Nigerian Journal of Rural Sociology Vol. 16, No. 1, June 2015

Nigerian Journal of Rural Sociology Vol. 16, No. 1, June 2015

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ISSN 0189 - 7543

NIGERIAN

JOURNAL OF

RURAL SOCIOLOGY

Vol. 16 No. 1 JUNE, 2015

Published by:

The Nigerian Rural Sociological Association


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THE EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor-in-Chief

Ademola Kuponiyi

Dept. of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso, Nigeria

Associate Editors

O. A. Adeokun

Olabisi Onabanjo University, College of Agricultural Sciences (Yewa Campus), Ayetoro, Ogun State,

Nigeria

Grace Adebo

Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Extension, University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria

A. J. Farinde

Dept. of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Jle-lfe, Nigeria

L. A. Akinbile

Dept. of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

Editorial Advisers

Barnabas M. Dlamini

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Swaziland, Luyengo Campus, Swaziland

A.A.Jibowo

Department of Agriculture Education, University of Swaziland, Luyengo, Swaziland

Janice E. Olawoye

Dept. of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

J. A. Kwarteng

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana

Managing Editor

O. T. Yekinni

Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

Editorial Policy

The purpose of the Journal is to provide an avenue for fostering creativity, scholarship and scientific

information in Rural Sociology, Agricultural Extension, Agricultural Economics, Human Ecology and

other related disciplines. Attention is focused on agricultural and rural development. Priority will

therefore be given to articles on rural society. The Journal will also accept methodological,

theoretical, research or applied contributions in these areas. Opportunity is open to scientists and

development experts within and outside the country to submit relevant papers for publication. The

journal basically follows a peer reviewed process in its assessment of manuscripts.


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INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

Manuscripts

Manuscripts submitted are not supposed to have been published or being considered for publication

elsewhere. Papers should be between 3,000 and 5,000 words. Only electronic copy should be

submitted; with 12 font size and Times New Roman font type and double line spaced. The TITLE of

the paper should be followed by the names, initials and address(es) of the author(s). An ABSTRACT

of about 150 words which reports the research problem, purpose, method, results and conclusion

should be provided. Keywords consisting of four to five words should be provided after the abstract.

Articles should be written in English only. Research papers, review articles, case studies, postgraduate

projects are welcome. Submit to the Editor-in-Chief through the journal’s website

http://www.journal.nrsa.org.ng.

TABLES, FIGURES and Other illustrations should be numbered consecutively and located

appropriately within texts after the point of first mention. However, authors should ensure that table

does not spill over to the next page. REFERENCE AND LEGENDS TO ILLUSTRATIONS should

be placed appropriately within the body of the paper and authors should ensure that they are in camera

ready form. Guidelines on illustrations should follow the American Psychological Association [APA]

Publication Style Manual.

FOOTNOTES should be avoided as much as possible. Acknowledgements should appear after

Conclusion before the reference list.

REFERENCES should be cited within the text as follows: Abiodun (2009) found that ................... On

the other hand, after stating the findings, the author's name and year of publication can be inserted; for

example, income was positively correlated with educational attainment (Abiodun, 2009). The

references should then appear in alphabetical order of the names of first authors in the list of

references. For the reference list, the APA Publication Style Manual should be adopted. E.g. Abiodun,

J. R. (2009) for single authored paper and Abiodun J. R. and Alabi, O. E. (2009) for double authored.

Reprints: These will be provided on request from authors.


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CONTENTS

SN Paper title Author(s) Pages

1 An exploration of emerging corrupt practices

of textile dealers identified by consumers in

Oyo state, Nigeria

Bamidele, T. A. 7 – 10

2 Analysis of sharp practices involved in

mechanisation processes amongst arable crop

farmers in Ogbomoso agricultural zone of

Oyo state, Nigeria

Bamigboye, E. O. and

Oladosu, I. O.

11 – 14

3 Approaches to overcoming corruption in the

Nigerian agricultural sector

Enwelu, I. A. 15 – 22

4 Arable crop farmers’ characteristics affecting

the utilisation of Information and

Communication Technology for Agricultural

Marketing Information in Oyo State, Nigeria

Adeniyi, R. T. and

Yekinni, O. T.

23 – 29

5 Assessment of sharp practices among farmers

in cocoa farming in Nigeria: Implications to

sustainable improvement of cocoa production

and trade

Famuyiwa, B. S.,

Oduwole, O. O., Malik,

M. B. and Williams, O. A.

30 – 37

6 Capital assets as building blocks for resiliency and sustainable livelihoods among Rural dwellers in Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands, Nigeria

Tafida, A. A. and Galtima, M.

38 – 42

7 Corrupt practices in the Growth Enhancement

Support Scheme (GESS): Empirical

evidences from farmers in Osun and Ondo

state

Lawal, B. O. and

Oyedokun, M. O.

43 – 49

8 Crop farmers’ perception of growth

enhancement scheme in curbing corruption in

inorganic fertilizer delivery in Odeda local

government area of Ogun state Nigeria

Oyetoro, J. O., Rahman,

S. B., Oladipo, S. O. and

Jolayemi, J. O.

50 – 54

9 Effect of NYSC/MDGS/WAP agro-enterprise

loan on beneficiaries’ well-being in South

west Nigeria

Tijani, S. A. and Ayinla,

M. A.

55 – 60

10 Effect of training on the use of modern

beekeeping technologies in Oyo state,

Nigeria

Eforuoku, F. and Thomas,

K. A.

61 – 66

11 Effectiveness of e-wallet scheme towards

curbing corrupt/sharp practices in agricultural

input accessibility by smallholder farmers in

Kano State, Nigeria

Yusuf, O. J., Abdullahi,

K. A. and Haruna, S. K.

67 – 75

12 Incidence of sharp practices in GES

redemption centres of Oyo state

Ladele, A. A, Oyelami, B.

O.

76 – 82


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SN Paper title Author(s) Pages

13 Perceived effect of bribery and corruption at

the grassroots: the case of local government

employees in southern Taraba, Nigeria

Lawi, B. D. and Musa, N.

Y.

83 – 86

14 Perception of corrupt practices among

extension agents of Oyo State Agricultural

development Programme (OYSADEP)

Alaka, F. A. and

Ashimolowo, O. R.

87 – 92

15 Rural women’s perception of effectiveness of

food nutrition and health

technologies/information and corruption-

induced constraints under Fadama III in Edo

state, Nigeria

Koyenikan , M. J. and E.

E. Obar

93 – 98

16 Rural women’s perception of market-related

sharp practices in Kwara state, Nigeria

Onikoyi, M. P., Olutegbe,

N. S. and Adeyemo, A. A.

99 – 105

17 Utilisation of Trade Route Incident Mapping

System (TRIMS) as an advocacy tool against

non-tariff payments among traders in Ogun

state, Nigeria

Jonathan, A. A. and

Oyelami, B. O.

106 – 110


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AN EXPLORATION OF EMERGING CORRUPT PRACTICES AMONG TEXTILE DEALERS IN

EGBEDA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

Bamidele, T. A. Department of Family Nutrition and Consumer Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture,

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-lfe, Osun state

ABSTRACT

Rural dwellers as textile consumers are prone to the pandemic corrupt practices of dealers involved in textile

manufacturing and merchandising. The need to ensure that consumers get value for money spent on textile

materials led to this study. The study investigated the corrupt practices among textile dealers in rural areas of

Oyo State. Structured interview schedule was used to elicit information from 216 consumers in Kukumoda

village, in Oyo State using purposive sampling technique. Data collected were analysed using descriptive

statistics. The results revealed that the respondents had a mean age of 35.5 years, 66.6% were females and

70.3% were married. Educational level of respondents shows that majority were non-literate. Analysis of the

corrupt practices of textile dealers shows that all (100%) of the respondents had experienced colour bleeding,

substandard and counterfeit textiles materials (100%). Other major corrupt practices were: wrong branding

and labelling (97.3%), measurement cheat (85.1%), exchange of textiles for low quality after payment (77.8%)

while 52.5% had suffered from used imported textiles not subjected to health check. Consequences of corrupt

practices of textile dealers include: frequent replacement of textiles and loss of confidence in locally made

textiles among others. This shows that consumers in the study area made choices in the consumption of textiles

based on false claims by dealers. There is an urgent need for legislation to provide consumers with more

reliable and comprehensive information about the content and the composition of the textile materials. Standard

Organization of Nigeria (SON) should be empowered to penalize erring manufacturers. Keywords: Rural dwellers, textiles, consumers, corrupt practices, dealers.

INTRODUCTION

Textile is an indispensable material widely used in every society for different purposes primarily for covering one’s nakedness. Fibre according to Jeffreys (2006) which is the major raw

material used in the production of textiles undergoes series of processes such as carding, spinning, twisting, weaving and sometimes, dyeing to produce textiles. Until recently, textiles were

basically produced from cotton. However, recent development shifted attention from cotton to synthetic-based clothing and this has left textile consumers with little or no information about

textile materials (Damalie 2009). At every stage of textile production, dealers could engage in unethical behaviour which is a precursor to fraud. The experience of consumers in recent times in the

consumption of textiles could be described as terrible and one that could endanger the safety of human life (Okunola, Lawal and Kehinde, 2014). Corruption in textiles production and

merchandising arises from the failure of manufacturers and retailers to adhere to the expected code of business conduct or specifications established by various nations across the world (Otaru, 2012). Burns et al (1997) states that several countries, including the US and the UK, are committed to rolling out enforcement programmes, with increasingly stringent standards as well as stiff

penalties that would send shock waves to clothing manufacturers as well as retailers; however, the story appears to be different in Nigeria. Corruption among textile dealers is a specific form of

misconduct engaged in by textile dealers to obtain financial benefits in textile manufacturing and

distribution instead of consumers obtaining value

for money as far as textile purchases are concerned (Jeffreys 2006). Robust evidence as declared by (NAFDAC, 2008) showed that many consumers of the above

mentioned essential material have been noted to have experienced varying degree of cheating, hurts, and short changing in the hands of numerous corrupt textile dealers. These false claims of the

manufacturers and sellers appear to have led consumers into perplexity as far as purchases are concerned (Bello-Imam 2005). Generally, textile consumers make choices based on the false claims

of manufacturers and sellers. As consumers become less tolerant of false claims of the manufacturers, efforts must be geared towards identifying these corrupt practices as well as

curbing same in the textile sector. Dearth of empirical research on the corrupt practices of textile dealer necessitated the study. This study therefore came to being as a response to this with

objectives of cross-examining the experiences of the victims of this incongruity through the dimension that the fraudulent practices is taking, corrupt practice experience of consumers in the consumption of textile materials, and the consequences of these deceptive acts on the consumers and the country at large. Therefore, the study explores the sharp

practices of textile dealers as identified by textile consumers in Kukumoda village in Oyo State so as to guarantee and help consumers to make informed buying.


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METHODOLOGY

The study was carried out in Kukumoda village, Egbeda Local Government Area, Ibadan in Oyo State. The residents of the Local Government Area are Yoruba and other tribes from various parts

of the country. The people are of Christianity, Islamic and traditional religious background and are predominantly farmers, civil servants and traders. Part of the Local Government assumes urban status as it seats around Ibadan International Airport. The selection of the village was based on the socio-economic status of the people and their accessibility to major textile markets in the city. To

evaluate false claims of the textile dealers as experienced by the consumers and consequences of such practice, structured interview schedule was used to elicit information from two hundred and

sixteen purposively selected respondents. Respondents whose garments were adjudged B-grade garments and textiles with print failure were selected at different locations in the village as this would offer a better statistical and geographical coverage of corrupt experience of rural dwellers as far as textile consumption is concerned. Information such as age, sex marital status,

occupation of respondents, types of textiles consumers consume, whether or not sharp practices take place in the textile sector, corrupt practices respondents experienced and consequences of such

act on the consumers and country at large were collected from respondents. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics in form of frequencies and percentages.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Data in Table 1 show personal characteristics of respondents. Respondents’ ages ranged between

below 30 and above 40 years with a mean of 35.5years and standard deviation 7.1607. In addition, 62.5% of respondents were between 31 and 35 years and females 66.7%. Marital status

revealed that 70.3% were married, 34.7% had no formal education but 19.0% had completed tertiary education. Also, 19.9% of respondents were students, Farming (27.8%), petty trading (33.3%)

and civil service (19.0%). Findings revealed that more than have of the respondents were youth with females constituting majority of the study population. A plausible explanation could be that women take care of domestic matters in the house in which buying of clothes is not excluded. In addition, the consumers cut across educated and non-educated although educated constituted a

slightly higher percentage compared to the non-educated ones as having education would hone respondents’ knowledge of fabric identification.

Table 1: Personal Characteristics of Respondents

Socioeconomic characteristics

Frequency Percentage

Age (yrs) < 30 31 - 35

36 - 40 >40

19 135

25 37

Mean=35.5

8.8 62.5

11.6

17.1

SD= 7.1067

Sex

Male

Female

72

144

33.3

66.7

Marital Status

Single Married

64 152

29.6 70.3

Educational level

None Primary Secondary

Tertiary

75 41 59

41

34.7 19.0 27.3

19.0

Occupation

Schooling Farming Petty Trading

Civil service

43 60 72

41

19.9 27.8 33.3

19.0

Source: Field survey, 2014

Data in Table 2 show pattern of fraudulent practices of textile dealers as identified by the

consumers. From the table, all (100%) of the respondents attested that textile dealers use low quality dye for printing textiles which crocks or bleeds easily, false guaranteeing, mislabelling and branding (93.9%), wilful importation of substandard quality textiles that did not conform to specifications (100%) and 99.1% textiles not subjected to health check. In addition, 88.9% of

respondents declared that sellers altered their measuring tapes from 36 inches to 35 inches, 79.2% reported wilful measurement cheating of the amount of fabric measured and all the respondents

indicated that textile dealers exchanged textiles for low quality materials after payment. Findings revealed that textile dealers engaged in various corrupt practices to deceive the consumers and this has given rise to the tradition of mutual suspicion among the consumers and sellers in terms of the sincerity in correctness of measuring tools being used (Odo, 2015). The attendant result of this is

gradual destruction of loyalty, which in the long run will impact negatively on the developmental process of the country if allowed to continue unrestrained and increased health problems from

unclean imported used clothing.


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Table 2: Corrupt practice of textile dealers

identified by respondents

Corrupt Practices Frequency Percentage

Use of low quality

Paint for printing

216 100

False guaranteeing,

mislabelling and

branding

203 93.9

Importation of sub

standard textiles

216 100

Importation of used

clothing not subjected

to health checks

214 99.1

Alteration of

measuring tool

192 88.9

Measurement cheat 171 79.2

Exchange of material

for low quality after

payment

216 100

Clothing purchased

Ankara 216 100

Tie-dye/batik 139 64.4

Used imported clothing 119 55.1

Cut and sew materials 211 97.7


Corrupt practices as experienced by consumers are presented in Table 3. From the Table all (100%)

of the respondents had experienced colour crocking/bleeding, 100% sub standard and counterfeit textiles materials, 97.2% had bought falsely guaranteed and mislabelled textiles while

85.2% had suffered measurement cheat In addition, 77.8% had experienced exchange of textiles for low quality material after payment and 52.8% had chosen textiles that were not subjected to health

check. Among the consumers, the range of textiles mostly purchased include Ankara (100%), tie

dye/batik-adire (64.4%), Used imported clothing (55.1%) and (97.7%) cut and sew. However,

ankara, adire and cut and sew materials constituted the most cited textiles where the consumers reported experiences of fraudulent of practice. Overall, findings revealed the existence of fraudulent practices in the production and selling of textiles and since clothing is a basic need of humans, consumers purchased textiles inspite of the sharp practices of textile dealers in the study

area as covering of one’s nakedness is a necessity. Table 3: Corrupt Practice Experience of Respondents

Corrupt experience Frequency Percentage

Colour

crocking/bleeding

216 100

Sub- standard quality 216 100

Corrupt experience Frequency Percentage

textiles

False guaranteeing and

Mislabelling

210 97.3

Measurement cheat 184 85.2

Exchange of material

for low quality after

payment

168

77.8

Hazard from imported

used clothing

114

52.8


Results in Table 4 show the consequences of the fraudulent practices of textile dealers both on the consumers and the country at large as identified

by the consumers. From the Table, all (100%) of the respondents had frequently replaced textiles at short intervals and had led to waste of money. Also, 100% of the respondents had met with disappointment in the choice of textiles made, 91.7% had suffered health hazards arising from the importation of unclean used clothing and 99.1% had lost interest in made in Nigeria textiles. In

addition, 96.8% of respondents stated that fraudulent practices of textiles dealers could led to reduction in export earnings which could portend danger for the country. These fraudulent practices

have led to a loss of interest in textiles made in Nigeria by the international community and drastic reduction in the export earnings of the country and had increased the consumption of used imported textiles which has increased health problems of consumers (Oyinola, 2011). Table 4: Consequences of the Corrupt Practices on the Consumers and the Country

Effects Frequency Percentage

Frequent replacement of

textiles

216 100

Waste of money 216 100 Loss of confidence/ Disappointment

216 100

High risk of health problems

198 91.7

Loss of interest in Nigerian textiles

214 99.1

Reduction in export earnings

209 96.8


CONCLUSION

Discovering sharp practices among textile dealers shows that corruption exists in every facet of human undertaking and not necessarily events that are peculiar to public sector and public

officials. It is obvious that the absence of straightforward and effective political self-control to ensure that the menace of corruption is curtailed at the higher level in Nigeria has provided a fertile


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ground for the same to breed and manifest at the

lower level as obtained in the textile sector.

RECOMMENDATIONS In order to curb the prevailing corrupt practices in the textile sectors and to reinstate the consumer’s

confidence in the manufacturers and sellers of textile materials:

• Effective regulatory measures for ethical standard within the society should be established;

• All stakeholders should take practical steps towards the eradication of sharp practices

being perpetrated in the textile sector;

• Manufacturers and sellers should be educated

and enlightened to uphold good ethics so that product of these industries would rival their foreign counterparts for economic buoyancy of the country;

• There is need for stability of the economy in

order to fight fraud in the society;

• Government should roll out stricter laws and legislations that would empower Standard Organization of Nigeria to enforce and mete out stiffer punishment to erring manufacturers or sellers in the textile sector.

• Subject used imported textiles to thorough health check to safeguard consumers’ health.

REFRENCES

Bello-Imam, I. B. (2005).The war against

corruption in Nigeria: Prospects and problems. The Guardian Newspaper. "EFCC; ICPC, record average performance, says poll. April 7 page 13

Burns, D. L. and Bryant, O. N. (1997). The

Business of Fashion Designing, Manufacturing and Marketing. Fairchild

Publications, New York. Damalie, S.A. (2009). A Quick Responds to

Consumers Clothing Demands. International Journal of Home Economics

Research, Ghana. 1 Pp 184-188. Jeffreys, Chris. (2006). The Complete Book of

Sewing, New Edition, U.K. Oxford University Press.

NAFDAC (2008). The humanities and Good Governance: A Philosophical appraisal,

The Nation Newspaper, October 30, page 7

Odo, L. U. (2015). The Impact and consequences of corruption on the Nigerian society and

Economy. International Journal of Arts

and Humanities, 4(1) Pp 177-190 Okunola, R. A., Lawal. M. O. and Kehinde, A. O.

(2014). Pattern and Behavioural Approach to Fraudulent Practices in the Informal Economic Setting Developing Country

Studies. 4 (23) Pp 31-37 Otaru, A. A. (2012). Corruption may be doomed

but not without a fight. Daily Trust, April 17, page 21

Oyinola, O. A. (2011). Corruption Eradication in Nigeria: An Appraisal. Library Philosophy

and Practice. World Economic Forum-GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2013-14 Source: World Economic Forum-GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2013-14


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ANALYSIS OF SHARP PRACTICES INVOLVED IN MECHANISATION PROCESSES AMONGST

ARABLE CROP FARMERS IN OGBOMOSO AGRICULTURAL ZONE OF OYO STATE, NIGERIA

Bamigboye, E.O1 and Oladosu, I.O2

1. Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 2. Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,

Ogbomoso

ABSTRACT

Agricultural Mechanization (AM) is the application of tractorisation technology into the field of agriculture to

improve agricultural output. The study investigated sharp practices involved in mechanisation processes

amongst arable crop farmers in Ogbomoso Agricultural Zone of Oyo State, Nigeria. Specifically, the personal

characteristics of respondents were described, various forms of sharp practices identified, the extent of sharp

practices on farmers’ production level examined and measures used to curb the sharp practices were identified.

A total number of 150 arable crop farmers were selected using multistage sampling technique, and requisite

information was collected using interview schedule. Frequency counts, percentages, Mechanisation process

Sharp Practices Used Index (MPSP UI) was used to access the extent of sharp practices on the arable crop

farmers. Majority (80%) of the arable crop farmers were male, only 52% had formal educational experiences at

varying levels and about 60% farmed between 5 to 8 hectares of land. Results further showed most common

sharp practices of mechanisation processes as improper farm ploughing, collection of money and refusal to go

to farmers’ farm, ploughing land only to get to a stage and disguise as if the tractor is faulty. Inability of the

arable crop farmers to ascertain the accurate farm size measurement (64%) was a major reason for being a

victim. The extent of MPSP revealed that Ploughing of land only to get to a stage and disguise as if the tractor

is faulty ranked first in the MPSPs (30.0%) among the five MPSP considered in the study It was concluded that

arable crop farmers should be educated on the correct farm size measurement to forestall future cheats, which if

not curbed can hinder optimum farm earnings.

Key words: Farm size measurement, arable crop farmers, sharp practices, farm mechanisation

INTRODUCTION

Agricultural modernisation is an inevitable process of social development, with agricultural

mechanisation as one of its important phases. According to Manta and Aduba (2013), Agricultural Mechanisation (AM) was defined as the application of tractorisation technology into the

field of agriculture to improve agricultural output. It is a deliberate or conscious departure from peasant and subsistence agriculture into commercial agriculture. This process also involves

the development and management of machines for field production, water control, material handling as well as post-harvest operations (Rahman and Lawal, 2003).

In Nigeria, farmers’ demand for agricultural machinery and their use to a great extent determine their agricultural productivity and level of awareness. Anthony (1995) was of the opinion that

if AM is implemented in the right way, it will have a considerable effect on agricultural productivity thus increasing peasant farmers’ output while optimising input cost. This in a way was supported by the work of Manta and Aduba (2013). (2003) that human being are limited to less than 0.1 KW continuous power output. Some researchers have conducted field studies

on agricultural bush clearing in the tropics. For instance Anazodo (1986) developed appropriate methods and equipment for agricultural land clearing and development in Nigeria. Oni and

Adeoti (1994) conducted field experiment to determine the effects of mechanised land clearing

and tractor traffic on agricultural soils and crop growth. Okore, et al. (2006) carried out field studies on impact of land clearing methods and

cropping systems on labile Soil C and pools in the Humid zone Forest of Nigeria. Also, Fagbemi and Gana (1994) attempted to produce guidelines for agricultural bush clearing in

Nigeria. They include processes, operational techniques, specifications and factors to consider in mechanized agricultural bush clearing. Couper, 1996 working under the International Institute for

Tropical Agriculture, produced a guide for agricultural land clearing in the tropics. Although these works are useful and relevant but they failed to give a comprehensive approach to mechanised

agricultural bush clearing, and why many of the farmers are not breaking even, one of the major reasons is the insincerity on the part of the tractor operators which this present work conceived as

sharp practices. Sharp practices could be defined as a clever way of cheating on an individual using the ignorance of the other party. Most farmers in Ogbomoso Agricultural Zone of Oyo State are aware of mechanisation technologies and farming that are most suitable for their agricultural environments The general objective of this study was to

analyse sharp practices that are involved in mechanisation processes among arable crop farmers in Ogbomoso Agricultural Development Zone of Oyo State, Nigeria. The specific objectives

included to:


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(1) describe the personal characteristics of the

arable crop farmers, (2) identify various sharp practices in

mechanisation processes (3) determine extent of involvement in sharp

practices of mechanisation processes on arable crop farmers production level

METHODOLOGY

The study was conducted in Ogbomoso Agricultural Zone, Oyo State, Nigeria between April and May 2015. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used for sample selection. At the

first stage, Ogbomoso Agricultural Zone was purposively selected for the study due to the predominance of arable crop farmers in the zone. The population of the study were all arable crop

farmers in the selected local governments. The second stage involved a random selection of three Local Government Areas of the Zone, Orire, Ogo oluwa and Surulere that have a high concentration of arable crop farmers. At the third stage, 50 farmers were randomly selected in each of the LGAs used for the study. A total of 150 respondents were used for the study.

Data for the study were collected through the use of validated structured interview schedule. Frequency distribution, percentages, means and standard deviation were used to describe the data.

Mechanisation process Sharp Practices Used Index (MPSP UI) was used to assess the extent of sharp practices on the arable crop farmers.


Personal characteristics of respondents

Results revealed that most arable crop farmers in the study area were male. This is especially true

since 80.0% of the arable crop farmers were male. Majority (72.7%) were between ages of 40-59 years. Two-third (69.3%) of the arable crop farmers were Christians. Majority (86.7%) were married,

8.7% single and 4.7% were widowers. This high population of married respondents is in conformity with the local culture identified by Jibowo (2003) that majority of adult populations in southwestern

Nigeria are married. This could suggest additional farm labour from children and spouses. The average household size was 6.54±2.87 persons. Educational level of respondents showed that 52% had educational experiences at varying levels. Though respondents in the study area appear not to be highly educated, they may not have problem appreciating new farm ideas and innovations when

disseminated to them. (Table 1).

Table 1: Distribution of respondents by age, sex,

religion, marital status, household size and educational level; n=150

Variable Frequency Percentage

Age 20-29 8 5.3

30-39 27 18.0 40-59 109 72.7 Above 60 6 4.0

Sex Male 120 80 Female 30 20

Religion Christianity 104 69.3

Islam 35 23.3 Traditional adherence 8 5.3 No affliction 3 2

Marital status

Single 13 8.7 Married 130 86.7 Widowed 7 4.7

Household size 1-4 45 30.0 5-8 89 59.3 9-12 12 8.0 13-20 2 1.3

Above 21 1 0.7

Educational level Pry education only 18 12.0 Secondary education 60 40.0 No formal education 72 48.0


The result in Table 2 shows that 53.3% of the arable crop farmers had farm size between 5-6.99 hectares. The large farm size of the arable crop farmers shows the true characteristic feature of commercial farming as involving large farm size. It can be inferred from the study that farmers in the study area are experienced since more than half of

them 61.3% indicated having up to 10years experience in arable crop production. Table 2 further shows that land acquisition is mostly by lease and that 68.6% had functional contact with

extension agents. This finding is in line with the report of Bamigboye (2015) who reported that only 60% of farmers actually had functional contact with an extension agent and that other contacts are not functional in Ekiti State. Table 2: Distribution of respondents by farm size, farming experience, method of acquiring land and functional contact with extension agents; n=150

Variables Frequency Percentage

Farm size (ha) ˂ 1 10 6.7 1-2.99 15 10.0

3.0-4.99 35 23.3

5-6.99 80 53.3

7 and above 10 6.7


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Farming experience

1-5 8 5.3 6-10 50 33.3 10 and above 92 61.3

Method of acquiring land

Family inheritance 42 28.0 Outright purchase 18 12.0 Lease 85 56.6 Gift 5 3.3

Functional contact with

extension agents

Yes 103 68.6 No 47 31.3


Farmers’ awareness about MPSPs

Result in Table 3 shows that about 68.0% were aware about MPSPs whereas 40.0% claimed that they were not aware of any MPSPs. The implication is that many of the farmers may not be interacting with other farmers in the neighbourhood and consequently become the victims of sharp practices.

Table 3: Farmers’ awareness about MPSPs


Yes 102 68.0 No 48 32.0


Types of MPSPs in which tractor operators

duped arable crop farmers

Result in Table 4 shows that almost half (45.3%) of the arable crop farmers were being affected by MPSPS inform of incorrect farm size measurement as one of the areas where tractor

operators practice their dubious act in form of sharp

practices. Improper farm ploughing (17.3%), collected money and refused to do the work at the scheduled time(14.7%), collected money and refused to go to farmers farm (12.0%). All these

were the various sharp practices in ascending orders. Detailed analysis revealed that the five identified sharp practices, if not curtailed, can impede agricultural development initiatives. Table 4: Distribution of respondents by the types of mechanisation process sharp practices

MPSP Frequency Percentage

Improper farm ploughing 26 17.3 Collection of money and

refusal to go to farmers’ farm

18

12.0

Ploughing of land only to get to a stage and disguised

as if the tractor is faulty

16 10.6

In correct farm size measurement

68 45.3

Collect money and refusal to do the work at the scheduled time

22

14.7


Extent of Mechanisation processes sharp

practices

Result in Table 5 shows the extent of MPSPs using sharp practices index (SPI). The result shows that Ploughing of land only to get to a stage and

disguise as if the tractor is faulty ranked first in the MPSPs (30.0%) among the five MPSP considered in the study.

Table 5: Ranking of MPSP by extent of involvement

MPSP Large extent

Some extent

Small extent

None extent

MPSPI % Rank

Improper farm ploughing 12 10 2 1 24 10.1 4th

Collection of money and refusal to go to farmers farm

48 16 4 2 68 28.7 2nd

Ploughing of land only to get to a stage and disguised as if the tractor is faulty

60 8 5 73 30.8 1st

In correct farm size

measurement

39 12 4 4 54 22.7 3rd

Collect money and refusal to do the work at the scheduled time

- 16 2 - 18 7.6 5th

Summation (∑) = 237

Suggested ways to curb MPSPs sharp practices

Result in Table 6 shows ways suggested by arable crop farmers to curb mechanization processes sharp practices, 53.2% suggested that Government should embark on land preparation services for farmers as this will guide against incorrect farm size measurement that is one of the serious MPSP that farmers are victim. Also, 48.0%

suggested that farmers should form themselves into group to purchase a tractor as this will enhance good job performance and curtail unreasonable behaviour of commercial tractor hiring services, 22.2% were of the opinion that farmers should own and educated on how to use GPS. Detailed analysis revealed that if the suggested ways to curb mechanisation processes sharp practices are


14

followed religiously the opportunity to curb it will

be very high. Table 6: Distribution of arable crop farmers by suggested ways to curb sharp practices


Farmers to strive to own personal tractor

23

15.3

Group of farmers to strive to own personal tractor

72

48.0

Farmers to be educated on how to use GPS

34

22.7

Government should embark in land preparation services for farmers

82

53.2


CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION Sharp practices in mechanisation processes in

agricultural production have been identified. In conclusion, the findings of the study revealed that most arable crop farmers in the study area were aware of mechanisation processes sharp practices,

and they have been a victim one way or the other. The MPSPs that farmers are mostly involved are incorrect farm size measurement and improper farm ploughing. The key suggestions on how to

curb the MPSPs are, Government should embark in land preparation services for farmers and that farmers should form themselves into groups to purchase tractors. The study recommended proper utilisation of tractor and that extension agents should endeavour to educate the farmers on how to determine the farm size of their farm land.

REFERENCES

Anazodo, U. G. N. (1986): Appropriate methods and equipment for agricultural land clearing and development in Nigeria: basic

considerations. An invited paper presented at the National Workshop on Soil Erosion and Land Clearing and Soil Testing. Centre for Rural Development and Co-operatives, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. 24 pages.

Anthony penin, (1995): Empirical Evidence of mechanization effects on Smallholder Crop

Production Systems in Botswana,

Agricultural System 41(1995) 199-210 Bamigboye E.O (2015) Analysis of Indigenous

Climate Change Adaptation Strategies among Arable Crop Farmers in Ekiti and

Oyo States, Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology. Ogbomoso PP240

Couper, D.C. (1996) Land Clearing for Agricultural Research Stations. IITA Research Guide 5. Ibadan Nigeria. 16 pages.

Fagbemi, A. A. and Gana, G. I. 1994. The sequence

of NALDA land development activities. National Agricultural Land Development Authority. Abuja, Nigeria.1- 10 pages.

Jibowo, A.A(2003):Essential of Rural Sociology,

Gbemi Sodipo Press Ltd. Abeokuta, Nigeria.pp 21

Manta, I.H and Aduba, J.J (2013): Mechanisation Practice: A tool for Agricultural Development in Nigeria: A case study of Ifelodun Local Government Area of Kwara State. International Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences Vol.2. No.3 . 2013pp

98-106 NCAER,(1973): Impact of Mechanisation in

Agriculture on Employment Report of National Council of Applied Economic

Research , New Delhi. Okore, I. K; Tijani-Eniola H; Agboola. A. A. and

Aiyelari, E.A. (2006): Impact of land clearing methods and cropping systems on

labile soil C and N pools in the humid zone forest of Nigeria. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, ELSEVIER 120 (2007), 250-258.

Oni, K .C and Adeoti, J. S. (1994): Mechanized land clearing and tractor traffic effects on agricultural soil and crop growth. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa

and Latin America. 36 (4). 25-29. Rahman, S. A. and Lawal, A. B. (2003): Economic

analysis of maize-based cropping systems in Giwa Local Government Area of Kaduna

State, Nigeria, An International Journal of

Agricultural Sciences, Science, Environment

and Technology.3:139-148


15

APPROACHES TO OVERCOMING CORRUPTION IN THE NIGERIAN AGRICULTURAL SECTOR

Enwelu, I. A. Department of Agricultural Extension, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

Email Addresses: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The paper explored the causes and effects of corruption in the Nigerian agricultural sector and various

approaches to overcome it and prevent it in the long-run. The paper was based on desk review of available

relevant literature. Information was accessed through web search, journals, newspapers, magazines, books and

reports. The major causes of corruption identified were: colonial influence, ethnic inclination/patron-client

relationships; psychological influence and poor remuneration/ condition of service. The effects of corruption in

the agricultural sector included: strangled economic development, neglect of real development priorities in

favour of oil, widened the gap between the rich and the poor, increased debt burden- loans paid to private

pockets, thus creating opportunity for food for thought and in the short-run increasing economic efficiency. The

main approaches to overcome corruption include: awareness creation/campaign against corruption, strong

political will backed with financial resources; creation of strong and durable institutions in terms of ethical

reorientation; revitalized functional civil service; and full independent anti-corruption commission. In

conclusion, corruption is prevalent in all facets of human endeavour. It cuts across professions, faiths, religious

denominations and political systems and affects both young and old, man and woman alike. There is need for a

renewed focus on agriculture to rid it of corruption and inefficiency. It is important that corruption stamped out

in our agricultural sector to serve our poor rural farming communities better.

Keywords: Agriculture sector, corruption, patron-client relationship

INTRODUCTION

Nigeria is undoubtedly one of the most richly endowed nations of the world in terms of human

and natural resources. Unfortunately, Nigeria today is one of the developing countries struggling to feed her citizens who incidentally are mostly engaged in agricultural production. Historically,

agriculture is one of the oldest occupations dating back from early man who was engaged in gathering of fruits and food crops. In Nigeria, agriculture was the dominant sector of the economy before the oil

boom era. According to World Bank (1989), agriculture has always been expected to play a key role in supplying food for the population and raw materials for industry, providing employment,

earning foreign exchange and serving as a market for the industrial sector. The ability of the agricultural sector to fulfil these roles has varied over the last three decades. Presently, the capacity

of agriculture to fulfil these roles has worsened. One of the factors militating against the performance of the agricultural sector in fulfilling these roles is corruption.

According to Dike (2008), there are many unresolved problems in Nigeria, but the issue of the upsurge of corruption is troubling. And the damages it has done to the polity are astronomical. It is believed by many in the society that corruption is the bane of Nigeria. Consequently, the issue keeps reoccurring in every academic and informal discussion in Nigeria. And the issue will hardly go

away soon! Corruption is prevalent in all facets of human endeavour. Some writers say that corruption is endemic in all governments, and that it is not

peculiar to any continent, region and ethnic group. It cuts across faiths, religious denominations and

political systems and affects both young and old, man and woman alike. Corruption is found in democratic and dictatorial politics; feudal,

capitalist and socialist economies. Christian, Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist cultures are equally bedevilled by this monster. Corrupt practices did not begin today; the history is as old

as the world. Ancient civilizations have traces of widespread illegality and corruption. Thus, corruption has been ubiquitous in complex societies from

ancient Egypt, Israel, Rome, and Greece down to the present time (Lipset and Lenz, 2000). Although corruption can be found in all countries and cultures, some countries are more

prone to corruption than others. Similarly, corruption can be found in every profession: medicine, pharmacy, law, education, and agriculture to mention but a few. And so,

corruption in the agricultural sector is the main focus of this paper. Generally speaking, corruption is a perversion or a change from good to bad (Dike, 2008).

Specifically, it involves the violation of established rules for personal gain and profit (Sen, 1999) and efforts to secure wealth or power through illegal means/ private gain at public expense; or a misuse of public power for private benefit (Lipset and Lenz, 2000). This definition includes such behaviour as bribery (use of a reward to pervert the judgment of

a person in a position of trust); nepotism (bestowal of patronage by reason of ascriptive relationship rather than merit); and misappropriation (illegal appropriation of public resources for private uses

(Banfield, 1958; United Nations, 1990). Furthermore, Osoba (1996) defines corruption as


16

an anti-social behaviour conferring improper

benefits contrary to legal and moral norms, and which undermine the authorities to improve the living conditions of the people. Dike (2008) observes that even though some of

these definitions of corruption have been around for over decades, the recent development in Nigeria where discoveries of stolen public funds run into billions of US Dollars and Nigeria Naira, make these definitions very adequate and appropriate. Corruption is probably the main means to accumulate quick wealth in Nigeria. Corruption occurs in many forms, and it has contributed

immensely to the poverty and misery of a large segment of the Nigerian population. It is also pertinent to observe that the foregoing definitions of corruption have bearing in the

agricultural sector. Consequently, the overall objective of this paper is to explore various approaches to overcome corruption in the agricultural sector. Specifically, the paper sought to: identify causes of corruption in agriculture in Nigeria; describe instances of corruption in agricultural sector; ascertain effects of corruption on agriculture; as well as determine approaches to

overcoming/ preventing corruption in the agricultural sector.

METHODOLOGY

The paper was based on desk review of available relevant literature. Information was accessed mainly through web search, journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, books and

reports.


Causes of corruption in agriculture in Nigeria

It is an effort in futility to treat an ailment without establishing the cause. The causes of corruption in Nigeria are many and diverse and as such have trickled down and/or overwhelmed the

agricultural sector. Attempt is made in this study to present causes of corruption in agriculture in Nigeria thus:

Colonial influence

Prior to the colonial period, Nigeria culture and economy had little or no corrupting tendencies and as such few cases of corruption if any could be observed. The origin of corruption in Nigeria can be traced to the time of colonial invasion of Africa. Johnson (1995) defines colonialism as international system of economic exploitation in which more powerful nations dominate weaker ones. However,

Munyae and Gwen (1998) make a distinction between two phases of colonialism namely active and passive colonialism. The former refers to conquest of a people followed by the direct control

(or domination) of the same by conquerors using a combination of measures such as military coercion

and dominance of major internal institutions such

as polity. The later, on the other hand represents what is commonly referred to as neo-colonialism or extension of especially economic domination of a people beyond the attainment of self rule. This

second phase of colonization is associated with practices, policies and structures inherited from the first phase. The researchers affirm that active colonialism is associated with the origin/birth of corrupt practices while passive colonialism is considered to be partially responsible for the entrenchment of it. As stated earlier, since African (Nigerian)

economy could not accommodate corruption, the industrial revolution of the 19th century pioneered by colonial masters provided a fertile ground for corruption. It was the financial growth which

accompanied this historical event that was directly responsible for the birth of white-collar crime which is a component of corruption (Robb, 1992; Munyae and Gwen, 1998). This behaviour was instilled into the colonial peoples during the colonial period and was carried into the post colonial era. This was inevitable considering the fact that colonialism was an extension of the new

economic order and its concomitant problems which resulted from industrial revolution. Since corruption requires a well developed monetary economy to thrive, the new economies

promoted by colonial governments had to nurture the conditions for the evolution of structures that were conducive to corrupt practices. One way to achieve that was introduction of payment of taxes

by the colonized countries. In Nigeria, British government introduced compulsory tax payable only in cash for purposes of meeting the cost of administration and generation of cheap labour

necessary for the establishment of productive activities (Munyae and Gwen, 1998). According to them, it was not the introduction of taxation per se

that encouraged corrupt behaviour but the manner

in which the tax itself was collected. To collect taxes, the colonial government mostly relied on local leaders and especially the chiefs. Above all, to motivate them to generate as much tax revenue as

possible and to do so with zeal, the colonial administration allowed the chiefs to retain a part of it. This practice led to taking of kickbacks by African chiefs (Nigeria). This scenario, gave an entirely new meaning to the traditional practice of giving gifts to chiefs which had existed in different parts of Africa long before colonialism. In the British ‘gift’ to chiefs, it

was a source of inducement to use obnoxious means to collect taxes from their kinsmen. Gradually, these corrupting tendencies grew and matured and the beneficiaries (chiefs) became

instrument of oppression and retrogression – a phenomenon being witnessed in contemporary


17

time. The task force sent to establish agricultural

projects in communities colluded with the chiefs in the communities to frustrate the projects. Blinded by the financial gains, the chiefs collaborated with the colonial masters and coerced

African men, migrant labourers and even slaves to work in their industries (including agro-allied industries) at their home country. The women were left at home to carry out farm work and even sell their few animals to augment money for payment of tax (Colclough and McCarthy, 1980; Tlou and Campbell, 1984).

Ethnic inclination/patron-client relationships

The post colonial African leaders applied the principle of divide and rule which they learned from the colonial masters by favouring one tribe over another. The political equation in Nigeria has

been such that one major tribe joins another major tribe to be in power and share the ‘national cake’. Such patron-client relationships are maintained through corrupt practices. Munyae and Gwen (1998), state that people in such position are not only overwhelmed with financial pressure from their family, but also from kin, clan, hometown and tribal or ethnic constituents. Such obligations are

almost always fulfilled through corrupt means. Thus the participants in corruption are many besides the politicians or elites who actually engage in the act (Brima, 2009).

