically disadvantaged areas

as well as committed to advocacy and awareness on the rights of persons with disabilities.

The goal is to ensure that educators, families and service providers of children facing barriers to

learning have access to information and are introduced to support networks and services that can foster inclusion

into ordinary neighbourhood schools. This requires: challenging and changing attitudes towards inclusion in

education, understanding inclusive education policy and its implication for the classroom setting, sensitizing and

helping educators to embrace inclusion practices and create awareness for educators and parents on support

structures and resources. The NGO also offer services such as inclusive education training and workshop on

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various inclusive education aspects like adapting the curriculum to meet learner’s needs, assessing barriers to

learning and classroom intervention and more to other actors in the field. Furthermore, the NGO offers

information, support and advice about inclusive education to the general public and particularly to parents,

educators and other professionals working with learners with all types of special needs”.

5.2.1 NGO ‘B’ perceptions on inclusive education

According to the interviewee,

“inclusive education is all about schools and their ability to create an environment that is welcoming and

supportive of all learners. It is not the responsibility of individuals to “fit in”. Rather, it’s about systemic change,

differentiated curriculum, teaching practices that considers diversity in learners’ needs and collaboration.

Making inclusion the new normal in the education system.

The implementation of Education White Paper 6 that was introduced in 2001 is slow. The funding is

limited and the bureaucratic strategy for its implementation is inefficient. Budget is allocated to the province and

province decide how to spend it. Resources are unequally distributed and there is a general poor understanding

of the concept. However, there are about 700 full service schools. These are ordinary mainstream schools that

have been mapped out and introduce with the concept of inclusive education and they would in turn be proactive

in the field disseminating and sharing their experiences with colleagues in other schools. The special schools are

reinforced to be resource centres and cater for learners with high level needs”.

The interviewee supports inclusive education because if schools are inclusive, it would yield

positive impact in the society.

5.2.2 Implementing inclusion in primary schools

The interviewee became interested in inclusion in education due to personal reasons. As a

parent of a child with developmental delay. The parent wanted the child to attend the regular

neighbourhood school and at the time, this was not possible. The quest to secure a place for

the child in the regular mainstream school and classroom resulted in the parent joining the

inclusion movement culminating into an NGO advocating for inclusion in education wherein

the parent has worked for over 20 years. According to the interviewee,

“the NGO provide training and support aimed at assisting schools to be pro-active in developing inclusive

educational practices such as: to ensure an ethos of acceptance and prioritise support for teachers and learners;

to interrogate school policies and practices to ensure optimal retention and participation of learners and provide

educative seminars and workshops on curriculum differentiation and diversity teaching approach to principals,

teachers and parents as well as other actors involved in inclusive education implementation”.

5.2.3 Implementation challenges faced by NGO ‘B’

According to the interviewee;

“what hinders inclusive educational implementation in primary schools is obsession with academic results.

Belief that IE is another kind of “special” education that can be addressed separately from the main issues of

systemic challenge – so it gets side-lined.

Misunderstanding that it is about catering for disabled children.

Resourcing for inclusive education is limited

The education system privileges the rich

High student-teacher ratios of 50+:1 is challenging for teachers. It is obvious that the poor organization

and provision of education, HIV/Aids, negative attitudes of school communities towards diversity,

socio-economic inequalities are a setback to the implementation of inclusive educational best practices

in South Africa”.

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However, the interviewee adds that “there are about 700 full service schools in the country. These are

ordinary schools that their capacity is being strengthen to accommodate all learners with special educational

needs, use inclusive teaching methods such as curriculum differentiation, child-centred pedagogy and problem –

solving approaches and these schools are to disseminate the concept and inclusive educational best practices to

other schools across the country”.

5.3 Data Analysis

5.3.1 Comparing NGO ’A’ and NGO ’B’ perceptions on inclusive education

The findings in respect to the research objectives and questions helps to gain insight of the

NGOs’ perception on inclusive education implementation at the primary school level. The

opinion about inclusive education in Cameroon is that it is still at the introductory phase.