Psychological influence

According to Brima (2009), there are numerous psychological factors that can help to explain some causes of corruption. Internally, some

people are ‘naturally evil’ and will commit criminal acts, including corrupt ones in any type of system. However, pressure and peer comparison can contribute greatly to acts of corruption especially

where the socially revered are the corrupt ones. For instance, a person who corruptly enriched himself and ‘helped’ his people secure employment in agricultural institution where he served will be

given a red carpet reception while his counterpart who avoided being entangled in corruption will be ignored and derided in his/her community. This can impact psychological effects on the upcoming ones

who see such people and others around them benefiting from corruption being recognized to choose to indulge in corruption too.

Poor remuneration/condition of service

One major direct cause of corruption in the agricultural sector is poor and untimely remuneration and condition of service of agricultural staff. If the take home pay of any

worker is not enough to take care of the family and other immediate needs, there will be compelling need to seek other means of making both ends to meet although one may be tempted to say that such

means must not be through corrupt practices like taking bribes or embezzling public funds, but

psychological influence of the surrounding

environment may compel the person to see corruption as the easiest option. Also, judicial system where the culprits (corrupt workers) are to be disciplined is affected by the same poor

conditions of service. In such situations, it is the poor people that suffer the brunt of injustices as the rich always stand a better chance of getting justice over the poor. A typical case of poor condition of service and corruption that follows it was the abuse of motorcycles provided to extension agents by the World Bank to help them in their farm and home visits. When the World Bank handed over the

Agricultural Development Projects to the states, the allowances to maintain the motorcycles were stopped and extension agents began to use the motorcycles for transportation (“Okada”) business.

Instances of corrupt practices in agricultural

sector

Land title/tenure - Land is a major factor in agricultural production. However, in rural Nigeria, land ownership is one of the key limiting factors of production (Peterman et al., 2010). The land tenure system in Nigeria encouraged fragmentation of land such that land required by farmers to engage

in profitable agribusiness is rarely available. The Nigerian land use Act of 1978 nationalised all land and vested authority in the State Governor who holds it in trust on behalf of all. In practice

however, the way land is owned and accessed varies from place to place in Nigeria and can be an amalgam of traditional, Islamic Sharia and other local governance practices (Mabogunje, 2010). The

Land Use Act instead of solving the problem of land users including farmers become politicised such that the process of obtaining Certificate of Occupancy is fraught with corrupt practices starting

from the clerk that carries file to the highest authority. In rural areas, women who are the majority that use land for agricultural purposes some times fall into the hand of fraudsters who

promise to give land to them. Sometimes, people requiring land for agricultural purposes procure land through individuals that have multiple titles to the land. Rodney (2002) confirms that problems

with land ownership, registration, tenure and sales impede agricultural development in many countries. Multiple titles exist on many parcels and the rights of family members, especially women and children, are not well defined in some societies. Moreover, registration of title is often a slow, complex, and costly process, which is vulnerable to bribes offered or demanded for service.

Distribution of farm inputs/credit

availability - Farm inputs are required for the agricultural sector to flourish in Nigeria. For instance fertiliser, agrochemicals, improved crop

and animal varieties etc are needed to boost agricultural productivity. Unfortunately,


18

government officials responsible for equitable

distribution and sale of these commodities take bribes and even make the process of getting the materials complex and difficult. Farmers who may require credit to engage in farm business face the

same ordeal. According to Rodney (2002), corruption occurs in the allocation of government-subsidised credit. Most typically, unnecessary fees and percentage payments are ways that government officials use to garner funds when granting credit. Farm supply/transportation - Another area corruption manifests in agricultural sector is supply/transportation of agricultural equipment and

materials. For instance people empowered to import farm machinery and irrigation equipment negotiate with manufacturers to supply inferior products at the same amount for the superior

products. Also, transporters of agricultural equipment and materials collude with government officials to divert the goods to unknown destinations sometimes outside the shores of the country. Rodney (2002) asserts that corruption in government contracts or licenses for agricultural supplies is common. Poor quality, undelivered goods and high prices are typical outcomes from

collusion between government officials and private sector firms. An example is a government agency buying fertiliser from a private sector company at an elevated price and receiving a share of the profit.

This increases the cost of agricultural production and eliminates competition in the fertiliser industry as other firms have little chance of getting the government contract.

Product standards and certification -

Product standards and certification constitute another source of corruption, as individual producers attempt to bribe produce inspectors to

get the desired certification. The efforts of Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON) are appreciated but the effects are yet to be felt by poor farmers who are the main beneficiaries. The development of

quality improvement centres in rural communities in Nigeria will help support objective grading of products by pooling produce for inspection and eliminating the opportunity for individual

producers to offer bribes (Rodney, 2002). White elephant projects - Poorly executed projects especially in the agricultural sector are the conduit for personal enrichment. There are many cases of abandoned agricultural projects in the country because of corruption. For instance the Vegetable Oil Production Plant in Nachi Enugu State known as (AVOP) established by old

Anambra State Government was razed down by fire to cover up corruption in the industry. Similarly, the first cashew processing industry for export in Nigeria was established by Premier

Cashew Processing Industry at Oghe, in Ezeagu Local Government Area of Enugu State. The

factory was modernized in 1989 when an ultra-

modern Japanese technology was installed to increase the operating capacity to about 2000 metric tonnes per year. However, the plant has since been closed down due to management

problem (Ezeagu, 2002). The Cotton Mill industry in the North has sacked most of its staff and others remaining are being owed months of unpaid salaries. The Fertiliser Plant at Onne Port Harcourt to mention but a few is an agriculture related project operating at skeletal level far below the objectives of setting it up. The canker worm stifling the life of these projects and more is corruption

within and among all stakeholders involved in managing the projects. It is pertinent to observe that agricultural projects like the Rubber Estate in Ondo State being managed by foreign stakeholders

continues to function optimally and contributing to economic growth of the country because of zero tolerance to corruption.

Effects of corruption in the agricultural

sector - The effects of corruption on a nation’s socio-political and economic development are myriad. Agriculture is the backbone of any developing country and as such when agricultural

sector is adversely affected all other sectors are equally affected. Corruption is a monster that has directly and indirectly affected agricultural sector for decades. The effects of corruption in the

agricultural sector are mainly negative although positive effects may be argued. The summary of effects of corruption is as follows:

Strangulating economic development -

Corruption in agricultural sector strangles economic development through poor execution of agro-industrial projects. Agro-allied industries are fraught with such corrupt practices as bribery,

nepotism, misappropriation, kickback etc. Consequently, the ability of these industries to generate income and employment is hampered with poor resource farmers seriously receiving the bulk

of the impacts. Corruption presents a scenario where money meant for development of a particular agricultural project is not released because the opportunity of embezzling the money

is not clearly established. This has negative impacts on economic growth. Lipset and Lenz (2000) note that the effect on growth, is in part, a result of reduced level of investment, as it adds to investment risk. Corruption is a complex phenomenon. Its roots lie deep in bureaucratic and political institutions, and its effect on development varies with country conditions. But while costs may

vary and systemic corruption may coexist with strong economic performance, experience suggests that corruption is bad for development. It leads governments to intervene where they need not, and

it undermines their ability to enact and implement policies in areas in which government intervention


19

is clearly needed—whether environmental

regulation, health and safety regulation, social safety nets, macroeconomic stabilization, or contract enforcement (World Bank, 1997).

Neglect of real development priorities in

favour of oil - One of the greatest impacts of corruption normally arises out of the choices and priorities of governments. This occurs when the real development priorities of a country are often neglected in favour of those that generate the greatest personal gains for the decision makers. Here, it is clearly evident that many projects have become white elephants and easy route for personal

enrichment (Brima, 2009). The discovery of oil in Nigeria opens a greater opportunity for policy makers and administrators to generate the greatest personal gain through corrupt practices. There was

so much money in the country then that the problem of managers of the economy was how to spend the money. Agriculture which would have been a willing horse to receive the money in other to lay a solid foundation for real development was utterly neglected. The agricultural programmes by successive governments in Nigeria like Operation Feed the Nation, Green Revolution etc are poorly

implemented because of corruption. Nwakoby (2007) laments that there is lack of integrity, accountability and transparency on the part of people who are supposed to implement

developmental projects in the rural areas. Public funds (made for rural projects) are stashed away in bank vaults in Europe and America, while an overwhelming proportion of the population live in

abject poverty.

Widening of the gap between the rich and

the poor - Another serious effect of corruption in the agricultural sector is its ability to widen the gap

between the rich and the poor. In developing country like Nigeria where majority of people are engaged in agriculture, any diversion of money meant for agricultural projects is likely to

negatively affect the larger population which are mostly poor farmers. Developing economies are predominantly buffeted with barrages of corrupt practices that have deep anchorage in the socio-

political and cultural psyche and existence in such nations. This is particularly so in Sub-Saharan Africa where majority of the populations especially in the rural areas suffer untold hardship as a result of what can be termed as organised or systematised corruption (Brima, 2009). Increase in debt burden - Governments at various levels (federal, state and local) in Nigeria

have embarked on various strategies geared towards making funds (in form of loans) available to farmers to improve agricultural production. When loans taken by governments on the pretext of

undertaking some agricultural projects are diverted to private accounts and coffers, the attendant effect

is that such loans would have to be paid with

interest and at the same time increasing the debt burden of the country (Brima, 2009).

Corruption in increasing economic

efficiency only on the short-run - There is this

believe that giving bribes to agricultural staff in order to procure farm inputs like fertiliser, agro-chemicals, improved varieties of crops/animals etc may help the farmers meet up with their time-bound activities. This may be true in the short-run but in the long-run the cost of production will increase thereby increasing the profitability of the farm business. World Bank (1997) argues that

corruption may not distort the short-run efficiency of an economy if it merely entails a transfer of economic rents from a private party to a government official. It however agrees that the

problem with this line of reasoning is that it fails to take into account any objective other than short-term efficiency. Opportunity for food for thought - Although it is hard to believe, but when corruption has gone full circle, there may be a ray of light at the end of the tunnel. This is because the slightest opportunity of change can be overwhelmingly embraced by

majority of the people like what is being witnessed in Nigeria recently. Similarly, Dike (2008) reports that the scandals associated with the Abacha era (looting of the treasury and human rights

violations) have given the nation some food for thought. The last administration of Good-luck Ebele Jonathan is currently under attack. Nigeria is still perplexed and preoccupied with the issues of

how to strengthen the nation’s essential governmental structures to avoid the reoccurrence of these kinds of looting and atrocities in future. Gluckman (1955) also opines that scandals

associated with corruption sometimes have the effect of strengthening a value system of a society as a whole. However, according to Dike (2008), the apparent benefits of corruption notwithstanding, no

right thinking person in Nigeria where ubiquitous corruption has ravaged the society will agree that corruption is beneficial, no matter how plausible it may be.

Approaches of overcoming corruption in the

agricultural sector

There may be no single approach that can stamp out corruption completely in our society. Only multifaceted approaches can attempt to ameliorate the effect of corruption in the short-run and when sustained may prevent corruption in the long-run. Therefore, there may be no clear-cut

short-run and long-run approaches in overcoming corruption as most short-run approaches may continue in the long-run. However, for the purpose of this study, short-run and long-run approaches of

overcoming corruption in agriculture are presented.


20

Short-run approaches to overcome corruption

in agriculture

Awareness creation/campaign against corruption - The best way to start the war against corruption is through awareness creation/campaign.

The general public including the farmers shall be inundated with information of the evil of corruption in agriculture. The media including radio, television, newspaper, magazine, social media (face-book, twitter etc) and other communication outfits should be used in enlightening all segments of the society on the negative effects of corruption on our collective survival. Agricultural institutions

should organise seminars, symposia, conferences and other academic fora to enlighten stake holders in agriculture about the need to fight the scourge (corruption). Faith-based organisations and other

governmental organisations should be in fore-front in the campaign against corruption.

Political will/finance to prosecute

corruption in agriculture - This awareness/campaign should be followed by the political will and adequate finance by governments (federal, states, and local governments) to fight corruption in agriculture. The go vernments should

identify and prosecute known recent cases of corruption in agriculture. There is need to unravel what led to poor performance of Songhai Farms in some States of Nigeria, skeletal services by Cotton

Mill and Fertiliser Plant at Onne, Port Harcourt. Dike (2008) affirms that prosecuting all the known corrupt political heavy weights in the society should be put into practice as they contribute in

making the nation’s inchoate laws inoperable. However, this will only be a temporary measure in fighting corruption. Principally, only men and women of virtue have the moral justification to

wage the war of corruption.

Tough penalties/rules with vigorous

enforcement - It is not enough to prosecute people involved in corruption if adequate punishment is

not meted out to them to serve as deterrent to others. Those prosecuted and found culpable should be made to face the laws of the land. There shall be no sacred cows. There shall be put in place

adequate rules and regulations guiding all operations in agriculture and punishments for circumventing any of the rules and regulations. Also, there shall be watch dogs trained like the forest guards and deployed to police all agricultural projects to ensure vigorous enforcement of these rules. Dike (2008) affirms that making tough rules with vigorous enforcement can deter corrupt

behaviour. However, it is important to point out here that use of force to fight corruption may not be a sustainable approach because when the force is removed people may revert to the status quo.

Officers who are in position of power and

authority must be well remunerated - An Igbo

adage says, “You cannot give a person with dry

skin palm oil to keep for you”. Similarly, it is very risky to assume that agricultural staff who handle and receive funds for agricultural projects should imbibe the virtues of integrity not to tamper with

the funds when back home their families or loved ones cannot eat or be taking to hospital for treatment. In-fact, all staff of agriculture should be well paid and on time especially the chief executive, those in charge of project monitoring and execution, finance and audit staff and staff charged with the responsibility of enforcing rules and regulations. The officer receiving the payment

would know that corrupt behaviour may involve serious loss of a high-salary employment if things were to go bad (that is, if he or she is caught with his or her hand in the cookie jar) (Sen, 2000).

Long-run approaches to prevent corruption in

agriculture

Agricultural extension education approach -

One of the cardinal objectives of extension is education of clientele to bring about changes in their attitude, skill and knowledge. According to Laogun (2011), every extension worker is a teacher with no fixed classroom but wherever he/she meets

people. His teaching is not by courses of study formally arranged, but is on any problem of immediate importance in farming or rural living such as corruption. Therefore, the extension agency

can be reorganised to emphasize the teaching of zero tolerance to corruption in the agricultural sector. The extension agents in addition to their normal training of farmers should also train them to

abhor corruption by refusing to give or take bribes in any agricultural undertaking. This can be achieved through value re-orientation and sensitization of farmers to imbibe patriotic spirit.

According to Dike (2008), the re-orientation of the youth in Nigeria to a good value system could help in the war against corruption. The World Values Surveys of 1990-1993 has a lot of attitude and

value information, which notes a relationship between values and corruption (World Values Study Group, 1994). Preaching the gospel and practice of virtue is the ultimate solution to

behavioural change and reduction in corruption. The farmers should be made to express love for their country by shunning corruption.

Strengthening of social and governmental

institutions - There is need to strengthen institutions such as banks, schools, clubs, cooperatives, labour rotatory groups etc which are directly or indirectly involved in agriculture with a

view to ridding them of corruption. The process of obtaining agricultural loans should be simple and transparent. A mechanism should be put in place such that bank official collaborators in crime

should easily be detected and adequately punished. The children in schools should be taught moral and


21

citizenship lessons early in life and reward system

put in place for exemplary students/pupils.

Full independent anti-corruption outfit - Corruption fighters club can be established in both rural and urban areas to wage war against

corruption in the agricultural sector. This outfit should be fully independent and free from control and manipulation of any other authority in issues of corruption and other related offences. Also, it should be well funded through direct budget

allocation.

CONCLUSION

Corruption is prevalent in all facets of human endeavour. It cuts across professions, faiths, religious denominations and political systems and affects both young and old, man and woman alike.

Origin of corruption in Nigeria can be traced to the colonial invasion of Africa. Pressure and peer comparison contribute greatly to acts of corruption especially where the socially revered are the corrupt ones. There are instances of corruption in land title/tenure for agricultural purposes as well as in distribution of farm inputs or in the allocation of government subsidised credit. Corruption in

agricultural sector strangles economic development through poor execution of agro-industrial projects. Short-run approaches to overcome corruption in agriculture include political will to prosecute all

known cases of corruption in agriculture and tough penalties/rules with vigorous enforcement. Long-run approach to prevent corruption in agriculture is through agricultural extension education approach.

There is need for a renewed focus on agriculture to rid it of corruption and inefficiency. There is dire need to stump out corruption in our agricultural sector and serve our poor rural farming

communities better.

REFERENCES

Banfield, Edward (1958). The Moral Basis of a

Backward Society (Chicago: Free Press) Brima, (2009). The Negative Effects of Corruption

on Developing Nations: A Perspective on Sierra Leone’s Effort to (Centre for

Accountability and Rule of Law – CARL, Sierra Leone) http://carl-sl.org/home/articles/125-the-negative-effects-of-corruption-on-developing-nations-a-perspective-on-sierra-leones-effort-to

Colclough, C. and S. McCarthy (1980). The Political Economy of Botswana: A Study of Growth and Distribution, New York: Oxford

University Press Dike, V. E. (2008). Corruption in Nigeria: a new

paradigm for effective control. Africa Economic Analysis

www.AfricaEconomicAnalysis.org

Ezeagu, W. (2002). Assessment of the situation and

development prospects for the cashew sector, a report carried out on behalf of the International Trade Center UNCTAD/WTO (ITC) and funded by the ITC Global Trust

Fund under project Gluckman, Max (1955). Custom and Conflicts in

Africa, Oxford Johnson, A. G. (1995). The Blackwell Dictionary

of Sociology: A User’s Guide to Sociological Language, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers Ltd

Laogun (2011). Extension teaching/learning

process and extension methods. Agricultural Extension in Nigeria. A publication of the Agricultural Extension Society of Nigeria: 270-278

Lipset, Seymour Martin, and Gabriel Salman Lenz (2000). Corruption, Culture, and Markets, in Culture Matters, Lawrence E. Harrison, and Samuel P. Huntington, eds., (New York: Basic Books), p.112.

Mabogunye, A. L. (2010). Land reforms in Nigeria: progress, problems and propects. At: http://siteresources.woorldbank.org/EXTAR

D/reources/3336681-1236436879081/58933116054/mabogunje.pdf

Munyae, M. M. and Gwen N. L. (1998).

Interrogating our past: colonialism and corruption in Sub-Saharan Africa, African Journal of Political Science, Vol. 3 No.2, 15-28

Nwakoby, C. N. O. (2007) Impact of the NEPAD Programme in the Nigerian Economy: Journal of the Management Sciences, Vol. vii, No 2, Amazing Grace: Enugu.

Osoba, S. O. (1996). Corruption in Nigeria: historical perspectives, Review of African Political Economy, 69:371-386

Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A., Behman, J. and

Nkonya, E. (2010). Understanding Gender Differences in Agricultural Productivity in Uganda

and Nigeria IFPRI Discussion Paper 01003 IFPRI Poverty, Health and Nutrition

Division Robb, G. (1992). White-collar Crime in Modern

England, London: Cambridge University Press

Rodney, F. (2002). Corruption and Agricultural Sector. Sectoral Perspective on Corruption.

MSI (USAID, DCCH/DG) Sen. A. (2000). Social Exclusion: Concept,

Application and Scrutiny. Social Development papers No. 1. Office of Environment and Social Development, Asian Development Bank

Sen, Amartya (1999). Development as Freedom (New York: Anchor Books), p.275


22

Tlou, T. and Campbell, A. (1984). History of

Botswana, Gaborone: Macmillan Botswana Publishing Company

United Nations (1990). Practical Measures Against Corruption, New York: United Nations

World Bank (1989). Nigeria - Strategy for agricultural growth. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/1989/12/739210/nigeria-strategy-agricultural-growth

World Bank (1997). Helping Countries Combat

Corruption - The Role of the World Bank: Poverty Reduction and Economic Management (www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorr

upt/corruptn/corrptn.pdf file) World Values Study Group (1994). World Values

Survey Code Book, ICPSR 6160 (Ann Arbor, Mich., August)


23

ARABLE CROP FARMERS’ CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING THE UTILISATION OF

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY FOR AGRICULTURAL MARKETING

INFORMATION IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA Adeniyi, R. T. and Yekinni, O. T.

Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University

of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Marketing information research is a key supportive service to commercialisation of agricultural enterprises for

current prices of agricultural produce in the market. The utilisation of ICT-based agricultural marketing

information (AMI) by arable crop farmers are functions of some farmers’ attributes. This study assessed the

respondents’ socioeconomic and farm enterprise characteristics affecting the use of AMI by arable crop farmers

in Oyo state. A multistage sampling procedure was used to select 143 respondents for the study. Data collected

with interview schedule were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics such as Chi square and PPMC

at p=0.05. Results show that majority of the farmers were male (83.2%), with mean household size of 7 persons,

45.7 years of age and 9.5 years of formal education. Most (82.5%) respondents had farming as their primary

occupation and earned mean monthly income of ₦98,087.9 with the mean year of farming experience of 32.8

years. Mostly used ICT tools for the AMI were radio (274.1), mobile phone (232.8) and television (140). More

of the farmers had low level of use (55.2%) of the use of ICT-based AMI. There were significant relationships

between respondents’ use of ICT-based AMI and primary (χ2=19.51) and secondary occupation (χ

2= 34.77)

while years of formal education (r=0.261, p=0.000) and farming experience (r=0.44, p= 0.000) were equally

positively correlated with their use of ICT based AMI. Formal education and farming experience of farmers

were among factors responsible for the effective use of ICT-based AMI among the agricultural entrepreneurs.

Due to the nature of ICTs, adult literacy is a prerequisite in order to improve their skills and attitude towards

the use of ICT-based AMI.

Keywords: Agricultural information research, ICT-based information and agricultural entrepreneurs’ characteristics

INTRODUCTION

Information is the most important facilitator and main core of the marketing system as it is a sine qua none for agricultural development. (Farhad, Roya, and Maryam, 2011). Hence, farmers

need access to update and extract information in order to improve the quality and quantity of the agricultural products marketing. Information communication and technology according to

Arokoyo (2011) are the technologies that facilitate communication and the processing of information by electronic means. This definition encompasses the full range of ICTs from radio and television to

telephones (fixed and mobile), instant messaging, e-bulletins, computers and the internet which are the potential tools that could be used by farmers to utilise agricultural marketing information

(Arokoyo, 2011; Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD), 2011). Empowering Small Holders Farmers in Market (ESFIM, 2010) submits that Agriculture Market Information Systems (AMIS) is a process that collects, processes and disseminates information on the situation and the dynamics of agricultural markets. Furthermore, Economic Commission for

Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation (FAO) and Inter America Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA) (2012) posit that market

information disseminated through ICTs provides input for production and market oriented decision

which help farmers to compare and share

information and knowledge related to production and marketing of agricultural produce. Price information services as identified by United States Agency for International

Development (USAID) (2011) are in four categories according to the type of provider: mobile network co-operators, third–party service providers (company), buyers providing market price

information to producers and Market Information System service offered by governments. In other words, this will accord the agricultural entrepreneurs opportunity to select the best service

that will be most convenient and economical to access marketing information for marketing their produce. Lack of access to reliable and up to date

market price information is a serious problem for small holder farmers that are characterised by large number of small, scattered farms and unorganised market across Africa including Nigeria (IFAD, 2008). Without this information, they are vulnerable to unscrupulous traders, who give them absurd prices that make them sell below market rates. Furthermore, they are reluctant to diversify

into different cash crops for fear of not finding a profitable market for their output (IFAD, 2008). This situation will among other things predispose farmers to: glut of produce in the market, scarcity

of farm produce and exploitative activities of middle men. Hence, these in turn pose


24

discouragement to the cassava and maize farmers’

entrepreneur as the hope of marketing their produce for the desired reward that commensurate their labour becomes vague. However, Nigerian farmers’ personal and enterprise characteristics status may

be responsible for their inability to use improved information technologies services which is one of the most important ingredients for improving market participation, sales revenue, and crop income in the country. Therefore, it is important to assess the extent to which concerned entrepreneurs’ characteristics like age, primary occupation, years of formal education and others, have contributed to

their use of the AMI services to leverage their enterprises. To this end, this study analysed the Cassava and Maize Farmers’ characteristics affecting the use of Information and

Communication Technology-Based AMI in Oyo State. The general objective of this study was to assess the socio-economic and farm enterprise characteristics affecting the use of AMI by arable crop farmers in Oyo state. Specifically, the study was conducted to: 1. describe the socio-economic characteristics of

the respondents in the study area, 2. examine the respondents’ enterprise

characteristics in the study area, 3. ascertain the sources of agricultural marketing

information available to the respondents in the study area,

4. ascertain the extent to which the respondents use the ICT-enabled agricultural market

information in the study area, 5. identify the various purposes for which

respondents use ICT-based agricultural marketing information in the study area.

METHODOLOGY

The study was carried out in Oyo state. The population of study consists of all arable crop

(cassava and maize) farmers in Oyo state. The first stage of sample selection involved the random selection of 50% (two) of the four ADP zones in the state. The selected ADP zones were

Ibadan/Ibarapa zone and Saki zone. The second stage involved the random sampling of one block from each of the selected zones. Ona-Ara block was selected in Ibarapa/Ibadan zone, while Igbeti block was selected in Saki zone. The third stage involved random sampling of 50% of the extension cells in each block, giving a total number of eight cells in all i.e. four cells per block. The fourth stage

involves the random selection of 20% of farmers from the list of cassava and maize farmers in the selected cells; giving a total of 143 respondents for the study. Data was collected using structured

questionnaire, which was administered as interview schedule basically to circumvent illiteracy barrier.

Data collected were analysed using descriptive and

inferential statistics such as PPMC and Chi square to test the hypothesis of the study.


Socio-economic characteristics

The data presented in Table 1 indicates that 72.8% of the respondents were within the age bracket of 33 and 52 years while 14.7% were below 33 years. The mean age of 45.7 years shows that most farmers in the study area are young and actively involved in farming. This corroborates the findings of Olaniyi, Adetumbi, and Adereti (2013),

who reported that, majority of their study target were of average age. Distribution of respondents by sex reveals that, majority (83.2%) of the respondent were male while (16.8%) were female. The

implication of this finding is that, farming in the study area was dominated by men. This is in line with the studies of Oyeyinka and Bello (2013) and Olaniyi.et al (2013) who reported that male dominates farming activities. Appreciable number of the farmers (79.0%) had formal education with the mean years of education being 9.6 years. This result implies appreciable level of literacy among

the farmers, which is an important factor for successful commercial farming. More so, literacy will make the farmers keen on to getting information and use it as noted by Ezeh (2013) &

Anthony and Adwinmea (2013). According to Anthony and Adwinmea (2013) both formal and informal education are important for successful commercial farming. Furthermore, one quarter

(25.2%) of the respondents had between 1 and 5 members in their households, about two-third (63.0%) had between 6 and 10 persons while few (5.6%) of them had between 11 and 15 members in

their households with 7 persons being mean household size. This implies a fairly large household size among the respondents in the study area. A study by Olajide (2011) also found a

similar trend of household size among rural population. The large family size might be with the motive of using the family members as a source of farm labour. On their primary occupation, the result

shows that most (82.5%) of the respondents were primarily farmers, 11.2% were civil servants, 4.2% were traders and 2.15% were artisan. This implies that the income generating activities of most of the respondent in the study area comes from farming. Furthermore, the result from the study indicates that only 33.6% of the respondents did not have any secondary occupation. The result also shows

that they were into farming (19.6%), trading (30.1%), artisanship (13.3%) and politics (3.5%). This implies that diversification of livelihood activities is a means to augment their income

during the off-seasons; as asserted by Ebitigha (2008) that diversification assist in insulation


25

against environmental, economic shocks, trend and

season.

Table 1: Distribution of respondents according

by personal characteristics n=143


Age

22-32 12 8.4 33-42 43 30.1 43-52 61 42.7

53-62 19 13.3 63-72 08 5.6

Sex Male 119 83.2 Female 24 16.8

Years of formal

education

None 30 21.0

1-6 25 17.5 7-12 45 31.5 >12 43 30.1

House hold size

1-5 36 25.2 6-10 90 63.0 11-15 8 5.6 16-20 6 4.2

21-25 2 1.4 26-30 1 0.7

Primary

occupation

Farming 118 82.5 Traditional 6 4.2 Artisan 3 2.1 Civil servant 16 11.2

Secondary

occupation

None 48 33.6 Farming 28 19.6

Trading 43 30.1 Artisan 19 13.3 Politics 5 3.5


Enterprise characteristics of arable crop

farmers

Information on arable crop farmers’ enterprise characteristics in Table 2 shows that other crops cultivated by the respondents aside cassava and maize were yam (47.6%), vegetables (42.0%) and

cowpea (35.7%). The less cultivated crops among the respondents were water melon (0.7%), rice (1.4%), and some cash crops like cocoa (16.8%), Oil palm (13.3%) and plantain (3.5%). The

diversification in crop production might be due to the subsistence nature of agriculture being practiced by the respondents in the study area. This also implies that the respondents cultivated both arable and cash crop in the study area probably to have a steady income source all year round. This is in tandem with the findings of Anthony and Adwinmea (2013) that farmers usually cultivate

more than one crop as a way to minimise risk in

term of bad weather or low prices. The results of the study further shows that 57.4% of the respondents had small farm size of between 1 and 5 acres, 31.5% of them had between 6 and 10 acres

(medium farm size) while 11.2% had between 11 and 15 acres (large farm size). This farm size classification is in agreement with the classification of farm sizes made by Akinsorotan (2007). With the mean farm size being 6.6 acres, it could be deduced that most of the respondents had farm sizes above the subsistence level. Minimum farming experience of the

respondents in the study area was 7 years while the maximum was 65 years. Most (44.8%) of the respondents had between 17 and 26 years of experience in their enterprises, (26.6% ) had

between 7 and 16 years of experience while 0.7% had between 47 and 56 years of experience. With the above distribution and the mean of 23.8 years, it could be deduced that the respondents had quite high numbers of years of farming experience, which may have broaden their knowledge and experiences in their enterprises. According to the affirmation of Ezeh (2013), farming experience of

farmers is directly proportional to knowledge gained to tackle farm production problems and to enable higher output and income. The finding of the study also affirms that most (62.9%) of the

respondents fund their enterprises with their personal savings, 20.3% funded with cooperative credit and loan while 12.6% borrowed money from their family members. The result further shows that

3.5% of the farmers in the study area took bank loans while 0.7% sought financial assistance from friends. This result implies that most of the entrepreneurs do not have access to substantial

funds for their enterprises, but rather depended mostly on use of the profit realised in previous season. It could also be inferred from this that, their inability to access and utilise loan from bank may

be due to farmers’ lack of certificates of occupancy or adequate collateral security. Result of the study further shows the minimum (₦7,470) and the maximum (₦415,000) range of

farmer’s monthly income in the study area with the mean monthly income of ₦98,087.9. This suggests that most of the entrepreneurs operated on medium scale. This implies that the farmers would have enough to cater for utilisation of AMI. This disagrees with the findings of Ezeh (2013) that most farmers were low income earners (₦21,000 – ₦40,000 monthly) as they were smallholders.

Table 2 Distribution of respondents by enterprise characteristics n=143

Variables Frequency Percentages

Crop cultivated

Maize 143 100


26

Variables Frequency Percentages

Cassava 143 100 Yam 68 47.6 Cowpea 51 35.7 Vegetable 60 42.0

Water melon 2 1.4 Rice 1 0.7 Cocoa 24 16.8 Oil palm 19 13.3

Plantain 5 3.5

Farm size 1-5 82 57.4 6-10 45 31.5 11-15 6 4.2 16-20 8 5.6 21-25 1 0.7 26-35 0 0.0

36-45 0 0.0 46-50 1 0.7

Year of farming experience 7-16 38 26.6

17-26 64 44.8 27-36 25 17.5 37-46 13 9.1 47-56 2 1.4

56-65 1 0.7

Monthly income 7,000-77000 53 37.1 77001-147000 73 50.4

147001-217000 13 9.1 217001-287000 09 2.8 287001-357000 00 00 357001-42700 1.0 0.7

Sources of finance Self 90 62.9 Family 18 12.6 Friend 1 0.7

Cooperative society

29 20.3

Bank 5 3.5


Available Agricultural Marketing Information

(AMI) sources

The study’s finding unveils that, friend and family was the available AMI source to all the respondents in the study area, this is closely

followed by 99.3% of the respondents with other farmers were their available AMI source while extension agents were available source for 98.6% of the respondents. Radio and phone were the most

(97.9% and 80.4%) available ICT- based AMI in the study area. On the other hand, the ICT-based AMI tools that were not available to many

respondents included Internet (27.3%), Cinema

(3.5%) and Fax (1.4%). This implies that social sources as well as ICTs tools were the available AMI sources in the study area. This is corroborated by the assertion of Ogbonna and Agwu (2013) that

radio, television and mobile phones were the most available ICTs to agricultural produce marketers. Table 3: Distribution of farmers by Available Agricultural Marketing Information sources (AMI), n=143

Information

channels

Available Percentage

Friends/ Families

143 100

Other farmers 142 99.3 Cooperative

society

87 60.8

Extension agents

141 98.6

Radio 140 97.9

Television 73 51.0 News paper 39 27.3 Poster 86 60.1 Internet 39 27.3 Mobile phone 115 80.4 Notice board 57 39.5 Media van 25 17.5 Hand bill 84 58.7

Magazine 32 22.4 Cinema 5.0 3.5 Fax 2 1.4


Use of ICT-based AMI

Table 4 shows the frequency of use of different ICT-based AMI devices in the study area. The weighted score derived from the responses to the use of the tools shows that radio (274.1) was the

most frequently used ICT for AMI for cassava and maize in the study area. This is followed by mobile phone (232.8), television (140.0), poster (114.8), and hand bills (112.70); cinema (13.3) and fax (7.9)

were the least used ICT-based AMI sources. This shows that majority of the respondents still rely on use of radio for receiving Agricultural marketing information which is in tandem with the study of

Usman et al, (2012) and Ogbonna and Agwu (2013) that, radio (M=2.71), mobile phones (M=2.64) and television (M=2.02) were the ICTs mostly used by the farmers.

Table 4: Distribution of respondents by use of ICT-based AMI n=143

ICT tools Always Occasionally Rarely Never Weighted score Rank

Radio 76.2 21.7 2.1 0.0 274.1 1st Mobile phone 64.3 12.6 13.7 8.4 232.8 2nd


27

ICT tools Always Occasionally Rarely Never Weighted score Rank

Television 23.1 25.2 20.3 31.5 140 3rd Poster 7.0 33.6 26.6 32.9 114.8 4th Hand bill 16.1 25.9 19.6 38.5 112.7 5th

Newspaper 12.6 16.1 25.2 46.2 95.2 6th Notice board 12.6 20.3 18.2 49.0 86.6 7th Internet 11.9 6.3 11.2 70.6 49.5 8th Media van 2.1 7.0 19.6 71.3 39.9 9th

Magazine 4.2 10.5 10.5 74.8 34.1 10th Cinema 1.4 2.1 4.9 91.6 13.3 11th Fax 2.1 3.5 94.4 0.0 7.9 12th


On the level of ICT-based AMI used by the respondents, as shown in Table 5, the results show that, (55.2%) of the respondents were low level users of the ICT-based AMI while 44.8% were categorised as high level users. This finding is in

line with that of Usman, Adeboye, Oluyole and Ajijola,(2012) that the level of access and utilisation of ICTS facilities were generally low among farmers.

Table 5: Distribution of Respondents by Level of Use of ICT-Based AMI

Level of use Frequency Percentage

Low 79 55.2

High 64 44.8 Total 143 100.0


Purpose of using ICT-based Agricultural

Market Information

Table 6 shows the various purposes of use of ICT-based AMI by the respondents in the study area .The distribution by weighted score shows that

ICT-based AMI were mostly used for farm input survey (188.1), search for farm input (184.6), produce transportation facilitation (166.4), credit facilities survey (160.1) and market outlet survey

(159.4). This implies that ICT tools were used for various relevant marketing activities by the respondents in the study area which is in consonance with findings of Usman. et al. (2012)

that, marketing information is one of the most relevant ICTs services that could be offered to farmers in Nigeria.

Table 6: Distribution of respondents by purpose use of ICT-based AMI, n = 143

Purposes of use To a large extent

To a lesser extent

Not at all Weighted score

Rank

Farm input survey 88.8 10.5 0.7 188.1 1st Search for farm input prices 84.6 15.4 0.0 184.6 2nd

Produce transportation facilitation 66.4 33.6 0.0 166.4 3rd Credit facilities survey 67.1 25.9 7.0 160.0 4th Market outlet survey 66.4 26.6 7.0 159.4 5th Information search on crop cultivation 62.9 32.2 4.9 158.0 6th

Marketing research 52.4 36.4 11.2 139.2 7th


Hypotheses of the study

Hypothesis 1 was set to test for relationship between socio-economic characteristics of the

farmers and their extent of use of ICT-based AMI. Chi-square result shown in Table 7 depicts the two nominal socio-economic characteristics; primary occupation (χ2=19.518; p=0.000) and secondary

occupation (χ2=34.776; p=0.000) were significantly related to the use of ICT-based AMI. This implies that occupations of the respondents were among the major factors contributed to the effectiveness of the use of ICT-based AMI by the respondents in the study area as it determines the purpose and means of searching for ICT-based AMI by the respondents. However, sex and other education did

not affect respondents’ use of ICT-based AMI in the study area which was in agreement with the

submission of Banmeke and Ajayi (2008) that gender is not significant to the use of ICT. Table 7: Chi-square correlation between

socioeconomic characteristics of respondents and their level of use of ICT-based AMI

Variables χ2-value

P-value

Df Decision

Sex 1.522 0.217 1 Not significant

Other

education

8.852 0.182 6 Not

significant Primary occupation

19.518 0.000 3 Significant

Secondary occupation

34.776 0.000 4 Significant


28

Furthermore, the study’s finding through

PPMC analysis (Table 8) reveals that year of formal education (r=0.261; p=0.002) was significant to the use of ICT-based AMI in the study area while age (r=0.131; p=0.120) and

household size (r=-0.199; p=0.17) were not significant. This implies that respondents with higher educational years used ICT-based AMI more and better than their counterparts with lesser years of formal education. This further implies that through formal education the respondents had better knowledge, attitude and skill that gave them better enablement for ICT-based AMI used

compared with the other respondents with lower years of formal education. It could be deduced that the educational attainment of farmers influenced their level of use of ICTs to seek AMI in the study

area. The finding of the study is in line with the findings of Oyeyinka and Bello (2013) that significant relationship existed between farmers’ use of ICTs and level of education (χ2= 16.35, p < 0.05). Table 8: PPMC for test relationship between selected socioeconomics characteristics and level of use of AMI

Variables r- value p-value Decision

Age 0.131 0.120 Not significant Years of formal education 0.261 0.002 Significant

House hold size -0.199 0.17 Not significant

Hypothesis 2 was set to test for relationship between farmer’s enterprises characteristics and the use of ICT-based AMI using PPMC. Result shown in Table 9 shows that years of farming experience

is significant (r=-0.168; p=0.044) among the enterprise characteristics tested. However, some of the results were not unexpected because the ICT-based AMI is expected to be accessible to a wide

variety of people irrespective of the land ownership method, but it is surprising that the farm size and monthly income were not significant as it is expected that those with larger farm size and higher

monthly income should have a higher use of ICT-based AMI than those with smaller farm size and lesser monthly income. Conversely, Jenny (2010) affirms that grain traders had more market contacts

using ICTs and their profits increased by 29 percent.

Table 9: PPMC for test relationship between selected enterprise characteristics and level of use

of AMI

Variable r-value p-value Decision

Farm size -0.132 0.116 Not significant

Years of farming experience

-0.168 0.044 Significant

Monthly income

-.200 0.17 Not significant

Source: Data analysis computation (2014)

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Based on the findings of this study, the study concluded that the respondents had enterprises that were above subsistence level, as they had substantial access to land which is expected to

influence their income generated from farming enterprise; this is expected to directly affect the use of ICT-based AMI in the study area. Respondents’ educational background was a great motivating factor for the use of ICT-based AMI in the study area; this is expected due to the nature of the ICT-based AMI. Based on the findings of this study, it is

recommended that adult education should be organised by the extension agents to improve and increase skill and the respondents’ attitude towards the use of ICT-based AMI; since the use is

correlated with the level of education, this will allow more user, benefactor and make the farmers fit with the new technology especially, the contemporary ICT-based AMI.

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ASSESSMENT OF SHARP PRACTICES AMONG FARMERS IN COCOA FARMING IN NIGERIA:

IMPLICATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE IMPROVEMENT OF COCOA PRODUCTION AND TRADE 1Famuyiwa, B. S., 1Oduwole, O. O. 2Malik, M. B., and 1Williams, O. A.

1Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan 2University of Ibadan, Ibadan Nigeria

E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACTS

The study investigated various areas of sharp practices among cocoa farmers in Nigeria, in an attempt to

deduce the implications to sustainable improvement of cocoa production and trade. More specifically, it

examined the socio-economic characteristics, determines levels of sharp practices, and establish the

relationships that exist between cocoa practices and their yield, quality and health. A set of pre-tested

questionnaire was used to solicit information from 600 respondents that were selected through multistage

sampling procedure from five geo-political zones where cocoa on commercial grown basis. Results showed that

majority (94%) male dominated cocoa farming while 81.5% were literate and a mean age of 48.6+14.0 years. It

also revealed that 67.5% aknowledged to high level sharp practices. However, there were negative and

significant relationship between sharp practices and yield r=-0.138; quality r=-0.172; and health r=-0.156; at

p<0.01. This implies that as cocoa farmers’ sharp practices increases, their yield, quality and health decreases.

Though increase in sub-standard bean yield has a negative consequence to sustainable cocoa farm practices

and trade, hence efforts should be made to change farmers’ operational behaviour for improved yield.

Keywords: Sharp practices, cocoa farming, sustainable, improvement, production and trade

INTRODUCTION

The term sharp practices is described by Wikipedia (2015) as a pejorative phrase to describe sneaky or cunning behaviour which is within

technical rules and law. Some other studies described it as misrepresentation, trickery, illegal and dishonesty in business operations. Ladele and Fadairo (2013) likened it to corruption, while

Friedrich (1989) in his study described corruption as a kind of behaviour that deviates from socially agreed norms and value. This term can however, be applicable to agriculture and more specifically

farming; this means misrepresentation and cutting corners in farming operations. It can also be said that sharp practices in every form of the qualifying terms along the value chain of all agricultural

products and most especially cocoa. In farm practices, sharp practices have been identified to cause serious economic, social, and environmental problems. Hence its actions are at variance with the

objectives of sustainability. Cocoa is one of the cash crops from the non-oil sector that contributes to the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). It contributed 5% to the

world market as stated by the Nigeria Investigative Reporting Project (NIRP, 2015) and serves as means of employment to over 2 million farm families while some agro-allied industries rely on cocoa beans as their raw materials. Cocoa has been discovered to play major roles in human health. It prevents heart disease, fights fatigue, prevents diabetes, prevents hypertension, prevents breast

cancer, arrests persistent cough, boosts your brain power, reduces the risk of blood clot and boosts libido (Cocoa Producer Alliance, COPAL 2007, ICCO,2008, and NCDC, 2008).

In spite of all these qualities and opportunities of its production to improve the nation’s economy,

it has been established in separate studies by Asogwa and Dongo (2008), Lawal et al (2005) and Ogunjimi and Farinde (2012) that farmers face a lot of operational challenges such as pests’

infestations, soil infertility and climate change. Attempt to solve these problems have led to indiscriminate use of chemicals and other pesticides; which are equally described as sharp

practices. Sosan and Akingbohungbe (2009) identified traces of pesticide residue in the blood serum and breast milk of some surveyed cocoa farm families. It has also been discovered that

farmer practices in cocoa plantation if unguided, can damage the environment (Wikipedia, 2015). A study by Famuyiwa (2013) established a positive relationship between farmers’ operational habits

and their farm yield. In another study by Sosan, Akingbohungbe, Durosimi and Ojo (2010) they attributed some health related issues such as prostate cancer, developmental effect, reproductive

defect, endocrine problems, headache, are predominant in cocoa growing areas due to farmers’ sharp practices in the use of pesticides. Consequently, farmers and stakeholders in the

cocoa value chain are exposed to environmental hazards due to farmers’ behavioural habits as a result of their sharp practices, socio-economic factors, and inappropriate usage of pesticides as reported by Mohit (2008). This has led to the International Cocoa and Confectionaries Organization (ICCO) (2008) to make concerted efforts in campaigning against indiscriminate use of

pesticides and Cocoa Alliance (2014) issued a warning letter to member states on the threat to stop exporting cocoa with Minimum Residue level (MRL) above 0.01mg.

Africa produces about 71.62 % of the world cocoa production, America about17.89%, while


31

Asia and Oceania contribute about 10.46% (ICCO,

2015). However, consumption pattern is skewed toward the less producing countries; European Union 36 %, North America 24 %, North America 24 %, Asia and Oceania 16 %, Latin America 10

%, Other Europe 10 % and Africa 4 % (ICCO, 2014). Sustainability in the pattern of production rest on consumption hence those that dictate the bean quality do not go into much production, but consume high, while those that produce high because of their low income are much into sharp practices. Different interventions on sustainable farming

were developed to meet the world standard in the aspects of social, economic and environmental preservation. Sustainable farming definition can be deduced from the definition of sustainable

development by International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) (2013) as farming that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. To achieve this, ICCO, (2008) came up with list of Good Agricultural practices (GAP) for cocoa to guide farmers’ production. In 2004, there was an inauguration of National Cocoa

development Committee that started the cocoa rebirth (NCDC, 2008). During President Johnathan government in Nigeria, Cocoa Transformation Agenda (CocTA), which was an arm of

Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA) was inaugurated to improve cocoa production both in quality and quantity (Babatunde, 2012). However, studies have shown that traces of

chemical residues have been discovered in breast milk and blood serum of those feeding on some products of cocoa beans and relatives of cocoa farm families (Sosan and Akingbohungbe, 2009).

Consequently, there is a threat on the exportation of Nigeria cocoa due to some traces of chemical residues found in exported cocoa beans. Ogunjimi and Farinde (2012), Dongo and Asogwa (2009)

have also traced these residues to indiscriminate use of pesticides. Farmers who happen to be at the lower ebb of the ladder determine the quality, through their practices. More importantly, the

habits of stakeholders along cocoa value chain go a long way to determine the quality of cocoa and allied products produced for human consumption. This is justified by the request from the ICCO to the Stakeholders along the value chain, to adhere to Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) by farmers to reduce the residues found in exported cocoa beans. It requires a concise study of the extent to which

how farmers who are the primary producers of cocoa beans exhibit negative habits in their farm practices and deduce implications for sustainable production and trade. Therefore, to get a quality

bean, habits of farmers producing the beans need to

be redirected towards effective adoption of good

agricultural practices (GAP) The major objective of the study is to assess sharp practices in cocoa farming operations among farmers in Nigeria. The specific objectives are to;

1. assess the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers,

2. assess major sharp practices among the farmers,

3. determine the level of sharp practices among respondents,

4. evaluate the extent of cocoa farming sharp practices, and

5. deduce implications for cocoa production and trade. Hypothesis - There is no significant

relationship between cocoa farmers’ sharp practices

and yield in the study area

METHODOLOGY

A multistage sampling procedure was used in selecting respondents for the study using CRIN geographical information system (GIS) generated land use/land cover in cocoa farms in Nigeria. Stage one involved purposive selection of five from

six geo-political zones where cocoa is commercially grown in Nigeria. Stage two involved purposive selection (based on their production levels; the highest producing state was

selected) of one state from each of the five geo-political zones that support commercial production of cocoa, this gives a total number of five states (Ondo, Kogi, Abia, Cross Rivers and Taraba) from

the fourteen states. At stage three, selection of two local government Areas (LGAs) which were purposively selected (on their levels of production; the highest and the lowest producing LGAs) from

the list of LGAs based on their production level of cocoa to give 10 LGAs. Stage four was a random selection of one community from the lists of communities in each LGAs to give 10

communities. While stage five involved systematic random selection of 60 smallholder cocoa farmers from the list of cocoa farmers in each community to give 600 smallholders as the respondents for the

study. A structured interview schedule was used to elicit information from the respondents while data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical tools.

Development of scale to measure sharp practices

among farmers in cocoa farming

From exhaustive review of literature, (Lawal et

al; ICCO, 2008; Farinde and Ogunjimi, 2009;

CRIN, 2009 and Wright and Boorse, 2010), 54 sharp practices in cocoa farming were identified and standardized by six research scientists; one from each discipline (Entomology, Pathology,

Agronomy, Breeding, Processing, Soil protection and Nutrition, Economics and Extension) who


scored each sharp practice. Practice with the score of .6 coefficient were considered appropriate for

the study based on David’s descriptor as explained by Subair (2007). Twenty nine sharp practices were finally considered. The 29 sharp practices were measured with a dichotomous scale of 1: 0,

practiced with a score of 1 and none practiced with a score of 0. However, the scores on yield, quality and effect on health were scored as 1 for practice for those sharp practices that affect and 0 for not

affecting yield, quality and health based on opinion of the Scientists. The data were subjected to descriptive and parametric analysis using SPSS 17.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Socio-economic characteristics

The study revealed that about 46.2% of the respondents were between 41-60 years old with a

mean age of 48.57 + 14.08. This is an indication that middle aged group of the population are now going into farming. This supports sustainability as farming activities can only be handled by young

people. However, youthful age may encourage sharp practices, in attempt to cut corners. It also revealed that majority (94%) of the respondents were male, indicating majority of the farm were handled by male. It corroborates the findings of Oladipupo et al (2010) that farm work is skewed towards male because of gender inequalities.1 also shows that respondents had mean farm size

of 10.40 + 2.0 ha, with a mean age of farm a+ 2.2 years. The study supports the findings of Oluyole and Sanusi (2010). However the farmers’ mean farm age was 32.33+ 20.03 years. Very few

(18%) had farm equal or less than 10 years. About 48.67% were under 30 years production, while 51.33% cultivated farms more than 30 years old. The result corroborates Ogunjimi and Farinde (2010) that cocoa production in Nigeria is affected by old age. Majority (84.30%) had no extension contact.

Farmers’ contact with extension promotes access to appropriate information that supports sustainability. It implies that the respondents did not have access to information.

Table 1: Respondents’ socioeconomic characteristics N=600

Variables Freq Perc

Age 20-40 221 36.9 41-60 277 46.2 61-80 90 15.1 81-100 12 2

Sex

Male 564 94 Female 36 6


32

. Practice with the score of .6 coefficient were considered appropriate for

David’s descriptor as explained (2007). Twenty nine sharp practices were

finally considered. The 29 sharp practices were measured with a dichotomous scale of 1: 0,

practiced with a score of 1 and none practiced with a score of 0. However, the scores on yield, quality

h were scored as 1 for practice for those sharp practices that affect and 0 for not

affecting yield, quality and health based on opinion of the Scientists. The data were subjected to descriptive and parametric analysis using SPSS 17.

The study revealed that about 46.2% of the 60 years old with a

. This is an indication that middle aged group of the population are now

ts sustainability as farming activities can only be handled by young

people. However, youthful age may encourage sharp practices, in attempt to cut corners. It also revealed that majority (94%) of the respondents were male, indicating majority of the farm practices were handled by male. It corroborates the findings

(2010) that farm work is skewed towards male because of gender inequalities. Table 1 also shows that respondents had mean farm size

2.0 ha, with a mean age of farm at 32.30 2.2 years. The study supports the findings of

However the farmers’ 20.03 years. Very few

(18%) had farm equal or less than 10 years. About 48.67% were under 30 years production, while

tivated farms more than 30 years old. The result corroborates Ogunjimi and Farinde (2010) that cocoa production in Nigeria is affected

Majority (84.30%) had no extension contact.

Farmers’ contact with extension promotes access to information that supports sustainability.

It implies that the respondents did not have access

Table 1: Respondents’ socioeconomic

Mean Std

48.57 14.08

Variables Freq Perc

Farm Size

0.5 - 10 ha 448 74.711 - 20 ha 86 14.3

21 - 30 ha 37 6.2

31 - 40 ha 5 0.8

> 40 ha 24 4

Age of Farm

<10 108 18

11 - 20 years 109 18.2

21 - 30 years 75 12.5

31 - 40 years 122 20.3

41 - 50 years 107 17.8

51 - 60 years 50 8.3

61 - 70 years 9 1.5

> 70 years 20 3.3

Farmers’ Extension

contact

Yes 76 12.70

No 524 87.30


Farmers’ sources of information

Figure 1 shows that majority (70%) seek information from Input dealers and 60% from friends and neighbours. However, only about 20% seek from research institutes and 20% from extension agents. Information is the acquisitioknowledge on an interest issue. Information

seeking behaviour is vital in agricultural development. This result indicated that the respondents do not seek information from experts. There is every possibility to be exposed to

environmental hazards. This is an indication that inappropriate sources of information as operational habit is high among the farmers and can encourage sharp practices. Consequently this behaviour does

not encourage sustainability of cocoa farming and lead to downsizing cocoa international trade.

Figure 1: Distribution of respondents by sources of information N=600 Source: Field survey, 2013 *Multiple responses were recorded

Perc Mean Std

74.7 10.4 2.0 14.3

6.2

0.8

4

18 32.3 2.2

18.2

12.5

20.3

17.8

8.3

1.5

3.3

12.70

87.30

Figure 1 shows that majority (70%) seek information from Input dealers and 60% from

owever, only about 20% and 20% from

extension agents. Information is the acquisition of knowledge on an interest issue. Information

seeking behaviour is vital in agricultural This result indicated that the

respondents do not seek information from experts. There is every possibility to be exposed to

s is an indication that inappropriate sources of information as operational habit is high among the farmers and can encourage sharp practices. Consequently this behaviour does

not encourage sustainability of cocoa farming and national trade.

Figure 1: Distribution of respondents by sources of


Farmers’ educational level

Figure 2 shows the respondents educational

level with about 57% been able to have between complete primary to complete secondary education. However, only 24.5% did not complete primary education while 18.5% did not have any form of

formal education. Education is ability to be able to read and write. This result corroborates the natiliteracy rate of 59.57% as stated by UNESCO 2015 (Wikipedia, 2016). It shows that about 57% of the

farmers can read and write. This may be due to youth and retired civil servant entering the profession. There is high tendency for the respondent to understand different kinds of

hazards. Though this does not have control over their sharp practices. It can be deduced that literate farmers engaging in sharp practices do so because of quick financial returns and is negative to

sustainable cocoa farming. This is implied in the report of Mohit, 2008 that farmers in Ondo state use pesticides indiscriminately because of inability to purchase or scarce recommended pesticides.

Source: Field survey, 2013. Fig 2: Showing level of education of cocoa farmers in the study area.

Years of farming experience

Figure 3 revealed that the respondents had high years of farming experience in cocoa with mean

24+ 14.93 years. Experience is measured in years spent on job. It also brings about accumulation of Table 2: Distribution of respondents by level of production of cocoa

Production Level Scores

High Level >503kg

Medium >393<503

Low Level 393kg <

Source: Field survey, 2013 Minimum =11.67kg/ha Maximum =993.06kg/ha Mean = 218.79 kg/ha Standard deviation = 92.63 N=600

Farmers practice of sharp practices

Table 2 shows the major behavioural activities in cocoa farming where there are sharp practices among farmers in order. The first group of


33

Figure 2 shows the respondents educational

ave between complete primary to complete secondary education. However, only 24.5% did not complete primary education while 18.5% did not have any form of

formal education. Education is ability to be able to read and write. This result corroborates the national literacy rate of 59.57% as stated by UNESCO 2015 (Wikipedia, 2016). It shows that about 57% of the

farmers can read and write. This may be due to youth and retired civil servant entering the profession. There is high tendency for the

erstand different kinds of

hazards. Though this does not have control over their sharp practices. It can be deduced that literate farmers engaging in sharp practices do so because of quick financial returns and is negative to

s is implied in the report of Mohit, 2008 that farmers in Ondo state use pesticides indiscriminately because of inability to purchase or scarce recommended pesticides.

Showing level of education of cocoa farmers

Figure 3 revealed that the respondents had high years of farming experience in cocoa with mean

Experience is measured in years spent on job. It also brings about accumulation of

knowledge. Experience supports sustainability but at times brings over confidence on the job. Encarta

(2009) opined that this may promote behavioural inflexibility.

Figure 3: Distribution of respondents by years of farming experience, n=600 Source: Field survey, 2013

Mean = 24 years Standard deviation = 14.93 years

Farmers’ production level

The study revealed, as shown in Table 2 that majority (62.83%) produced below 503kg/ha, with only 37.17% producing more than 503 kg, as in Table 2. CRIN, (2011) opined that many factors are

contributing to farmers low production. With production mean of 218.79kg/ha, such militating factors could be some sharp practices like; not seeking appropriate information, not attending

meeting, use of banned pesticides and not collection of required planting materials from the appropriate places. For instance a farmer who does not have information about CRIN high yielding

varieties will still plant the old varieties. Majority of these sharp practices have negative effect on cocoa yield and reduce the quality of beans hence consequence effect on trade.

Table 2: Distribution of respondents by level of production of cocoa


223 37.17

59 9.83

318 53.00

Table 2 shows the major behavioural activities in cocoa farming where there are sharp practices among farmers in order. The first group of

behaviour is during spraying such as ‘not using

protective glasses when spraying’ ranking 1mean of (0.83), followed by use of hand glove (0.82), wearing overall/protective and boot (0.81),

Legend


Experience supports sustainability but at times brings over confidence on the job. Encarta

(2009) opined that this may promote behavioural

Figure 3: Distribution of respondents by years of

The study revealed, as shown in Table 2 that majority (62.83%) produced below 503kg/ha, with only 37.17% producing more than 503 kg, as in

ed that many factors are

contributing to farmers low production. With production mean of 218.79kg/ha, such militating factors could be some sharp practices like; not seeking appropriate information, not attending

meeting, use of banned pesticides and not ollection of required planting materials from the

appropriate places. For instance a farmer who does not have information about CRIN high yielding

varieties will still plant the old varieties. Majority of these sharp practices have negative effect on

yield and reduce the quality of beans hence

behaviour is during spraying such as ‘not using

protective glasses when spraying’ ranking 1st with a followed by use of hand glove

(0.82), wearing overall/protective and boot (0.81),

Legend


34

while nose cover had (0.79). This category of

behaviour is followed by famers’ sharp practices at breaking of pods (0.77) and in the use of pesticides. The list sharp practice according to the rank order is child labour with mean (0.47).

However, Table 3 shows the overall

categorization of the farmers into levels of sharp practices with majority (67.5%) indicating high level of sharp practices

Table 3: Mean rank order of farmers’ sharp practices

S/N Cocoa farmers' sharp practices Mean Std. Deviation Rank

1 Not using protective glasses when spraying 0.83 0.38 1

2 Not using Hand gloves when spraying 0.82 0.38 2

3 Not using Overall/Protective clothing when spraying 0.81 0.39 3

4 Not using Jungle boots during spraying 0.81 0.39 3

5 Not using nose protector when spraying 0.79 0.41 5

6 Use of sharp objects to break pod 0.77 0.42 6

7 Inappropriate disposal of unused chemicals 0.76 0.43 7

8 Using fertilizer/chemical not recommended for cocoa production

0.76 0.43 7

9 Using fertilizer/chemical not in the list of approved agrochemical

0.76 0.43 7

10 Inappropriate disposal of used chemical containers 0.76 0.43 7

11 Use of expired fertilizer/chemical 0.73 0.45 11

12 Use of polythene bags 0.72 0.45 12

13 Not washing of hands after chemical application 0.71 0.45 13

14 Drying of cocoa beans on bare concrete 0.71 0.46 13

15 Not reading chemical instruction before usage 0.71 0.46 13

16 Spraying of chemical against the wind 0.7 0.46 16

17 Inappropriate disposal of bad cocoa beans 0.69 0.46 17

18 Scooping/stirring chemical with bare hands 0.68 0.47 18

19 Not seeking right knowledge on recommended chemicals on cocoa

0.68 0.47 18

20 Use of unwashed containers for chemical application 0.68 0.47 18

21 Pod waste deposits as heap around farm area 0.67 0.47 21

22 Over dosage use of fertilizer/chemical 0.66 0.47 22

23 Application of fertilizer without prior test of soil/plant requirement

0.65 0.48 23

24 Taking advice from retailers 0.6 0.49 24

25 Not attending crop association meetings 0.59 0.49 25

26 Fermenting for less than 5 days 0.59 0.49 25

27 Mixing of fertilizer/chemicals as single dose application 0.48 0.5 27

28 Deposits of sweating from fermented cocoa bean 0.48 0.5 27

29 Use of child labour 0.47 0.5 29



35

Level of sharp practices

Table 3: Farmers’ levels of sharp practices

Level of sharp practices

Scores Frequency Percentage

High level > 20.06 405 67.5 Low level < 20.06 195 32.5

Source: Field survey, 2013 Mean = 20.06

Standard deviation = 8.03 Maximum = 29 Minimum = 00.0

Correlate of farmers’ sharp practices and cocoa

yield, quality and health in the study areas

Table 4 showed that there were significant and

negative relationship between cocoa farmers’ sharp practices and yield at (r= -0.138; p>0.01), bean quality (r=-0.172; p<0.01) and health (r=-0.156;p<0.01) This implies that as farmers’ sharp

practices increase, there were decrease in yield, quality and health. This observation is supported by the study of Asogwa and Dongo (2009), in farmers’ use of pesticides. Mohit 2008 also attested to this that farmers in cocoa farming use pesticides indiscriminately which is referred to sharp practice to increase their yield.

Table 4: Correlation of farmers’ sharp practices and cocoa yield, quality and health in the study areas

Variable r r2 p Coefficient of

determination

Decision

Farmers' yield -0.138** 0.019 0.000 1.91% Significant

Bean quality -0.172** 0.030 0.001 3% Significant

Health -0.156** 0.024 0.000 2.43% Significant

Source: Field survey, 2013 ** p< 0.01

CONCLUSION

The study concluded that the mean age of farmers was 48.57 years with 10.4 ha farm size. Seventy per cent seek information from input dealers while 57% were able to complete primary

to secondary education. Among the sharp practices, non-use of protective materials when spraying, rank highest with 67.5% of the respondents, belonging to a group of sharp practices use.

However, there were significant and negative correlation between sharp practices and yield, quality and health at p<0.01.

Implications for cocoa sustainable production

and trade

The following implications for cocoa sustainable production and trade deduced from the

study are; To sustainable cocoa production Sustainable production is defined as Sustainable Production is the creation of goods and services using processes and systems that are: non-polluting, conserving of energy and natural resources, economically viable, safe and healthful for workers, communities, and consumers, socially

and creatively rewarding for all working people (Lowell Center for Sustainable Production (LCSP), 2016).

• Sharp practices among farmers are high hence it will affect yield, quality and health

• Farmers health and sustainable production will be affected by the identified sharp practices if not addressed

• When prices are low as regard of low quality and low yield, production will not be sustainable.

To trade Trade is defined as the buying and selling of goods and services on a market (Oxford Dictionary, 2000). Sharp practices reduce yield, quality and contribute to negative health. These will

consequently reduce the activity of cocoa trade. Adherence to Good Agricultural Practices, which prevent sharp practices • Increase quality and price of traded cocoa

• Improve trust in the cocoa value chain

• Increase efficiency in the cocoa value chain

RECOMMENDATIONS

• Enforcement of GAP for quality bean production

• Training and retraining of cocoa farmers on hazardous effect of sharp practices for sustainable cocoa production.

• Encouraging farmers to belong to farmers organisation in order to share knowledge from training

• Legislative policy on eradication of sharp

practices associated with cocoa farming operations and in all aspect of the cocoa value chain, such as safety use of chemicals will reduce the risk associated with sharp practices.

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38

CAPITAL ASSETS AS BUILDING BLOCKS FOR LIVELIHOOD ACTIVITIES AND

SUSTAINABILITY AMONG RURAL DWELLERS IN HADEJIA-NGURU WETLANDS, NIGERIA 1Tafida, A. A. and 2Galtima, M.

1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Nigeria

2Department of Geography, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Nigeria

E-mail: [email protected], tafidaaa2mautech.edu.ng

ABSTRACT Farming remains the most important livelihood activity in many communities. However, it is increasingly

becoming unable to provide sufficient means of survival for the rural populace on its own. To that effect, people

over the years have diversified their livelihood portfolios into other non-farm activities in an attempt to build

their resiliency. This paper examines capital assets’ availability and productivity, and the resilience strategies

adopted by rural dwellers in the Hadejia-Nguru-Gashua wetlands in mitigating their prevailing ecological,

environmental and management challenges. Stratified random sampling technique was used to draw 172

respondents from 15 communities of the wetlands. The study assessed assets availability and utilisation, as well

as the pattern of the resilience strategies adopted. Results revealed that the people have access to capital assets

and have developed multiple livelihood portfolios. It is therefore, recommended that more awareness should be

created to facilitate construction and expansion of these livelihood activities.

Keywords: Capital assets, resilience, livelihood activities, wetlands, rural community

INTRODUCTION

The Hadejia-Nguru-Gashua wetlands is endowed with vast land and other resources; forest, grazing areas, wildlife and water ranging from uplands to the low lands stretching down to the

aquatic environment where fish and diverse aquatic organisms abound. The wetlands system support a significant number of the populace for livelihoods in terms of cultural, socioeconomic development,

food security and community livelihoods (Tafida and Galtima, 2015). The wetlands directly support about 1.5 million farmers, herders and fishermen (Wikipedia, 2015). These once-very productive

wetlands system have in the last two decades witnessed series of ecological problems. In addition, the current climatic changes and poor resource management in the area further

accentuated the problems (Kaugama and Ahmed, 2014). The primary direct drivers of degradation and biodiversity loss in the wetland include changes in the environmental factors, infrastructure

development, land use, water withdrawal, pollution, over-exploitation of resources, and the introduction of invasive aquatic species-typha grass (Ovie et al., 2007).

In fact, studies have shown that wetlands are among the world’s most stressed ecosystems (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000; Smardon, 2009; Keddy, 2010). Exacerbating the situation is the recent recurring human security insurgence and other setbacks in the region, which greatly endanger and jeopardize the lives and livelihoods of the rural dwellers dependent on the wetland

resources particularly in terms of food security. Earlier study by Chambers and Conway (1992) indicated that livelihood and survival of individuals, household groups and communities are

vulnerable to stresses (e.g. declining yield on soils, which degrade through salination, acidity or

erosion, declining in common property resource, declining water tables and rainfall etc), and shocks (e.g. wars, persecution, civil violence, droughts, storms, floods, famine, epidemic of crop pests or of animal or human illness among others).

The wetland community livelihoods are affected by ecological, environmental management and other induced social challenges. The people have apparently developed some strategies against

their plight; affecting the wetland and community livelihoods, though the rural dwellers often developed some resilience strategies against their plight. This is possible based on the premise that a

rural household has access to certain amount of resources generally referred to as capitals assets, which can be utilised to fashion out a set of livelihood strategies (crop farming, livestock

rearing, off farm employment, etc.) to improve its welfare (Chambers and Conway, 1992) However, these strategies performed by the wetland’s people remain fragmented. Against this backdrop the study

attempts to consolidate the strategies for sustainability of the natural resource base and for improvement in the livelihoods of the practitioners. As defined by Ellis (2000), a livelihood is made up

of the abilities, assets (stores, resources, claims, and access) and activities necessary for a means of living. Assets are the basic material or social, tangible or intangible services, resources, skills or attributes. They are the physical, natural, social, financial, and human resources that people use for constructing their livelihoods. Assets can be understood as partly chosen by design to reduce

vulnerability and to enable the household to survive stresses and shocks with minimum risk of threat to future livelihood (Cambers and Conway, 1992) This paper advocates that consolidation and

optimum use of capital assets in multiple livelihood portfolios would improve resilience and enhance


sustainability of the dwindling wetlands resource base. It is against this background, the paper

intends to look at the capital assets accessibility and resilience strategies of the rural people in the wetlands.

METHODOLOGY

The Hadejia-Nguru wetlands are located between 12° 39′0″N and 10° 35′30″E, and receive the bulk of its water from Rivers Katagum,

Jama’are, Kafin Hausa and Burum Gana. These Rivers, originating mainly from the neighbouring states of Kano, and Bauchi, flow westerly and eventually unite at Gashua to form the Komadugu

Yobe River system that empties into the Lake Chad. The total land area is estimated to be about 84,000km2 (DFID-JWL, unpublished) in Ovie al., 2006. The wetlands provides employment,

income and food security to millions farmers who integrate farming with fishing and livestock herding - the dominant rural economic activities of the area. The nature of annual flooding in, the

region has made the area to be fertileproductive. The area provides grazing to about 506,000 cattle, 437,000 sheep, and 529,000 goats (HNWCP, unpublished) in Ovie et al. Bade people constitute the major ethnic group; although the Hausas, Fulanis, and Kanuris aform a sizeable population. are also important in the area. Primary data were mainly used for the

study using household interview schedule and Focus Group Discussion (FGD). Two hundred and ten (210) questionnaires were administered in 15 communities of the wetlands, using stratification

and simple random sampling technique out of which 172 were successfully retrieved and analyzed. The data were analyzed mainly using descriptive statistics. Capital assets were analyzed using scoring technique. For each asset, a scale of 1-5 with the later being the highest in terms of productivity were given for the respondents to

score the present status of each asset compared

Figure 1: Sustainable Livelihood Framework (Adopted from


39

sustainability of the dwindling wetlands resource base. It is against this background, the paper

intends to look at the capital assets accessibility and rural people in the

Nguru wetlands are located ′0″N and 10° 35′30″E, and receive

the bulk of its water from Rivers Katagum,

Jama’are, Kafin Hausa and Burum Gana. These the neighbouring

states of Kano, and Bauchi, flow westerly and eventually unite at Gashua to form the Komadugu

Yobe River system that empties into the Lake Chad. The total land area is estimated to be about

JWL, unpublished) in Ovie et

2006. The wetlands provides employment,

income and food security to millions farmers who integrate farming with fishing and livestock

the dominant rural economic activities of the area. The nature of annual flooding in, the

rea to be fertile and productive. The area provides grazing to about 506,000 cattle, 437,000 sheep, and 529,000 goats

(2006). The Bade people constitute the major ethnic group; although the Hausas, Fulanis, and Kanuris also form a sizeable population. are also important in the area. Primary data were mainly used for the

study using household interview schedule and Focus Group Discussion (FGD). Two hundred and ten (210) questionnaires were administered in 15

the wetlands, using stratification

and simple random sampling technique out of which 172 were successfully retrieved and

The data were analyzed mainly using descriptive statistics. Capital assets were analyzed

sset, a scale of 5 with the later being the highest in terms of

productivity were given for the respondents to

score the present status of each asset compared

with its status 20 years or more. Finally the average score for each asset was presented as the

status of the assets.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Rural livelihood remains a complex

phenomenon; natural vagaries, multidimensional poverty, and vulnerability affect their livelihoods negatively. However, no matter how poor, the locals often have assets on which they can draw to

pursue a diversified livelihood strategies and outcomes in order to attain sustainability. Taking a lead from the concept of sustainable livelihood (Figure 1) developed by the UK Department for

International Development (DFID, Deductions from studies in the wetlands have showed that the people are vulnerable to certain ecological, environmental, drought, flood, reduced

water table and rainfall and insect infestation on crop and animal diseases, which affect their livelihoods negatively (Neiland, 2000; Tafida and Galtima, 2015). At the same time, the framework

emphasizes that the poor people have assets and choices irrespective of their conditions, which the present paper intends to help in consolidating and broadening the choices of the people dependent on wetland resources. Empirical evidence from a variety of locations suggests that rural households do indeed engage in multiple activities and rely on diversified income portfolios. In sub

Africa, a range of 30–50 per cent reliance on nonfarm income sources is common; but it may attain 80–90 per cent in southern Africa. Certain policy, institution and processes are instrumental through

operational laws, policies, culture and established institutions often guide these engagements. To some extent, they approve good practices and checkmate the bad ones. Finally, the whole idea of the framework leads to livelihood outcome in terms of more income, increased well-vulnerability, improved food security and

sustainable natural resources.

Figure 1: Sustainable Livelihood Framework (Adopted from DFID, 1999)


with its status 20 years or more. Finally the average score for each asset was presented as the current

Rural livelihood remains a complex

natural vagaries, multidimensional poverty, and vulnerability affect their livelihoods negatively. However, no matter how poor, the

ts on which they can draw to

pursue a diversified livelihood strategies and outcomes in order to attain sustainability. Taking a lead from the concept of sustainable livelihood (Figure 1) developed by the UK Department for

International Development (DFID, 1999). Deductions from studies in the wetlands have showed that the people are vulnerable to certain ecological, environmental, drought, flood, reduced

water table and rainfall and insect infestation on crop and animal diseases, which affect their

2000; Tafida and Galtima, 2015). At the same time, the framework

emphasizes that the poor people have assets and choices irrespective of their conditions, which the present paper intends to help in consolidating and

choices of the people dependent on wetland resources. Empirical evidence from a variety of locations suggests that rural households do indeed engage in multiple activities and rely on diversified income portfolios. In sub-Saharan

er cent reliance on non-farm income sources is common; but it may attain

90 per cent in southern Africa. Certain policy, institution and processes are instrumental through

operational laws, policies, culture and established e engagements. To

some extent, they approve good practices and checkmate the bad ones. Finally, the whole idea of the framework leads to livelihood outcome in terms

-being, reduced vulnerability, improved food security and



Capital assets Accessibility

The livelihood approach considered a myriad range of livelihood assets irrespective of the community or situation of the people. These capital assets comprise of the Human, Natural, Physical,

Financial and Social, which can be used to construct a livelihood strategy. The current study analyzed three components from each of the five capital assets that cut across the respondents, as

presented in figure 2. On the natural asset, the result shows the accessibility and productivity of land to be 2.8 on the scale of 5 points being the highest. Forestry is rated 2,5 while fisheries is 1.8

on the scale of 5 scored by the respondents. This shows that the productivity of the major natural resource base in the area has reduced remarkably with fisheries as the worst hit. Physical

infrastructure has equally dwindled with p(electricity) reduced to 0.6, road 2.5 and market

Figure 2: Capital assets accessibility a

Key: P=Physical assets; M=market, R=Road, P=power

H=Human assets; E= years of experience, S=number of skills, Sc=Years of schooling,

N=Natural=Natural assets, L= Land, F=Forestry, F=Fisheries

S=Social assets; C=Cooperative membership, R=Remittances, L=Linkages

F=Financial assets; S=savings, D=Disposable items, L=Livestock

Resilience strategies

Although, majority of the people in HadejiaNguru-Gashua wetlands are farmers, it is evident

from the study that they engaged in multiple livelihood activities as a resilience strategy against their environmental, ecological and other challenges. Figure, 3, shows that farming among

the five categories of activity analyzed still remains the most important livelihood activity in the community contributing 48.5% to the overall

income. This is followed by fishing with 19.8% and livestock with 14.4%, others comprise of trading (8.6%) and services (8.7%).The diversity


40

The livelihood approach considered a myriad livelihood assets irrespective of the

community or situation of the people. These capital assets comprise of the Human, Natural, Physical,

Financial and Social, which can be used to construct a livelihood strategy. The current study

ts from each of the five capital assets that cut across the respondents, as

presented in figure 2. On the natural asset, the result shows the accessibility and productivity of land to be 2.8 on the scale of 5 points being the

while fisheries is 1.8

on the scale of 5 scored by the respondents. This shows that the productivity of the major natural resource base in the area has reduced remarkably with fisheries as the worst hit. Physical

infrastructure has equally dwindled with power (electricity) reduced to 0.6, road 2.5 and market

3.2, points. In terms of human capital, the people have vast experience with average years of

experience in the primary occupation of 22.2 years, average number of skills was ranked 3 and average number of years spent in school was 4.1 years. Social asset was assessed in terms of cooperative

membership, remittances and linkages as in figure 2. While the financial capital assessment centered on savings disposables items and livestock. Livelihood strategies and outcomes at the

household level depend to a large degree on the amounts and qualities of these assets owned or controlled by the household. Land and water endowments can be viewed as elements of natural

capital, while human capital includes the amouand quality of labour available. The optimal combination of investments in the five forms of capital might be viewed as a necessary condition

for achieving sustainable rural development.

Figure 2: Capital assets accessibility and productivity in the wetlands

Key: P=Physical assets; M=market, R=Road, P=power

H=Human assets; E= years of experience, S=number of skills, Sc=Years of schooling,

N=Natural=Natural assets, L= Land, F=Forestry, F=Fisheries

embership, R=Remittances, L=Linkages

F=Financial assets; S=savings, D=Disposable items, L=Livestock

Although, majority of the people in Hadejia-wetlands are farmers, it is evident

from the study that they engaged in multiple livelihood activities as a resilience strategy against their environmental, ecological and other challenges. Figure, 3, shows that farming among

ty analyzed still remains the most important livelihood activity in the community contributing 48.5% to the overall

income. This is followed by fishing with 19.8% and livestock with 14.4%, others comprise of trading (8.6%) and services (8.7%).The diversity of

livelihoods is an important feature of rural survival but often overlooked by the architects of policy. Diversity is closely allied to flexibility, resilience

and stability. In this sense, diverse livelihood systems are less vulnerable than undiversifithey are also likely to prove more sustainable over time, precisely because they allow for positive

adaptation to changing circumstances. In a broad sense, analysis of ‘resilience’ is about the potential capacity of systems to adapt to shocks, rec

that disturbance and change are integral component of complex systems.

3.2, points. In terms of human capital, the people have vast experience with average years of

experience in the primary occupation of 22.2 years, average number of skills was ranked 3 and average

r of years spent in school was 4.1 years. Social asset was assessed in terms of cooperative

membership, remittances and linkages as in figure 2. While the financial capital assessment centered on savings disposables items and livestock.

es and outcomes at the

household level depend to a large degree on the amounts and qualities of these assets owned or controlled by the household. Land and water endowments can be viewed as elements of natural

capital, while human capital includes the amount and quality of labour available. The optimal combination of investments in the five forms of capital might be viewed as a necessary condition

for achieving sustainable rural development.

livelihoods is an important feature of rural survival but often overlooked by the architects of policy. Diversity is closely allied to flexibility, resilience

and stability. In this sense, diverse livelihood systems are less vulnerable than undiversified ones; they are also likely to prove more sustainable over time, precisely because they allow for positive

adaptation to changing circumstances. In a broad sense, analysis of ‘resilience’ is about the potential capacity of systems to adapt to shocks, recognizing

that disturbance and change are integral component


CONCLUSION

Ecological, environmental, management and other human factors have grossly undermined the potentials of the hitherto rich HadejiaGashua wetlands, thereby subjecting millions of

people dependent on the natural resource base for their livelihood into poverty and poor socioeconomic well-being. In spite of their conditions, the people always draw their capital

assets of Human, Physical, Natural, Human and Social to construct a multiple livelihood portfolio as resilience strategies to address their plight and to attain sustainability. Though an excellent and better

approach, it has been consolidated and broadened to achieve meaningful outcomes. Therefore, this study have shown that assets accessibility and pattern of resilience strategies adopted have

consolidated the people thoughts bhorizon of their opportunities in order to sustain the dwindling natural resource base, improve their well-being and to guide the policy. The challenge, therefore, lies in operationalizing the concept of resilience and making it practically and pragmatically meaningful when it comes to its

implementation on the ground.

REFERENCES

Carpenter, S. R., B. H. Walker, J. M. Anderies and

N. Abel (2001). From metaphor to measurement: resilience of what to what? Ecosystems Vol. 4 pp 765-781

Chambers, R, Conway G. 1992. Sustainable rural

livelihoods Practical concepts for the 21st century. Institute of Development Studies

(IDS) Discussion Paper 296 in Brighton, Sussex

DFID (1999) Sustainable livelihoods guidance sheets. department for international development (DFID), London, UK


41

nvironmental, management and other human factors have grossly undermined the

rich Hadejia-Nguru-Gashua wetlands, thereby subjecting millions of

people dependent on the natural resource base for their livelihood into poverty and poor

being. In spite of their conditions, the people always draw their capital

assets of Human, Physical, Natural, Human and Social to construct a multiple livelihood portfolio as resilience strategies to address their plight and to

Though an excellent and better

approach, it has been consolidated and broadened to achieve meaningful outcomes. Therefore, this study have shown that assets accessibility and pattern of resilience strategies adopted have

consolidated the people thoughts broaden the horizon of their opportunities in order to sustain the dwindling natural resource base, improve their

being and to guide the policy. The challenge, therefore, lies in operationalizing the concept of resilience and making it practically and pragmatically meaningful when it comes to its

Carpenter, S. R., B. H. Walker, J. M. Anderies and

N. Abel (2001). From metaphor to measurement: resilience of what to what?

Conway G. 1992. Sustainable rural

livelihoods Practical concepts for the 21st Institute of Development Studies

in Brighton,

DFID (1999) Sustainable livelihoods guidance sheets. department for international

ment (DFID), London, UK

Ellis, F. (1999). Rural Livelihood diversity in

developing countries: evidence and policy implications Odi Natural Resources Perspective no 40 April 1999 pp. 40.

Ellis F. (2000). The determinants of rural

livelihood diversification countries. Journal of Agricultural

Economics, 51(2): 289-302 HNWCP (1997). Water management options for

the Hadejia-Jamaare-Yobe River Basin. IUCN- The World Conservation Union

Keddy, P.A. Wetland Ecology Principles and

Conservation: Cambridge University Press:

Cambridge, UK, 2010. Kaugama, H. H., & Ahmed, B. A. (2014). Prospect

and Challenges of Farming along the Hadejia-Nguru wetlands in Jigawa State

Nigeria. International Journal of Academic

Research and Management Science, 3

43-52. Mitsch, W.J. and Gosselink, J.G. (2000)

3rd ed.; John Wiley and sons: New York, NY, USA, 2000.

Neiland, A. E. (1997). Traditional Management of

Artisanal fisheries in North East Nigeria: Final Report, CEMSRE Report No 43, Portsmouth, UK. 400p

Neiland, A. (2000). “Traditional management

system and poverty alleviation in Nigeria”. paper presented at the seminar on livelihoods and fisheries management in the sahelian region.CIFA/PD/FAO

Ougadougou. Burkina Faso 3Pp93-114

Ovie, S.I., B.M.B. Ladu and A. A Tafida (2006). Food security and poverty alleviation

through improved valuation and governance of River Fisheries in Africa. characterization of key fisheries stakeholders and the impact of fisheries on livelihoods in the Komad


Ellis, F. (1999). Rural Livelihood diversity in

developing countries: evidence and policy Natural Resources

Perspective no 40 April 1999 pp. 40. Ellis F. (2000). The determinants of rural

in developing Journal of Agricultural

HNWCP (1997). Water management options for

Yobe River Basin. The World Conservation Union

Wetland Ecology Principles and

ge University Press:

Kaugama, H. H., & Ahmed, B. A. (2014). Prospect and Challenges of Farming along the

Nguru wetlands in Jigawa State

International Journal of Academic

Research and Management Science, 3(6),

tsch, W.J. and Gosselink, J.G. (2000) Wetlands, 3rd ed.; John Wiley and sons: New York,

Neiland, A. E. (1997). Traditional Management of

Artisanal fisheries in North East Nigeria: Final Report, CEMSRE Report No 43,

and, A. (2000). “Traditional management

system and poverty alleviation in Nigeria”. paper presented at the seminar on livelihoods and fisheries management in the sahelian region.CIFA/PD/FAO

Ougadougou. Burkina Faso 3-5 Jul. 2000

, S.I., B.M.B. Ladu and A. A Tafida (2006). Food security and poverty alleviation

through improved valuation and governance of River Fisheries in Africa. characterization of key fisheries stakeholders and the impact of fisheries on livelihoods in the Komadugu-


42

Yobe Basin of Lake Chad, Nigeria. Project

report No.1 Ovie, S.I., Raji, A., Ladu, B. M.B. and Tafida A. A.