Inclusive education means education for all or protection of the rights of persons with

disabilities to education within the framework of EFA. The is no inclusive education policy

document and arguments for educational provision are based on the medical model of

disability and charity that sees “disability as an attribute located solely within an individual” (Smart &

Smart, 2006, p.29). However, the government is funding pilot projects to introduce and try

inclusive education implementation in state primary schools starting from the capital city.

while in South Africa, inclusive education is a systemic change in education and society to

redress the ills of apartheid and achieve EFA by 2020. Albeit, the creation of Full services

schools as pilot projects for the tasting of IE in the nation is a step towards the right direction.

Member countries that are signatories to the international treaties and conventions are

expected to ratify and adopt laws and policies legitimating and endorsing inclusion in

education and society. Cameroon has not heeded to this recommendation while South Africa

has ratified and adopted inclusive education policy (EWP6,2001) yet the implementation is

problematic. The implementation phase is slow, privilege the rich, varies from province to

province and school to school. The arguments for educational provision is based on the social

model of disability which views disability as an interaction among the individual, the

disability and the environment both social and physical (Smart & Smart, 2006, p.29).

Currently, there are 68 pilot schools in Cameroon and 700 full service schools in South

Africa. This approach is bias and problematic and could be discriminatory given that there is

no parameter for the selection of the schools to test the implementation process. Worthy of

note is the fact that this finding were gotten in April 2016. This progress is slow and confirm

that these two countries did not achieve the EFA educational targets and MDGs agreed upon

in Dakar 2000 for 2015 even UPE which is the least a nation can offer its citizens.

Education White Paper 6 which stated inclusive education objectives to be achieved by

2020; the probability of its achievement is questionable in four years’ time. Effective

implementation of a policy is possible if each policy objective is backed by appropriate

allocation of funds and resources otherwise it would be mere propaganda. This confirms

Ainscow’s argument that policy document, conferences and in-service courses are low

leverage for change. The funding strategy for inclusive education implementation in

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Cameroon and South Africa is problematic, limited, embezzled or converted for other issues

deem of priority by bureaucratic hierarchy otherwise known as a ‘top-down’ approach to

implementation.

These shortcomings in the hierarchical, ‘top-down’ model of implementation forced

ordinary citizens to step in as part of the solution by forming inclusive education oriented

NGOs especially as the have access to policy makers as well as practitioners and the masses.

Therefore, partnership and/or vertical-horizontal collaboration between policy makers and

implementers is vital to improve practices in a ‘top-down’- ‘bottom-up’ relationship as well

as a horizontal cooperation among all actors and stakeholders in the provision of educational

services couple with feedback mechanisms such as reification and action research. By so

doing, best practices, knowledge and ideas would be documented, shared and used as

reference to improve practice, note areas needing reformulation of policy, funding and /or

resource intervention documented helpful in dissemination inclusive educational practices in

other social context and schools slowly yet surely.

Considering that Booth and Ainscow (2002) suggestions for inclusion in education

are from a global-local nexus framework, offering a “one size fit all” curriculum codes and/or

policy approach to implementation. The appropriate approach is to focus on actual practices

in different context. For instance, Cameroon is divided along linguistics and disability line.

As such, the country has three separate education systems which is expensive to run. The

education systems reproduce inequality, segregation, fragmentation, discrimination and chaos

in the entire country. Therefore, implementing inclusive education in Cameroon would take

into consideration the current state of the country plus an ambitious vision for progress in

alignment with international standards would be guiding principles for the national

curriculum which would in turn guide the content and teaching methods in each level of the

education system. This must be backed by appropriate funding, resources, infrastructures and

more in order to facilitate implementation otherwise, it would be dreams versus reality.

Comparatively, South Africa started off well with an ambitious vision to redress the

ills of apartheid yet, this vision is not supported by appropriate allocation of funds nor

structures for implementation. According to (Engelbrecht, 2006),” an effective

implementation of inclusive education should take into account the unique context of a

school when planning and developing inclusive education strategies”. Hence, the slow and

inefficient implementation of inclusive education gathered in this study can be attributed to

lack of contextualization foresight. Therefore, in the context of Africa, an ‘Afrocentric

inclusive education theory’ that takes into consideration the socio-cultural, economic and

political dynamics of the specific social context as part of a whole within a global –local

nexus framework is relevant. This would require the collaboration of all stakeholders within

and without the education sector. This collaboration must be vertical (hierarchy and

bureaucracy in the education system) and horizontal (schools collaborating with other

schools, other sectors and institutions in the community). By so doing, the representation

problem between production context and reproduction context would be better articulated so

as to solve the representation problem in both contexts for all in the community.