(2007). Characterization of key stakeholders in the Kamadugu Yobe Basin of Lake Chad,

Nigerian Journal of Arid Zone Fisheries

3(2):66-76

Smardon, R.C. (2009).Sustaining the Worlds

wetlands; Setting Policies and Resolving

Conflicts; Springer Press: New York, NY,

USA, 2009 Tafida, A. A and Galtima, M.

(2015).Environmentally induced alternative livelihood strategies among the artisanal

fisher folk of Kainji Lake Basin, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental

Science and Development Vol. 7 No.1


43

CORRUPT PRACTICES IN THE GROWTH ENHANCEMENT SUPPORT SCHEME (GESS):

EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM FARMERS’ PERCEPTION IN OSUN AND ONDO STATES,

NIGERIA Lawal, B. O. and Oyedokun, O.

Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Moor Plantation, Ibadan


ABSTRACT

The study was carried out to investigate corrupt practices perceived by farmers in the Growth Enhancement

Support Scheme (GESS) in Osun and Ondo states. A structured interview schedule was designed to elicit

information from 187 farmers that were selected through a multistage sampling procedure. Results show that all

(100%) the farmers interviewed were aware of the GES scheme. More than half of the farmers benefitted from

improved seeds (67.3%) and bags of fertiliser (52.9%). Majority of the farmers (71.7%) agreed to the statement

that ‘there is diversion of inputs to retailers who in turn sell the commodity to farmers at the prevailing market

price’. Sixty-two percent of the farmers agreed to the statements on ‘disappearance of input dealers/officials at

redemption centres’ and that of ‘repeatedly requesting farmers to come to the redemption centres to redeem

their inputs without receiving the inputs’. Other corrupt practices perceived by farmers included distant

redemption centres (54.5%), non-appearance of farmers’ name in the redemption list (65.2%) and use of delay

tactics by officials at the redemption centres denying farmers of their inputs (45.5%). More than half (52.9%) of

the farmers had positive perception of corrupt practices among officers involved in the implementation of the

scheme. Years of schooling was found to be positive and significantly correlated with perception of corrupt

practices (r=0.166; p≤ 0.05). The study recommended the need for increase in the number of the redemption

centres, timely input supply, proper monitoring of the officials involved in the distribution of the inputs and

reduction of needless bureaucratic regulations.

Keywords: Corrupt practices, Growth Enhancement Support Scheme, farmers’ perception, farmers.

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of Nigeria contributing about 40.0% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (National Bureau of

Statistics, 2012) and also employs 70% of the active population (FGN, 2008). It is an important sector of the economy with high potentials for employment generation, food security and poverty

reduction. Attempts have been made in past years to boost farmers’ productivity through supply of farm inputs such as improved seeds and seedlings, agrochemicals and fertilisers at subsidised rates.

However, corruption, dishonesty and political interruption in the distributing channels have been major challenges as a large proportion of these inputs could not reach farmers. Most of the inputs

were diverted by political elites for personal gains (Adesina, 2013). The bid to do things differently and surmount the difficulties encountered in the distribution of fertiliser by past government led to

the introduction of the Growth Enhancement Support Scheme (GESS) under the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA) which was designed for smallholder farmers. It was designed for the specific purpose of providing affordable agricultural inputs (fertilisers and hybrid seeds) to farmers in order to increase their yields per hectare, make it comparable to world standard and

ultimately achieving food security in Nigeria and lift five (5) million resource-poor farmers annually out of subsistence farming to commercial agriculture within three (3) years (Adesina, 2013).

The major stakeholders include the Federal Government of Nigeria, State Government in all

the 36 States of Federation, Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Input Suppliers, Agro-dealers, farmers groups and individual farmers (Natsa, 2013).

Corruption is a social-human factor that entails abuse of public office for gains. It encompasses unilateral abuses by government officials such as embezzlement and nepotism as well as abuses

linking public and private actors such as bribery, extortion, influence peddling and fraud (Centre for Democracy and Governance, 1999). It is a serious challenge to agriculture and has hindered

agricultural productivity and subsequent food security in the country. The Corruption Perception Index ranks countries and territories based on how corrupt their public sector is perceived to be.

Nigeria was ranked 144th in the Transparency International’s ‘Corruption Perception Index in 2013 and 136th in 2014 out of 175 countries/territories surveyed. However, the report

released by the Germany-based non-governmental organisation in 2015 showed that the country is the 39th most corrupt nation among the 175 countries on the index (This day, 2015). Meanwhile, Nigeria shared same position in the index with Cameroun, Iran, Lebanon, Kyrgyzstan and Russia. According to Johnson and Sharma (2004), corruption is more than bribery. Various forms of

corruption exist in the society. It includes bribery and grafting (extortion and kickbacks), kleptocracy (stealing and privatizing public funds), misappropriation (forgery, embezzlement, misuse

of public funds/goods and illegal appropriation of public funds/goods for private use), non-


44

performance of duties and unfairly giving best jobs

to friends while in position of authority (cronyism/nepotism), influence peddling (favour-brokering and conflict of interest), acceptance of improper gifts (speed money), protecting

maladministration (cover- ups, perjury) and abuse of power (intimidation and torture). Others include manipulations of regulations (bias and rigging), electoral malpractice (vote buying and election rigging), rent seeking (public officials who illegally charge for services after creating artificial shortage), illegal campaign contributions (giving unregulated gifts to influence policies and

regulations), clientelism and patronage (politicians giving material favours in exchange for citizen support) (Bawa et al, 2010). With the introduction of the Growth Enhancement Support Scheme

(GESS), which seeks to bypass fraudulent middlemen in distributing subsidised fertiliser to farmers, it is expected to eliminate the brazen fraud of the past but has however created new forms of corruption. This includes systemic challenges and lapses, introduction of illegal fees and politicizing of the fertiliser subsidy. It is against this background that the study

investigated corrupt practices perceived by farmers in the GESS in Osun and Ondo states. The specific objectives of the study were to describe the personal and socioeconomic characteristics of the

farmers in the study area, determine farmers’ awareness and sources of information regarding GESS, examine benefits derived from the GESS by the farmers and find out farmers’ perception of

corrupt practices in the scheme. The study also hypothesised that there is no significant relationship between the socioeconomic characteristics of farmers and their perception of

corrupt practices in the GES scheme.

METHODOLOGY

The study was carried out in two states of

Southwest Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to sample farmers in each of the state. The first stage involved the selection of two out of the six states that make up the southwest

Nigeria using simple random sampling technique. Ondo and Osun states were thus selected for the study. The second stage involved the selection of two agricultural zones from each state. At the third stage, two extension blocks were randomly selected in each of the zones making a total of eight blocks. At the fourth stage, three cells/communities were randomly selected from each block and from these;

ten farmers were selected using random sampling technique. A total of 240 farmers were interviewed, however, 187 copies of the completed interview guides were retrieved for data analysis. Data for the

study were collected using a structured interview schedule.

Perception of corrupt practices by farmers in

the GESS was measured by generating a list of 12 perception statements (6 positive and 6 negative) which were responded to on a 5-point scale of Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree and

Strongly Disagree. Scores of 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 were awarded to positive statements and the reverse for negative statements, respectively. Respondents with scores of mean and above were regarded as having positive perception while respondents with scores below mean were categorized as having negative perception. Data collected for the study were analysed using frequencies, percentages,

means and standard deviation and Pearson Product Moment Correlation.


Socio-economic characteristics of farmers -

The data in Table 1 show that the mean age of famers was 49 years which is an indication that most of the farmers were in the middle age category and active. However, only 17.1% of the farmers were within the age of 60 and above. Seventy-one percent of the farmers were male while 28.9% were female. Fifty-four percent of the

farmers spent more than 6 years in school; an indication that they were educated. The mean number of years spent in school was 10.6 years. Only 17.1% of the farmers had no formal

education. This implies that majority of the farmers can read and write and keep abreast of current happening in the society. Household size of farmers varied from 1 to 9 with a mean of 6.8 persons. Half

of the farmers had household size of between 4 and 6 people. Also, a little above half (51.3%) of the farmers had farm size of between 1 and 4 acres and majority were into arable crop production such as

cassava (96.7%), maize (98.3%), vegetable (65.7%) and rice production (52.4%). Forty-four percent of the farmers had more than 20years of farming experience while more than half (65.2%) were

members of social organisations such as cassava growers association and maize growers association among others. Almost half (49.7%) of the farmers indicated their access to extension agents more than

once a month in the last 6 months of the study. Table 1: Distribution of farmers by socioeconomic characteristics (n=187)


Frequency Percentage Mean

Age Below 30 05 2.7 30-39 28 15.0 49 40-50

50-59 60 and above

66

56 32

35.3

29.9 17.1

Sex Male 133 71.1


45



Female 54 28.9

Years of

Schooling None

32

17.1

1-6 52 28.9 10.6

7-12 44 26.2 13-18 >18

32 04

25.7 2.1

Household size

1-3 10 5.3 6.89 4-6 94 50.3 7-9 >9

49 34

26.2 18.2

Farm size (acre)

<1 1-2 3-4

4-5 >5

Crop

Enterprise

Engaged by

farmers Maize Cassava

Vegetables Rice Yam Plantain

Tree crops

15 55 41

42 34 184 179 123 98

79 74 69

8.0 29.4 21.9

22.4 18.1 98.3 96.7 65.7 52.4

42.2 39.5 38.8

3

Year of farming

experience

1-5 24 12.8 21.7

6-10 27 14.4 11-15 22 11.8 16-20 >20

32 82

17.1 43.9

Membership of

Social

organisation

Yes 122 65.2

No 65 34.8

Number of

contact with

Extension agent in 6 months

None 24 12.8 1-3 26 13.9 4-6 44 23.5 9 7-9 20 10.7 >9 73 39.0

*Multiple responses were provided by respondents Source: Field Survey, 2014

Awareness, Registration and Information

sources - All (100%) the farmers were aware of the GESS and had registered for the programme one time or the other. Sources of information varied

among farmers. Majority (73.7%) of the farmers

obtained information on GESS from the Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) staff. However, 64.1% and 58.9% of the farmers obtained their information from farmers groups and

mass media, respectively. This also shows the mass awareness campaign of the government during registration. Only 26.7% of the farmers obtained information from the local government staff which is an indication that local government staff are not close to farmers at the grass roots (Table 2). Table 2: Distribution of farmers by awareness, registration and information sources on GESS


Awareness

Aware 187 100.00 Not aware

Registration of name

Yes

No

00 187

00

00.00 100.0

0.0

Information sources ADP staff Farmers’ Association

138* 120

73.7 64.1

Friends and Neighbours

105 56.1

Ministry of Agriculture

Local Government officials

25 50

13.4 26.7

Research Institutes 41 21.9 Mass Media 110 58.9

*Multiple responses were provided by respondents

Source: Field Survey, 2014

Benefits derived from GESS - Benefits derived from the GESS included access to

subsidised seeds (67.3%), access to subsidised fertilisers (52.9%), increased production as a result of subsidised inputs (32.6%) and increased income (31.6%) (Figure 1). Forty percent (40.1%) of the

farmers however, indicated that their crop yield was relatively constant while 27.3% indicated a decrease in crop yield. Only 32.6% of the farmers had their crop yield increased. This implies that the

benefits of the scheme have not been able to translate into increased productivity and income for most of the farmers.



Perception of corrupt practices by farmers

The data in Table 3 show the distribution of farmers based on their responses to perception statements on corrupt practices in the GESS. The data show that “diversion of input to retailers who in turn sell the commodities to farmers at prevailing market price was agreed to by 71.1% of the farmers (mean=3.88). This is related to influence peddling

and misappropriation forms of corruption. Also, 62.6% and 17.1% of the farmers agreed and strongly agreed to the statement on ‘disappearance of input and government officials at the redeeming

centres’ (mean=3.86). Requesting farmers to come to the redeeming centres repeatedly to redeem inputs without giving them the inputs was agreed to by 62.6% and 20.9% of farmers (mean=3.85). Forty-three percent and 13.9% of the farmers agreed and strongly agreed to the statementexistence of redeeming centres in their

communities. Thirty- seven percent of farmers agreed to the statement on non-appearance of their names in the redemption list (mean=3.44) despite the fact that they registered their names with the

Table 3: Distribution of farmers by responses to statements on perception of corrupt GESS

Perception statements Strongly agree

Diversion of inputs to retailers who in turn sell the commodities to farmers at the prevailing market practice.

24 (12.8)

Disappearance of input dealer’s officials at the redeeming centres

32 (17.1)

Requesting farmers to

come to the redemption centres repeatedly to

39 (20.9)


46

Perception of corrupt practices by farmers -

The data in Table 3 show the distribution of s based on their responses to perception

statements on corrupt practices in the GESS. The data show that “diversion of input to retailers who in turn sell the commodities to farmers at prevailing market price was agreed to by 71.1% of the farmers

8). This is related to influence peddling

and misappropriation forms of corruption. Also, 62.6% and 17.1% of the farmers agreed and strongly agreed to the statement on ‘disappearance of input and government officials at the redeeming

Requesting farmers to come to the redeeming centres repeatedly to redeem inputs without giving them the inputs was agreed to by 62.6% and 20.9% of farmers (mean=3.85).

three percent and 13.9% of the farmers agreed and strongly agreed to the statement on the existence of redeeming centres in their

seven percent of farmers appearance of their

names in the redemption list (mean=3.44) despite the fact that they registered their names with the

government officials. Thirty- two percent of farmers also agreed that input and government

officials at the redeeming centres use delay tactics so that farmers can get frustrated and leave the centre without collecting inputs. About thirtypercent of the farmers strongly disagreed that input

officials did not request for gratification for services rendered to farmers. They believed some of them paid more than the pegged price for inputs. Thirty-two percent and 6.4% of the farmers agreed

and strongly agreed to the statement that input officials never requested for gratification for services rendered. However, 33.7% strongly disagreed with the statement.

The bureaucracy in the distribution of inputs at the redeeming centres is a factor that could lead orpromote corruption as many farmers may lose interest or get fed up with the situation thereby

giving chances to non- farmers or impostors to take advantage of the situation. Forty-three percent of the farmers disagree with the statement on denial of impostors by input dealers. It is evident from the

foregoing that various forms of corruption paraded itself in the distribution of inputs to farmers which range from abuse of office, influence peddling, bribery (extortion and kickbacks), nepotism, speed money and manipulations of regulations (Johnson and Sharma, 2004; Fadairo and Ladele, 2014). The data in Table 4 revealed that more than half (52.9%) of the farmers had positive perception of

corruption in the GESS while 47.1% had negative perception. This is an indication that corrupt practices exists in the agricultural sector especially in the implementation of the scheme. This

corroborates the findings of Nyankakyi (2002), Fadairo and Oladele (2014). It is also an indication that corrupt practices is not only political class, officials in rural development also have tendency of indulging in such when they have the opportunity to do.

Table 3: Distribution of farmers by responses to statements on perception of corrupt practices in the operation of

Agree Undecided Strongly disagree

Disagree Mean

133 (71.1) 17 (9.1) 10 (5.3) 3 (1.6) 3.88

117 (62.6) 22 (11.8) 11 (5.9) 5 (2.7)

3.86

117 (62.6) 5 (2.7) 15 (8.0) 11(5.9)

3.85

two percent of farmers also agreed that input and government

officials at the redeeming centres use delay tactics so that farmers can get frustrated and leave the

About thirty-four strongly disagreed that input

officials did not request for gratification for services rendered to farmers. They believed some of them paid more than the pegged price for inputs.

two percent and 6.4% of the farmers agreed

statement that input officials never requested for gratification for services rendered. However, 33.7% of farmers

the statement.

The bureaucracy in the distribution of inputs at the redeeming centres is a factor that could lead or promote corruption as many farmers may lose interest or get fed up with the situation thereby

farmers or impostors to take three percent of

the farmers disagree with the statement on denial of tors by input dealers. It is evident from the

foregoing that various forms of corruption paraded itself in the distribution of inputs to farmers which range from abuse of office, influence peddling, bribery (extortion and kickbacks), nepotism, speed

and manipulations of regulations (Johnson and Sharma, 2004; Fadairo and Ladele, 2014). The data in Table 4 revealed that more than half (52.9%) of the farmers had positive perception of

corruption in the GESS while 47.1% had negative indication that corrupt

practices exists in the agricultural sector especially in the implementation of the scheme. This

corroborates the findings of Nyankakyi (2002), Fadairo and Oladele (2014). It is also an indication

common to the political class, officials in rural development also have tendency of indulging in such when they have

practices in the operation of

Mean Std .Dev

Rank

3.88 0.75 1

3.86 0.85 2

3.85 1.03 3


47

Perception statements Strongly agree

Agree Undecided Strongly disagree

Disagree Mean Std .Dev

Rank

redeem their inputs

without receiving inputs Non-appearance of farmers’ names in the redemption list

53 (28.3) 69 (36.9) 5 (2.7) 28(15.0)

32(17.1)

3.44 1.46 4

Redemption centres available in most communities

21 (11.2) 81 (43.3) 9(4.8)

51(27.3)

25(13.4)

3.12 1.27 5

Use of delay tactics at redemption centres so as to frustrate farmers

26 (13.9) 59(31.6)

21 (11.2) 62(33.2)

19(10.2) 3.06 1.27 6

Input officials never requested for gratification

for services rendered

12 (6.4) 62 (33.2) 38 (20.3) 63(33.7)

12 (6.4) 2.99 1.09 7

Strong denial of impostors by government officials and agro-dealers but

ensured farmers have access to inputs

21 (11.2) 51 (27.3) 9 (4.8) 15(13.4)

81(43.3)

2.88 1.29 8

Verification of GES cards/text messages of farmers by government officials at redeeming centres without man-know-man

9 (4.8) 67(35.8)

19 (10.2) 69 (36.9) 23 (12.3) 2.84 1.18 9

Farmers received not more than the amount of inputs they are entitled to

22 (11.8) 38(20.3)

14 (7.5) 85(45.5)

28 (15.0) 2.69 1.09 10

Farmers received no alert

messages regarding input collection or alert came late

25 (13.4) 34(18.2) 5(2.7)

86 (46)

37 (19.8) 2.51 1.29 11

Only registered farmers

obtained inputs at the redemption centres

9 (4.8) 21 (11.2)

3 (1.6) 95 (50.8) 59 (31.6) 2.08 1.10 12

Figures in parentheses are percentages Source: Field Survey, 2014

Table 4: Distribution of respondents based on categories of perception of corruption (n=187)

Categories of Perception


Positive (37-48)

99 52.9

Negative (24-36)

88 47.1

Total 187 100.0


Relationship between selected farmers’

socioeconomic characteristics variables and

perception of corrupt practices

The results on the relationship between farmers’ socioeconomic characteristics and their perception of corrupt practices (Table 5) show that only years of schooling of farmers (r=0.166) had a positive and significant relationship with farmers’

perception of corrupt practices at p≤ 0.05 level of significance. This implies that as farmers’ years of education increases, there is also increase in the tendency of the farmers to be able to perceive

corrupt practices better in a given situation. Educated farmers are likely to have adequate information on the prevailing situations in their environment. This is in support of Truex (2011)

who found education as a consistently strongest determinant of corruption acceptance in Nepal. He established that education plays a significant role in determining attitudes towards corruption. More educated individuals were consistently more critical of corruption. Education is likely to be “the key driver of social norms” (Heyneman, 2003; Heyneman, 2004) and therefore will be a key

element in turning people’s perception from corruption acceptance to corruption rejection.


48

Table 5: Correlation analysis showing relationship

between farmers’ socioeconomic characteristics and their perception of corrupt practices

Farmers’ characteristics

Correlation Coefficient (r)

p-value Decision

Age 0.050 0.497 NS

Number of years spent in school

0.166* 0.039 S

Farm size 0.005 0.948 NS

Household

size

-0.035 0.640 NS

Years in Agricultural business

-0.059 0.439 NS

Number of contact with extension agent in the past 6 months

0.101 0.216 NS

*Significant at p<0.05

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings of the study led to the following

conclusions: Farmers in the study area had awareness and registered for GES scheme. Majority of the farmers obtained information on GESS from the

Agricultural Development Programme staff (ADP), farmers group and mass media indicating high awareness campaign of the programme. Benefits derived from the GESS by farmers include access

to subsidised seeds, access to subsidised fertilisers, increased production and increased income. Farmers were able to identify and perceive corrupt practices in the scheme. The corrupt practices

prevalent among the officers of the scheme ranged from bribery, extortion and kickbacks, influence peddling, abuse of power, nepotism and non-performance of duties. More than half of the

farmers had positive perception of corruption in the GES scheme which implies some forms of sharp practices in the implementation of the scheme. Farmers’ years of schooling positively influenced

their perception of corrupt practices in the study area. Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made. (1) There is need to increase the number of

redemption centres in each communities so as to reduce the inefficiency in the number of redemption centres in the communities. While

government appears willing to commit billions of funds to subsidise inputs for farmers, significant resources should also be committed

to monitor the scheme effectively to prevent

fraud and corruption in all its forms so that smallholders can gain better access to subsidised inputs. In the same vein, many needless bureaucratic red tape and regulations

in public offices must be eliminated. This is because too much bureaucracy drives people to bribe to get through the red tape.

(2) Corruption inhibits social and economic development, impacting negatively on attempts to fight hunger and famine coherently and systematically, hence there is need for systematic and political will on the part of the

government through massive enlightenment campaigns and ensuring that deterrents are punished severely. Policy makers should take the advantage of the unique opportunity

provided by corrupt cases in GESS to push reforms of poorly designed subsidy schemes.

(3) Education has been found to play a significant role in corruption perception. Hence, there is need to invest in the education of the citizenry by the government. This will promote social cohesion (which is the acceptance of and support for social norms and behaviour),

ensure social contract and the willingness to act responsibly, or be good citizens and shun corrupt practices.

REFERENCES

Adesina, A. (2013). Press briefing on Agricultural reform. In: Acha, E., Boosting food security through Growth Enhancement Support

Scheme. The Road Newspaper. July 17th 2013. Accessed on 20th March, 2014.

Bawa, D.B., Ani, A.O and Nuhu, H.S (2010). Challenges of Greed and Corruption in

Agricultural Extension Development and Practice in Nigeria. Agricultural Journal 5 (1): 25-30.

Centre for Democracy and Governance (1999). A

handbook on fighting corruption. Technical publication series, Bureau for Global Programmes. United States Agency for International Development, Washington,

D.C., pp.5-18. Fadairo, O and Ladele, A (2014). Attitudes and

Perception of Corrupt Practices among Public Officials in the Agricultural Sector in Southwestern Nigeria. Developing Country

Studies 4(8): 1-9 ISSN 2225-0565 (Online) Retrieved 15 August from http://.iiste.org

Federal Government of Nigeria (2008). “National Food Security Program” Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources, Abuja, Nigeria.

Heyneman, S.P. (2003). “Defining the Influence of Education on Social Cohesion.”


49

International Journal of Educational Policy,

Research and Practice 3&4: 73-97. Heyneman, S.P (2004). “Education and

Corruption.” International Journal of

Educational Development 24 (6):

637-648. Johnson, R. A. and Sharma, S. (2004). The

Struggle against corruption: A comparative study. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.

National Bureau of Statistics (2012). Review of Nigerian Economy in 2011 and Economic Outlook for 2012-2014. National Bureau of

Statistics, Nigeria. Natsa, R. T. (2013). Farmers Fault Federal

Government’s Growth Enhancement Scheme. The Leadership Newspaper.

July 4, 2013. Accessed on 12th March, 2014.

Nyantakyi, K.R. (2002), “Corruption: What is it?”

In Corruption and Development in Africa. Proceedings of a seminar organised by the Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences with the Friedrich Ebert Foundation on

June 17-19. Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences, Accra.

This day (2013). Understanding the Growth Enhancement Support Scheme. Retrived from http:/www.thisdaylive.com/articles/understanding-the-growth-enhancement-support scheme 153425/ accessed on June 14, 2015.

Truex, R (2011). “Corruption, Attitudes, and Education: Survey Evidence from Nepal.” World Development 39 (7): 1133-1142.


50

CROP FARMERS’ PERCEPTION OF GROWTH ENHANCEMENT SCHEME IN CURBING

CORRUPTION IN INORGANIC FERTILISER DELIVERY IN ODEDA LOCAL GOVERNMENT

AREA OF OGUN STATE NIGERIA 1Oyetoro, J. O., 1Rahman, S. B., 1Oladipo, S. O. and 2Jolayemi, J. O.

1Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso 2Department of Agricultural Education, Kwara State College of Education, Oro


ABSTRACT

The study investigate crop farmers’ perception of Growth Enhancement Scheme (GES) in curbing corruption in

inorganic fertiliser delivery in Odeda Local Government Area of Ogun State Nigeria. Two-stage sampling

technique was used to select the 117 GES crop farmers and data was obtained with the aid of structured

interview schedule. Data was analyzed using frequency counts, percentages, means and t-test analysis. Findings

of the study revealed that mean age of the respondents was 51.9 years and the mean years of farming experience

was 29.2 years. The study also discovered that 62.4% of the respondents claimed to be facing serious problem

on cumbersome procedure in accessing fertiliser. The study also revealed that respondents developed negative

perception towards the following statements: “A token needs to be paid for easy registration of GES”; “None

registered farmers can also manoeuvre their way to get fertiliser”; “At fertiliser redemption centre, it is whom

you know to get fertiliser”; “Bad GSM network connectivity does not impaired redemption of fertiliser” and

“the price of GES fertiliser was not the same in the same locality”. Furthermore, no significant differences

existed (t= 0.948, p= 0.976) in the perceptional status index of male and female respondents of GES in curbing

corruption in inorganic fertiliser delivery. The study concluded that respondents perceived GES as being

effective in curbing corruption in fertiliser delivery and therefore recommends that efforts should be made to

ensure timely delivery of inorganic fertiliser by the GES stakeholders and sensitize people more about the

scheme.

Key words: Farmers’ Perception, Growth Enhancement Scheme (GES), Corruption, Fertiliser delivery.

INTRODUCTION

The Growth Enhancement Support Scheme (GESS) was designed as a component of the

Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA) of the Federal Government. The ATA is the Government’s response to the crisis that has riddled the agricultural sector in the past and seeks to put

agricultural growth at the centre of the Government’s development objective given its critical role for food security and economic diversification. At inception, the broad objective of

the GESS was to achieve food security for the nation at the macro level, and increase household income for the farmers at the micro level. The scheme was designed to encourage the stakeholders

in the fertiliser value chain to work together to improve productivity, household food security and raise the income of the farmer by providing direct subsidy through the supply of discounted fertilisers

and seeds. In the past, fertiliser procurement and distribution in the country has been fraught with fraud, discrepancies and inefficiencies. Governments at the Federal and State levels were spending a lot of money on farm inputs which were not reaching the intended beneficiaries (small holder farmers) and thus, had no impact on the national food output. The Federal Government was

involved in the direct procurement and distribution of fertilisers and this weakened the ability of private companies to participate in the sector and compete efficiently for market share. As with most

subsidy regimes, the sector was grossly under developed and the opportunities for corruption

were rampant (Fertiliser Producers and Suppliers Association of Nigeria (FEPSAN, 2012). Several scholars have defined corruption in

many ways. World Bank Independent Evaluation Group (2006) described corruption as the abuse of office for private gains. Public office is abused for private gain when an official accepts, solicits, or

extorts a bribe. Azelama (2002) observed corruption as any action or omission enacted by a member of an organisation, which is against the rules, regulations, norms, and ethics of the

organisation and the purpose is to meet the selfish end of the member at the detriment of the organisation. Waziri (2010) considered corruption as a pervasion or a change from the generally

accepted law or rules for personal benefit. Over the years, the distribution of fertilisers has remained a racketeering business for some group of persons. Farmers have had to lament the poor handling and

management of the fertiliser distribution because past governments failed to nip the racketeering in the bud. The ex-minister of Agriculture and Rural Development (Dr. Akinwumi Adesina) lamented that between 1980 and 2010, the Federal and State governments spent over N873 billion on fertiliser subsidies and out of this amount, Nigeria lost N776 billion to corruption and fertiliser racketeering

within this period (Ajayi, 2015). Available field information showed that further progress has been recorded in the area of input supply, production and other levels along the value

chain. Although varied challenges were reported from participating farmers in states with GES


51

implementation. For instance, 65%-70% of

registered farmers accessed fertilisers/certified seeds, while 118,639 bundles of cassava cuttings were also distributed to farmers. A total of 6,053,211.40Metric Tonnes of fertiliser was

procured and distributed directly to farmers at redemption centres across the nation with no middleman. Also, the National Agricultural Seed Council indicated that the use of improved seeds increased from 14% in 2012 to 23.5% in 2013 and registered seed companies increased from 30 in 2012 to 75 in 2013. These have had direct positive impacts on field crop performance, output,

employment generation and income of farmers. It is estimated that 3.26 million jobs had been created by ATA along the target value chain commodities. The identified challenges of GES were: untimely

supply of input, inadequate resources and equipment to clear large expanse of lands for cultivation, inadequate extension workers, lack of direct financing of every value chain funding at the Green House level, untimely commencement of GES activities, inadequate sensitization and enlightenment of field actors, bad GSM network connectivity, particularly in rural areas, which

impaired redemption; few redemption centres; hence, farmers moved long distances to redeem their inputs; lack of credit facilities to support poor farmers and high cost of credit to commercial

farmers and lack of irrigation facilities for dry season farming or for supplementary irrigation during protracted dry spells. (National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services

(NAERLS) and Federal Department of Agricultural Extension (FDAE) (2013). The study is set to ascertain the selected socioeconomic characteristics of respondents; determines the constraints facing

respondents in accessing inorganic fertiliser and determines respondents’ perception of GES in curbing corruption in inorganic fertiliser delivery.

METHODOLOGY

The study was conducted in Odeda Local Government Area of Ogun state, Nigeria. It’s headquarter is at Odeda, a place situated along

Abeokuta- Ibadan Road, which is about 10 kilometers from Abeokuta (the State Capital). The headquarters of the Local Government Area is on the A5 highway7°13′00″N 3°31′00″E. It has an area of 1,560 km² and a population of 109,449peoples at the 2006 census. It has an extensive landmass mostly grass. The vegetation of the Local Government is mainly Orchard and of

thick grasses. Thus, the land is suitable for crop production and livestock rearing (Wikipedia, 2014). The local government has 10wards. Two- stages sampling technique was used to select the

respondents. The first stage involved random selection of 4 wards which are: Alabata, Obantoko,

Odeda and Osiele. The second stage involved

random selection of 10% of crop farmers’ beneficiaries of GES. Thus, 11 respondents were selected from Alabata, 55 from Obantoko, 29 from Odeda and 22 from Osiele to give a sample size of

117respondents. The dependent variable is the perceptional status of the respondents, 10 perceptional statements were asked the respondents and response were scored on 5 point Likert scale of strongly agreed- 5, agreed- 4, undecided- 3, disagreed -2, strongly disagreed -1. The scoring were reversed for negative statements. The independent variables consists of the selected

socioeconomics characteristics of respondents. Descriptive statistical tools used were frequency counts and percentages while t-test analysis was used to establish the significant difference between

the perceptional status of GES in curbing corruption in inorganic fertiliser delivery of male and female respondents.


Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents

Data presented in Table 1 shows the distribution of respondents according to their socio-

economic characteristics. The mean age of the respondents was 51.9 years. This means that respondents were in their middle ages having strength and vigour to cope with rigour involved in

crop production activities. The result support the findings of Oyetoro (2014) that crop farmers in South Western Nigeria are becoming of age as many in farming are in their 50’s. The study also

revealed that most of the respondents (67.5%) were male. The mean years of farming experience was 29.2 years. This implies that respondents in the study area have farmed for sufficient years to

develop enormous knowledge on crop production activities. Also, the mean farm size is 2.6hectares. According to Food and Agriculture Organisation (2010), farm size of less than 5hectares is classified

to be small scale farming. Table1: Distribution of respondents according to their selected socioeconomic characteristics, n=117



Age (years)

Less than 30 5 4.3 31-50 56 47.9 51-70 52 44.4 51.9 71 and above 4 3.4

Sex Male 79 67.5 Female 38 32.5

Marital status

Single 3 2.6 Widow/widower

12 10.2

Divorced 3 2.6


52



Married 99 84.6

Years of

farming

experience

(years)

≤ 5 1 0.9 6-10 7 6.0 29.2 11years and above

109 93.1

Farm size

(hectares)

≤ 3 68 58.1 2.6 4-10 38 32.5

11 and above 11 9.4

Source: field survey, 2015.

Constraints facing respondents in accessing

inorganic fertiliser

Data in Table 2 revealed that high fertiliser

price is a serious problem to 51.3% of the respondents. This finding corroborated the report of FEPSAN (2012) that most GES farmers are facing challenge of high fertiliser price. It should be noted that respondents paid 50% of the cost of fertiliser while federal and state governments bear the remaining cost of 50%. This means that some farmers cannot still afford the subsidised fertiliser

price. Also, 62.4% of the respondents are facing serious problem on cumbersome procedure in accessing fertiliser, only 38.5% of the respondents claimed serious problem of not meeting up with the

required quantity of fertiliser. This means that most of the respondents are contented with quantity of fertiliser received through GES. Also, 42.7% of the respondents claimed serious problem of availability

of lower quantity of fertiliser (such as half bag-25kg). It means that most respondents operates on small scale basis and may not be able to afford 50kg fertiliser bag. All the respondents claimed that

getting the needed type of fertiliser is not a problem. However, majority (76.1%) of the respondents claimed that late delivery of fertilisers to farmers was a serious problem. This means that

supply of fertilisers to farmers through GES may not meet planting season which can affect crop production in the study area. Table2: Distribution of respondents according to

constraints facing them in accessing inorganic fertiliser

Constraints* Serious Mild Not a problem

High Fertiliser price

60(51.3) 30(25.6) 27(23.1)

Constraints* Serious Mild Not a problem

Cumbersome

procedure in accessing fertiliser

73(62.4) 20(17.1) 24(20.5)

Quantity

required is not met

45(38.5) 10(8.5) 62(53.0)

Lower quantity such as half bag (25kg) not available

50(42.7) 10(8.5) 57(48.8)

Problem of getting the

needed type of fertiliser

0 (0.0) 10(8.5) 107(91.5)

Late delivery of fertilisers to

farmers

89(76.1) 20(17.1) 8(6.8)

Source: Field survey, 2015. Figures in parentheses are percentages * Multiple responses

Crop farmers’ perception of GES in curbing

corruption in inorganic fertiliser delivery

The statements whose weighted mean values are equal to or greater than the grand mean (2.56)

are classified to have positive perception by the respondents while the mean values less than the grand mean are classified to have negative perception by the respondents. Hence, respondents

developed positive perception towards the following statements: Only progressive farmers obtained information /alert on their e-wallet system; procurement of fertiliser through GES was

not usually timely for crop production and through GES, the needed bags of inorganic fertiliser cannot be met. However, respondents developed negative perception towards the following statements: a

token needs to be paid for easy registration of GES; none registered farmers can also manoeuvre their way to get fertiliser; at fertiliser redemption centre, it is whom you know to get fertiliser; bad GSM

network connectivity does not impair redemption of fertiliser; obtaining fertiliser type demanded was not easy at point of collection and the price of GES fertiliser was not the same in the same locality.

Developing negative perception towards the statements above implies that respondents perceived GES as being effective in curbing corruption in inorganic fertiliser delivery.


53

Table 3: Distribution of respondents according to their perception of GES in curbing corruption in inorganic

fertiliser delivery

Perception statements* Strongly agreed

Agreed Undecided

Disagreed

Strongly disagreed

Mean

Abnormal cash payments usually made before procurement of fertiliser

0 (0.0) 8(6.8) 16(13.7) 81(69.2) 12(10.3) 3.86

A token needs to be paid for easy registration

of GES

0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 32(27.4) 51(43.6) 32(27.4) 2.16

None registered farmers can also manoeuvre their way to get fertiliser

0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 21(17.9) 63(53.8) 33(28.2) 2.26

Only progressive farmers got information /alert on their e-wallet system

4(3.4) 14(12.0) 0 (0.0) 21(17.9) 78(66.7) 3.13

At fertiliser redemption centre, it is whom you know to get fertiliser

0 (0.0) 1(0.9) 13(11.1) 59(50.4) 44(37.6) 1.75

Procurement of fertiliser through GES was not

usually timely for crop production

60(51.3) 34(29.1) 3(2.6) 19(16.2) 1(0.9) 2.58

Bad GSM network connectivity does not impaired redemption of fertiliser

22(18.8) 16(13.7) 0 (0.0) 38(32.5) 41(35.0) 2.44

Obtaining fertiliser type demanded was not

easy at point of collection

0 (0.0) 4(3.4) 24(20.5) 32(27.4) 57(48.7) 1.56

Through GES, the needed bags inorganic fertiliser cannot be met

105(89.8) 2(1.7) 0 (0.0) 7(5.9) 3(2.6) 1.72

The price of GES fertiliser was not the same in the same locality

3(2.6) 3(2.6) 8(6.8) 48(41.0) 55(47.0) 2.30

Grand Total 2.56

Source: Field survey, 2015. Figures in parentheses are percentages * Multiple responses

Paired Sample t-test Analysis of the Difference between the Perceptional Status Index of Male and Female Respondents on GES in Curbing

Corruption in Inorganic Fertiliser Delivery. Data in Table 4 shows no significant differences (t= 0.948, p= 0.976) in the perceptional status index of male and female respondents of GES in curbing

corruption in inorganic fertiliser delivery. This means that gender has on influence on the perception of both male and female respondents on GES in curbing corruption in inorganic fertiliser

delivery. Table 4: Paired sample t test analysis of the difference between the perceptional status index of male and female respondents on GES in curbing

corruption in fertiliser delivery

Variables t-value p-value Decision

Perceptional status index of male and

22.42 0.948

0.976 Not significant

female

respondents

14.06

Source: Field survey (2015)


Based on the findings of this study, it is concluded that respondents perceived GES as being effective in curbing corruption in inorganic fertiliser delivery. The study recommends that

efforts should be made to ensure timely delivery of inorganic fertiliser. Also procedure to access fertiliser should be less cumbersome to encourage

more participants for the programme to maximally achieve the goals set for it.

REFERENCES

Ajayi, O. (2015): The Goodluck Jonathan Agriculture Revolution, Vanguard Newspaper. Available onlinehttp://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/

02/goodluck-jonathan-agriculture-revolution/ Accessed on 20th June, 2015

Azelama J.U (2002): Public Enterprise Management in Nigeria, Ambik Press,

Benin-City, Nigeria Fertiliser Producers and Suppliers Association of

Nigeria (FEPSAN, 2012): The Growth Enhancement Support Scheme (GESS)

Monitoring Report. Food and Agriculture Organisation (2014):

Characterization of small farmers in Asia and the pacific, Rome, Italy. URL http://www.fepsannigeria.com/files/GESS%20Monitoring%20Report%20FC%20Revised%20%20Final.pdf

National Agricultural Extension and Research

Liaison Services (NAERLS) and Federal Department of Agricultural Extension (FDAE) (2013): Agricultural Performance


54

Survey Report of 2013 Wet Season in

Nigeria, Ahmadu Bello University, NAERLS Press, Zaria.

Oyetoro J.O (2014): Assessment of Contribution of University Based Extension Projects to

Arable Crop Production in South West Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Department of Agricultural Extension and Communication Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.

Waziri, F. (2010): Corruption and Governance Challenges, Nigeria Conference

Proceedings, Monograph Series

Number 7, Cleen Foundation, Abuja, Nigeria.

Wikipedia (2014): Odeda location in Nigeria. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/odeda

World Bank Independent Evaluation Group (2006): Engaging With Fragile States: An IEG Review of World Bank Support To Low-Income Countries Under Stress, The World Bank, Washington Dc. www.worldbank.org/ieg


55

EFFECT OF THE NYSC/MDGs/WAP AGRO-ENTERPRISE LOAN ON BENEFICIARIES’ WELL-

BEING IN SOUTH WEST NIGERIA

Tijani, S. A. and Ayinla, M. A. Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development,

Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Ibadan, Oyo State Nigeria


ABSTRACT A strong link exists between poverty and income, thus attainment of full employment by youths can reduce

poverty, crimes, terrorism and prostitution. This study investigated the effect of NYSC/MDGs/WAP on the well-

being of beneficiaries in Southwest, Nigeria. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 120

respondents (ex-corps members). Data were collected with a structured questionnaire and analysed using both

descriptive (frequency and percentages) and inferential statistics (Chi-square and PPMC). The mean age of the

respondents was 30.8 years, 67.5% were married with 3-5 family size, 73.3% were Christians and 73.3% were

male. Those with B.Sc certificate were 46.7%, HND certificate 23.3%. Results indicate that 91.8% used the loan

to start up a business, 89.2% engaged in agro-enterprises, with 35.8% into poultry production, 8.3% into

beekeeping, while the remaining 10.8% diverted the loan into other businesses. Most of the respondents

indicated training (89.2%) and self dependence (81.7%) as their benefits from the programme. Most severe

constraint faced by respondents was inadequate credit facility/ loan. However, 55.8% of the respondents had

favourable attitude and 53.3% had high well-being status. Marital status was significantly related to well-being

of respondents (r=0.045, p=0.023). Attitude (r=0.554, p=0.000) of beneficiaries, benefit derived (r=0.284,

p=0.002) and constraint encountered (r=-0.250, p=0.006) were significantly related to their well-being.

Participants’ involvement in NYSC/MDGs/WAP was beneficial and it has positive effect on their well-being. To

ensure sustainability, availability of land, creation of marketing opportunities and follow-up becomes

imperative.

Keyword: Well-being, NYSC/MDGs/WAP, youth empowerment, agro-enterprise loan

INTRODUCTION

The agricultural sector is a major contributor to the Nigerian economy. Agriculture serves as the

largest non-oil export earner, the largest employer of labour and a key contributor to wealth creation and poverty alleviation, as a large percentage of the population derive their income from agriculture

(NEEDS, 2004). The sector is estimated to constitute about 40% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and remains one of the areas identified to address youth unemployment in the

country (FMARD, 2000). Nevertheless, poverty, hunger and unemployment have been on the increase since the late 1990s in Nigeria (FOS, 2011). The National Bureau of Statistics (2012)

estimated the unemployment rate to be 23.9 per cent. In an attempt to checkmate the growing rate of unemployment and poverty, several programmes

were introduced by past governments in the country. Some of such interventions include: Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), Better Life Programme (BLP), National Directorate of Employment (NDE), Poverty Eradication Programme (PEP), Farm Settlement Scheme (FSS), National Agency for Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) among others. These

strategies proved ineffective at addressing their intended purposes due to reasons such as low productivity, conflicts, poor management, political instability, lack of continuity, poor monitoring and

evaluation, misappropriation of fund to mention a few.

The National Youth Service Corp (NYSC), established in 1973 by the Federal Government with a view to promote national unity and ensure

proper establishment and development of communities, targeted the youths of Nigeria. The scheme requires graduates across the country from universities, polytechnics and colleges to

participate in the national service for a calendar year. The NYSC has helped in creating entry level jobs for many Nigerian youths, however due to the increase in school enrolment and number of higher

institutions of learning as well as increase in the number of children attending schools and completing tertiary education, millions of young people face a bleak future of employment

opportunities (Longe Report, 1992). Adesanya, (2013) confirmed that out of the number of graduates who complete the NYSC scheme yearly, only 10% are employed in a desired place of work.

However since inception, the NYSC has collaborated with several agencies in many areas of human and societal developmental needs towards meeting national and global challenges. One of which is its collaboration in 2009 with the Millennium/Sustainable Development Goals (M/SDGs) Office in Abuja, Nigeria to engage interested youth in agriculture with the aim of

creating employment, reducing poverty and hunger. NYSC/M/SDGs/WAP is an economic empowerment programme which focuses on the Millennium/Sustainable Development Goal 1 (one)

geared towards eradicating extreme hunger and poverty. It seeks to equip corps members with


56

agro-entrepreneurial skills/training by empowering

them with interest free loan to generate employment, eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. Meanwhile, the inability of youth to engage in

agriculture as a means of employment in Nigeria has been attributed to lack of access to finance and micro-credit, land, dis-interest of young people in agriculture among others, thus increasing the rate of unemployment. This has resulted in unwholesome effects such as increase in political unrest, drug abuse, increase in crime rate, illicit sex trade, kidnapping, human trafficking, terrorism,

low self-esteem among others. Strategies such as creating an enabling environment for agro-business, including building critical infrastructure, making regulatory services transparent and

providing sustainable access to enterprise finance with the aim of generating employment for graduates, non-graduates and school leavers in the agricultural sector have been undertaken by government. The strategies place emphasis on self-employment in agricultural production and marketing. In 2013, the programme was recorded to have empowered over 3,500 participants in

various enterprises. However, the effect of the programme on the well-being of beneficiaries’ has not been ascertained which therefore necessitated the focus of this study. The specific objectives were

to: 1) determine socioeconomic characteristics of

the respondents 2) ascertain the benefits derived from the

programme by the beneficiaries; 3) determine the attitude of the beneficiaries

towards the programme; 4) identify the constraints faced by the

beneficiaries; 5) ascertain the effect of the programme on

beneficiaries’ well-being.

METHODOLOGY

The study area was the Southwest geo-political zone of Nigeria. The zone consists of six states: Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun. Ondo, Osun and Oyo. The

zone lies between latitudes 60 and 90 north and longitudes 20 and 60 east. It has a total land mass of 77,818km2 and a projected population of 28,767,752 in 2002 (NPC, 1991). The population for the study comprised all the beneficiaries of the NYSC/MDG/WAP loans who have operated a business enterprise for at least three years in Southwest, Nigeria. Random sampling technique

was used to select a total of 120 respondents, from whom data were collected with the use of structured questionnaire. Benefits derived was measured as: large extent (2), less extent (1) and

not at all (0). Attitude towards the programme: Likert-scale of SA (5), A (4), U (3), D (2), SD (1)

for positively-worded statements and vice versa for

negative statements. Purpose of loan utilisation: business expansion (1), start-up capital (2), not utilised = 0. Constraint: severe (2), mild (1) and not a constraint (0). Well-being was measured by

adapting the Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-being scale and the Ryffs Scale of Psychological Wellbeing. Respondents’ well-being was obtained through addition of the four dimensions of well-being (material, economic, social and psychological), after which aggregated scores from the dimensions provided the basis for categorization of beneficiaries’ well-being into

high, average and low levels.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Personal characteristics of respondents -

Age distribution of respondents ranged between 24 and 39 years as indicated in Table 1 and the mean age was 30.8±2.83 years. This shows that they were still in their productive age wherein their energies could be harnessed and utilised for productive ventures in agriculture. More males (73.3%) were involved in the programme relative to females (26.7%) which, according to Agbebaku (2004), is

attributable to the popular belief that agriculture is mainly for males because of the drudgery associated with it. Most of them were married (67.5%) with 53.3% having a household size of 3 –

5 persons. These may have prompted their involvement in the programme so as to augment their finance which can positively affect their well-being. This agrees with Ani et al. (2007) that

married persons have more financial responsibilities. Additionally, 89.2% indicated that they established an agro-enterprise with the loan obtained from the programme, which gives a hint

of youth willingness to involve in agriculture provided there is a source of finance. This is also reflected in the academic background of the respondents, as agricultural and non-agricultural

graduates participated in the programme. Table 1: Distribution of respondents by personal characteristics

Variable Freque

ncy

Percent

age

Mean Std.

Dev.

Age

24-27 28-31 32-35 36-39

Sex

Male

Female

12 52 53 3 88

32

10.0 43.3 44.2 2.5 73.3

26.7

30.8

2.83

Marital status

Single

Married

39

81

32.5

67.5


57

Variable Freque

ncy

Percent

age

Mean Std.

Dev.

Own farm size

0-1 2-3 4-5

6-7

107 8 3

2

89.2 6.7 2.5

1.7

1.04

Degree type

HND B.Sc

B.Agric B.A B.Ed

M.Sc

28 56

18 4 5

9

23.3 46.7

15.0 3.3 4.2

7.2

Enterprises

Agriculture

Non-Agriculture

107

13

89.2

10.8

Household size

1-2 3-5 6-8

9-11 12-14

50 64 1

4 1

41.7 53.3 0.8

3.3 0.8

2.50

2.41

Source: Field survey, 2014.

Loan utilisation - Findings on loan utilisation by the respondents as presented in Table 2 indicate that majority (91.7%) of the respondents used the loan to start up an agro-business enterprise sequel

to the training they received. Likewise, 5.8% indicated that they diversified into other businesses which are non-agricultural, while 2.5% who were already into one form of business used the loan to

scale-up their business. It follows that the respondents, after undergoing training set-up business enterprises for the purpose which loan was procured. This aligns with the observation of

Adekunle (2009) that many of the school leavers trained by the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) started business for the purpose which they obtained the loan. The result also shows that 35.8%

of the respondents that utilised the loan for

agriculture were into poultry farming, followed by fish farming (30.8%), while 14.2% were involved in Plantain sucker multiplication, Snailery (11.7%), Grasscutter rearing and Animal husbandry (10.0%

respectively), piggery as well as beekeeping (8.3%). The rationale for choosing poultry/ fish production as income generating activities by the respondents may be because of short gestation period, high demand for poultry and fish products and high turnover rates on investment, compared to other livestock such as sheep, goat and cattle. This claim is supported by Sanyang (2002) who posited

that women engage in poultry production because of its high turnover rate when compared to other livestock.

Table 2: Distribution of respondents by purpose of loan utilisation

Loan utilisation Frequency Percentage

Start-up a business Scale-up of business Diversification of business

110 3 7

91.7 2.5 5.8


Benefits derived from involvement in

NYSC/MDGs/WAP - Benefits derived by the

respondents from the programme are shown in Table 3a. Majority of the respondents indicated that, to a large extent, their involvement in the NYSC/MDGs/WAP programme resulted in

empowerment (89.2%), self-dependent (81.7%) and improved self-esteem (86.5%). It follows that the beneficiaries were better-off after the programme than they were before it started, which

can help to confer a positive well-being status on them against a state of unemployment that could lead to depression, low self-esteem, frustration and a number of other negative consequences (Ipaye,

1998).

Table 3a: Distribution of respondents by benefits derived

Benefit derived Not at all Less Extent Large extent Weighted

Score

Training/empowerment Self-dependence High self esteem Increased scale of production

Improved standard of living Improved skills Increased savings and investment

5.0 (6) 8.3 (10) 13.3 (16) 15.0 (36)

16.7 (20) 30.8 (37) 30.0 (36)

5.8 (7) 10.0(12) 17.5(21) 51.7(52)

33.3(40) 30.0(36) 43.3(52)

89.2 (107) 81.7 (98) 69.2 (83) 33.3 (32)

50.0 (60) 39.2 (47) 26.7 (3.2)

221 208 187 142

130 130 116

Source: Field survey, 2014. The level of benefit derived by the respondents as depicted in Table 3b revealed that 57.5% derived high benefit, while 42.5% derived low benefit. Since a higher proportion of them derived a high

level of benefit, it is expected that this will have a positive effect on their well-being.


58

Table 3b: Distribution of respondents by level of

benefit derived

Categories Mean

Frequency

Percentage

Low (0 - 9) High (10 - 14)

51

69

42.5

57.5


Attitude towards NYSC/MDGs/WAP

programme - Table 4 reveals that 55.8% of the respondents had favourable attitude towards the programme (mean = 77). This positive disposition infers that they are willing and ready to venture into agriculture as a means of livelihood, provided necessary requirements are met. It behoves on relevant stakeholders, particularly the government,

to encourage youths in the country through provision of credit that can be used to set-up or scale-up agro-enterprises which can serve as a veritable tool in curtailing unemployment and its

attendant vices.

Table 4: Distribution of respondents by level of attitude

Categories Frequency Percentage

Favourable (77 - 122)

Unfavourable (45 - 76)

67

53

55.8

44.2

Mean = 77 Source: Field survey, 2014.

Constraints to involvement in agro-enterprise

Table 5 shows that 71.7% of the respondents identified inadequate credit facility as the major constraint limiting their involvement in agro-enterprise. This is indicative of the point that the

size of loan disbursed after training is not for instance commensurate to the start-up capital required by a beneficiary to establish an agro-enterprise. Similarly, 46.7% pointed out that lack of monitoring/follow up is a major issue affecting involvement in agro-enterprise. This view is explainable from the fact that loan procured by certain beneficiaries may not be used for the

purpose it was intended for, thus depriving intended beneficiaries who would have procured such loan and invest it in an agro-enterprise. Also, certain challenges encountered by beneficiaries

could be spotted during monitoring that can lead to improvement of the programme subsequently. However, inadequate management skill (89.2%) and poor record keeping of production activities (88.3%) among other issues were not considered as constraints by the respondents. From these, it is fitting to say that the training the programme beneficiaries went through was quite detailed, as

they were adequately taught how to establish and manage the agro-enterprises.

Table 5: Distribution of respondents by constraints faced in the establishment of agro-enterprise

Constraint Not a

Constraint

Minor

Constraint

Major

constraint

Rank

Inadequate credit facility 15.0 (18) 13.3 (1) 71.7 (8) 1 Lack of monitoring follow-up 44.2 (53) 9.2 (11) 46.7 (5) 2

No ready market for produce 40.8 (49) 20.8 (25) 38.3 (4) 3

Poor returns on investment 45.0 (54) 23.3 (28) 31.7 (3) 4

Feed price instability 47.5 (57) 30.0 (36) 22.5 (2) 5

Unavailability of land /space 55.0 (55) 17.5 (21) 27.5 (3) 6

Inability to repay 55.0 (66) 18.3 (22) 26.7 (3) 7

Diseases/pest attack 59.2 (71) 21.7 (26) 19.2 (2) 8

Poor harvest 53.3 (64) 39.2 (47) 7.5 (9) 9

Natural hazards 68.3 (82) 12.5 (15) 19.2 (2) 10

Insufficient access to farm inputs 68.3 (82) 15.0 (18) 16.7(2) 11 Inadequate training 72.5 (87) 12.5 (15) 15.0 (1) 12

Poor basic training knowledge 75.0 (90) 14.2 (17) 10.8 (1) 13

Inadequate equipment 86.7 (104) 6.7 (8) 6.7 (8) 14

Inadequate managerial skill 89.2 (107) 5.8 (7) 5.0 (66) 15

Record keeping of production activities 88.3 (106) 6.7 (8) 5.0 (6) 16


Well-being of the respondents

The respondents’ economic, psychological and social well -being level had increased positively due to their engagement in various agro-enterprise as this has hyped –up their self-esteem, financial

security and reduce the emotional burden caused by unemployment. However, their material well-being is low.

Table 6 shows that majority (53.3%) of

respondents had high well-being. This implies that the NYSC/MDGs/WAP programme impacted positively on the respondents with 48.3%, 59.2%, 58.3% and 53.5% respectively having high well-

being in material, economic, social and psychological dimensions of well-being. However, finding also showed that 43.3% had low well-being. This outcome is buttressed by Emeh (2012),


59

who reported that a large majority of the world’s

youths are experiencing low well-being, with the Nigerian youth having the lowest well-being in the world. Table 6: Distribution of respondents by level of

well-being

Categories Frequency Percentage

Low (0 - 8.44) Average (8.45) High (8.46 -15.48 )

52 4 64

43.3 3.3 53.3

Mean = 8.5 3; SD = 0.23 Source: Field survey, 2014.

Relationship between respondents’ personal

characteristics and well-being

Table 7 shows that respondents’ marital status

(χ2 = 0.045, p < 0.05) and educational level (χ2=0.301, p<0.05) were significantly associated with their well-being. The nexus between marital status and well-being is explainable from the point

that marriage, according to Frey and Stutzer (2002) raises happiness, as married individuals enjoy the support and companionship of their partners, thereby enhancing their self-esteem. Additionally, given that social and economic dimensions are important dimensions of well-being scales, BBS (1991) asserted that marriage is highly cherished for social and economic reasons. Similarly,

wellbeing is considered greatest among the more educated, as education influences people’s well-being (Blanchflower and Oswald, 2000; OECD, 2011).

Table 7: Chi-square test between personal characteristics and well-being of respondents

Variable χ2 Df P-value Decision

Sex Marital status Religion

Educational level Enterprise type

0.085 0.045 0.959

0.301 0.184

1 1 1

1 1

0.155 0.023 0.005

0.035 0.120

NS S S

S NS


Relationship between benefits derived, attitude,

constraints and well-being of respondents The result of the correlation analysis on table 8 shows a significant relationship between benefits derived and well-being (r = 0.284, p = 0.002). The

fact that beneficiaries of the NYSC/MDGs/WAP programme have access to loans and training on business management, which are among the programme benefits wherein they are expected to

channel into setting-up or scaling-up of agro-enterprises, can help to make them self-employed. This will have an effect in enhancing their ability to meet their needs (material, economic, social, mental needs) thereby improving their well-being. This is in line with Sen’s (1993) definition of well-being as the ability of a person to meet his or her basic human needs, ability to function effectively in

his or her social context and capability to make

choices in his or her life. Also shown in Table 8 is the result of the correlation analysis indicating a significant relationship between attitude and well-being (r =

0.554, p = 0.000). It is not far-fetched that the benefits derivable from any programme will influence people’s attitude towards such a programme. It can be asserted that if beneficiaries realize the NYSC/MDGs/WAP programme will benefit them, they form a positive attitude towards it by embracing and becoming committed to it. If the programme benefits are eventually realized, it is

expected to contribute to their lives thus enhancing their well-being. Constraint faced by the respondents was also significantly correlated with well-being (r = -0.250,

p = 0.006). This finding is quite admissible as a result of factors such as inadequate credit facility, low availability of ready market for produce and poor monitoring/follow-up among others can lead to a reduction in the returns of agro-enterprises of beneficiaries. This can in turn affect the income accruing to them, affect them psychologically thus affecting their well-being.

Table 8: Correlations between benefits, attitude, constraints and well-being of respondents

Variable r – value p – value Decision

Benefit 0.284 0.002 S Attitude 0.554 0.000 S

Constraint -0.250 0.006 S


CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The NYSC/MDGs/WAP beneficiaries in the

southwest were preponderantly males, married, engaged in agro-enterprises, especially poultry farming. Most of the respondents derived high benefit from the programme, thereby resulting in

most of them having a favourable attitude towards it. The paramount constraint encountered by the beneficiaries was inadequate credit/loan facility, but most of them had high well-being. Significant

and positive correlations were observed between benefit derived, attitude and well-being, while correlation between constraints and well-being was negative. i.e constraints lower the respondents’

well-being It is recommended that programme implementers ensure adequate provision of credit/loan facility, ensure availability of land, creation of market opportunity and proper monitoring/follow-up in order to make the programme more rewarding.

REFERENCES

Adekunle, O.A., Oladipo, F.O., Adisa, R.S., Fatoye, A.D. (2009). Constraints to youth’s involvement in agricultural


60

production in Kwara state, Nigeria.

Journal of Agricultural Extension, Vol. 13(1): 102-108.

Agbebaku, O.M. (2004). Comparative Analysis in the Perception of Participants of Farm

Practical Training Programme of the University of Ibadan and University of Agriculture, Abeokuta. An Unpublished BSc Project in the Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.

Ani, D.P, Achamber N.I and Asogwa B.C (2007):

Effects of Nigerian Agricultural Cooperative and Rural Development (NACRDB) loan scheme on farmers’ in Markurdi Local Government Area, Benue

state. Nigerian Journal of Rural

Sociology, Vol. 9:1 (2009):107-11 BBS(1991) Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh

Bureau of Statistics, Dhaka Blanchflower, David G. and Andrew. Oswald.

(2000). Well-Being Over Time in Britain and the USA. NBER Working Paper No. 6102. Cambridge, Mass: National Bureau

of Economic Research. Emeh, I. E. J. (2012). “Tackling Youth

Unemployment in Nigeria; The Lagos State

Development and Empowerment Programmes

Initiatives” Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 3 No. 3

Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. (2000). Agriculture in

Nigeria: the new policy thrust. Federal Republic of Nigeria.

Frey B S and Stutzer A,(2002). What can Economists learn from Happiness Research? Journal of Economic Literature, vol 40, 2002, pp 402-435

Ipaye, B. (1998). Counselling the unemployed: Some exploratory ideas for the Nigerian

Counsellors. Counsellor. Longe Report (1992). In the NISER data on the

actual high level manpower supply. NEEDS, (2004). National Economic Empowerment

and Development Strategy. Nigeria March 2004 pp. 76.

Ryff C. And C, Keyes (1995). the structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of

personality and social psychology;69(4):pp 719 – 727.

Sen, Amartya K. (1993).Capability and Well-being.

in Martha C. Nussbaum and Amartya K. Sen (eds), The Quality of Life, Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 30. 53.


61

EFFECT OF TRAINING ON THE USE OF MODERN BEEKEEPING TECHNOLOGIES IN OYO

STATE, NIGERIA

Eforuoku, F. and Thomas, K. A. Department of Agric. Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Ibadan


ABSTRACT The Oyo State Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Rural Development recently trained producers

on the use of modern beekeeping technologies with the aim of enhancing their global competitiveness. This

paper examined the effectiveness of the training programme. Multistage sampling procedure was used in

selecting 131 trained beekeepers from the 3 senatorial districts in Oyo state. The data collected were analysed

with the aid of descriptive and inferential statistics. The study revealed that Beekeepers had 6±4 mean years of

experience, 74.6% of beekeepers had between 1 and 10 years of experience; 61.1% got their initial capital from

personal saving and information about beekeeping and training was from a variety of sources with a higher

percent (43.5%) from beekeepers association. Increased quantity of honey produced (1.92) was the most

important benefit derived from the use of the technology while, invasion by Fulani herdsmen (1.68) and lack of

credit facilities (1.40) were the major constraints to use of modern beekeeping technologies. There was

significant difference in the level of use of modern beekeeping technologies before and after the training (t-

=18.419; p≤0.050). The training was effective as there was increased use of modern beekeeping technologies

after the training. It is recommended that the training should be replicated in other states and for other

agricultural enterprises and government should formulate policy that will guide grazing of livestock to reduce

invasion of Fulani herdsmen

Keywords: Training effectiveness, modern beekeeping technologies, constraints to beekeeping

INTRODUCTION

Bees are one of the most important organisms

on Earth; they belong to the Order Hymenoptera

which includes the honey bees, bumble bees, stingless bees, and carpenter bees. Although there are over 20,000 species of wild bees, the species

usually managed by beekeepers is the Western honey bee (Apismellifera adansoni) which is

common in West Africa in general, and Nigeria in particular. This species are very prolific honey

producers and are managed by beekeepers for honey and other bee products (Olorunyomi, 2009). Beekeeping is as old as any agricultural practice and has been an alternative source of income to

farmers especially in rural communities. However, Ojeleye (2003) observed that commercial beekeeping was almost non-existent in Nigeria until recently despite Nigeria’s high potential for

beekeeping, due to its excellent flora and fauna diversity. Beekeeping exists in almost all states in Nigeria, yet majority of its production are on subsistence level. These producers make use of

gourd hives, pot, basket, straw hives, and sometimes, hollow tree trunks. Also during harvesting, the hives are crudely broken-into using smoke to suppress the bees without ensuring that harvesting was due. Many times, eggs, larvae and pupa are harvested along with honey and the comb, which often lead to poor-quality of products, delay in time of re-colonization of hive by bees and

sometimes total absconding from the hive by the bees. These numerous disadvantages led to the invention of modern beekeeping technologies. Modern bee-keeping technologies are suitable

for commercial beekeeping and will enable local producers compete favourably in production with

other producers on the global scene. Hence, the Department of Rural Development under the Oyo

State Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Rural Development trained beekeepers in Oyo state on the use of modern beekeeping technologies from 19th-22nd April 2011 with the help of Subject

Matter Specialists (SMSs). The training also involved giving of incentives which included: the provision of modern beehives (which allow the beekeeper to examine the comb before harvesting),

harvesting kits and honey extraction machine. Since the use of modern beekeeping is beneficial to beekeepers and the training was taken over two years ago, the benefits and effect of the training are

expected to be obvious. One will then wonder why the market is still dominated with traditionally produced bee products. It is against this backdrop that this study was designed to investigate the

effect of the training on the use of modern beekeeping technology among beekeepers in Oyo State. The specific objectives are to:

1. examine the enterprise characteristics of trained bee keepers,

2. identify constraints to the use of modern beekeeping technologies,

3. ascertain the benefits of the use of modern beekeeping technologies; and

4. compare the level of use of modern beekeeping technologies before and after the training.

METHODOLOGY Area of study - Oyo state is located in the South-West geopolitical zone of Nigeria. It was one

of the three states carved out of the former Western State of Nigeria in 1976. The State consists of 33


62

Local Government Areas and has a population of

5,591,589 people (National Population Commission, 2006). Oyo State covers a total of 27,249 square kilometres of land mass and it is bounded in the south by Ogun State, in the north by

Kwara State, in the west it is partly bounded by Ogun State and partly by the Republic of Benin, while in the east by Osun State. The landscape consists of old hard rocks and dome shaped hills, which rise gently from about 500 meters in the southern part and reaching a height of about 1,219 metres above sea level in the northern part. The climate in the State favours the cultivation of crops

like Maize, Yam, Cassava, Millet, Rice, Plantain, Cocoa tree, Palm tree and Cashew. Population of the study - The population comprised 394 participants trained by the

Department of Rural Development in Ministry of

Agriculture, Natural Resources and Rural Development of Oyo State.

Sampling procedure and sample size -

Multistage sampling procedure was used to select

respondents for the study. Out of the 3 senatorial districts in Oyo state, Oyo North and Oyo Central were purposively selected due to the larger number of participants in the training. A proportionate sample of 45% of the LGAs was selected in the selected senatorial district: 5 and 6 LGAs from Oyo Central and Oyo North respectively. Finally 65% of the total trainees were sampled randomly to give a

total of 131 trained beekeepers for the study.

Table 1: Summary of sampling procedures and sample size of the study

Selected senatorial district

Number of LGA

45 % LGA

Names of selected LGA Number of Trainee

65% Proportion of Trainee

Cum. Total

Oyo Central 11 5 Egbeda 31 20 20 Lagelu 18 12 32 Ibadan North 17 11 43 Ibadan West 21 14 57 Ibadan South-East 19 12 69

Oyo North

13

6

Iseyin 14 9 78

Kajola 20 13 91 Saki-west 18 12 103 Irepo 12 8 111 Ogbomoso North 15 10 121

Ogbomoso South 19 12 133 Cumulative Total 133

Measurement of variables

Dependent variable - Effect of training on

modern beekeeping technologies

Fourteen (14) modern technology practices from the training were listed and respondents were asked to indicate which of the practices they used

before the training and after the training. This was measured using “No” and “yes” response options and scored 0 and 1 respectively. Respondents’ scores were computed to generate scores for use

before training and use after training. The scores for before training and after training were subtracted to get the effect of the training, the effect score was categorized into high effect and low

effect using the mean.

Independent variable - Enterprise characteristics

of trained beekeepers

• Years of experience: Respondents were asked to indicate in year(s) how long they have been practicing beekeeping.

• Sources of capital: respondents were asked

how they raised their initial capital to start beekeeping enterprise: personal savings, family and friends, loan and cooperative society

• Sources of information: respondents were asked how they heard about the training on modern beekeeping training from a list of sources of information which were: family and

friends, beekeepers association, television, newspapers, radio, extension agent.

• Membership of beekeepers association: respondents were asked if they are members of Beekeepers Association of Nigeria, Oyo State

chapter.

Involvement in beekeeping enterprise

• Number of hives: respondents were asked to state the total number of beehives in their apiary/apiaries. The hives were categorized based on standard size: large, medium and

small sizes.

Constraints faced by trained beekeepers in using

modern beekeeping technologies Fifteen (15) possible constraints to use of

modern beekeeping technologies were listed. Respondents indicated the severity of these constraints on a 3-point rating scale of 2, 1 and 0 for “severe constraint”, “mild constraint”, and “not

a constraint”. The mean scores were computed and


63

used to rank from the most severe constraints to the

least severe.

Benefits of using modern beekeeping technologies Fifteen (15) possible benefits of using modern beekeeping technologies were presented to

respondents. These benefits were measured on a 3-point rating scale of 2, 1 and 0 for “great benefit”, “small benefit” and “no benefit”. The mean score for each benefit item were used to rank these benefit from the greatest to the least.

Method of data collection and analysis

Primary data were collected from the respondents using well-structured questionnaire.

Data collected were analysed with the aid of descriptive statistical tools which include frequencies, percentage distribution and mean. The hypotheses tested for significance difference

between use of modern beekeeping technologies before and after training, this was analysed using paired sample t-test.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Enterprise characteristics of trained beekeepers Result on Table 2 presents the enterprise characteristics of respondents. It reveals that a

larger percent (39.7%) had between 5 and 9 years of experience and 35.1% had less than 4 years of experience. This implies that majority (74.6%) of the trained beekeeper had less than 10 years of

beekeeping experience which suggest that that commercial beekeeping is a relatively new enterprise in the area. This supports the findings of Matanmi et al (2008), who reported that majority

of beekeepers are new in the enterprise. Table 2 also reveals that 61.1% of the respondent got their initial capital from personal savings. This is in line with the findings of Folayan

and Bifarin (2013) that most agricultural enterprises depend on personal savings as start-up credit. It was also revealed that information on

training was from a variety of sources with a larger percentage from beekeepers association 43.5% while, family and friends had 30.5%. Furthermore, majority (85.0%) of the trained beekeepers are

members of Beekeepers Association of Nigeria (BAN) Oyo State chapter. Table 2: Distribution of respondents by enterprise characteristics

Enterprise characteristics

Frequency

Percentages

Mean

Years of

experience

Less than 4 years 46 35.1 6±4 5-9 years 52 39.7

10-14 years 29 22.1 15-19 years 4 3.1

Source of capital Personal Savings 80 61.1

Enterprise characteristics

Frequency

Percentages

Mean

Family and Friends 10 7.6

Loan 29 22.1 Cooperative Society

12 9.2

Source of

information on

training

Family and friends 40 30.5 Beekeepers Association

57 43.5

Television 8 6.1 Newspapers 2 1.5 Radio 10 7.6

Extension Agent 14 10.7

Membership

Beekeepers

Association of

Nigeria

Yes 111 85.0 No 20 15.0


Involvement in beekeeping

The distribution of hives is very important for this study because it is an indicator of the involvement of the respondents in beekeeping.

Table 3 reveals that the number of hives possessed by a respondent ranged between 2 and 100 hives. The mean number of hives was 16 ±14 hives, more than half (62.6%) of trained beekeepers possessed

between 2 and 16 hives. The hives were categorised into: large, medium and small based on their standardized measurement known to the respondents and those who construct hives. Table

2, further reveals that 60.6% of respondents used medium hives, 28.0% used small hives while only 25.2% used large hives. This implies that use of medium hives is most used hive among

respondents. This is likely because medium hives was the recommended hives from the training are most convenient to use.

Table 3: Distribution of respondents based on involvement in beekeeping enterprise

Beekeeping enterprise characteristics

Frequency Percentages Mean

Number of hives

2-16 hives 82 62.6 16 ±14 17-31 hives 38 29.0 32-46 hives 5 3.8 47-61 hives 5 3.8 Above 61hives 1 0.8

Hive categories Large hives 33 25.2 Medium hives 82 60.6

Small hives 36 28.0


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Total 131 100


Benefits derived from of use of modern

beekeeping technologies

Table 4 reveals that increased quantity of

honey produced ranked highest among the benefits derived from the training, followed by the benefit of retaining the bees’ colony after harvesting and improved quality of honey. This implies that the

most prominent advantage of using modern

beekeeping was increased production of honey from hive, as the ultimate reason for engaging in beekeeping was for increased production of honey which will generate more income and improve the

livelihood of beekeepers. This corroborates GEF (2009) which posit that increased production of honey is leading to the improvement of beekeepers’ livelihoods

Table 4: Distribution of respondents by benefits derived from the use of modern beekeeping technologies

SN Statements Great Benefit

Small Benefit

No Benefit

Mean Rank

F % F % F %

1. Increased quantity of honey produced 121 92.3 9 6.9 1 0.8 1.92 1st 2. Improved quality of honey 119 90.8 11 8.4 1 0.8 1.90 3rd 3. Easier access to apiary 118 90.1 9 6.9 4 3.1 1.87 4th

4. Retains bees colony after harvesting 119 90.8 12 9.2 0 0.0 1.91 2nd 5. Natural biodiversity conservation 74 56.5 53 40.5 4 3.1 1.53 9th 6. Lower production cost 49 37.4 62 47.3 20 15.3 1.22 15th 7. Early discovery of swarming. 64 48.9 42 32.1 25 19.1 1.30 14th 8. Easy inspection of hive. 76 58.0 32 24.4 23 17.6 1.41 12th 9. Prevents aggressiveness of bees 81 61.8 37 28.2 13 9.9 1.52 10th 10. Less bee stings on humans 91 69.5 35 26.7 5 3.8 1.66 6th 11. Better assessment of colonies 80 61.1 46 35.1 5 3.8 1.58 7th 12. Prevent the harvesting of brood (eggs,

larvae, pupae)

95 72.5 11 8.4 25 19.1 1.54

8th

13. better evaluation of beekeeping as a business

89 67.9 19 14.5 23 17.6 1.50

11th

14. Increase in shelf-life of bee products 79 60.3 27 20.6 25 19.1 1.41 12th 15. Safer bee-product for human

consumption 110 84.0 19 14.5 2 1.5

1.82 5th


Constraints to use of modern beekeeping

technologies

The result on Table 5 reveals that invasion by Fulani herds men ranked highest in order of severity among the constraints to the use of modern beekeeping technologies; this was because hives were placed in the farm and forest vegetation which exposed them to Fulani herdsmen searching for

green pasture for their herds. The results also reveal that lack of credit facilities and high cost of standard equipment ranked second in order of severity, this implies that high cost of purchasing

some of these modern technologies such as honey extraction machine and kits, discouraged

beekeepers from use of modern technologies to the latter. This supports the findings by Ouma et al

(2006), that prominent among problems affecting the use of improved agricultural technologies by farmers was access to credit; as farmers who have access to credit are more likely to use improved technology innovations compared with farmers who do not have access to credit. This is because

use of improved technologies may require extra resource commitment that can only be met through acquisition of credit facilities.

Table 6: Distribution of respondents by constraints to use of modern beekeeping technologies

SN Constraints items Not a

constraint

Mild

constraint

Severe

constraint

Mean Rank

F % F % F %

1. Land tenure problem. 28 21.4 39 9.8 64 48.9 1.28 7th 2. Un-colonization hives. 24 18.3 71 54.2 36 27.5 1.09 9th 3. Frequent absconding of bees 21 16.0 60 45.6 50 38.2 1.22 8th

4. Invasion by Fulani herds men 6 4.6) 30 22.9 95 72.5 1.68 1st 5. Bush burning 17 13.0 54 41.2 60 45.8 1.33 5th


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SN Constraints items Not a

constraint

Mild

constraint

Severe

constraint

Mean Rank

F % F % F %

6. Pest invasion 20 15.3 52 39.7 59 45.0 1.30 6th 7. Lack of credit facilities 9 6.9 61 46.6 61 46.6 1.40 2nd 8. Unavailability of standard

equipment 38 29.0 59 45.0 34 26.0

0.97 11th

9. Ineffective extension services 18 13.7 93 71.0 20 15.3 1.01 10th 10. Fear of bee stings 60 45.8 58 44.3 13 9.9 0.64 15th 11. High cost of standard

equipment 22 16.8 35 26.7 74 56.5

1.40 2nd

12. Theft 28 21.4 31 23.7 72 55.0 1.34 4th 13. Diseases infestation 48 36.6 54 41.2 29 22.1 0.86 13th 14. Bee swarming 24 18.3 91 69.5 16 12.2 0.94 12th 15. Climate change 54 41.2 65 49.6 12 9.2 0.68 14th


Respondent’s use of modern beekeeping

technologies before and after training

Information on Table 7 reveals that before

training only 12.2% of respondents used modern hive compared to 89.3% after training, 13.7% used of hive tools to loosen the cover and top bar glued by the bees before training compared to 85.5%

after training, also 18.3 % of respondents wore a pair of hand gloves during harvesting and bee-suit when examining hive compared to 82.4% of the

respondents after training. This implies that after training there was increased use of modern beekeeping technologies among respondents.

Table 7: Distribution of respondents by use of modern beekeeping technologies before and after training

S/No Modern beekeeping technologies Before Training

After Training

F % F %

1. Use of modern hive ( Kenya or Tanzania top bar) 16 12.2 117 89.3

2. Placing of hive far from vicinity of inhabited area. 35 26.7 76 58.0 3. Use of swarm catchers. 48 36.6 89 67.9 4. Use of hive tools to loosen the cover and top bar glued by the bees 18 13.7 112 85.5 5. Wearing a pair of hand gloves during harvesting 24 18.3 108 82.4

6. Use of honey extraction machines 12 9.2 99 75.6 7. Packaging honey in air tight container 57 43.5 70 53.4 8. Examination of comb before harvesting 22 16.8 100 76.3 9. Sieving of honey during processing 27 20.6 101 77.1

10. Keeping record of colony development 12 9.2 100 76.3 11. Assessment of stock of bees on hive 10 7.6 100 76.3 12. Use of smoker in harvesting 19 14.5 103 78.6 13. Wearing of bee-suit when examining hive 24 18.3 108 82.4

14. Apiary sited within 1km radius of flowering vegetation 31 23.7 105 80.2


Effectiveness of training

Hypothesis on Table 9 was set to test for

significant difference between use of beekeeping technologies before and after training. It reveals that there was significant difference between use of modern beekeeping technologies before training

and after training (t-value =18.419, p-value=0.000) with mean of 7.9. This implies that the training was

effective because more trained beekeepers adopted the use of modern beekeeping technologies after the training.

Table 10: Paired sampled t-test between the levels of use before training and the level of use after training.

Hypothesis Mean SD Df t-value p-value Decision

Difference in use before training and after training

7.9 4.8999 130 18.419 0.000 Significant difference


66

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

This study concluded that training on use of modern beekeeping was effective as there was significant difference in use of modern beekeeping technologies before training and after training.

Information on training was sourced mainly through beekeepers association while, personal saving was the major source of credit. The benefit derived most from the use of the modern beekeeping technology was increase in quantity of honey produced. Invasion by Fulani herdsmen and lack of credit facilities were the major constraints to the use of the modern beekeeping technologies.

It is therefore recommended that, the training should be replicated in other states and for other agricultural enterprises also government should formulate policy that will guide grazing of

livestock such as setting up of grazing centres for cattle should be set up so as to reduce invasion of Fulani herdsmen into apiaries

REFERENCES

Ayansola, A. A. (2012) An appraisal of apicultural practices in south-western Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Science, 3(2): Pp.

79-84 Folayan, J. A. and Bifarin, J. O. (2013) Profitability

analysis of honey production in Edo North Local Government Area of Edo State,

Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural

Economics and Development Vol. 2(2), Pp. 60-64

GEF (Global Environment Facility) (2009) Hand-

book: Towards Enhancing the Impacts of Environmental Projects. Methodological Paper 2. 46 pp. Available at: www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org

Matanmi, B.M, Adesiji, G.B., and Adegoke, M. A (2008) An analysis of activities of bee hunters and beekeepers in Oyo state, Nigeria. African Journal of Livestock

Extension, 6 (7), Pp. 3 National Population Commission (2006): Result of

2006 Population Census, N.P.C, Abuja, Nigeria.

Ojeleye, B. (2003): Honey Production in Nigeria. A Three-day Beekeeping and Honey Production Training Workshop Conducted by Centre for Bee Research and

Development (CEBRAD), Ibadan, Held at the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ilorin, Nigeria.

Olorunyomi, O. L (2009) Modern Beekeeping

Made Easy. Ayodeji printing press: Ondo state. Nigeria. Pp. 5, 14

Ouma, J.O., De Groot, H. and Owour, O. (2006) Determinants of Improved Maize

Seed and Fertiliser Use in Kenya: Policy Implications. Paper presented at the International Association of Agricultural Economists’ Conference, Gold Coast,

Australia.


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EFFECTIVENESS OF E-WALLET SCHEME IN CURBING SHARP PRACTICES ASSOCIATED

WITH AGRICULTURAL INPUT ACCESSIBILITY AMONG SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN KANO

STATE, NIGERIA 1Yusuf, O. J., 2Abdullahi, K. A. and 3Haruna, S. K

1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension Services, Kwara State University, Malete 2Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal University Dustin-Ma, Kastina

3National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Farm inputs, such as improved seedlings and fertilisers, are germane to enhancing farmers’ productivity.

However, government efforts at making them affordable and accessible to farmers are fraught with sharp and

corrupt practices. The electronic wallet scheme was introduced by the federal government to curb the menace.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of the scheme in curbing sharp practices associated with agricultural

input accessibility by smallholder farmers in Kano State. Using structured interview schedule, the study elicited

information from 180 respondents selected from 9 LGAs of the state through multistage sampling procedure.

Data were collected on socio-economic and e-wallet scheme related characteristics of the respondents and their

perception about the effectiveness of scheme. Frequency counts, percentages and weighted mean score values

were used for data analysis. Majority of the beneficiaries of the scheme were male (88.9%), married (81.1%)

and within their productive age range (mean age = 43.1 years). Some, although very few, were neither

registered in the scheme (5%), nor had mobile phone (3%), while more proportion (about 32%) did not attend

the requisite e-wallet training, yet they benefitted from input distribution under the scheme. Farm inputs

benefitted from were mainly subsidised fertiliser and improved seeds and frequency of benefit was low.

Although beneficiaries mostly perceived e-wallet scheme as effective in ensuring transparency and reducing

sharp practices prevalent in the old system, yet the ‘people’ component (i.e. human factor) of the e-wallet

system seemed vulnerable which could undermine the success of the initiative. Recommended, amongst others,

is need for government to pay special attention to disproportion in gender composition amongst beneficiaries,

while also ensuring that stipulated conditions, such as registration of beneficiaries, possession of mobile

phones, and attendance of necessary training are abided with in order to check corrupt practices. Lastly, but

perhaps most importantly, government should be on the lookout for culprits and defaulters and sanction them

appropriately.