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The understanding of inclusive education in both countries varies from one nation to

the other. The understanding of the concept also varies from person to person. However, the

NGOs perception and understanding inclusive education in accordance with that of the

international community. This explains why the NGOs partner with the international

community from a global-local nexus scale to initiate inclusive oriented activities in the

social context in which they are located. It also aids the understanding of the implementation

challenges face by the NGOs regarding inclusive implementation in primary schools.

It is obvious from the findings that policy document is not enough to change the way

things work. As a result, the curriculum that is central in the process of schooling is therefore

expected to solve the representation problem for all by articulating the needs of both

practitioners and learners in an inclusive education system, school and classroom

(Lundgren1942). The exiting curriculum in Cameroon and South Africa is incapable of

changing practices due to inflexibility and teacher oriented void of realities in the field that

leads to the rise of the invisible curriculum.

It is the inability of the exiting policy and curriculum to make inclusion happen that

has instigated ordinary citizens who have the interest of the disadvantage masses at heart to

step in by volunteering to form pro-inclusive education NGOs. These NGOs operate

nationally with international profiles. The NGOs work in partnership and collaboration with

the government and other stakeholders, actors nationally and internationally to make

inclusion in school and community a reality. This is “an easier said than done” task for the

NGOs and other pro-inclusive education actors yet possible to achieve if Lundgren’s

curriculum concept in conjunction with frame factors such as number of pupils to teacher

ratio, ability and/or disability, time available for instruction or language of instruction and

other diversities in learners coupled with the collaboration of all actors in the field.

5.3.2 Nation and international comparison of NGOs’ perception on IE

implementation in primary school Lundgren’s definition of curriculum as “a text to solve the representation problem” and

curriculum theory as “the analysis of the relationship between the external and internal

functions of education” (Lundgren,1984, p. 35) is timeless and can be adapted, applied in any

given social context. It for this reason that Lundgren’s concept has been applied in this study

from a global- local perspective to analyse and compare nationally and internationally NGOs’

perception concerning inclusive education implementation in primary schools of Cameroon

and South Africa. Lundgren’s concept on curriculum is associated to Dottrens’ systematic

ideas on how education is to be carried out:

“The curriculum is primarily concern with methods and therefore with education; it is made up of pedagogical

directives, intended to provide assistance, advice, suggestions and information to assist the teachers in carrying

out his task successfully…A curriculum is more concerned with the education that children should receive from

school, and it indicates the procedure, method and activities by which such education is to be provided”

(Dottrens, 1962, p.81-82) cited in (Lundgren, 1972, p.29). The problem with this definition is

that, it does not consider frames such as number of pupils to teacher ratio, ability and/or

disability, time available for instruction or language of instruction and other diversities in

learners. This therefore calls for a curriculum reform that takes into consideration frames of

place, time, number of pupils, language plus diversities in learners when selecting, organising

the method of transmitting the content and goals stated in the curriculum.

59

According to Lundgren, (1942), historical development and societal changes influence

curriculum thinking. This explains the campaign by the international community for inclusive

education in the 21st century as a result of globalisation and its impact on humanity and

environment. This historical development is vividly seen in the industrialised nations of the

North compared to the non-industrialised nations of the South. who either inherits, borrow or

force to change the way things look and works. Cameroon and South Africa for instance are

struggling at different levels to change the way things look and works in the education system

and by implementing inclusive education practices. This is evident in the challenges

encounter by NGOs in initiating for inclusive education implementation in mainstream

education system and classroom.

Given that the concept of curriculum is central in the process of schooling wherein,

Lundgren, (1942) argues that the concept of curriculum “covers the texts produced to solve the

representation problem” (Lundgren, 1942, p.12). Curriculum can be seen as a way of organising

reproduction in the process of schooling; schools reproduces the important aspects of life.