INTRODUCTION Agriculture used to be the mainstay of

Nigeria’s economy before the discovery of oil. The agricultural sector was the most important in terms of its contribution to domestic production, employment and foreign exchange. It contributed

as much as 60% to the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) prior to the oil boom in the 1960s. But, the story changed afterwards with agriculture’s contribution becoming as low as 22 %

by 1980. The National Bureau of Statistics reported that the trend in the share of agriculture in the GDP shows a substantial variation and long-term decline from 60% in the early 1960 through 48.8% in the

1970s and 22.2% in the 1980s (NBS, 2014). This was largely due to the neglect of the agricultural sector in deference to oil. Successive national governments realized the potentials of agriculture towards employment generation, food security and poverty reduction. As such, several government initiatives have been established in order to ensure agriculture attains its

full potential. Prominent amongst these schemes include National Accelerated Food Production Projects established in 1972, Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) established in 1975

and the subsequent Multi-State Agricultural Development Projects (MSADPs) later established

in 1986. Others include Operation Feed the Nation programme of 1976, River Basin Development

Authority (RBDA), (1973) and the Green Revolution Programme (1980). Later in the between mid and early 90s, the Directorate of Food, Road and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI) was

established in 1986, National Directorate of Employment (NDE), (1986), Nigeria Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS), (1987) and National Fadama Development Project (NFDP), (1992). In

the last one and half decade, Poverty Alleviation Programme (PAP) was established in the year 2000, National Special Programme for Food Security (NSPFS) in 2003 and National Economic

Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) programme was introduced in 2004 (Adebayo and Okuneye, 2011; Jibowo, 2005). Much lately was the Agricultural Transformation Agenda of the last democratic administration in 2012. Although the different governmental initiatives might have had different foci, the common theme

across them was to ensure enhancing farmers’ productivity through provision of farm inputs, such as fertilisers, improved seeds and seedlings, etc. As aptly put by Jibowo (2005) ‘the Federal

Government special agricultural development schemes were aimed at boosting food production


68

and farmers’ income through the provision of

agricultural infrastructure, inputs and effective extension work’. Sadly, however, most of these initiatives often did not outlive the regime that established them. Asides, a perennial problem

afflicting the agricultural sector is that governmental effort towards making these inputs affordable and accessible to farmers is fraught with sharp and corrupt practices. Corruption is a global problem that affects development and has been present for ages (Carr and Jago, 2014). The menace of corruption has adversely impacted on virtually every sector of the

Nigerian economy, agriculture inclusive. Several attempts made over the years to boost farmers’ productivity include supplying of farm inputs such as improved seeds, agrochemicals and fertilisers at

subsidised prices to the farmers. However, a large proportion of these inputs could not get to real farmers, as a result of the high level of corruption, insincerity and political interruption in the distribution channels (Adebo, 2014). Earlier, Adesina (2013) pointed out that the old system used in supplying inputs to the farmers was weak, inefficient and fraudulent, hence a large proportion

of the farmers could not benefit from it. Furthermore, inputs meant for the farmers were diverted by political elites to other countries for personal gains. In addition, most of the fertilisers

eventually supplied to farmers were adulterated, thus damaging the environment and reducing farmers’ productivity Adesina (2013). Information Technology (IT) has great

potentials in curbing the menace of corruption (Carr and Jago, 2014). The deployment of IT in agriculture is not new, as evident in the Geneva plan of action of the World Summit of Information

Society (WSIS) where e-agriculture is one of the identified action lines (e-agriculture, 2015). However, its use in tackling the menace of corruption in agriculture has not been largely

exploited. An example of the deployment of IT in eradicating corrupt tendencies and sharp practices in the agricultural sector in Nigeria was the introduction of Electronic Wallet (e-wallet) in

purchase and distribution of agricultural inputs in 2012. The e-wallet is a major component of Growth Enhancement Scheme (GES); an initiative introduced under the Agricultural Transformation Agenda of the federal government. An e-wallet is defined as an efficient and transparent electronic device system that makes use of vouchers for the purchase and distribution of

agricultural inputs (Adesina, 2013). That is, e-wallet involves use of information technology to check corrupt practices and tendencies in agricultural input dissemination to farmers.

Although certain studies (e.g. Adebo, 2014; Akinbile et al., 2014) have focused on the

effectiveness of the e-wallet approach towards

effective agricultural service delivery, and have evaluated factors associated with famers’ willingness to utilise the e-wallet scheme for accessing agricultural information, none has

however examined the use of information technology via e-wallet approach to check the menace of corruption in the agricultural sector. This study was designed to fill that gap. The main objective of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the e-wallet scheme in curbing sharp practices associated with agricultural input accessibility among smallholder farmers.

Specific objectives were to: i. describe the socioeconomic characteristics of

the e-wallet scheme beneficiaries; ii. ascertain what agricultural inputs they had

access to and its frequency; iii. determine the perception of beneficiaries about

effectiveness of the e-wallet scheme

METHODOLOGY

Kano State was the study. There are 3 geopolitical zones in the state. Respondents included in the study were selected through a multi-

stage sampling procedure. Firstly, one Local Government Area was purposefully chosen from each geopolitical zone on the basis of having access to extension service delivery and frequent farming

activities in both dry and wet seasons. This gave 3 LGAs namely Bichi from Kano North senatorial zone, Bunkure from Kano South senatorial zone and Kura in Kano Central zone. Then 3

communities were purposefully selected from each LGA based on inclusion in the irrigation scheme of Kano Irrigation Project (KRIP) and Watari Irrigation Project (WIP), making 9 villages. This

was to ensure that respondents to be selected would not have irrigation problem with their farming activities. The villages thus picked were: Badume, Damargu and Hagagawa in Bichi LGA, Barkun,

Bunkure cikin gari and Shirin in Bunkure LGA and Agolas, Bugau and Karfi in Kura LGA. Lastly, 20

respondents were again purposefully selected from list of registered farmers with the 2 irrigation

projects across the 9 communities, giving a total of 180 beneficiaries of the e-wallet scheme in Kano state sampled for the study. Primary data was used for the study. Data collection was done with use of structured interview schedule administered to the respondents with the assistant of trained enumerators, including state ADP extension agent. Data collected included

socioeconomic and e-wallet scheme related characteristics of the respondents. Data were also collected on beneficiaries’ perception about the effectiveness of the e-wallet scheme.

Independent variables such as sex, marital status, major occupation, crops cultivated etc were


69

measured at nominal level. Others such as age,

household size, farm size, years of farming experience, etc were measured with absolute values provided. ‘Beneficiaries’ perception about effectiveness of e-wallet scheme in curbing sharp

practices’ was the dependent variable. It was measured through responses to 20 perceptional statements on a 5 point Likert-type scale as follows: Strongly agreed (SA) – 5, Agreed (A) – 4, Undecided (U) – 3, Disagreed (D) – 2 and Strongly Disagreed (SD) – 1. Data were summarized using descriptive statistics such as frequency counts, percentages,

mean and standard deviation. In addition weighted mean score (WMS) was computed for each perceptional statement. For the purpose of this analysis, responses were first recorded viz: SA – 4,

A – 3, D – 2, SD – 1 & U – 0. The recoding was done to ensure that ‘undecided’ responses did not unduly affect the weighted mean value. Then, the frequencies of each option were multiplied by its weight, summed together and then divided by the total number of respondents (180). The WMS thus calculated ranged between 1 and 4, which depending on the value obtained on this continuum

indicated the degree of respondents’ concordance with each statement. Furthermore, respondents’ overall perception about the statements was obtained using mean plus/minus standard deviation,

with mean – standard deviation indicating unfavorable perception, mean + standard deviation indicating favorable perception, and proportion in between these two range indicating indifference

disposition.


Personal and socioeconomic characteristics of

respondents

Results in Table 1 show that majority (83.3%) of the respondent fell between 31 and 60 years age bracket. Few (11.7%) were below 30 years while

only 5% were above 60 years old. Mean age of respondent was 43.1 years with standard deviation of 10.2. Also, majority (88.9%) of respondents were male with just 11.1% female. In the same

vein, majority (81.1%) were married while 14.4% were still single. Very few (3.3% and 1.1%) were divorced and separated, respectively. These results indicate that majority of the e-wallet scheme beneficiaries were largely male, married and of middle-age. This suggests a disproportionate gender composition of the beneficiaries of the e-wallet scheme in favour of

the male gender, finding which supported that of Adebo (2014), where more male beneficiaries reportedly participated in the e-wallet scheme in Kwara State. This might not be unconnected with

the condition prevalent within the socio-cultural

milieu of the study area where male is the dominant

gender. Results further show that the primary occupation of majority (88.3%) of the respondents was farming. Thirty percent were primarily

artisans, while 20.6%, 11.7% and 10% were primarily traders, civil servants and teachers respectively. This indicates that the beneficiaries in the e-wallet scheme were primarily farmers. This is not unexpected given that one of the desires of the federal government in the establishment of the scheme, according to Adesina (2013), was to target real farmers engaged in farming activities and

eliminate influx of political farmers predominant in the old system on input distribution. The results also show that about 28% and 30% of the respondents completed secondary and

tertiary education, respectively. About 22% had koranic education while 10% completed primary education only. This indicates that respondents completed some sort of formal education at various levels, and is similar to findings reported by Akinbile et al. (2014) where beneficiaries of the e-wallet scheme in Osun State were reportedly mostly literate. This might likely have implication

on respondents’ responsiveness and participation in the scheme, as educational status is expected to enable them make better and well informed decision. This submission is further supported by

findings of Obinne (1991) who opined that education is an important factor that has been established to influence adoption of modern farm practices.

Also, majority (93.9%) cultivated between 1 and 5 acres, while very few (6.1%) had between 6 and 10 acres of farm land. Average farm size was 2.6 acres. This indicates that majority of the

respondents were small scale farmers, and this agreed with the submission of Olayide (1992), Orisakwe and Agumuo (2004) and Akinbile et al. (2014) that most Nigerian farmers are small-scale

farmers that cultivate small area of land. Furthermore, large proportion (65%) of the respondents had as much as 6 members of household. About 27% had between 7 and 12

individuals. Average household size was 5.5. This is similar to findings reported by Akinbile (2014) where about 63% of e-wallet scheme beneficiaries in Osun State had below 6 members of household. The implication of the finding is that family labour might be readily available for use for household farming activities.


70

Table 1: Personal and socioeconomic

characteristics of the e-wallet scheme beneficiaries, n = 180


Age (years)

Below 30

31 – 60 Above 60 Mean

Standard deviation

21

150 9 43.1

10.2

11.7

83.3 5.0

Sex

Male

Female

160

20

88.9

11.1

Marital status

Married Single

Separated

Divorce

146 26

2

6

81.1 14.4

1.1

3.3

Educational level

No formal education Koranic education Adult education Pry school incomplete Pry school completed Sec. school incomplete Sec. school completed

Tertiary education

2 40 1 8 18 4 50

57

1.1 22.2 0.6 4.4 10.0 2.2 27.8

31.7

Household size

Below 6 7 – 12

13 – 18 Above 18 Mean Standard deviation

117 48

11 4 5.5 5.2

65.0 26.7

6.1 2.3

Primary occupation*

Farming Artisan Teaching Trading

Civil servant

159 54 18 37

21

88.3 30.0 10.0 20.6

11.7

Farm size (Acres)

1 – 5 6 – 10 Mean

Standard

169 11 2.6

2.3

93.9 6.1

Source: Computed from field survey, 2015

*Multiple responses applicable

Results in Figure 1 show that above average (57.8% and 56.1%) of the respondents cultivated rice and maize respectively. About 38%, 27% and

22% cultivated sorghum, cowpea and groundnut, respectively, while about 16% each cultivated millet and tomatoes. The results indicate beneficiaries of the e-wallet scheme were farmers cultivating a wide variety of arable crops. This could be as a result of the economic and cultural

importance of these crops, being major staples

common in the study area. The implication of this finding is that farmers having access to subsidised input under the e-wallet scheme would enable them enhance their production of locally important staple

crops common amongst inhabitants of the study area.

Figure 1: Distribution showing crop cultivated by the beneficiaries of the e-wallet scheme

E-wallet scheme related characteristics of

beneficiaries

Results in Table 2 show that majority (96.7% and 95%) of the respondents had mobile phone and were registered beneficiaries in the e-wallet scheme. About 56% got registered in the scheme in 2012; 38% registered in 2013 while very few (0.6%) got registered in 2014. Also, About 68%

attended training organised for beneficiaries of the scheme. The results indicate that about 5% and 3.3% of the beneficiaries were neither registered in the scheme nor had mobile phone, while about 32%

did not attend the training, yet they benefitted from input distribution under the scheme. Registration in the scheme, possession of mobile phones and attendance of the training were part of condition for inclusion of beneficiaries in the scheme (Signal alliance, 2014). Adebo (2014) found that 86% of the beneficiaries of the e-wallet scheme in Kwara state had mobile phones, while

all (100%) registered in the scheme and participated in the e-wallet training. The inclusion of non-registered individuals, as well as those not possessing mobile phones, although very minute

tends to suggest corrupt practices prevailing in the e-wallet scheme. Similarly, as much as 32% of the beneficiaries who did not participate in the compulsory training could undermine the

transparency drive of the scheme. Results in Table 2 further show that majority (96.7% and 94.4%) of the respondents had benefitted from subsidised fertiliser and improved

seeds, respectively, under the scheme. While about 42% each had benefitted from subsidised seeds once, only about 12% benefitted thrice from subsidised input. On the other hand, about 41% had


71

benefitted from subsidised fertiliser twice, while

35% and 21.1% benefitted from this input once and thrice, respectively. The results indicate that fewer proportion of the respondents had benefitted from subsidised input up to three times, which implies

low frequency of time they had access to input supply under the scheme. This is similar to result obtained by Adebo (2014) where fewer proportion (20%) among beneficiaries of the e-wallet scheme in Kwara State had access to input beyond three times. The finding suggests that beneficiaries might not have access to sufficient input needed for their farming activities under the e-wallet scheme.

Table 2: e-wallet scheme related information, n = 180


Possession of mobile

phone

Yes

No

176

6

96.7

3.3

Registration in

scheme

Yes

No

171

9

95.0

5.0

Year of 1st

registration

2012 2013 2014

Not applicable

101 69 1

9

56.1 38.3 0.6

5.0

Attendance of e-

wallet training

Yes

No

123

57

68.3 31.7

Farm input

benefitted from

Subsidised improved seeds

Subsidised fertiliser

170

174

94.4

96.7

Frequency of time

benefitted

Subsidised seeds

Once Twice Thrice

Not applicable

76 75 21

10

42.2 41.7 11.7

5.6

Subsidised fertiliser

Once Twice

Thrice Not applicable

63 73

38 6

35.0 40.6

21.1 3.4


Beneficiaries’ perception about effectiveness of

the e-wallet towards curbing corrupt practices

Results in Table 3 show that majority (about 87%) believed that the ‘introduction of e-wallet scheme greatly enhanced transparency in processes

involved in purchase and distribution of agricultural inputs amongst smallholder farmers’. This statement recorded weighted mean of score of 3.22 out of possible 4. However, about 69% still believed that ‘large proportion of agricultural inputs could not still reach farmers under the e-wallet scheme due to corrupt practices’ (WMS = 2.77). These results indicate that, although

beneficiaries strongly believed that e-wallet scheme enhanced transparency in accessibility of farm inputs, yet, they still believed that corrupt tendencies still persist under the scheme.

About 69% believed that political interference could prevent successful implementation of the scheme (WMS = 2.72), as shown in Table 3. However, only about 39% believed that ‘diversion of inputs by political elites for personal gain still persists under the scheme’ (WMS = 1.91). In the same vein, large proportion, about 63%, believed that political farmers have been sidelined in the e-

wallet scheme (WMS = 2.49). These results suggest beneficiaries were favorably disposed to the effectiveness of the e-wallet scheme in reducing political influx that characterized the old system.

Similarly, about 79% believed that fraudulent practices prevalent in the old system of input distribution have been greatly reduced. Also, a total of 56.7% were opposed to the

view that fertiliser adulteration prevalent in the old system still persists under the e-wallet scheme while just 37.2% favored the view (WMS = 2.04). This indicates that above half of the beneficiaries

did not favor the view of prevalence of fertiliser adulteration in the scheme. Results in Table 3 further show that about 67.2% believed that ‘large proportion of farmers

now have easy accessibility to agricultural inputs due to transparency of the scheme’ (WMS = 2.64). Similarly, about 83% favoured the view that ‘use of e-voucher to redeem agricultural inputs from agro-

dealers enhances efficient and transparent distribution of inputs amongst smallholder farmers’. In same vein, about 64% also believed that ‘use of e-voucher to redeem agricultural inputs from agro-dealers guarantees reduction of corrupt practices’; WMS of 2.86 and 2.48, respectively, were recorded here. These findings agree with earlier submission buttressing beneficiaries’

favourable perception of e-wallet scheme in enhancing transparency and reducing corruption associated with input distribution amongst smallholder farmers.


72

Table 3: Perception of beneficiaries about effectiveness of the e-wallet scheme in curbing corruption

Statements SA A D SD U WMS

Introduction of e-wallet scheme

greatly enhanced transparency in processes involved in purchase and distribution of agricultural inputs amongst smallholder farmers

87 (48.3) 70 (38.9) 3 (1.7) 12 (6.7) 8 (4.4) 3.22

Large proportion of agricultural inputs could still not reach farmers under the e-wallet scheme due to corrupt practices

65 (36.1) 60 (33.3) 21 (11.7) 16 (8.9) 18 (10.0) 2.77

Political interference prevents the successful implementation of the e-wallet scheme

64 (35.6) 60 (33.3) 11 (6.1) 31 (17.2) 14 (7.8) 2.72

Diversion of inputs by political elites for personal gain still persists under the e-wallet scheme

35 (19.4) 35 (19.4) 29 (16.1) 40 (22.2) 41 (22.8) 1.91

Political farmers have been totally sidelined through the new approach used in the scheme

46 (25.6) 67 (37.2) 20 (11.1) 24 (13.3) 23 (12.8) 2.49

Fraudulent practices involved in the old system of input distribution have been greatly reduced under the e-wallet scheme

65 (36.1) 78 (43.3) 9 (5.0) 10 (5.6) 18 (10.0) 2.90

Large proportion of farmers now

has easy accessibility to agricultural inputs due to transparency of the e-wallet scheme

52 (28.9) 69 (38.3) 17 (9.4) 26 (14.4) 16 (8.9) 2.64

The e-wallet scheme has greatly reduced the inefficiency that characterized the old system of input distribution

58 (32.2) 55 (30.6) 21 (11.7) 14 (7.8) 32 (17.8) 2.52

Fertiliser adulteration prevalent in the old system still persists under the e-wallet scheme

34 (18.9) 33 (18.3) 30 (16.7) 72 (40.0) 11 (6.2) 2.04

Use of e-voucher to redeem

agricultural inputs from agro-dealers guarantees reduction of corrupt practices prevalent in the old system

59 (32.8) 56 (31.1) 18 (10.0) 6 (3.3) 41 (22.8) 2.48

Use of e-voucher to redeem agricultural inputs from agro-dealers enhances efficient and transparent distribution of

agricultural inputs amongst smallholder farmers

59 (32.8) 90 (50.0) 3 (1.7) 2 (1.1) 26 (14.5) 2.86

SA – Strongly agreed; A – Agreed; D – Disagreed; SD – Strongly disagreed; U - Undecided


Results in Table 4 show that majority (66.1%) of the respondents were of the opinion that ‘18 years age limit criteria for inclusion and participation in the e-wallet scheme is not

thwarted’, while few, about 15%, disagreed with this view. The statement recorded WMS of 2.64. This indicates respondents’ favourable perception

about under aged not been engaged to perpetuate corrupt tendencies through impersonation in the scheme. Also, about 53.9% of the respondents did not support the opinion that ‘helpline personnel and

redemption supervisors discharge their responsibilities diligently without demand for ‘tip-off’. Only about 18% supported this view. WMS


73

was low, 1.39. In same vein, only about 48.9%

supported the view that ‘helpline personnel and redemption supervisors sluggishly delay in discharge of their responsibilities when not ‘tipped-off’”, while about 40% did not hold this view. The

results here indicate that ‘people’ component within the e-wallet system still seemed vulnerable to sharp practices. This finding mirrors the general trend in government business in the country, which further explains the root cause of prevalent corrupt personnel in the scheme. Results in Table 4 further show that majority (72.3%) favoured the view that ‘cumbersomeness

of procedure in getting approval from cellulants encourages corrupt practices’. Similarly, majority (77.2%) favoured opinion that ‘insufficient fertiliser and seed supply encountered sometimes in

the scheme breeds corrupt practices’. WMS recorded for these statements were 2.78 and 2.82, respectively. These indicate that presence of

bureaucratic complexities also tend to encourage

corrupt practices within the e-wallet system. Majority (74.5%) supported the opinion that ‘subsidised inputs are delivered by agro-dealers at half cost to smallholder farmers without demand

for any hidden charges. The statement recorded a very high WMS of 2.75. Also, about 43% supported the opinion that subsidised inputs are distributed to all farmers registered in the scheme without preferential treatment’. Similarly, majority (73.9%) favoured the view that ‘inclusion and registration of farmers at the onset of the scheme was transparent’. WMS was 2.87. Lastly, majority

(77.8%) supported the view that e-wallet scheme has renewed respondents’ confidence of transparency in government programmes and initiatives for smallholder farmers. WMS was 2.85.

These results further reflect the respondents’ resolve about transparency and lack of corrupt practices under the e-wallet scheme.

Table 4: Perception of beneficiaries about effectiveness of the e-wallet scheme in curbing corruption (continued)

Statements SA A D SD U WMS

18 years age limit criteria for inclusion and participation in the e-wallet scheme is not thwarted/circumvented

65 (36.1) 54 (30.0) 14 (7.8) 12 (6.7) 35 (19.5) 2.64

Helpline personnel and redemption

supervisors discharge their responsibilities diligently without demand for ‘tip-off’

13 (7.2) 20 (11.1) 41 (22.8) 56 (31.1) 50 (27.8) 1.39

Helpline personnel and redemption

supervisors sluggishly delay in discharge of their responsibilities when not ‘tipped-off’

40 (22.2) 48 (26.7) 20 (11.1) 25 (13.9) 47 (26.1) 2.05

Cumbersomeness of procedure in getting

approval from ‘cellulants’ encourage corrupt practices

73 (40.6) 57 (31.7) 15 (8.3) 8 (4.4) 27 (15.0) 2.78

Insufficient fertiliser and seed supply encountered sometimes encountered in

the scheme breeds corrupt practices

70 (38.9) 69 (38.3) 8 (4.4) 5 (2.8) 28 (15.6) 2.82

Subsidised inputs are delivered by agro-dealers at half cost to smallholder farmers without demand for any ‘hidden

charges’

84 (46.7) 50 (27.8) 4 (2.2) 1 (0.6) 41 (22.8) 2.75

Subsidised inputs are distributed to all farmers registered in the scheme without preferential treatment

32 (17.8) 45 (25.0) 41 (22.8) 45 (25.0) 17 (9.4) 2.17

Inclusion and registration of farmers at the onset of the scheme was transparent

66 (36.7) 67 (37.2) 16 (8.9) 19 (10.6) 12 (6.7) 2.87

The e-wallet scheme has renewed my confidence of transparency in government programmes and initiatives for smallholder farmers

68 (37.8) 72 (40.0) 8 (4.4) 9 (5.0) 23 (12.8) 2.85

SA – Strongly agreed; A – Agreed; D – Disagreed; SD – Strongly disagreed; U - Undecided



Overall perception of beneficiaries about the

effectiveness of the e-wallet scheme

Results in Figure 2 show that, overall, few(15%) of the beneficiaries had perception about the effectiveness of the escheme towards curbing sharp and corrupt practices

associated with agricultural input distribution. While fewer (13.9%) had unfavourable perception, majority (71.1%) were indifferent. The results reflect mixed perception of the respondents about

the effectiveness of the e-wallet scheme, as reflected in the discussion in previous subsection above. Little proportion of the respondents favorably perceiving the scheme as effectiveness

implies the need to look at critical areas of the scheme which still encourages corruption to thrive as previously highlighted, so as to improve overall perception of the scheme among the beneficiaries.


Based on the major findings of the study, it

was concluded that majority of the respondents were male, married and within their productive age range. Also, very few beneficiaries were neither registered in the scheme, had mobile phone, nor

attended the e-wallet training, yet they benefitted from input distribution under the scheme. Farm inputs benefitted from were mainly fertiliser and improved seeds and frequency of

benefit was low. In addition, the beneficiaries mostly perceived e-wallet scheme as effective in ensuring transparency and reducing sharp practices prevalent in the old system. Nonetheless, ‘people’

component (i.e. human factor) of the esystem still seemed vulnerable and could undermine the success of the initiative. From the foregoing, it is recommended that

special attention should be paid to disproportion in gender composition amongst beneficiaries of the scheme. Also, there is need to ensure that all beneficiaries are duly registered, compulsorily

attend necessary training and meet any stipulated conditions before benefitting from farm inputs under the scheme in order to check corrupt practices. There is also need for continued encouragement of the beneficiaries to decline lobbying or tipping-off any official involved in thscheme, and re-assuring them not doing this will not undermine their chances of procuring inputs.


74

Overall perception of beneficiaries about the

Results in Figure 2 show that, overall, few 15%) of the beneficiaries had favourable

perception about the effectiveness of the e-wallet scheme towards curbing sharp and corrupt practices

input distribution. favourable perception,

71.1%) were indifferent. The results mixed perception of the respondents about

wallet scheme, as reflected in the discussion in previous subsection above. Little proportion of the respondents favorably perceiving the scheme as effectiveness

at critical areas of the scheme which still encourages corruption to thrive as previously highlighted, so as to improve overall perception of the scheme among the beneficiaries.


Based on the major findings of the study, it

was concluded that majority of the respondents were male, married and within their productive age range. Also, very few beneficiaries were neither registered in the scheme, had mobile phone, nor

allet training, yet they benefitted from input distribution under the scheme. Farm inputs benefitted from were mainly subsidised

er and improved seeds and frequency of

benefit was low. In addition, the beneficiaries as effective in

ensuring transparency and reducing sharp practices prevalent in the old system. Nonetheless, ‘people’

i.e. human factor) of the e-wallet system still seemed vulnerable and could

foregoing, it is recommended that

special attention should be paid to disproportion in gender composition amongst beneficiaries of the scheme. Also, there is need to ensure that all beneficiaries are duly registered, compulsorily

and meet any stipulated conditions before benefitting from farm inputs under the scheme in order to check corrupt practices. There is also need for continued encouragement of the beneficiaries to decline

off any official involved in the assuring them not doing this will

not undermine their chances of procuring inputs.

Lastly, but perhaps most importantly, government should be on the lookout for culprits and defaulters

and sanction them appropriately.

REFERENCES

Adebo, G. M (2014) Effectiveness of e

practice in grassroots agricultural service delivery in Nigeria: A case study of Kwara state growth enhancement support scheme. Journal of

Biology and Agricultural Sciences

– 9 Adebayo and Okuneye (2011) Economics of

Agricultural Extension. In Madukwe,

M.C. (ed.) Agricultural Extension

in Nigeria A publication of Agricultural Extension Society of

Adesina A (2013) Speech of Former Honorable

Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development, Federal Republic of Nigeria, Governor from Nigeria, at the 36th Session of the IFAD Governing

Council Akinbile, L. A., Akwiwu, U, N. and Alade, O.O.

(2014) Determinants of farmers willingness to utilise eaccessing agricultural information inState, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Rural

Sociology 15 (1): 105 – 113Carr, I. and Jago, R. (2014) Petty corruption,

development and information technology as an antidote Round Table

465 – 482 E-agriculture (2015) online document accessed

from http://www.e-agriculture.org/wsis

follow on 8th October, 2015 Jibowo, A.A. (2005). History of Agricultural

Extension in Nigeria. In:

(ed.) Agricultural Extension in Nigeria. Publication of Agricultural Extension Society of

12. NBS (2014) retrieved online from

nigerianstat.gov.ng/sectorstat/sectors/Agri

culture on October

Obinne, C. P. O. (1991) Adoption of improved cassava production technologies by smalscale farmers in Bendel State. Sci. Technol. 1 (1): 12 – 15

Olayide, S.O. (1992) A quantitative analysis of food requirements supplies and demands in Nigeria 1968-1985. Federal Department of Agriculture

Orisakwe, L and Agumuo, F. (2004) Adoptimproved agro-forestry technology among contact farmers in Imo State, Nigeria. Journal of Agriculture and Rural

Development 2 (1): 1 – 9

Lastly, but perhaps most importantly, government should be on the lookout for culprits and defaulters

2014) Effectiveness of e-wallet

practice in grassroots agricultural service in Nigeria: A case study of

Kwara state growth enhancement support Experimental

Biology and Agricultural Sciences 2 (4): 1

2011) Economics of Agricultural Extension. In Madukwe,

Agricultural Extension

A publication of Agricultural Nigeria

2013) Speech of Former Honorable

Minister of Agriculture and Rural , Federal Republic of

Nigeria, Governor from Nigeria, at the 36th Session of the IFAD Governing

Akinbile, L. A., Akwiwu, U, N. and Alade, O.O. 2014) Determinants of farmers

e e-wallet for accessing agricultural information in Osun

Nigerian Journal of Rural

113 2014) Petty corruption,

development and information technology Round Table 103 (5):

2015) online document accessed

agriculture.org/wsis-

October, 2015 History of Agricultural

: S.F. Adedoyin Agricultural Extension in

Publication of Agricultural Nigeria, pp1-

2014) retrieved online from nigerianstat.gov.ng/sectorstat/sectors/Agri

8th 2015

1991) Adoption of improved cassava production technologies by small-scale farmers in Bendel State. J. Agric.

15 1992) A quantitative analysis of

food requirements supplies and demands 1985. Federal Department

2004) Adoption of forestry technology among

contact farmers in Imo State, Nigeria. Asia

Journal of Agriculture and Rural


75

Signal Alliance (2014). ERP FOR THE

AGRICULTURE SECTOR IN NIGERIA. Transforming Big Data into Big Value in Agriculture Industry. Retrieved from

http://www.slideshare.net/signalalliance/e

rp-for-the-agriculture-in-nigeria on April 23, 2014


76

INCIDENCE OF SHARP PRACTICES IN GROWTH ENHANCEMENT SUPPORT SCHEME

REDEMPTION CENTRES OF OYO STATE

Ladele, A.A and Oyelami, B.O. Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria


ABSTRACT

Growth Enhancement Support (GES) Scheme was a key component of Nigerian Agricultural Transformation

Agenda (ATA) programme under which redemption centres were established for farmers’ easy access to

subsidised inputs. Close observation however revealed that some forms of activities that ultimately decimated

the level of success attainable under this scheme were perpetrated across redemption centres. This study

therefore examined the forms of sharp practices, their causes and effects on the scheme at large. In-depth

interview with key informants (IDI) was used to elicit information from strategic officers across selected

redemption centres under the scheme in three agricultural zones (Ibadan/Ibarapa, Oyo and Ogbomoso) of the

state. Data obtained from the study were analysed using descriptive and qualitative analysis. The study

unravelled cryptic practices such as registration and sales of inputs by non-practicing farmers, exchange of E-

wallet code for money by farmers, deployment of farmers’ input to wrong redemption centres and so on. The

study concluded that various forms of sharp practices occurred under the scheme which respondents perceived

to have had a negative effect on beneficiaries. It was therefore recommended among other things that, there is a

need for an on-field validation of GES scheme data base to sieve out non-practicing farmers, introduction of

external supervisors for monitoring activities at redemption centres and a feed-back mechanism from

beneficiaries. These will serve to forestall the repetition of similar incidents in subsequent intervention

programmes.

Keywords: Sharp practices, Growth enhancement support scheme, Redemption centres

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is considered a strong weapon to tackle the problem of poverty and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It

contributes about 40% of the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP) and engages over 70% of all employments. In fact, of the total population of 165 million people in Nigeria, the majority are

found across the rural communities where agriculture is the predominant occupation (Adesina, 2013). It is remarkable that Nigeria has a huge potential in agriculture with 84 million hectares of

arable land, cheap and largely untapped water resources and a market of 165 million people. Suppose these resources were appropriately utilised, Nigeria should be a power house of food

production. Contrariwise, less than 40% of the available arable land is cultivated by smallholder farmers who rarely have access to mechanised implements and agro-inputs. Only ten tractors are

available per 100 hectares of farmland in Nigeria compared to 241 tractors per hectare in Indonesia, while Nigeria’s average fertiliser usage stands at 13kg per hectare as against the average annual usage of 100kg per hectare obtainable elsewhere in the world (World Bank, 2013; IFDC, 2013). Consequently, Nigeria has been a net importer of food, spending over $10 billion a year for the

importation of wheat, rice, sugar and fish alone. According to Adesina (2013), Forty years is the average life span of people in rural Nigeria, but in that period millions of farmers never saw or got

subsidised fertilisers, supposedly meant for them. In that period, despite the billions of Naira spent

successively over four decades, no more than 11% of smallholder farmers get subsidised fertilisers by the government. The corruption in the system was massive, due to government direct procurement and

distribution of fertilisers. The system disempowered small farmers as the political elites and power brokers siphoned off fertilisers meant for poor farmers. The private sector was displaced

and as a result never built fertiliser supply chains to reach farmers. The corruption was so rife in the system that it was common for a bulk of the fertilisers supplied to be half sand and half

fertilisers. Subsidised fertilisers were sold off on the open market and exported into other neighbouring countries. Farm productivity continued to decline, food security worsened and

incomes of farmers declined, despite massive increases in fertiliser subsidies for decades. The system was no better for seeds, as direct government procurement of seeds led to entrenched

corruption and rent seeking, as government officials gave away contracts to cronies, who supplied grains instead of high quality seeds to farmers. With a strong resolve to ensure that all genuine farmers across the country get access to quality farm inputs, a massive overhaul of the national fertiliser and seed supply system was embarked

upon under the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA) of the federal republic of Nigeria. Direct procurement and distribution of fertilisers and seeds were eliminated and all fertiliser and

seed companies began to sell directly to farmers and no more to the government. All fertiliser and


seeds supply contracts were scrapped and production of foundation seed handed over to the

private sector (FMARD, 2014). In its place, the government launched the Growth Enhancement Support (GES) Scheme to provide targeted support for seed and fertiliser to about 20 million Nigerian

farmers. The GES scheme is based upon an Electronic Wallet (E-wallet) System, developed to use mobile phones to deliver seeds at no cost and 50% subsidy on fertilisers and a national farmer

data base containing millions of farmers2014). An E-wallet is a voucher in text format received on a cell phone that entitles the owner to buy agro-inputs with a discount. It was developed

by the company Cellulant Nigeria Limited.

Prerequisites for participation in GESS E

system

Participation in the E-wallet system required the eligibility of both farmers and agrofarmers’ part, they must be above 18 yhave participated in the annual national farmer

registration exercise conducted by the state government to capture farmers’ personal detailed information using a biometric platform, own a functional cell phone with a registered SIM card and have a credit of at least 60 naira on their cell phone for transactions to take place. Similarly, an agro-input dealer must be selected by the state to be able to participate in the scheme and also own a

Figure 1: Electronic Wallet System process through text messages


77

seeds supply contracts were scrapped and production of foundation seed handed over to the

FMARD, 2014). In its place, the ernment launched the Growth Enhancement

GES) Scheme to provide targeted support for seed and fertiliser to about 20 million Nigerian

farmers. The GES scheme is based upon an wallet) System, developed to

liver seeds at no cost and 50% subsidy on fertilisers and a national farmer

data base containing millions of farmers (FMARD, wallet is a voucher in text format

received on a cell phone that entitles the owner to It was developed

by the company Cellulant Nigeria Limited.

Prerequisites for participation in GESS E-wallet

wallet system required the eligibility of both farmers and agro-dealers. On farmers’ part, they must be above 18 years of age have participated in the annual national farmer

registration exercise conducted by the state government to capture farmers’ personal detailed information using a biometric platform, own a functional cell phone with a registered SIM card

e a credit of at least 60 naira on their cell phone for transactions to take place. Similarly, an

input dealer must be selected by the state to be able to participate in the scheme and also own a

functional cell phone with a registered SIM card. Agro-dealers do not need to have extra credit on

their cell phones. They must attend training programmes designed for the scheme, understand the process of E-wallet system and regularly attend reconciliation meetings with other stakeholders.

The agro-dealers are required to conduct honest business and guide against fraud; choose and prepare a location for the business transaction; provide storage facilities and be available at

appropriate time to attend to farmers’ needs. Other prominent personalities in the sare the helpline staff and redemption supervisors. Each state Agricultural Development Project

(ADP) supplied helpline staffs, and about 3helpline staffs were assigned to each Local Government Area (LGA). The helpline staffs and redemption supervisors connect farmers on daily

basis to attend to their needs. The redemption supervisor helps in validating the farmer’s identity as well as the code in the message received on his/her phone and then compares with the names

and codes in the farmers’ register sent by Cellulant Company. The subsidised farm input is delivered to farmers directly through their mobile phones. The scheme is aimed at providing a direct link between the farmers and the government (Ezeh, 2013). The flow chart in figure 1 presents Ethrough text messages:

Figure 1: Electronic Wallet System process through text messages


functional cell phone with a registered SIM card. dealers do not need to have extra credit on

their cell phones. They must attend training programmes designed for the scheme, understand

wallet system and regularly attend reconciliation meetings with other stakeholders.

e required to conduct honest business and guide against fraud; choose and prepare a location for the business transaction; provide storage facilities and be available at

appropriate time to attend to farmers’ needs. Other prominent personalities in the scheme

are the helpline staff and redemption supervisors. Each state Agricultural Development Project

ADP) supplied helpline staffs, and about 3-5 helpline staffs were assigned to each Local

LGA). The helpline staffs and sors connect farmers on daily

basis to attend to their needs. The redemption supervisor helps in validating the farmer’s identity as well as the code in the message received on his/her phone and then compares with the names

er sent by Cellulant Company. The subsidised farm input is delivered to farmers directly through their mobile phones. The scheme is aimed at providing a direct link between

Ezeh, 2013). The flow chart in figure 1 presents E-wallet process


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The E-wallet system is farmer friendly as it

allows them to do their transactions in local languages. As at 2013, approximately 23 million E-wallet transactions were completed by farmers on their mobile phones with majority in local Nigerian

languages. For example, 45% of transactions were in Hausa, 25% was in English, 17% was in Yoruba, 12% was in pidgin while 1% was in Igbo. The national rollout GES scheme in Nigeria commenced on 9th May, 2012. Ekiti state was the first state to commence rollout of GES scheme in Nigeria. The E-wallet system was designed and operated by Cellulant Corporation a private sector

contractor on behalf of the Federal Government of Nigeria in 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). The redemption or provision of improved seeds and fertilisers occurred in all 774

LGAs of the country. The private sector service providers participating in the scheme within the first two years of implementation included 25 fertiliser producing, importing and blending companies, 77 seed companies and 1800 agro-dealers that operated 2300 redemption sites across the country over a period of 6 months (FMARD, 2014). Figures 2 and 3 show the distribution of

total redemption transactions across agro-ecological zones in Nigeria and states in the South-West agro-ecological zones.

Figure 2: Distribution of total redemption transactions by agro-ecological zones.

Figure 3: Distribution of total redemption transactions by South-West States. As impressive as some of the success stories of

GES scheme have been, it is important to note that there were hiccups during implementation that attempted marring the success of this scheme.

These hiccups essentially were diverse in nature.

While some were institutional, others were technological and yet some were artificial. Artificial hiccups were those created by ill-motivated and corrupt individuals who aimed at

manipulating activities of the scheme for selfish gains. While these activities might not properly fit into the legal definition of corruption, they could well be termed as sharp practices which ultimately could metamorphosis into corruption if not proactively nipped in the bud. According to Ayoola (2015), sharp practices connote sneaky or cunning behaviour apparently within the rules or law but

deceitful and exploitative. Other words that could describe sharp practices are unethical acts, fraud, dishonesty, misconduct, taking undue advantage, cutting corners, etc. The Business dictionary

(2015), as well explained it as a word that describes cunningness, deceit, misrepresentation, trickery and other unscrupulous behaviour just short of the legal definition of fraud. Sharp practice has common features with corruption, except that while corrupt acts are punishable under the law, sharp practices are sneaky and cunning such that they do not substantively fall under the grip of definite legal

sanctions. In fact, the national chairman of the agro-dealers association in Nigeria referred to these acts of sharp practice as the bane of GES scheme

(Leadership News, 2015). The federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development in the 2013 Agricultural Transformation Agenda Score Card Report also admitted that there were pockets of

challenges that confronted GES scheme at implementation level (FMARD, 2014). This study therefore aims at identifying some of these unscrupulous activities (sharp practices)

perpetrated during GES scheme implementation with their causes and implications on the society at large. The main objective of the study was to

investigate incidence of sharp practices in growth enhancement support scheme redemption centres of Oyo State. The specific objectives of the study were to:

1. describe forms of sharp practices in growth enhancement support scheme redemption centres,

2. identify causes of sharp practices in growth enhancement support scheme redemption centres and

3. determine effects of sharp practices on growth enhancement support scheme in the state

METHODOLOGY The study was carried out in Oyo State. The state is located between coordinates 8000N and

4000E and covers approximately a land area of 28,454sq kilometres. Oyo state has a population of


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5,591,589 according to 2006 census (Tijani,

Oyewole and Olabode, 2012). Oyo State comprises 33 LGAs which have been delineated into four ADP agricultural zones. The total number of active redemption centres across the agricultural zones in

the state was 43 as at 2013. In-depth interview with key informants (IDI) was used to elicit information from redemption centre supervisors and helpline staffs across selected redemption centres under the scheme in three agricultural zones (Ibadan/Ibarapa, Oyo and Ogbomoso) of the state. Data obtained from the study were analysed using descriptive and qualitative analysis.



Respondents to the study were mainly

redemption centre supervisors and helpline staffs who served across various redemption centres in the state under the GES scheme right from inception. The lowest academic qualification possessed among the respondents was the Higher National Diploma (HND) while the highest was a Master of Technology in agriculturally related field of study. The level of education of GES scheme

officers was appreciably high; this was necessary because the duty to perform was technical and needed some level of ICT skills. The age range of the respondents was between 30 and 45; this

implies the crop of personnel recruited for the GES scheme exercise were able bodied individuals who possess the strength to do the assignment however rigorous it may prove to be. They were also men

and women in their middle age, usually characterised with lots of aspirations and goals to achieve; if such individuals happen to be greedy, they could probably have high tendencies for sharp

practices. Most of the respondents were males, married and were still in their active years of service. Eighty per cent of them were Christians while the remaining twenty per cent were Muslims.

Forms of sharp practices observed during GES

scheme implementation in the study area

Sharp practice is a word that describes cunningness, deceit, misrepresentation, trickery and

other unscrupulous behaviour just short of the legal definition of fraud (Business dictionary, 2015). Various forms of sharp practices perpetrated during GES scheme implementation originated from different stakeholders in the scheme such as farmers (the beneficiaries), the agro-dealers and the GES scheme facilitators i.e. the helpline staffs and redemption centre supervisors. Individuals among

these stakeholders demonstrated sharp practices either differently or by conniving with each other as described below:

Sharp practices from farmers (the beneficiaries)

1. Sales of subsidised inputs after redemption - It was discovered that some beneficiaries sold their

inputs after redemption, especially fertiliser. The

most common rate at which it was sold was between N3000 to N4000 per bag. Among the reasons adduced to this practice was the late commencement of input redemption. Some farmers

who sold their redeemed fertiliser claimed to have earlier bought from the open market and by this act they intend to reclaim the money already spent. 2. Trickery - Some beneficiaries brought between two to three ID cards to their redemption centres to redeem inputs. Such beneficiaries claimed that the real owners of the ID cards were indisposed, and they wanted to redeem on their behalf.