The process of schooling starts with curriculum codes consisting of “principles according to which

the selection, the organisation and the methods for transmission are formed” (ibid, p13). Curriculum

codes changes with historical and societal developments culminating in a curriculum

modification. Consequently, for the government of any country to established an inclusive

education system, the curriculum codes would therefore be the starting point for the thinking,

planning and decisions on the principles of inclusion in the specific context in relation to the

changes and expectations of the society. For instance, the guiding principles for inclusive

education according to Booth and Ainscow, (2002) are:

“Equity and human right

Increasing the participation of students in, and reducing their exclusion from, the cultures,

curricula and communities of local schools

Restructuring the cultures, policies and practices in schools so that they respond to the diversity of

students in the locality

Reducing barriers to learning and participation for all students, not only those with impairments or

those who are categorized as having ‘special educational needs’

Fostering mutually sustaining relationships between schools and communities

Recognizing that inclusion in education is one aspect of inclusion in society

Learning from attempts to overcome barriers to the access and participation of particular students,

to make changes for the greater benefit of all students.

Viewing the difference between students as resources to support learning, rather than as problems

to be overcome

Acknowledging the right of students to an education in their locality

Improving schools for staff as well as for students

Emphasizing the role of schools in building community and developing values, as well as

increasing achievement”. (Booth and Ainscow, 2002, p. 3.).

The thinking on inclusion in education and society portrayed by Booth and Ainscow concurs

with the historical and societal changes occurring in countries in the North. The international

community thinking on the provision of educational opportunities for all learners irrespective

of their differences in the framework of EFA aligns with Lundgren’s (1942) concept on

curriculum and curriculum theory of solving the representation problem and text about

curriculum starting with curriculum codes.

60

The provision of inclusive education therefore, comparing Cameroon and South

Africa, South Africa has experience historical development and changes in the society that

has triggered a rethink on the function and purpose of education in the nation. While

Cameroon does not see the need or benefits of establishing inclusive education system

because of the autocratic government’s unwillingness to cater for the needs of all learners.

Different types of education models are provided at different period in history. For instance,

the reification period reveals properties (restructuring, compensatory and special education)

corresponding to the historical period (seventies to the present characterized by the slowing

down of educational expansion), associated with the invisible curriculum code.The historical

development in the 21st century globally is in the reification period associated with the

invisible curriculum codes requiring a change and/or reform in the processes of schooling

represented by curriculum otherwise referred to as “a text for pedagogy that appears when production

and reproduction processes in the society are separated from each other” (Lundgren,1942, p.33).

Internationally, countries in the South theoretically evolve equally with countries in

the North yet practically lacking behind in practice and delivering of equitable educational

opportunities to all learners irrespective of their differences. For instance, Cameroon and

South Africa like most countries in the South are struggling to grasp the concept of inclusive

education within the framework of EFA at different levels. Cameroon, often referred to as

Africa in miniature has both French and English education sub-systems used by other African

countries owing to the fact that they inherited it from France and Britain, prominent colonial

masters in the continent. Ironically, Cameroon do not have the historical nor societal changes

and /or development capable of making the people see the need for inclusion in education and

society or educational reform. While South Africa’s global economy has earned her an

international profile. More so, she has both the historical and societal changes as countries in

the North that triggers educational reform to reproduce the values and important aspect of life

through inclusive education.

The NGOs’ perception on inclusive education aligns with that of the international

community represented by UNESCO and UNICEF. The understanding that Inclusive

education is about a systemic change of the education systems to accommodate all learners.

This systemic change demands whole education system reform which addresses and

articulate needs of both practitioners and learners.

Inclusion in education is a dynamic process that is constantly evolving according to

local cultures and contexts and is part of the wider strategy to promote an inclusive society. It

is therefore about changing beliefs, attitudes, pedagogy, curricula, and school environment to

meet the needs of all learners. This puts the curriculum at the centre of education process

and/or schooling. Inclusive education challenges rigid curriculum in favour of flexible

curriculum and teaching practices in a process known as curriculum differentiation.

Curriculum is central in realising inclusive education. In the absence of a flexible

curriculum, the NGOs take the initiative of breaking down the rigid mainstream national

education Curriculum in a process known as ‘curriculum adaptation in Cameroon and

curriculum differentiation in South Africa. It involves the modification and adaptations of the

content, method, assessment and environment to accommodate all learners irrespective of

their differences, ability and/or disability. The possibility of variations in curriculum

61

differentiation from one school to another is high given the unique characteristics of each

learner. Contextual differences impact inclusive educational practices differently. For

example, the historical, socioeconomic and political context of education in Cameroon is

greatly influenced by the French and English culture epitomize by the education sub-systems,

the official languages which are also languages of instruction influences thinking patterns

when deciding on the text for pedagogy; it has assimilatory features like state control, French

language dominance and limited access to education especially for girls and persons with

disabilities. While South Africa is influenced by the British system and culture characterised

by decentralisation, expansion of provision, missionary and voluntary organisation provision,

and local languages in lower primary and low enrolment for girls since schools are directly

influenced by changes in the society and vice versa. Consequently, the content and teaching

style of any education system must be aimed at linking education and society or better still

prepare the individual to be a productive member of the society. Where curriculum is the link

between school and society, the conceptualization and design of curriculum should be a

collaborative work between the practitioners, researchers and policy makers in a ‘top-down’

and ‘bottom-up’ model approach to implementation.

62

Table 7: Thematic representation of the findings and analysis

Themes Response Analysis

Cameroon (CMR) South Africa (SA)

1- NGOs’

perceptions on IE

-No IE policy document

-Still in the introductory

phase.

-argument for educational

provision still based on the

medical model of disability

and charity

-inclusive education as

education for all.

- pilot projects for the

tasting of inclusive

education concepts are

ongoing in the nation.

- Have an IE policy

document (EWP6,2001)

At the implementation

phase; slow and varies from

province to province,

school to school.

-arguments for educational

provision based on social

model of disability

- inclusive education as

systemic change in

education and society to

redress the ills of apartheid.

Albeit, the creation of Full

services schools for the

tasting of IE in the nation

- policy makers and the

general public are ignorant

of the meaning and benefits

of inclusive education

The perception of the NGO

on inclusive education is in

accordance with UNESCO

definition and Salamanca

recommendation

Signatory countries to the

international treaties and

conventions endorsing

inclusive education are

expected to ratify and adopt

inclusive education policy

document for

implementation

2-perception on

implementing in primary

schools

Intervention is challenging

due to lack of IE policy/

laws and IE oriented

curriculum for teacher

education nor for learners

in the mainstream education

system. As such, the NGOs

volunteer their expertise in

organising inclusive

oriented initiatives such as

advocacy, sensitization,

monitoring and training

school staff on diversity

teaching technics like

curriculum adaptation

starting with pilot schools.

The pilot school staff will

in turn teach their

colleagues in other schools

with the aim of reaching the

whole nation.

Intervention is challenging

mainly because school have

no incentive to be inclusive

and the legacy of apartheid

is still a setback to

implementation since the

education system privileges

the rich. However, the

NGOs are involved in

training school practitioners

on IE concept and diversity

teaching like curriculum

differentiation in full

service schools.

-The full service school

staff will then disseminate

the concept and practices to

other schools.

Having an IE policy is not

enough to make inclusion a

reality for all. Ainscow,

(2005) asserts that policy

documents, conferences, in-

services course are low

leverage for change since

they “tend to change the

way things look but not the

way they work” (ibid 111).

Hope for change therefore

is in how the practitioners

interpret and translate the

text for

pedagogy(curriculum) in

relation with frame factors

to change the teaching and

learning process. This

interaction with the

curriculum triggers the rise

of the invisible curriculum.

3-Implementation

Challenges faced by NGOs

Lack of funding

Lack of political will

High student-teacher ratio

Negative attitude coupled

with public ignorance

Funding

Lack of political will

Obsession on academic

results

Misunderstanding of the

concept of inclusive

education

HIV/Aids

Education system privilege

the rich.

-Inclusive education

implementation is

challenging and expensive

yet possible to achieve

given the collaboration of

all members in the social

context.