3. Tendering of phony E-wallet message/voucher

code - There were as well cases of deceit found with some farmers. Such farmers feigned already used E-wallet messages including the voucher code

and came to present it for redemption of input. This was not discovered until during reconciliation exercise and such individuals were eventually traced by the assistance of helpline staffs that were usually familiar with the farmers. 4. Multiple registrations - Some farmers were found to register twice within the same LGA. In order to escape being discovered they decided to

register with different names and phone numbers. Others who registered twice with the same name and phone number decided to do so in different LGAs.

5. Consumption of rice seed instead of planting -

Some farmers under the disguise of late arrival of input went ahead to process the paddy rice (seed) supplied to them and consumed it instead of

planting. 6. Tendering of already used ID cards - The study also revealed that some beneficiaries tendered already used ID cards to redeem inputs the second

time. These were however discovered and turned down.

Sharp practices from connivance between

beneficiaries and agro-dealers

Exchange of E-wallet vouchers for money -

Some farmers, especially the non-practicing ones were found to exchange the E-wallet vouchers contained in the messages sent to them for money

with agro-dealers at a rate ranging between N500 to N1500 depending on their bargaining power. This act expressly contradicts the guiding principle of the scheme and it was much pronounced in urban centres.

Sharp practices from connivance between agro-

dealers and GES scheme facilitators

Collusion - It was discovered in some

instances that collusion occurred between agro-dealers and help lines/redemption centre supervisors to deny farmers the opportunity of redeeming inputs. Such farmers were deceived that

their names were missing in the register, only for these agro-dealers to sell the inputs later and share


80

the money with the GES scheme facilitators in

question. To put it in the words of a respondent from Ogbomoso South LGA, he said “Some agro-dealers saw the scheme as a means to enrich themselves. So they enticed assigned GES scheme

representative (s) to their redemption centres into shady deals to deny some farmers of their inputs. They also connived together to perfect reports that farmers who did not show up to redeem inputs have redeemed. When the agro-dealer later sells the inputs or chooses to pay for them (at subsidised price), they together share the money”. A case similar to this was reported by Leadership News

(2015), when a female farmer from Kachia LGA of Kaduna State who has been benefitting from the scheme suddenly stopped receiving E-wallet messages and was so sidelined. She went extra

miles by visiting her registration centre where other farmers were being attended to and made enquiries. She even located her name on the farmers’ register and despite this she was denied access to the subsidised inputs. According to the earlier quoted respondent, this practice occurred mostly in the third year of GESS implementation when unemployed youths were engaged to serve as help-

line officers. It was easier for some agro-dealers to coerce them based on their newness in the system. Those who gave in also exercised no qualm, believing that they had little or nothing at stake.

Sharp practices from seed companies Supply of inferior seeds - Inputs, especially maize seed supplied by some seed companies were found to be of inferior quality. Such packs of seed

contained broken seeds, full of chaff, and even streak infested etc.

Sharp practices from non-beneficiaries

Facade - Some non-registered farmers brought

registered farmers’ messages in disguise to redeem inputs. Such farmers were lackadaisical towards the national registration exercise but later realized their mistakes when the scheme turned out to be real.

They then attempted to benefit from the scheme by using other beneficiaries’ e-wallet messages, however, such farmers were discovered as their names could not be found in the register.

Causes of sharp practices during GES scheme

implementation

The various forms of sharp practices discovered during GES scheme implementation came in through different channels which could be regarded as causes for these forms of practices. These causes are identified as follows:

From the government

1. Registration of non-practicing farmers These set of beneficiaries were prominent in exchange of E-wallet messages for money and sales of inputs.

2. Under-aged registration

There were cases of registration of beneficiaries

who fell under the minimum accepted age of 18 years. This gave insincere agro-dealers the chance to divert such inputs for selfish gain. 3. Late commencement of GES scheme redemption

exercise This excuse was given by some beneficiaries who engaged in selling of redeemed inputs. 4. Insufficient inputs at redemption centres This excuse was put forward by some buyers of redeemed inputs 5. Mix-up of farmers’ names on the register There were instances of mix-up in collation of

farmers’ names such that some farmers were directed to redeem their inputs at centres outside their states or location. An example of this was the case of farmers in Surulere LGA of Oyo State who

were asked to go and redeem their inputs from redemption centres in Surulere area of Lagos State. This type of challenge could push desperate farmers to buy redeemed inputs from those who are willing to sell.

From technological hiccups

This was mainly related to the challenge of poor network connection. Messages from Cellulant

Company could not reach farmers located in areas due to poor network connection. Consequently, there were frequent cases of delayed delivery on either messages sent to/responses expected from

Cellulant due to bad network. This was also corroborated by the findings of Adebo (2014), that 43.5% of her respondents experienced constraints from poor network coverage in their efforts to GES

scheme inputs.

From GES scheme system

1. Weak quality control system The quality control of some inputs approved for

delivery to redemption centres at some points was not thorough and this led to the delivery of poor quality inputs. 2. Inadequate planning

Plans to supply all registered farmers were not adequately made at some points during implementation which led to insufficient inputs to reach all farmers who came to redeem, especially

in 2012. This is in consonance with the findings of Adebo (2014) in her study conducted among GES scheme beneficiaries in Kwara State, who found out that 52% of her respondents, complained of insufficient fertilisers in their respective redemption centres.

From beneficiaries 1. High level of poverty among farmers

This led to abandonment or exchange of inputs for money which dubious agro-dealers took advantage of. 2. Farmers’ interest in exchanging E-wallet

vouchers for money


81

Non-practicing farmers took more interest in

exchanging inputs for money or selling rather utilising them 3. Farmers’ interest in selling redeemed inputs rather utilising them

4. Release of personal identification cards by beneficiaries to others This led to trickery by others who were mostly non-beneficiaries

Consequences of sharp practices under GES

scheme implementation

On agricultural production

1. Inputs not redeemed by genuine farmers did not

optimally benefit agricultural production. 2. Agricultural production could not attain the estimated target. 3. There was reduced agricultural production along

with other losses incurred by farmers as a result of inferior inputs supplied.

On agricultural productivity

1. Failure to redeem inputs as designed led to reduced productivity and profitability 2. Insufficient inputs allotted to farmers decimated productivity Beyond reduced productivity, some farmers’

experienced total loss caused by inferior inputs as they carried out no viability test before planting the seeds redeemed. This led to the conclusion that in some instances grains were supplied in place of

seed

On objectives of the scheme

1. The objectives of the scheme were not fully realized

2. The success attainable under the scheme was decimated

On the society at large

1. Failures arising from inferior inputs distributed

led to farmers’ discouragement and made them repulsive to subsequent messages from extension workers 2. Reduced productivity caused by inferior inputs

led to losses and worsened standard of living for farmers 3. There was a rise in the level of sharp practices in the society as some farmers were already

confessing that during the next available opportunity, they will also engage in sharp practices. This mind-set got stronger reinforcement when it was noticed that perpetrators of sharp practice went scot-free. One of the extension personnel who served as help-line staff reported the comments of some farmers as follows: “We actually received the E-wallet messages instructing

us to go and redeem inputs at the redemption centre. However, we felt since there was no money, we should ignore the messages. Only to learn later that some others went to the redemption centre with

such messages and collected money (about N1,500)

in exchange for their messages. The next available

opportunity will surely not elude us!”

Conclusion and Recommendations

The study concluded that various forms of sharp

practices occurred during the implementation of GES scheme in the State. These practices would likely have decimated the level of success attainable under the scheme. It further affected the sincere attitude some farmers had towards the scheme. There is therefore a need to proactively curtail its spread so as to improve on the successes recorded so far in the scheme and provide a

platform for better future implementation. The following are therefore recommended: 1. Sincerity among agro-dealers and helpline personnel should be encouraged

2. Stricter monitoring should be factored into the scheme 3. Stricter enforcement of guiding rules and principles should be encouraged 4. Prompt punitive measures should be applied during implementation to serve as deterrent to others 5. Law enforcement agents particularly in mufti

should be present at redemption centres to curb sharp practices 6. Number of supervisors saddled with the responsibility of monitoring redemption centres

activities should be increased 7. The scheme should leverage on ADP’s staff acquaintance with farmers to curb sharp practices. 8. An on-field validation of the current farmers’

registration data base should be carried out to sieve out non-practising farmers.

REFERENCES

Adebo, G.M. 2014. Effectiveness of E-wallet Practice in Grassroots Agricultural Services

Delivery in Nigeria- A case study of Kwara State

Growth Enhancement Support Scheme. Journal of Experimental Biology and

Agricultural Sciences. 2 (4): 9. Adesina A.A., 2013. Keynote address delivered on

the occasion of the 2013 Annual Conference of the Southern African Confederation of Agricultural Union (SACAU) on the 13th – 14th May, 2013 at white sands beach hotel and conference centre, Dar es salaam, Tanzania. Nigerianagriculturenews.ng. Accessed on 27/08/2015.

Ayoola G.B. 2015. Transparency, Corruption and Sharp Practices: The Policy Analyst’s Viewpoint. Keynote/Lead Paper delivered at the 24th Annual National Congress of

Nigerian Rural Sociology Association (NRSA), at Ladoke Akintola University of


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Technology, Ogbomoso on 12th October,

2015. Business Dictionary 2015.

www.businessdictionary.com/definition/sharp-practice.html. accessed on 03/11/2015

Ezeh and Nnemah, 2013. Access and Application of Information Communication Technology (ICT) among farming households of South-East Nigeria. Agriculture and Biology Journal of North America.doi:10.5251/abjna.2013.4.6.605.616.

Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural

Development, 2014. Agricultural Transformation

Agenda, 2013 Report SCORE CARD. http/:www.fmard.gov.ng/ accessed on

27/08/2015.

International Fertiliser Distribution Center, 2013.

International Fertiliser Distribution Center Projects in Nigeria. http://www.ifdc.org/Nationa/Nigeria. accessed on 19/10/2015.

Leadership News, 2015. Politicians, Bane of Growth Enhancement Scheme? www.leadershipnews.ng.org. accessed on 27/08/2015.

Tijani, S.A., Oyewole M.F. and Olabode, C.B. 2012. Contributions of local soap enterprise to livelihood of rural women in selected Local Government Areas of Oyo

State. Nigerian Journal of Rural

Sociology. 13 (1): 49-57. World Bank, 2013. Nigeria/World Bank data.

Trading Economics available on

http:/tradineconomics.com/Nigeria/indicators-wb accessed on 08/10/2015


83

PERCEIVED EFFECT OF BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION AT THE GRASSROOTS: THE CASE OF

LOCAL GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES IN SOUTHERN TARABA, NIGERIA 1Lawi, B. D. and 2Musa N. Y.

1Department of Agricultural Extension, Taraba State College of Agriculture, Jalingo, Taraba State 2Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal University Wukari, Wukari, Taraba State

Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

There are observed variations in the distribution of social infrastructural facilities in rural Nigeria. This study

examined the perceived effect of bribery and corruption on the provision of social infrastructural facilities in

rural areas of Taraba State, Nigeria. Data for the study were collected mainly from primary sources. A total of

375 respondents from three Local Government Areas (LGAs) were used for the study. Research findings

revealed that public funds were misapplied while demanding and receiving gratifications ranked first among the

types of bribery and corruption identified in the study area. Overall, the finding of the study holds some

implications for agricultural and rural development as the result of the Pearson product Moment Correlation

led to the rejection of the null hypothesis, suggesting a significant relationship of 0.0098 or 98 percent between

bribery and corruption and the provision of social infrastructural facilities that can enhance rural livelihoods.

Keywords: Perceived effect, corrupt practices, rural infrastructure, public funds.

INTRODUCTION

The development of rural areas has for long continued to attract the attention of successive governments in Nigeria. Yet, Ehimiri, et al., (2012) have observed that the rural areas are still the most vulnerable to poverty with greater proportion of their population moving out to urban areas on an

annual basis. However, Olajide and Udoh, (2012) averred that poor infrastructural development in rural areas has continued to encourage the process of rural-urban migration with attendant adverse

effects on rural development in the country. Historically, the economy of Nigeria was directly or indirectly dependent on agricultural produce prior to the discovery of oil, but Musa,

(2013) argued that Nigeria’s achievements in agricultural and rural development in the 1970s later witnessed a decline because the country shifted attention from agriculture to oil.

Meanwhile, bribery and corruption has been implicated in the setbacks observed in Nigeria since the discovery of oil (Lawi, 2015) and this can continue to pose serious threat to agricultural and

rural development efforts if allowed to go unchecked. Chuka, (2012) stated that bribery and corruption is the giving and receiving of something of value (e.g.

money, sex, gifts, etc) whether demanded or not, to influence the receiver’s action favourably toward the giver. Bribery and corruption are not victimless crimes. They hit the poorest people hardest and undermine economic development. No country is immune from corruption. It flourishes where pay is low and where management controls are weak. Kenny, (2006) argued that estimates regarding the

cost of corruption in infrastructural development indicates that 5 to 20 percent of construction costs are being lost to bribe payments. . Consequently, over the years, Nigeria has seen her wealth being

siphoned with little to show in living conditions of

the average human beings, especially those living in the rural areas. It is in the light of the foregoing, this study was formulated to assess the perception of civil servants on the effect of bribery and corruption on the provision of social infrastructural facilities at the grassroots, using local government councils in

southern Taraba as a case study. The choice of the study area was premised on the fact that no previous study of this nature is known, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, to have been conducted

in the study area. Similarly, it focused on civil servants in the local government councils because they are employed by government, and government is saddled with the responsibility of providing

social infrastructure for the comfort of rural and urban people alike. The study therefore seeks to achieve the following specific objectives: i. To describe the personal characteristics of the

respondents ii. To identify the types of bribery and corruption

prevalent in the Local Government Areas iii. To examine the perceived effect of bribery and

corruption on the provision of social infrastructure

Hypothesis There is no significant relationship between

bribery and corruption and the provision of social infrastructure.

METHODOLOGY

The research area was Taraba south senatorial district, Nigeria located at the southern part of Taraba State. It is made up of five Local Government Areas (LGAs) namely; Wukari,

Takum, Donga, Ibi and Ussa plus a development area called Yangtu. The study area lies approximately between latitudes 5o86’N and 7o30’N and longitudes 9o24E and 10o45’E. It is

bordered on the west by Plateau state, south west by Benue state and south east by Cross River state.


84

Multi-stage sampling was adopted in this

study. In the first stage, three out of the five LGAs in the study area were randomly selected. This was followed by the selection of departments. Since there were six departments in each LGA, all the six

were selected. In the final state, respondents were chosen at random in proportion to population of employees in each LGA. Although four hundred questionnaires were administered for data collection, only three hundred and seventy five were used for the study. Data collected were analyzed using percentage, rating scale and the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation (PPMC).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 4.1revealed that respondents between 20-30 years were 14.7%, 31-40 years were 33.1%,

41-50 years were 34.9%, while 51 years and above were 17.3%. This result shows an active and agile work force. Similarly the result for gender indicates that 59.2% of the respondents were males, while 40.8% were females. This shows that males are more in government employment in Taraba South Senatorial district than females. This could be attributed to the reluctance of government to

employ female workers as a result of the yearly maternity leave and excuses to attend to family issues giving rise to low productivity. The result for marital status revealed that

26.1% respondents were single, 61.9% were married, 4% were either divorced or separated from spouse, and 8% were single parents as a result of deceased spouse. This result shows that over 70%

of the respondents have family responsibilities which involve finances and if there is no proper remuneration, they can cut corners to take care of their family.

On the other hand, the result on educational level revealed that 8% respondents were holders of SSCE/TC II Certificates, 49.1% were holders of OND/NCE Certificates, 40.8% were those with

B.Sc./B.A/HND certificates, and 2.1% have M.Sc./PhD certificates. This shows that most of the respondents have an understanding of the questionnaire items and gave appropriate

responses. The result on grade level indicated that 6.9% respondents fell in the category of 01-05 grade levels, 51.5% were of the category 06-10 grade levels, 32.3% were in the 11-15 grade level category, while 9.3% fell under the grade level 16 and above. The middle cadre (06-10) has the highest number indicating high productivity.

Lastly, the result of the years of service revealed that5.3% respondents had less than 1 year experience in service, 11.5% had spent between 1-6 years in service, 52.8% had between 7-12 years

working experience and 30.4% had spent 12 years and above in service. This result shows that there

were more experienced workers who know the

nitty-gritty of government work in the local government areas studied. Table1: Demographic characteristics of

respondents


Age

20-30

31-40

41-50

51 and above

55

124

131

65

14.67

33.07

34.93

17.33

Gender

Male

Female

222

153

59.2

40.8

Marital Status

Single

Married

Divorced/Separated

Spouse Deceased

98

232

15

30

26.13

61.87

4.00

8.00

Educational Level

SSCE/TC II

OND/NCE/CERT.

B.Sc./B.A/HND

M.Sc./PhD

33

184

153

5

8.00

49.07

40.80

2.13

Grade Level

01-05

06-10

11-15

16 and above

26

193

121

35

6.93

51.47

32.27

9.33

Years of Service

Below 1 year

1-6 years

7-12

12 years and above

20

43

198

114

5.33

11.47

52.80

30.40

Total 375 100

Source: Field Survey, 2014.

Table 2 reveals that 74.1% respondents agreed that receiving gratification is high in their

departments while 59.7% indicated that demanding and receiving tokens was deeply rooted in their departments. Similarly, 57.1% agreed that staff demand brown envelopes(money put in an

envelope, usually brown to avoid suspicion, given to a government official to seek for favour ) in order to do their paid official duties while 61.6% agreed that misapplication of public resources

occur in the civil service. This finding shows that different types of corrupt practices are prevalent among local government employees with receiving of gratification being topmost.


Table 2: Types of bribery and corruption prevalent in local government councils

Types Frequency

Percentage

Receiving gratification

278 74.1

Misapplication of public resources

231 61.1

Demanding tokens 224 59.7Demanding brown

envelops

214 57.0


Table 3 reveals that 74.1% respondents agreed that receiving gratification is high in their departments while 25.9% disagreed to that

assertion;59.7% agreed that demanding and receiving tokens was deeply rooted in their departments while 40.3% said no to that;57.1%

Table 3 Perceived effect of bribery and corruption on the provision of social infrastructure

Do these variables affect the provision of social infrastructure?

Receiving gratification Demanding/receiving tokens Demand for brown envelops

Misapplication of public funds Tokens replaces shortfalls in salaries Poverty responsible for bribery


The result in Table 4 indicates that the calculated r-value of 0.870* is greater than the critical r-value of 0.098 at 0.05 level of significance and 373 degree of freedom. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected. The conclusion then is that there is a significant relationship between bribery and corruption and provision of social infrastructure in

the study area. This finding is in close agreement with Effim (2012) who argued that when money meant for the provision of infrastructural facilities are stolen by those responsible for managing the

funds, it therefore mean that the lives of the majority especially the poor are at risk.


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Table 2: Types of bribery and corruption prevalent

Percentag Rank

74.1 1st

61.1 2nd

59.7 3rd 57.0 4th

Table 3 reveals that 74.1% respondents agreed that receiving gratification is high in their

while 25.9% disagreed to that

assertion;59.7% agreed that demanding and receiving tokens was deeply rooted in their departments while 40.3% said no to that;57.1%

agreed that staff demand brown envelopes in exchange of their paid official duties while 42.9%

disagreed with that;61.6% agreed that misapplication of public resources occurred in the civil service while 38.4% disagreed with the notion;66.7% agreed that proceeds from tokens

received helped to augment shortfalls in their salaries while 33.3% said no; and 60.5%that poverty was a factor responsible for bribery and corruption while 39.5% disagreed.

The above result shows that bribery and corruption was high in the various departments, and this can result in sub-standard or abandoned projects which will in turn have adverse effects on

the citizenry. This finding closely agrees with Chuka (2012) who argued that corruption diverts expenditure away from health, the maintenance of infrastructure and provision of public services.

Table 3 Perceived effect of bribery and corruption on the provision of social infrastructure

Do these variables affect the provision of social SA A D SD

100 178 70 27 80 144 99 52 82 132 100 61

80 151 90 54 99 151 69 56

64 163 116 32

The result in Table 4 indicates that the value of 0.870* is greater than the

value of 0.098 at 0.05 level of significance and 373 degree of freedom. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected. The conclusion then is that there

significant relationship between bribery and corruption and provision of social infrastructure in

the study area. This finding is in close agreement with Effim (2012) who argued that when money meant for the provision of infrastructural facilities

len by those responsible for managing the

funds, it therefore mean that the lives of the


On the basis of the findings, it can be concluded that significant relationship exist between bribery and corruption and social infrastructural provision in the study area. The study also found out that public funds were not usually used for the purposes they were meant to

serve. This could be attributed to the low level of social infrastructure noticed in the study area. Similarly, of the different types of bribery and corruption that prevailed in the study area,

receiving gratification in order to perform official duties ranked first. It is therefore recommended that local government employees be adequately enlightened on the dangers of bribery and corruption. Specifically, the position of the law should be made known to them through seminars and workshops with a view to discourage the practice. There should also be proper monitoring

and evaluation of staff to ensure compliance with civil service rules. Furthermore routine internal and external auditing should be undertaken to ensure that funds are used for the intended purposes.

REFERENCES

Chuka, B. O. (2012) Combating Fraud and White

Collar Crimes: Lessons from Nigeria:

Paper presented at 2nd Annual Fraud &


agreed that staff demand brown envelopes in exchange of their paid official duties while 42.9%

disagreed with that;61.6% agreed that misapplication of public resources occurred in the civil service while 38.4% disagreed with the notion;66.7% agreed that proceeds from tokens

received helped to augment shortfalls in their ; and 60.5% agreed

that poverty was a factor responsible for bribery and corruption while 39.5% disagreed.

The above result shows that bribery and corruption was high in the various departments, and

standard or abandoned which will in turn have adverse effects on

the citizenry. This finding closely agrees with Chuka (2012) who argued that corruption diverts expenditure away from health, the maintenance of infrastructure and provision of public services.


On the basis of the findings, it can be concluded that significant relationship exist between bribery and corruption and social infrastructural provision in the study area. The study also found out that public funds were not usually used for the purposes they were meant to

serve. This could be attributed to the low level of cture noticed in the study area.

Similarly, of the different types of bribery and corruption that prevailed in the study area,

receiving gratification in order to perform official duties ranked first. It is therefore recommended that

yees be adequately enlightened on the dangers of bribery and corruption. Specifically, the position of the law should be made known to them through seminars and workshops with a view to discourage the practice. There should also be proper monitoring

aluation of staff to ensure compliance with civil service rules. Furthermore routine internal and external auditing should be undertaken to ensure that funds are used for the intended purposes.

Combating Fraud and White

Collar Crimes: Lessons from Nigeria:

Annual Fraud &


86

Corruption Africa Summit, held at

Zanzibar Beach Resort, Zanzibar Republic of Tanzania.

Effim, J.A. (2012) Embezzlement of Public Funds:

A Crime against Humanity in Cameroon.

http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id_article=938. Data accessed 6/6/14

Ehimiri, N. C., Onyeneke, R. U., Chidiebere-Mark, N. M. and Nnabuihe, V. C. (2012). Effect and Prospect of Rural to Urban Migration on the Poverty Status of Migrants in Abia State, Nigeria, Agricultural Science

Research Journal 2(4): 145 – 153

Kenny, C. (2006) Measuring and Reducing the

Impact of Corruption in Infrastructure.

World Bank Policy Research Working

paper 4099, December, 2006

Lawi, B.D. (2015)……. Unpublished MSc Thesis, Department of Sociology, University of Calabar

Musa, N.Y (2013). Agricultural and rural development programmes in Nigeria; Trends and constraints, Daily Independent

Newspaper, 29th May, 2013 Olajide, A and Udoh, G (2012). Rural-Urban

Migration: Migrants Perceptions of Problems and Benefits in Oyo State Nigeria. International Conference on

Humanities, Economics and Geography (ICHEG'2012) March 17-18, 2012 Bangkok


87

PERCEPTION OF CORRUPT PRACTICES AMONG EXTENSION AGENTS OF OYO STATE

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (OYSADEP) 1Alaka, F. A. and 2Ashimolowo, O. R.

1Federal College of Education (Special), Oyo 2Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta


ABSTRACT

Corruption has been a perennial clog in the wheel of development of all the sectors of Nigeria economy,

agriculture inclusive. Staffers of different establishments engage in some conducts tantamount to corruption

advertently and in some instances, inadvertently. This study focused on the perception of some practices; that

were considered corrupt, by agricultural Extension Agents (EA) of Oyo State Agricultural Development

Programme (OYSADEP). Simple random sampling was used to select 85 EAs (out of the total of 170)

representing the sample size. Structured questionnaire was used to collect data from the respondents on their

personal characteristics, awareness and perception of the different forms of corrupt practices. Descriptive

statistics, (frequency counts, percentages and mean) were used to summarize the data. More (35.3%, 64.7% and

29.4%) were between 32and 36 years of age, male, and had crop production as their area of specialization,

respectively. Most (88. 2%) of the respondents knew abuse of office as corrupt practice, while the least known

(9.4%) corrupt practice was bureaucratic conflict of interest. So also, patronage was known by just 17.6% as a

corrupt practice. Majority (55%) of the respondents perceived corruption as impeding development. There was

no significant relationship between awareness of various forms of corruption and perception of different

corruption related statements. Therefore, it could be inferred that there exist a fair virtue within staffers of EAs

of OYSADEP, but they were not aware of the semantics used in describing the different forms of corrupt

practices. Many of the different forms of corrupt practices were not known to be such, while those that were

known were not so derided. Hence, high toleration for those practices was implied. The current war against

corruption by the present administration in the country should be holistic in covering public officers in the

agricultural sector, as well as ensure mass media orientation to enhance attitudinal change.

Keywords: Bureaucratic conflict, Corrupt Practices, Extension Agents.

INTRODUCTION Corruption as a topical issue is a monster against development and in-fact human survival and existence, which cannot be over flogged and must be tackled head long. It is more devastating

than any deadliest disease on earth not even ebola or leukaemia, because these only affect individuals or few people in close proximity bear the consequence.

The ravaging scourge of corruption is not ordinarily borne by the vast majority of Nigerians, but it is being acknowledged and documented by international reputable bodies. The 2010 corruption

perception index (CPI) released by the transparency international (TI) shows that corruption has increased in Nigeria with the country currently ranking 134th out of 180 countries surveyed in

2010, ranking below Ghana, Cameroon, Niger and Benin. (Daily Trust, 2010; Online Nigeria, 2010). Oyejide (2008) argued that the associated types and level of corruption in Nigeria may have been influenced and heightened by the direct access of government to oil windfall income in an environment of weak public institutions, capture or near capture of the state powerful vested interest

and inability of the citizens to effectively assert their rights. The number of international conventions and domestic laws against corruption, as well as the

emergence of the transparency international with over 100 chapters around the world, confirms the

global trend of significant increase in the attention

being given to overcome the problem of corruption as observed by UNDP (2008). Fadairo and Ladele (2014) opine that, corruption is not a new phenomenon, but the

magnitude and the different forms of its manifestation is most worrisome. They assert further that, it has spread its tentacles to every sphere of our national life. Ades and Di Tella,

(1996) see corruption as the biggest threat to development. Fadairo and Ladele observe further that corruption benefits the rich and the well-to-do. It enriches the rich and disproportionally affects the

poor, unprotected and the under priviledge there-by worsening their circumstance. In this light, the case of the rural poor could be seen to be more precarious since poverty is more entrenched in the

rural community than urban. Anand (2006) states that most disturbing today is the growing tolerance and Nigerians’ acceptance of corruption as an in-evitable and integral part of our civil society. Corruption impacts severely on social, political and economic development, culminating in crippled democracy. In the bid to get out of the endemic quagmire inherent in

corruption, no effort should be spared at fighting and subduing the malaise. In realization of this, the present administration in the country has made the curtailing and eradication of corruption as one of its

cardinal programmes in order to bring the much required positive change.


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The process of solving a problem starts with

the proper identification of the different forms in which it exists. Against this backdrop, UNDP (2008) lists the following as elements of corruption and thus examples of corrupt practices; bribery,

fraud, money laundering, extortion, kickback, peddling influence, cronyism/clientellism, nepotism, patronage, inside trading, speed money, embezzlement and abuse of public property. The in-depth incursion of corruption into all facets of our lives calls for both individual and collective efforts of all and sundry towards stamping out the endemic corruption in the

different sector of our economy. Spector (2005) argued that while comprehensive government reforms to address endemic corruption may be needed, sector specific solutions can be pursued as

an approach for more systemic reforms. It is sequel to these that this study has been carried out with the following specific objectives:

• To identify the personal characteristics of the respondents.

• To examine the different forms of corruption practices engaged in by respondents or aware

of by respondent.

• To determine the awareness of the respondents to different forms of corrupt practices.

• To determine the perception of staff of Oyo State Agricultural Development Programme (OYSADEP) to corruption.

The hypothesis was stated in null form was

stated thus; There is no significant relationship between the awareness and perception of different forms of corruption by the respondents.

METHODOLOGY The study was conducted in Oyo State, which has a gentle land topography in the south, rising to

a Plateau of 40 metres and above in the North. The vegetation pattern of the state is that of the rainforest in the South and guinea savannah to the North. The climate is equatorial, notably with dry and wet seasons with relatively high humidity. Based on prevailing climate and soil characteristics, the following crops are cultivated; maize, cassava, yam, sorghum, vegetable, cowpea

and tree crops such as cocoa, oil palm, kolanut, coffee and citrus. In addition, some people rear livestock such as goat, swine and poultry. The state has 33 local government areas and is

divided into four Agricultural zones by OYSDEP; namely Ibadan/Ibarapa, Oyo/Ogbomoso, and Saki. All Extension Agents of OYSADEP are the target of the study. There are 170 extension agents with the OYSADEP spread across the four zones viz, Ibadan/Ibarapa 56 EAs, Shaki has 42, Oyo has 40 and Ogbomoso has 32EAs. Fifty percent (50%)

these EAs were randomly selected, making 85 EAs

which formed the sample size. Data was collected through the use of structured questionnaires. UNDP (2008) guide on various ways in which corruption manifests and

could be measured were applied in dichotomy of “Known as Corruption” and “Not known as Corruption”. Different measures (in percentages) were taken of each of the various forms of corrupt practices. “Known as Corruption’’ was assigned a score of 1, while “Not known as Corruption” was assigned 0. Mean of each of the different forms of corrupt practices were calculated as well as the

overall mean. Items with mean below the overall mean were categorized as low Awareness, while those equal to and above were taken as High Awareness level. Descriptive statistics means and

ranking were used to compare responses to various forms of corruption. This is quite significant as it evaluates different cases of corruption and which form is more prevalent in OYSADEP. Perception of the respondents about corruption was measured by generating a list of 20 perception statements which were responded to on a 3-point scale of Agree, Uncertain and Disagree. Scores of

3, 2, and 1 were awarded to positive statements and the reverse for negative statements respectively (adapted from Fadairo and Ladele, 2014). Respondents with scores of mean and above were

regarded as having favourable perception, while those with scores below mean were categorized as having unfavourable perception.

Table 1: Sample Selection of Respondents

Zone No. of Extension Agents

Number Selected (50%)

Ibadan/Ibarapa 56 28 Shaki 42 21

Oyo 40 20 Ogbomosho 32 16

Total 170 85

PPMC was used in testing the hypothesis at 0.05

level of significance.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 2 reveals that majority (35.1%) were

between 32 and 36 years of age with a mean age of 38years and standard deviation of 15.85. This is in line with the observation of Adeola and Ayoade (2011). It is a direct indication that majority of the respondents were young and active which may positively influence their active performance on the field. A large percentage (64.7%) were male while 35.3% were female. This implies that OYSADEP

Extension Service was male dominated. It is clear from the table that more (45.9%) of the respondents’ Educational qualifications was


89

BSc degrees; followed by HND with 25.9%; M.Sc

with 22.3% and OND constituted 5.9%. However, none of the respondents was holder of NCE certificate. It is also clear from the table that majority (29.4%) of the respondents specialized in

Crops, followed by those with Extension bias who were; 27.1% . Proportion of respondents that studied Livestocks, and Agricultural Economics were 20% and 17.6% respectively. However, those who graduated in Environmental Management and Protection were the least (5.9%). This is in absolute agreement with the findings of Adeola and Ayoade (2011). This indicates that Extension Agents of

OYSADEP have diverse areas of specialization which could help the practice of unified system of extension. However, extension work may not be very effective since there are more non-extension

specialists in the system. Table 2: Distribution of respondents according to their personal characteristics

Characteristics Frequency Percentage

Age (in year)

27-31 12 14.1

30-36 30 35.3 37-41 19 22.4 42-46 16 18.8

>46 8 9.4

Sex

Male 55 64.7 Female 30 35.3

Educational

Level

M.Sc 19 22.3 B.Sc 39 45.9

HND 22 25.9 OND 5 5.9

Characteristics Frequency Percentage

NCE 0 0.0

Area of

Specialize

Crops production 25 29.4 Livestock production

17 20

Agric Economics 15 17.6 Agric Extension 23 27.1 Environmental mgt & Protein

5 5.9

Total 85 100


Awareness of respondents about different forms

of corrupt practices

As shown in Table 3, the well known forms of corrupt practices in descending order were bribery (100%), abuse of office (88.2%), private use of public resources (84.7%) and impropriety (76.5%).

The least known form of corrupt practice was bureaucratic conflict of interest (9.4%). The overall mean of 1.53 was used to categorize respondents to low awareness and high awareness levels. Consequently, it was discovered that out of the nine corrupt practices, only four had their means above the benchmark. Hence, low level of awareness of the different forms of corrupt practices were

observed among the respondents. This implies that majority of the respondents had very high tendency to engage in corrupt practices particularly unwittingly because of

ignorance. The finding is in agreement with the position of Nyantakiyi (2002) who posited that the simplistic reasoning that corruption is the malignant hobby of politicians is fallacious.

Table 3: Awareness of Respondents about different forms of corrupt practices, n = 85

Forms of Corrupt Practice Known as Corruption Not Known as Corruption Mean

Freq. % Freq. %

Nepotism 40 47 45 53 1.47 Patronage 15 17.6 70 82.4 1.18 Pork barrelling 22 25.9 63 74.1 1.26

Bribery 85 100 0 0 2.0 Influence peddling 20 23.5 65 76.5 1.24 Bureaucratic conflict of interest 8 9.4 77 90.6 1.09 Impropriety 65 76.5 20 23.5 1.76

Private use of public resources 72 84.7 13 15.3 1.85 Abuse of office 75 88.2 10 11.8 1.88

Total 1.53


Perception of corruption

Table 4 reveals that most (95.3%) of the respondents agreed that making loyalty a condition for assigning position of responsibility to sub-

ordinate is good. The same trend is obtained for tradition of ‘man knows man to get things done’ is

normal, indicated by 82.4% of the respondents. Also 82.4% of the respondents agreed that looking for short cut helps wealth redistribution. This is in line with the argument of Ladele (2010) who

observed that corruptions is fast becoming a cultural problem in our national system in Nigeria.


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It was also observed that 77.6% and 70.6% of

the respondents agreed that immorality grows out of stress and imbalances in the society; and that the poor who complain against corrupt practices by public officials would do worse if given the

opportunities, respectively. These observations were buttressed by Nyantakoyi (2002) who established a nexus between poverty, inequality and corruption. Nyatankoyi (2002) explained further that poverty provides the propitious environment for corruption to thrive. It can be inferred from the foregone that corruption by public officials has many root causes

and that they have various reasons to believe that corruption is inescapable. The current mantra of war against corruption will triumph only with integrated approach of

measures. It will require proactive and holistic actions engaging the impeccable rule of law to prosecute and punish culprits appropriately. The categorization of respondents using the overall mean of 1.76 showed that majority (55%)

had unfavourable perception of corruption, while

45% had favourable perception of corruption. This negates Fadairo and Ladele (2014) assertion in a similar study, which indicated a reversed order. It can therefore be said that there exists a fair culture

of virtue amongst the extension agents in OYSADEP. This is in congruence with the report of the survey conducted by Centre for Democracy and Development-Ghana (CDD-Ghana;2000) on a like study in Ghana which also showed unfavourable attitude and perception of corruption among majority (76.0%) of their respondents. Although, the observations of this study and that of

CDD- Ghana (2000) might appear to follow similar trend, however, the degrees of unfavourable perception of corruption (55% for the formal, and 76% for the latter) shows a very wide margin

against extension Agent of OYSADEP. Hence, more still needs to be done in ridding off corruption out of OYSADEP.

Table 4: Distribution of Respondents to Statements on Perception of Corruption

Statements Agree Uncertain Disagree Mean Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %

Bribe taking and giving is a form of dishonesty 46 54.1 28 32.9 11 13 2.41

Fraud has been made a way of life in Nig. So it impossible to eradicate

52 61.2 9 10.6 24 28.2 1.57

Dishonesty does not impede development 15 17.6 30 35.3 40 47.1 2.29 Indulgence encourages removal of

entrepreneurship clog of bureaucracy

60 70.6 5 5.9 20 23.5 1.53

Dishonesty subverts public interest to favour private interest

30 35.3 16 18.8 39 45.9 1.89

Bribes are ways of earning additional income to

boost take home and better living

50 58.8 05 5.9 30 35.3 1.77

Fraudulent acts shutout best hands 40 47.1 17 20 28 32.9 2.14 Looking for short cuts helps wealth redistribution equitably

70 82.4 02 2.4 13 15.3 1.33

Inequality is promoted by gratification 06 7.1 04 4.8 75 88.2 1.19 Making loyalty a condition for assigning position of responsibilities is good

81 95.3 01 1.2 3 3.5 1.08

Dishonesty in public service is a disincentive to

few honest staff

38 44.7 12 14.1 35 41.2 2.04

Due process emboldens illegitimate groups of people at the corridor of power

48 56.5 02 2.4 35 41.2 1.85

Immorality grows out of stress and imbalances in

society

66 77.6 04 4.8 15 17.6 2.60

Financial probity and accountability are known with only experts, rich and influential people

55 64.7 10 11.8 20 23.5 1.59

The poor who complains against corrupt practices by public officials would do worse he giving the opportunities

60 70.6 03 3.5 22 25.9 1.55

The tradition of man knows man to get things done is normal

70 82.4 02 2.4 13 15.3 1.33

The process of taking maximum advantages (due and undue) of occupied public office is abnormal

52 61.2 03 3.5 30 35.3 1.74

No matter how bad the financial circumstance of a public official is, he must not be dishonest

27 31.8 03 3.5 55 64.7 1.67


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Statements Agree Uncertain Disagree Mean Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %

The belief of illegal sharing of national cake

should be discouraged

06 7.1 04 4.8 75 88.2 1.19

Application of quota system in distributing opportunities leads to inefficiency

57 67.1 03 3.5 25 29.4 2.38


Hypothesis testing

The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Analysis on Table 5 tested the relationship between awareness of different forms of corruption and perception of the forms of corruption by the respondents. The result shows that there was no significant relationship between their Awareness and

Perception of the corrupt practices, with p-value of 0.064, indicating that the null hypothesis should be accepted. This shows that although the respondents

could perceive some of the perceptional statements as being unethical but some of the semantics used in capturing the different forms of corrupt practices were unknown to the respondents. Table 5: Correlation between Awareness and perception of different forms of corrupt practices by the Respondents

Variable r-value p-value Decision

Awareness

Vs Perception

0.086

0.064

NS

Correlation is significant at 0.05


It is clear from the study that there was low level of awareness of corrupt practices amongst the respondents and hence they may engage in some of the corruption practices inadvertently. However,

they have unfavourable perception of corruption, although, the unfavourable perceptions are not so strong. In essence, policy against corruption calls for pro-activeness in its implementation to

substantially achieve success. Sequel to the foregone observations, the following recommendations are considered germane;

1. There is a very prompt need for orientation seminar on forms of corrupt practices, implication and consequences for public officials generally, and extension agents in

particulars. 2. Intensive media awareness campaign against

all forms of corruption should be embarked upon by government to achieve attitudinal change in Extension Agents.

3. The existing media campaign programmes based solely on bribery as corruption, should

have content redesigning to contain all the different forms of corrupt practices.

4. Finally, after sensitization and enlightenment programmes have been done, the power of the law on corruption should be invoked to punish offenders. This will make Extension Agents, and Public officials key properly into the anti corruption agenda of the present

administration.

REFERENCES

Adeola, R.G. and Ayoade, A.R. (2011). Extension

Agents Perception the information needs of Women Farmers in Oyo State, Nigeria. Global Journal of Human Social Sciences. Vol. 11. Issue 10. Version 1.0 pp 221-240

Ades, A. & Di Tella, R. (1996). The Causes and Consequences of Corruption: A Review of Recent Empirical Contributions. IDS Bulletin: Liberalization and the New

Corruption. Vol. 27. No.2 pp. 6-11. Anand, A.S. (2006). ‘’Effects of Corruption on

Good Governance and Human Rights’. Welcome Address delivered at National

Conference on ‘’Effects of corruption on Good Governance and Human Rights’’ held in New Delhi on 9th May 2006. Retrieved September, 5th , 2015 from

http//www.jansamachar.net Centre for Democracy and Development-

Ghana(CDD-Ghana, 2000). The Ghana Governance and Corruption Survey.

Evidence from Households, Enterprise and Public Officials. pp. 22-23

Daly Trust, (2009). ‘’CPI: Aondoakaa was wrong’’. Daily Trust Newspaper, Friday,

20th November,2009.Ladele, A.A. (2010). ‘’Broaching research on official Corruption in Agric in Nigeria’’. Proceeding of the 15th Annual National

Conference of Agricultural Extension Society of Nigeria (AESON) held at the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife, on May 10-14, 2010.