63

Chapter Six

Conclusion

6.1 Appraisal of Concept and theory

The meaning and understanding of the term inclusive education varies from context to

context and persons to person with implications on the implementation phase yet the

outcomes are expected to be in accordance with international standard as stipulated and

endorsed by international treaties and conventions. The focus of this study is on NGOs’

perceptions on the implementation phase in primary schools in Cameroon and South Africa.

The two countries are located in SSA, member states of Commonwealth, high children and

youth population, signatory nations of international treaties and conventions endorsing

inclusion in education and education for all. Nevertheless, the two countries differ in colonial

and political history, socioeconomic, education systems and legislative frameworks for

inclusive education and understanding of inclusive education. Inclusive education

implementation in primary schools in the South African setting is concern with diversity18

teaching methods (Department of education South Africa, 2016) while in Cameroon, is

concern with access to education opportunities on the bases of right and equity (Cameroon,

Child Law Resources, 1998).

NGOs’ perceptions concerning inclusive education implementation in primary

schools in Cameroon and South Africa as deduce from the interviews, reveals that

implementation is slow due to lack of political will, funds and resources fuel by corruption,

bad governance, negative attitudes of mainstream teachers and public ignorance of the

benefits of inclusive education to the individual and community. As such, expectations for

inclusive education are high yet the implementation is slow or absent if action is not taken.

NGOs volunteer to be part of the solution by training primary school proprietors, principals,

head teachers, teachers and other school staff on curriculum modification or adaptation as

well as offer special educational needs 19support.

Analysing the findings through the lens of Lundgren’s curriculum concept and theory,

where Lundgren, (1942) argues that “curriculum is a text for pedagogy that appears when

production and reproduction processes in a society are separated from each other” (ibid,

p.33). Before the creation of school, people were learning the skills, knowledge and values

necessary for production by doing or participating in the production process; as such there

was no need for language of instruction nor curriculum. This is because,when production and

reproduction processes are united, it is easy to know and understand how to meet the needs of

both the teacher and the learner. A representation problem arises the moment production

processes are separated from reproduction processes; this representation problem arises

18 A concept in education and society that accept, respects and accommodates in inclusive settings individuals regardless of their differences, abilities and/or disabilities 19 Children’s learning needs in school

64

because of the disconnection between both processes yet interrelated although the

relationship is indirect since communication is via text. The text consists of classified and

selected knowledge and skills necessary for production that can be used in the context of

reproduction (school). This means, the development of an inclusive curriculum (text) is

central for the reproduction of inclusion in schools. To breach the gap between society and

school; however, schools can only reproduce what society puts in. Hence, if societies are

exclusive, reproducing inclusive values would be difficult or challenging. Therefore,

Lundgren’s ideas on the invisible curriculum codes of the reification period could be linked

to inclusive education as concerns diversity in learners and values. This period stresses the

importance of research and documentation of realities in the field in order to find out what

works and what doesn’t. It also helps in identifying needs and obstacles in the field. The

information gathered would serve as a reference document for policy makers and other

stakeholders interested in improving ways of meeting the needs of both teachers and learners

within and across the education system, school and classroom.

Lundgren’s curriculum concept explains that historical development and changes in

the world has always been accompanied by a corresponding change in education model.

Education models evolve with changes in the society given that, education is a process of

reproducing the knowledge, skills and values necessary for the sustainable development of

the society. Since the creation of formal education resulted in the separation between

production context and reproduction context, the text bridging the gap between these two

contexts must evolve taking into consideration the unique characteristics of the socio-

economic and political context in the society impacting and influencing education. Therefore,

to meet the educational needs of teachers and learners in diversified, fragmented, segregated

and unequal societies, all stakeholders needs to be involved collaboratively in a ‘top-down’

and ‘bottom-up’ interaction in planning and deciding the guiding principles to solve the

representation problem (curriculum).

The thinking that led to the creation of school and the text to solve the representation

problem in the formative period was limited to the privilege few as evident in the classical

curriculum code. This means that at each stage of historical development, different principles

shaped and influenced the curriculum so much such that the 21st century education is

expected by law to solve the representation problem for all learners in the given social

context. This expectation is global as well as local and served as a springboard for curriculum

comparison in different education systems, social context and schools.

Consequently, inclusive education is expected to solve the representation problem for all

learners in a given social context within mainstream education systems. The provision of

equitable access and participation in the learning process to all learners irrespective of their

differences would require a systemic change of thinking and approach to the planning and

delivery of services in education and society to make sure everyone’s rights are respected as

well as meet their educational and societal needs. This approach to education and society is

associated with the social model of disability which blames the society for creating barriers to

access and participation in learning. The social model of disability brought about a change in

the society coupled with the historical changes of the 21st century, triggered the need for a

rethink of the content and goal of education.

65

It is therefore imperative that practitioners use reification in practices, collaborate vertically

and horizontally with hierarchy and colleagues as well as team working with other actors in

the community to meet the needs of learners and society as a whole. By so doing, it would be

easy to identify specific areas and/or barriers to learning and participation within the learner,

school, education system and the socio-economic and political environment. A ‘top-down’

and ‘bottom-up’ collaboration or better still a hybrid model of interaction within and between

all actors involve in educational services could enhance the implementation process. The

practitioners identifying areas of intervention and needs while the policy makers allocate

appropriate budget, support and resources to meet specific needs of the learners, school,

locality, district, province and the country at large.

NGOs’ perceptions on inclusive education implementation in primary school according to the

findings of the interviews reveals that the NGO staff belief that inclusion in primary school is

is possible if there is general public awareness on the benefits of inclusive education to both

the individuals and the community. Reduce student-teacher ratio, initiate collaboration among

teachers and other stakeholders This would motivate individuals, stakeholders and state to be

pro-active to support and fund inclusive education initiatives in the nation. Change beliefs,

attitude and value for all learners within the learning community an enhance incentive for

school inclusion. All actors, stakeholders and general public must understand and embrace

inclusion in schools and society as the new normal in this century and the future. It took 40

years of apartheid rule in South Africa for people to see the need for inclusion in education

and society. what would it take for Cameroon to see the need for inclusion in education and

society?

The findings of this study is delimited to NGOs’ perceptions on inclusive education

implementation in primary schools in Cameroon and South Africa and their opinions

concerning challenges in the implementation process. The NGOs selected though qualify to

serve as representative, the results are not generalizable due to the fact that point of views

about social realities is subjective and varies from persons to person. Yet the study offers a

springboard for thinking on other non-state solutions and strategy of making inclusion in

education a reality for all learners.

The study is therefore relevant in the international and comparative education field in that it

adds to the stock of knowledge and comparative literature on inclusive education

implementation in primary schools. It initiates thinking on alternative strategies of inclusive

education implementation and encourage collaboration and networking among NGOs in the

region.

66

6.2 Recommendations for further research

The findings in this study reveals that Cameroon and South Africa differs in historical

development and societal experiences and/or changes in the society. Each context of

production and reproduction is unique resulting in unique inclusive education practices

which varies from country to country and school to school. As such it would be necessary to

conduct a longitudinal study of the NGOs activities and role in both countries in relation to

school inclusive education practices. Likewise, a longitudinal study of the Pilot schools

and/or Full service schools in Cameroon and South Africa respectively to understand the

processes, impact and progress of applying inclusive education practices to the individual,

school and community where the NGOs operate. In addition, it would be helpful to do

further investigation to understand why inclusive education implementation is slow in

countries of the South with particular attention to Cameroon and South Africa. How can the

implementation phase be improved? Could Lundgren’s concept on curriculum and

curriculum theory apply in the context of Africa? because inclusive education offers an

opportunity for every society to rethink the purpose of education (understood as a production

process which take into consideration content, methods and outcomes) for the individual, the

immediate community and the world at large. The rethinking would serve as springboard for

the development and formulation of a befitting curriculum capable of reproducing the values

and skills necessary for the sustainability of the individual and community’s needs.

Furthermore, a research on whether the two education sub-systems in Cameroon use

the same inclusive educational practices is vital in determining the success of inclusion in the

context of Cameroon.

67

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Appendix 1

Copy of Informed Consent

Topic; Inclusive Education: A comparative study of Leadership role in School inclusion

between Cameroon and South Africa. This study is carried out within the master program in

International and Comparative Education at the Institute of International Education in

Stockholm University.

Introduction

For ethical reasons, an informed consent otherwise known as ‘information sheet’ is

presented to the participants in social research to assure the participants of his/her

rights and that the researcher is committed to respecting them in the strict sense of it.

The research topic is ‘Inclusive Education’: how to describe perspectives on

school inclusion and the principals’ role in the implementation.

You are invited to participate in a comparative research study on leadership role in school

inclusion between Cameroon and South Africa. Participation is anonymous and voluntary; so

there is no harm or invasion of privacy to participants. Those who join in the study do not

risk anything since it is the researcher’s responsibility to inform, protect and respect the rights

of participants. A lot of benefits are involved if you chose to take part. It is allowed to join

and back out when necessary.

The study compares factors that facilitates and hinders school inclusion in

government primary schools. I would appreciate if you could participate.

The study involves

if you decide to participate, you will take part in an interview via skype, Facebook, Viber,

Tango, Imo, and WhatsApp, email and/or phone. This might take about thirty to one hour.

Participants have the right to withdraw from participating due to circumstances beyond their

control.

Participants’ benefits.

Participants should expect the following benefits:

International collaboration and networking with researchers and school leaders

New insight on what works and what does not for inclusion

A copy of the research findings and discussion

An anonymous recognition of participation in the thesis paper

Participant’s entitlement

Participation in this study is voluntary. You have the right not to participate at all or to leave

the study at any time. Deciding not to participate or choosing to leave the study will not result

in any penalty or loss of benefits to which you are entitled, and it will not harm your

relationship with anyone.

I would be very grateful if you can email me your response on your decision to join or not by

the end of February.

Thanks.

73

Appendix 2

Recommendation letter from my supervisor

Stockholm, February 2016

Jonas Gustafsson

PhD, Senior Lecturer

Dept of Education

jonas.gustafsson@edu.su.se

www.jongus.se

+46 8 1207 6365

To whom it may concern

Mrs Evelyn Nde is a student on the advanced level at the IIE, Institute of International and

Comparative Education at the Department of Education, Stockholm University. During

spring 2016, she is conducting a study about Inclusive Education in Cameron and South

Africa. As an important part of this research, Mrs Nde is planning to interview school

principals and other persons of importance within the education system.

As the supervisor for Mrs Nde, it is my humble wish that you want to participate in this

study. The aim is to better understand how the perspective of inclusive education can be

described, and how the role of school principals can be understood concerning implementing

inclusive education. All information in this research is collected with respect to anonymity,

and the interviewees will not be identified. We are not interested in individual opinions but

rather in national and international trends. All participation is of course completely voluntary,

but it is our sincere hope that you will want to participate.

If you have any further questions, please do not hesitate to contact me by email or phone.

Sincerely

Jonas Gustafsson

PhD, Senior Lecturer

Dept of Education

74

Appendix 3

Interview Guide Name

Gender

Age group

Years of service

The aim is to gain understand on NGOs perception concerning inclusive education

implementing in primary schools of Cameroon and South Africa and to add to the stoke of

information on how inclusive education policy is modified in primary school curriculum.

Literature on Inclusive Education policy and practice reveals a ‘top-down’

bureaucratic approach to implementation which is ambiguous, unclear, and ineffective. The

understanding, interpretation and implementation of inclusive education varies from context

to context. This knowledge raises the question of the part played by NGOs in the

implementation process at primary school level?

1 NGOs’ perceptions on inclusive education and implementation in primary

schools and the challenges.

May I know the name of your organization please?

How long have you been working in the field of IE?

If you don't mind, could you tell me your age and background?

Your position in the organization?

Does your work cover the whole country or?

What are the NGO policies?

How do you finance your work?

How would you define IE? How would you describe the perspective of IE in the

country?

What is the NGO’s perception as concerns IE implementation?

Which education sector level are the NGOs involved? What are the challenges of

implementation at this level?

Who are your partners and what are the bottlenecks for you and for them regarding

implementation of IE?

What part does NGOs play in the implementation process?

What do you see happening in the field in say 5 years from now?

The government have this policies, how are you helping the government in

implementing these policies in the education system?

75