Fadairo, O. and Ladele, A. (2014). Attitudes and perception of corrupt practices among public officials in the Agricultural Sector in South Western Nigeria. In online

journals of International Institute for Science, Technology and Education (IISE)


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Developing Countries Series, Vol. No.8.,

2014.www.iiste.org. Nyantakyi, K.R. (2002). ‘’Corruption: What is it’’.

In Corruption and Development in Africa. A Proceeding of a Seminar organised by

the Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences with the Friedrich Ebert Foundation on June 17-19. Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences, Accra.

Oyejide, A.T. (2008). Corruption and Development. A Nigerian Perspective Paper Presented at the 2008 annual

conference of Institute of Chartered

Accountants of Nigeria in Abuja. Specto, B.I.(2005).’’Fighting Corruption’’. In

Fighting Corruption in Developing Countries: Strategies and Analysis.

Bloomfied, CT: Kumarian Press. Pp. 1-9. United Nations Development programme, Oslo

Governance Centre (UNDP, 2008). A users’ Guide to Measuring Corruption. Global Integrity by Raymond June, Afoza Chowdhury, Nathaniel Heller and Jonathan Werve. New York.


93

RURAL WOMEN’S PERCEIVED EFFECTIVENESS OF FADAMA III FACILITATORS’

DISSEMINATION OF ON AND OFF-FARM TECHNOLOGIES IN EDO STATE NIGERIA 1Koyenikan, M. J. and E. E. Obar2

1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension Services, University of Benin, Nigeria 2Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, Nigeria


ABSTRACT

The Third National Fadama Development Programme (Fadama-III) aimed at the inclusion of rural women in

recognition of their multiple and pivotal roles in household food, nutrition and health (HHFNH) security.

However, constraints rooted in corruption and unethical practices could have limited achievement. This study

therefore examined rural women’s perception of effectiveness of HHFNH technologies disseminated by

Fadama-III Facilitators in Edo State. The sample comprised seventy five (75) women Fadama Users’ Group

(FUG) members drawn through a multistage process. Data were collected through the administration of a well

structured interview schedule and analysed using descriptive statistics while Pearson’s correlation was used to

test the hypotheses. Majority of the women were between 31 and 50 years (65.4%), married (74.7%) and family

size of 9-12 persons (68.0%) and 48.0% had no formal education. Facilitators were perceived to be effective in

dissemination of several on- and off-farm but more in on-farm technologies including those on storage

( X =3.60), pest and disease management ( X =3.57), harvesting ( X =3.53), HIV/AIDS awareness ( X =3.29),

personal hygiene, water treatment ( X =3.28) and vegetable consumption ( X =3.28). Family size (r=0.234),

cooperative membership (r=0.258), farming experience (r=0.170) and annual income (r=0.248) had significant

relationships with perceived effectiveness of facilitators in technology dissemination at 5% level. Most of the

serious constraints to optimising benefits were related to credit and other inputs access which are rooted in

corruption and sharp practices such as short changing beneficiaries ( X =3.61), disbursement to non- farmers

and fictitious Fadama Users’ Groups ( X =3.61) and fraudulent group registration ( X =3.54). Continuous

capacity building for facilitators and rural women and programme monitoring and supervision are

recommended to optimize and sustain the benefits of Fadama-III users’ group membership. Keywords: Perceived effectiveness, on- and off-farm technologies, constraints, rural women

INTRODUCTION

It is estimated that of the 1.20 billion hungry and poor people in the world over 800 million suffer from chronic undernourishment. Out of these 34 million live in Asia while 186 million live in

Sub-Saharan African (Daudu and Madukwe, 2012). Major challenge facing developing countries in the world is the production of sufficient food for its bourgeoning population (Nwosu, 2005). According

to Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (1996), the intervention in the food deficit situation through agricultural programmes during the late 1970s and early 1980s led to a significant improvement in production throughout the 1990s. However, the increased aggregate food production has not necessarily translated into improved household food security.

Food security refers to when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active

and healthy life (World Food Summit, 1996) Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (Idachaba, 2006) Nutrition security thus requires that household member have access not only to food, but also to

other requirement for a healthy life such as health care, a hygienic environment and knowledge of

personal hygiene (International Fund for

Agricultural Development, 2006). Nutrition is the foundation for health and development upon which all the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) now the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

depend (FAO, 2000) Various infections, notably diarrhoea and respiratory diseases, measles, malaria, intestinal parasites and infection with Human

Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV/AIDS) have a major impact on nutritional status. The interaction of infection and inadequate food consumption causing growth retardation in children leads to a vicious cycle, the mal-nutrition – infection complex (FAO, 2006). To break the cycle, it is necessary to improve environmental health conditions by addressing problems of contaminated water,

disposal of human excrete and household wastes, and poor food and personal hygiene in homes and places of food processing and marketing. Women play an important role in food security

and the economic well being of farm families (Adekanye, Otitolaiye and Opaluwa, 2009). In individual households; food security is a daily concern of consumption and intra household resource allocation. Women’s multiple role in food production including home gardening, subsistence fishing, marketing, fish processing and informal food selling are resource seeking tasks that

contribute to the household food basket (Balakrishnan, 2006).


94

Despite women’s population and level of

involvement in agriculture, they are constrained to optimize their potentials by factors such as inadequate labour saving technologies, limited access to land and other resources, inadequate

involvement in decision making, poor education, poor access to inputs and credits (Jiggins, Samanta and Olawoye 1997; Adisa and Okunade, 2005). It is on this note that various programmes including Fadama-III were implemented to address the needs of women and enhance their role performance through the dissemination of technologies by the facilitators or extension agents.

The Third National Fadama Development Programme (NFDP-III) was designed to sustainably increase the incomes of Fadama users, reduce poverty, increase food security and

contribute to the achievement of MDGs. The rural poor: crop farmers, pastoralists, fisherfolk, traders, processors, hunters, gatherers, other economic interest groups (EIGs), vulnerable groups: widows, handicapped, youths, PLWHIV/AIDS and service providers are to benefit. The facilitator is the link between the Fadama development project management and

beneficiaries. They disseminate technologies/information to the farmers to achieve set objectives. According to Etzioni (1976), the actual effectiveness of a specific organisation is

determined by the degree to which it realizes its goals. Effective facilitation is a critical element to the overall success of any programme. Its main purpose is to contribute to the sustainability of the

programmes (Third National Fadama Development Project, 2009). According to IFAD (2006), women’s empowerment through facilitators who are responsible for the dissemination of

technologies do not only benefit the women themselves but also their families and communities. They mobilize women and reach out to them in groups. Obinne (2002) noted that women naturally

like to meet and learn something new in groups. They are usually the target population for the household food, nutrition and health security of agricultural programmes because of the pivotal role

they play. It is a truism that corruption is not a new phenomenon, what is new and worrisome is the magnitude and forms it has taken (Fadairo and Ladele, 2014). The issue of corruption is so serious that no initiative whether on food security or poverty alleviation or anything else for that matter will work in the absence of ethical public

behaviour. In Nigeria, it is one of the many unresolved problems (Ayobolu, 2006) that have critically hobbled and skewed development including Fadama III. The programme could not be

said to have optimized potentials or effectively addressed the technology needs of the women with

respect to household food, nutrition and health as

there are still traces of poverty, malnutrition, diseases and even mortality. Ozowa, (1995) posited that ineffective dissemination of technologies and/or the constraints to programme effectiveness

could be attributed to ineffective facilitation and inadequate facilitators for the dissemination of technologies. The effectiveness of the facilitators to adequately deliver and implement the expected activities could make or mar their effectiveness at imparting on the women. It is against this background that the study assessed facilitators’ effectiveness in dissemination

of food, nutrition and health related technologies and the corruption induced constraints in fadama-

III programme. Specifically the study: 1. described the socio economic characteristics of

the rural women in Edo state, 2. identified the food, nutrition and health

technologies disseminated by the Facilitators of NFDP-III,

3. assessed rural women’s perception of effectiveness of facilitators in the delivery of food, nutrition and health related technologies/information to them, and

4. identified rural women’s perceived corruption induced constraints to optimizing benefits from the technologies disseminated by NFDP-III.

METHODOLOGY

Edo State, Nigeria has tropical climate with two distinct seasons; dry and wet seasons. The major crops cultivated in the state include both cash

and food crops like yam, rubber, oil palm, cocoa, cassava, melon and maize. A multistage process was used to draw a sample of seventy five (75) women who participated in the Third National

Fadama Development Programme (NFDP-III). Firstly, the three (3) agro-ecological zones: Edo South, Edo Central and Edo North. Random selection of one Local Government Area per agro-

ecological zone followed by selection of five (5) Fadama Users’ Groups (FUGs) per LGA to give a total of fifteen (15) FUGs. Finally, five (5) women were randomly selected per FUG making a total of

25 women per LGA and 75 women for the 3 LGAs. Data were obtained with structured questionnaire and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics; mean scores and frequency counts as well as Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) was used. Perception of effectiveness in technology dissemination was measured for 21 on-farm and 35

off-farm items generally disseminated information/technologies using a 5 point Likert type scale; highly effective, very effective, effective, little effective and not effective with

scores 5,4,3,2 and 1 respectively. Mid point=3, ≥3=effective. Minimum score=56, maximum=285.


95

Corruption-induced constraints was obtained

using a 4 – point Likert scale; very very serious, serious, little serious, and not serious with scores 4,3,2 and 1, respectively for Mid point=2.5, ≥2.5=serious.


Socioeconomic Characteristics

Table 1 shows that majority of the women were between 31 and 50 years (65.4%) which indicates that most of the respondents were in their middle age, active’ Majority were married (74.7%) which concurs with the findings of Akwiwu,

Nwajiuba and Nnadi (2005). High proportion of the respondents had family size of 9-12 persons (68.0%) while 48.0% had no formal education which suggests that Household Food, Nutrition and

Health Security technologies will be necessary for the women via extension services. Income of majority was N200,400,000 (mean=N282,000) an indication of above minimum wage of N204,000 in Nigeria and ability of most of the Fadama-III beneficiaries to live above US dollar $1 per poverty line (World Bank,2002; National Bureau of Statistics, 2010).

Table 1: Socio-economic characteristics of respondents

Variables Frequency Percent Mean

Age (years)

30 & below 5 6.7

31-40 17 22.7

41-45 32 42.7

>50 21 28.0

Marital status Single 7 9.3

Married 56 74.7

Widowed 10 13.3

Divorced 2 2.7

Family size

1-4 8 10.7

5-8 16 21.3 8.9

9-12 51 68.0

Educational

qualification

No formal education

36 48.0

Primary

education

23 30.7

Secondary education

11 14.7

Tertiary education

5 6.7

Cooperative

membership

<2 cooperative 28 37.3

3< cooperative 47 62.7

Farming

experience

(years)

Variables Frequency Percent Mean

5 & below 33 44.0

6-10 29 38.7

11-15 10 13.3 7.83years

>15 5 4.0

Annual income

(N)

100,000-200,000

15 20.0

200 001-400,000

51 68.0 N282,000

>400,000 9 12.0


Perceived facilitators’ effectiveness

Table 2a shows that facilitators were perceived

to be effective in the dissemination of technologies related to pest and disease management (Mean = 3.47), routine management (Mean= 3.48) and storage (Mean = 3.60). Although this is finding is

contrary to the assertion of Agbamu, (2005) and finding of Ejechi, (2015) that the problems of agriculture are as a result of insufficient and ineffective extension services to farmers in general and women farmers in particular but consistent with FAO (1993) in which the facilitators were effective in pest control. Also values from Tables 2a and 2b show that facilitators were perceived to

be more effective in on- farm than off- farm technologies.

Table 2a: Perceived facilitators’ effectiveness in

on-farm activities

NFDP Technologies disseminated Mean Std. Dev

Crop Site selection for Crops 2.93 1.018 Land preparation for Crops 2.97 .972

Marking/pegging out Farm 2.67 1.256 Planting techniques 3.35* .626 Improved plant varieties 3.45* .501 Weeding 3.35* .557

Pest and disease management

3.47* .502

Fertiliser type 3.39* .543 Fertiliser application 3.35* .647

Harvesting 3.35* .647 Storage 3.45* .501 Marketing 2.99 1.046

Livestock

Construction of pens 2.80 1.127 Animal/Improved species 2.91 1.055 Diagnosis of sick animals 3.07* .963 Formulation of feed 2.83 1.143 Feeding 3.24* .786 Pest and disease control 3.45* .527 Periodic management 3.45* .552 Routine management 3.48* .529

Marketing 3.11* 1.021


96


*Effective (mean ≥ 3.00) Table 2b shows that facilitators were effective in packaging (Mean = 3.04), drying (Mean=3.13),

organic farming (Mean=3.21), vegetable consumption (Mean=3.28), HIV/AIDS awareness (Mean=3.29), personal hygiene (Mean=3.28) which is an indication that most household nutrition and health technologies/non economic technologies were not well emphasized. This is contrary to Koyenikan and Omoregbee, (2011) that the problems of agriculture are as a result of

insufficient and ineffective extension services to women farmers.

Table 2b: Perceived facilitators’ effectiveness in

off-farm activities

NFDP

Technologies disseminated Mean Std. Dev

Value addition Packaging 3.04* .706 Flavouring 2.19 .996 Fortification 2.25 1.140

Modification 1.99 1.046

Storage / preservation

techniques

Drying 3.13* .528

Freezing 3.01* .647 Airtight 1.99 1.145 Heating 3.03* .615 Fermenting 2.65 .893

Chemical storage 2.12 1.052 Smoking 3.03* .697

Nutrition Food enrichment 2.57 .989 Home gardening 2.76 .898 Organic farming 3.21* .444

Supplementary feeding Vegetable consumption 3.28* .481

Fruit consumption 3.16* .616 Soybeans utilisation 2.16 .594 Processing techniques 3.03* .592 Utilisation 2.85 .833

Food combination 2.19 1.087

Health HIV/AIDS Awareness 3.29* .487 Adequate feeding 3.23* .509 Personal hygiene 2.03 .944 Stigmatization/confidentiality

3.19* .485

Prevention and control 3.24* .541

Sex education 2.61 .985 Care giving 3.23* .452 Sanitation 3.27* .528

Hygiene

Personal hygiene 3.28* .452 Water treatment 3.28* .452 Food treatment 3.27* .475 Environmental sanitation 2.44 .740

NFDP

Technologies disseminated Mean Std. Dev

Reproductive issues

Teenage pregnancy 2.07 .664 Sex education 2.35 1.109 Child spacing 2.53 .920

Source: Field Survey, 2012. *Effective (mean ≥ 3.00)

Perceived constraints to optimising benefits

from Fadama III by rural women

Table 3 shows that the most serious constraints

perceived by the women to optimising benefits related to credit and other inputs accessed. A critical look at these constraints (as indicated on the table with **), show that they are rooted in sharp,

corrupt and unethical practices which include reduction in credit accessed/short changing

beneficiaries ( X =3.61), disbursement to non farmers and fictitious Fadama Users’ Groups

( X =3.61), fraudulent group registration ( X =3.54),

undue bureaucracy for tips ( X =3.51), elite

domination/influence peddling ( X =3.49),

favouritism and discrimination ( X =3.49),

dereliction of duty ( X =3.37), acquisition of sub

standard facilities and equipment ( X =3.37), supply

low quality inputs ( X =3.37). Fraudulent group registration, bureaucratic conflict of interest, nepotism and influence peddling concur with the findings of Anderson (2002) as forms of corruption in Sweden.

Table 3: Perceived constraints to optimising benefits from Fadama III by rural women

Constraints Mean SD Rank

**Shortfalls in credit accessed/short changing

beneficiaries

3.61* .432 1st

**Disbursement to non farmers and fictitious

Fadama Users’ Groups

3.61* .151 1st

**Fraudulent group registration

3.54* .601 3rd

**Undue bureaucracy for tips

3.51* .236 4th

**Elite domination/influence peddling

3.49* .423 5th

**Favouritism and

discrimination

3.49* .256 6th

**Dereliction of duty by facilitators

3.37* .390

7th

**Acquisition of sub

standard facilities and equipment

3.37* .238 8th

**Supply of low quality inputs

3.33* .408 9th

No time to attend women meetings

1.84 .239 10th


97

Source: Field Survey Data, 2012 *serious

constraints (Mean ≥ 2.50) **corruption related

Relationship between socio economic

characteristics of respondents and perceived

facilitators’ effectiveness

Table 4 shows the correlation between the perceived facilitators’ effectiveness in technologies dissemination and selected variables. Family size of respondents (r = 0.0234; P < 0.050), cooperative membership (r = 0.258; P < 0.050), farming experience (r = 0.170; P < 0.050) and annual income (r = 0.248; P < 0.050) had significant

relationship with perceived facilitators’ effectiveness in technology dissemination. This implies that women with larger farms, more years of farming experience, cooperative membership

and higher income perceived facilitators to be effective in the technology dissemination. It could imply that the women feel they benefited from the services .

Table 5: Relationship between the socio economic characteristics of respondents and perceived facilitators’ effectiveness of technologies

disseminated

Variables Correlation

coefficient (r)

p-value

Age (years) 0.143 0.081 Family Size (ha) 0.234* 0.007 Educational 0.048 0.556

Cooperative member (no.) 0.258* 0.001 Farming experience (year) 0.170* 0.037 Annual income (N) 0.248* 0.002

*Significant at the 5% level (p<0.050) Source: Field Survey Data, 2012

CONCLUSION

The study concludes that women perceived Fadama III Facilitators to be effective in more

crops and livestock on-farm technology dissemination than in off-farm technologies. Constraints which hindered women from benefiting optimally from the programme revolved around

capital and other inputs. Women with large family size, more cooperative membership, long years of farming experience and higher annual income perceived the facilitators to be effective.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made: 1. Facilitators should ensure adequate linkage to

credit/sources of funding and mobilization of resources within FUGs. Ensure that women

have access to quality inputs and services

especially after NFDP closure for

sustainability of groups. 2. Programme monitoring and supervision should

be ensured to prevent corrupt practices in the programme,

3. Continuous capacity building for facilitators in off-farm technologies and consequently update and upgrade technical skills of women in order to optimize and sustain the benefits of Fadama-III users’ group membership

4. Sensitization of programme staff, women beneficiaries and other stakeholders on the ills of corruption and related practices.

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(2009). Food and Agricultural Production

in Nigeria. Some Empirical consideration for Engendering Economic Policy for africa. A paper presented at IEFFE conference on Feministic Economic, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, pp. 26-28

Adisa, B., & Okunade, E.O. (2005). Women in Agricultural Extension. Agricultural Extension in Nigeria. Ed. S.F. Afolayan,

Illorin AESON, ARMTI, Illorin, pp. 69-77.

Agbamu, J.U (2005). Problems and prospects of

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developing countries. Agricultural Extension Society of Nigeria, Ilorin, Nigeria pp.159 – 169.

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Anderson, S. (2002). Corruption in Sweden:

exploring danger zones and change. Unpublished PhD thesis submitted to the Department of Political Science, Umea University, Sweden.

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perspective. Oxford University Press, pp. 60-61

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Dauda, S., & Madukwe, M.C. (2012). Factors that influence the role performance cilitators in the second national Fadama development project in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable

Development in Africa, 14(8), 176


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Doyle, M., Kaner, S., Lind, L., Toldi, C., Fisk, S.,

& Berger, B. (2007). Facilitators’ Guide to Participatory Decision –Making , Jossey-Bass., ISBN 0-7879-8266-0, pp. 21-22

Ejechi, M. E. (2015). Determinants of adoption of

cassava technologies by male farmers in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Journal of

Agricultural Extension. Vol. 19 (1) p122-130

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perception of corrupt practices among public officials in the agricultural sector in Southwestern Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, 4(8), 1.

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The state of Food Insecurity in the world. Rome: FAO, United Nations.

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Africa: A resource book for teachers. FAO Corporate Document Repository

Hondale, G. (1982). Supervising Agricultural Extension Practices and Procedures for

Improving yield level performance. Journal of Agriculture Administration, 9 ,pp. 39-45

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(IFAD) (2006). Food Security and Nutrition Security. www.Ifad.org

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Koyenikan, M. J. and F. E. Omoregbee, (2011). Training needs for facilitators of rural women development prodrammes in Nigeria: the case of National Special

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(2009). Facilitators’ Handbook for Third National Fadama Development Project,

pp. 1-10


99

RURAL WOMEN’S PERCEPTION OF MARKET-RELATED SHARP PRACTICES IN KWARA

STATE, NIGERIA 1Onikoyi, M. P., 2Olutegbe, N. S. and 2Adeyemo, A. A.

1Agricultural and Rural Management Training Institute (ARMTI), Ilorin, Kwara state 2Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural development, University of Ibadan, Ibadan


ABSTRACT

The study determined rural women’s perception of market-related sharp practices in Kwara state, Nigeria. A

total of 120 interview schedules were administered on rural market women and information were obtained on

their personal characteristics, perceived common market-related sharp practices, perception of sharp practices

and other factors perceived to influence perpetration of sharp practices among respondents. Both descriptive

and inferential statistical tools were employed in analyzing the data. Results reveal that majority were Muslims

(62.5%), married (71.7%), had no formal education (51.7%), while 50.8% were food stuff sellers. The average

age and household size were 42 years and 7 persons, respectively. Common sharp practices perceived to be

perpetrated were use of wrong scale (94.2%), adjustment of measuring device (85.0%) and bagging of

commodities with stones (80.8%). Although a large proportion (61.7%) of the respondents condemned sharp

practices by their perceptions, several other factors such as lack of measurement standard (mean = 1.77),

customers’ ignorance of consequences (mean = 1.71), poor supervision by designated government agencies

(mean = 1.66) and lack of fear of God (mean = 1.63) were perceived to account for high level of market-related

sharp practices. Respondents’ level of education (χ2 = 9.404) and household size (r = -0.209) were significantly

related to their perception of sharp practices. The study concluded that although respondents’ perception of

sharp practices was unfavourable, other non-behavioural factors may have forced the rural market women to

engage in perpetration of such practices. Keywords: Rural women, sharp practices, market, perception.

INTRODUCTION

The concept of fraud, corruption and corrupt practices has remained a topical issue in many countries, including Nigeria. Indeed, literature is

replete with academic discussions on the subject in the country. For example, the phenomena have attracted the attention of scholars (Anifowose, 2002; Ibrahim, 2003; Aluko, 2002; Nwabueze,

2002; Olaopa, 1998; Maduagwu, 1996 and Akindele, 1995) over the years and virtually all successive governments in the Nigeria have shown committed interest in tackling corruption. It is

pertinent to remark that although the two concepts - fraud and corruption - are often used interchangeably, there is a need to make a distinction between them, at least, for the sake of

clarity and better appreciation of their import in this study. Corruption is mostly associated with public sector and public officials; for example Azelama (2002) defines corruption as any action or omission

enacted by a member of an organisation, which is against the rules, regulations, norms, and ethics of the organisation and the purpose is to meet the selfish end of the member, sometimes at the detriment of the organisation. However, fraud in the view of Rossouw and Arkhuysn (2000) is a phenomenon that is not limited to the public sector. They maintained that public officials, any

employee in the private sector or even individuals in the informal sector can be perpetrators of fraud. Some definitions also differentiate between ‘petty’ and ‘large-scale’ (or ‘grand’) corruption,

with the former occurring at the local lower level and usually involving relatively small sums of

money and gifts, and the former taking place higher up in the hierarchy and involving relatively large amounts of money and costly favours. These become necessary in view of its implication for the

moral fabric of society and the sustenance of living. Unethical behaviour, which is precursor to fraud and criminality (Rossouw and Arkhuysn, 2000) can be destructive where no proactive action is taken

and may lead to collapse of the entire society. In view of this, the distinction between corruption and fraud is that corruption implies a third party involvement while fraud does not necessarily imply

third-party involvement. Though the study of fraud and corruption within the society is often considered attractive, academic research of these phenomena has been limited substantially to the

formal sector of the economy. The Nigerian agricultural production has advanced beyond subsistence production and agricultural marketing has become a very important

component of the production system. Agricultural produce marketing is an integral and crucial part of food production process in a viable farm enterprise. Agricultural produce marketing is viewed as the flow of goods and services from the point of initial farm production to the hands of the ultimate consumer (Adekanye 1988; Kohls and Uhi, 1990; AMA, 1994; Bibagambah, 1996). Onyeabor (2009)

added that agricultural produce marketing depicts a process of demands and motivation of sellers to distribute food items unto ultimate consumers at a profit, considering the high level of farming

activities in our rural areas. Rural marketing activities are on the increase. Hence, the need for a


100

study of this aspect of the economy was based on

its importance to human life. Many consumers of household commodities have been noted to have suffered varying degree of cheating, damages, and short changing in the hands of numerous

unscrupulous sellers or distributors (NAFDAC, 2008). In spite of this, adequate academic effort has not been given to the activities of players within the informal market sector. Continued perpetuation of sharp practices at varying degrees therefore raises questions on the disposition of rural market women to these acts in the process of their marketing activities. It is against this backdrop that the study

was carried out with the aim of investigating the following objectives. The main objective of this study, therefore, was to investigate rural market women’s perception

of market-related sharp practices in Kwara State, Nigeria. The specific objectives of the study were to:

1. determine the personal characteristics of rural market women in the study area,

2. assess the perception of rural market women towards sharp/corrupt practices , and

3. examine the perceived factors encouraging

perpetuation of sharp/corrupt practices among rural market women in the study area

Statement of hypotheses

Hypothesis 1 - There is no significant

relationship between selected respondents’ personal characteristics and their perception of sharp practices Hypothesis 2 - There is no significant

relationship between factors encouraging perpetuation of corrupt practises among rural market women and their perception of sharp practices

METHODOLOGY

The study was carried out in Kwara state, Nigeria. The state is located within the North

Latitude 110 21 and 110 451. It is sandwiched between longitudes 20 451 and 60 401 East of Greenish Meridian. The state has a land area of 32,500 square kilometers (3,250,000 hectares) with

a temperature range of between 300C and 350C. The population of the State is 2.3 million people (NPC, 2006). The target population for the study was the 300 members of Market Association of Nigeria in the nine Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kwara State. The LGAs included Asa, Ilorin East, Ilorin West, Ilorin South (Kwara Central); Moro (Kwara North) ; Irepodun, Ifelodun,

Oyun and Offa (Kwara South Senatorial District). The study used a two-stage random sampling technique. Stage one involved a random selection of six LGAs (that is, 67% of the LGAs in which

members were located in Kwara State). The six LGAs included Ilorin East, Ilorin South, Ilorin

West, Irepodun, Oyun and Offa LGAs. The second

stage involved a random selection of 20, 25, 26, 18, 16 and 15 members from the market association registered in Ilorin East, Ilorin South, Ilorin West, Irepodun, Oyun and Offa LGA respectively based

on the number of members each LGA. Thus a total of 120 members were selected as respondents. Data were collected by means of structured interview schedule and analyzed with percentages, frequencies and chi square and correlation analysis. Primary data for the study were collected from respondents using structured questionnaire and interview schedule. The perceived sharp practices

which is the dependent variable was measured by asking the respondents to indicate which of the practises they considered as corrupt as listed in the questionnaire . The mean scores for each type of

perceived sharp practise were used to group the respondents into high and low categories. To determine the factors encouraging perpetuation of corrupt practises among rural market women each of the respondents was asked to indicate from a list of factors such as ignorance of customers, lack of measurement standard, financial pressure to maximise profit, weak punitive measures,

depreciating social values, poor supervision from designated government agencies, on a 3-point scale of major factor (2), minor factor (1) and not a factor (0).

The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution tables, percentages and mean. Hypothesis were analyzed using chi-square



The age distribution of the respondents as

shown in Table 1 reveals that majority (39.2%) were within the ages of 31-40 years, 15.0% were aged less than 30years, while 9.2% of the respondents older than 60. These imply that most

of the respondents are still relatively young and in their productive stage. The Table also shows that majority (86.7%) were married, 18.3% being widow. The educational

status of the respondents indicated that 51.7% of the respondents had no formal education, 37.0% had primary education, while only a few (17.5%) had secondary school education, the larger % of the respondents with no formal education agrees with the finding of (Aqueela 2005) that two third of the one billion of illiterate persons in the world are women and girls. Membership of associations,

(98.8%) of the respondents belonged to market associations. associations, In Nigeria, the structural role of men and women in the agricultural cycle reveal that women are more active specifically in

processing and marketing of agricultural products. Women constitute overwhelming population of


101

those who are involved in agricultural produce

marketing as against the men who focus more on artisan, subsistent farming and civil service occupations Enugu State Agricultural Development Programme (ENADEP, 2009) Table 1 also shows

that majority had (42.5%) had household size of between 7-9 members. Table 1: Distribution of respondents by personal characteristics

Variables Categories Percentage (n = 120)

Age < 30 31-40 41-50 51-60

>60

15.0 39.3 23.3 13.3

9.2

Religion Christianity Islam Traditional

34.2 62.5 3.3

Marital

status

Single Married Widowed Divorced

8.3 71.7 18.3 1.7

Educational

level

Non formal Primary

Secondary

51.7 30.8

17.5

Household

size

1-5 6-10 11-15

16-20

62.6 34.5 2.3

0.6

Commodity

marketed

Rice Maize Food stuff

Groceries Yam Vegetables

12.5 16.7 50.8

8.3 5.0 6.7

Association

membership

Member

Non member

98.8

1.2


Perceived sharp practises amongst rural market

woman

Table 2 presents the distribution of the respondents based on the frequency of perceived sharp practises amongst rural market woman. Majority (94.2%) identified use of wrong scale of

measurement, short-changing of customers (70.8 %,) and bagging of commodity with stones (80.8%) as the commonly perpetuated market-related sharp practices in the study area. This corroborates the

findings of okunola et al, (2014) that fraudulent practices usually take different patterns depending on the situation, the environment and the nature of goods bought in the market. Such practices range from tampering with measurement module (kongo), short-changing people through prices, adulteration of products (mixing with ‘foreign’ products) for extra gains to offering substandard products for

sale. Other sharp practises identified amongst rural

market woman include adulteration of commodity

(65.8%) and sales of substandard products for the price of quality ones. This finding justifies the position of Crane and Dirk (2004) that business life is confronted with

enormous and complex ethical problems. It further reveals the various dimensions which unethical practices may take. The findings also corroborates the position of Rossouw and Arkhuysn (2000) that fraud and corruption traverse every facet of human endeavour and not necessarily phenomena that are peculiar to public sector and public officials.

Table 2: Perceived Sharp Practises Amongst Rural Market Woman

Sharp practises F %

Use of wrong scale of measurement

113 94.2

Adulteration of commodity 79 65.8

Bloating 62 51.7 Short-changing of customers 85 70.8 Bagging of commodity with stones/fillers

97 80.8

Wrong adjustment of measuring modules

102 85.0

Substandard products for sale 85 70.8


Perception of rural market women to sharp

practices

Table 3.1 presents the distribution of the respondents based on the perception of rural market

women towards common market related sharp practices in the study area. The study reveals that 42.5% disagreed that it is a good idea to mix bad nuts with good ones and that it’s not a bad idea to

mix sub-standard commodity with good ones. However this is against common market related sharp practices that pervade common food markets in Nigeria. This is according to okunolaet al (2014)

who reported the common sharp practices in Nigerian food market as ranging from tampering with measurement module (kongo), short-changing people through prices, adulteration of products

(mixing with ‘foreign’ products) for extra gains to offering substandard products for sale. The study further reveals that 44.2% disagree that they do not see anything bad in adjusting

measuring modules, after all I can equally be a victim, and (44.2%) and that country has become so bad that we hardly can be very faithful to customers hundred per cent. and that adjusting bag size to reduce quantity is rather a smart way of increasing profit (28.3%). To further establish the unfavourable disposition towards sharp practices, the study reveals that 40.0% agreed that 39.2%

agreed that they were at home with standard measurement for market items if the government can come up with one and that they believe God


102

will punish anyone who makes wrong adjustment

of measuring equipment (26.7%). The findings implies that based on the items used as indicators of sharp practices, a large number of the market women in the study area have unfavourable

perception towards a number of sharp practices being perpetuated in the market. The study however reveals some of the sharp practices to which a number of the respondents were favourably disposed. For example the study revealed that 35.% agreed that life is a game of smartness, as one should not only always be at the receiving end. Also, 29.2 strongly agreed that

people can adjust measuring bowls as long as

customers do not know (29.2%) and that in this era

of economic hardship, we have come to stay with some measures of smart dealings (33.3%). This implies that sharp practices in its entirety are not being considered as wrong in all of the dimensions

in which it manifests in the food market. The overall summary of respondents’ perception of sharp practices reveals (Table 4) that a large number or rural market women in the study area had unfavourable perception towards sharp practices. This implies that sharp practices of various forms are seen as evil acts which should be discouraged among the women.

Table 3 Perceptions of Rural Market Women to Sharp Practices (n = 120)

Attitudinal Questions SA A U D SA

It is a good idea to mix bad nuts with good ones 5.0 8.3 10.8 42.5 33.3 People can adjust measuring bowls as long as customers don’t

know

6.7 29.2 10.3 25.0 29.2

It’s not a bad idea to mix sub-standard commodity with good ones

8.3 23.3 3.3 42.5 22.5

Adjusting bag size to reduce quantity is rather a smart way of increasing profit

6.7 25.8 11.7 28.3 27.5

In this era of economic hardship, we have come to stay with some measures of smart dealings

15.0 33.3 15.8 16.7 19.2

I don’t see anything bad in adjusting my measuring device,

after all I can equally be a victim

3.3 23.3 14.2 44.2 15.0

The country has become so bad that we hardly can be very faithful to customers hundred percent

22.5 21.7 15.0 28.3 12.5

I will rather loss than cheat my customers 11.7 20.8 26.7 22.5 18.5

It is not anybody business how I sell my markets, even if I cheat customers

22.5 20.8 21.7 25.8 9.2

I am at home with standard measurement for market items if the government can come up with one

39.2 27.5 8.3 15.8 9.2

Life is a game of smartness; do me I do you 16.7 35.8 17.5 17.5 12.5 I believe in transparency and trust as a trader in the market 24.2 35.0 19.2 13.3 8.3 I will rather inflate price for rich men who come around to buy, after all they have all embezzled to have so much

24.2 28.3 17.5 25.8 42

The only way to catch up with co-market women is to ‘apply wisdom’

17.5 40.0 19.2 15.8 7.5

Inflating prices occasionally is our only chance of sharing in the national cake

23.3 22.5 20.8 25.0 8.3

I believe God will punish anyone who makes wrong adjustment of measuring equipment

26.7 27.5 23.3 10.8 11.7


Table 4: Categorization of respondents’ perception

of rural market women to sharp practises

Perception Categories

Frequency Percentage Mean Std Dev

Favourable 74 61.7 68.5 8.5

Unfavourable 46 38.3

Perceived factors encouraging perpetuation of

sharp practices

Table 5 presents the distribution of the respondents based on their rating of perceived

factors encouraging perpetuation of sharp practises

by rural market women in the study area. Majority (81.7%) of the respondents opined that lack of measurement standard was a major factor that encouraged Perpetuation of Sharp Practises, A larger proportion (67.5%) of the respondents also identified Poor supervision from designated government agencies, which is in tandem with (Dike 2008) who stated that the lukewarm attitude

of those who are supposed to enforce the laws of the land could lead to people engaging in corrupt behaviour, knowing fully well that they would get


103

away with it. Also, 60.3% of the respondents

identified financial pressure to maximise profit as a major factor. This may be as result of the extension family setting which is common in the rural area, which often attracts higher responsibilities in the

form of financial commitment. This is also in tandem with Onalaja and Onalaja (1997) who opined that influence of extended family system

and pressure to meet family obligations are more in

less developed societies. About seventy one percent of the respondents identified existence of commodity association as minor factor while 31.7% identified poor upbringing as a no factor that

encouraged perpetuation of sharp practises.

Table 5 Perceived factors encouraging perpetuation of Sharp Practises:

Factors Major factor Minor factor Not a factor Mean Rank F % F % F %

Ignorance of customers 92 76.7 21 17.5 7 5.8 1.71 2

Lack of measurement standard 98 81.7 16 13.3 6 5.0 1.77 1

Poor supervision from designated government agencies

81 67.5 37 30.8 2 1.7 1.66 3

Existence of commodity association 17 14.2 73 60.8 30 25.0 0.89 12

Financial pressure to maximise profit 72 60.3 34 28.3 14 11.7 1.48 8

Poor market coordination 49 40.8 55 45.8 16 13.3 1.28 9

Poor sanction methods 68 56.7 44 36.7 8 6.7 1.50 7

Weak punitive measures 76 63.3 40 33.3 4 3.3 1.60 5

Poor market price 73 60.8 43 35.8 4 3.3 1.57 6

Depreciating social values 52 43.3 40 33.3 28 23.3 1.20 10

Poor upbringing 61 50.8 21 17.5 38 31.7 1.19 11

Lack of fear of God 83 69.2 30 25.0 7 5.8 1.63 4

Hypotheses testing

The study reveals that there was a significant relationship between rural market women’s level of education and their perception of market-related sharp practices (χ2 =9.404, P=0.009)

This implies that formal education is important to enlightening the people on corrupt practices in the study area. This result agrees with UNDP (2012) that posited that education is an essential tool in enlightening the people and informing them of societal expectations. However the study reveals no significant relationship between respondents’ religion (χ2 =4.806, P>0.05), marital status (χ2

=6.230, P>0.05), membership association (χ2 =2.256, P>0.05) and perception of sharp practices among rural market women. Table 5b shows the correlation analysis

between respondents’ age, household size and perception of market related sharp practices in the

study area. Results reveal that there were

significant correlation between respondents’ age (r = 0.307), household size (r = -0.222) and perception of sharp practices. This implies that while the younger market women may not have so

much against perpetuation of sharp practices, their older have unfavourable perception towards it. as perception improves with age. It is expected that the elderly in the society are custodian of social values, and it is expected that even though the emerging generations may not appreciate these values, the same may not be said of the older folks. The significant relationship of household size may

not also be unconnected to increasing family responsibilities which may put more pressure of the women and may thereby be a factor increasing perpetuation of sharp practices in the study area.

Table 5a: Relationship between respondents’ socio-economic characteristics and perceived sharp practices

Characteristics χ2 value Df p–value Decisions

Religion 4.806 2 0.090 NS Marital status *6.230 3 0.101 NS Educational level 9.404 2 0.009 S Membership of association 2.256 1 0.133 NS

*p < 0.05


104

Table 5b: Table showing PPMC results of

relationship between age, household size of respondents and their perception of market related sharp practices

Variables r P Decision

Age 0.307 0.012 S Household

size

-0.222 0.031 S


The study concludes that sharp practices manifest in different dimensions among market women in the study area, the most prominent ones bothering on use of wrong scale and modules of measurement. The study further described factors encouraging sharp practices among rural market

women as multi-pronged, as all the stakeholders including government regulatory agencies, customers and even the market women themselves are culpable. It identifies lack of standard

measurement scales/modules among traders, ignorance of customers, as well as poor supervision from designated authority. However, in spite of the prevalence of sharp practices, market women still perceived the practices to be evil, and so should not be allowed to thrive in the marketing systems of agricultural produce in the study area. The study further establishes that perception of sharp

practices among rural market women improved with age, while households with large members were more likely to favour sharp practices, perhaps due to increasing household responsibilities.

• The role of government through such agencies as CPC (Consumers Protection Council)

cannot be overemphasized and it is recommended that such agencies should be mandated to take cases in often neglected areas like rural market and the like into cognizance.

This can be better achieved by developing measures adaptable to the realities in the rural markets so as to effectively fight cases of sharp practices in the study area.

• Government should also reintroduce uniform

measurement module which must be constantly inspected by government and union officials.

• Market associations should also ensure strict compliance to standard and honest practices among its members and punitive measures

should be extolled against violators.

• Customers should also be well educated from time to time so they are able to know and demand for their rights to transparent dealings with sellers af agricultural commodities.

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TRADE ROUTE INCIDENT MAPPING SYSTEM (TRIMS) EVALUATION OF NON-TARIFF

PAYMENTS AMONG TRADERS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA

Akinwale, J. A. and Oyelami, B. O. Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development,

University of Ibadan,

Ibadan, Nigeria. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In pursuant of their livelihood, traders, and transporters often face non-tariff payments while moving their

agricultural and non-agricultural goods to and from markets and other points of sale. These incidents

incrementally and gradually hike the cost of doing business in Nigeria and, hinder food surpluses in rural areas

from getting to urban areas resulting into rural poverty. The sources, depth and extent of the obstacles faced by

the traders were investigated in this study. Content analysis of TRIMS website for a six-month period was used

for this study. The results showed that 60.7% of male and 39.3% of female encountered incidents of non-tariff

barriers. It also revealed that 67.8% of the report was on the Nigerian Police, 12.4% on Road Safety Corps,

3.0% on Customs, 8.2% on Local Government Authority and 8.6% on other agencies (Immigration, National

Drug Law Enforcement Agency, and Nigeria Army). Within the period, a total sum of N973, 047.00 was

reported as non-tariff payments. The results further showed that 57.2% of the respondents recorded less than 30

minutes of time lost, 31.2% recorded up to one hour of time lost and 11.6% recorded more than one hour of

time lost. The test of hypothesis indicated a strong positive association between time lost (29.8±41.0) and non-

tariff payments (40,543.6±66,661.7). In order to achieve economic growth, the anti-grafts agencies in the study

area should be strengthened to promptly apprehend officers responsible in any case reported to the website so

as to serve as deterrent to other corrupt officers. Keywords: Trade route, Non-tariff payment, Incident mapping, Corruption.

INTRODUCTION

Bribery, corruption and delays are endemic in commercial transportation along the West African trade routes. In Nigeria trade routes are tempting

targets for uniform and non-uniform men who are eager to supplement their incomes by skimming a little cash from traders moving their goods along them. Trade route corruption is a complex and

multifaceted problem whose causes and solutions involve many stakeholders, some of whom are on both sides of the divide (GhanaWeb, 2009). Corruption is a significant obstacle to doing

business in Nigeria. Corruption is criminalised primarily by the criminal code. Accepting or giving gifts ('gratifications') as well as facilitation payments are illegal, and individuals can be

penalised with up to seven years imprisonment (GAN, 2015). Despite a strong legal framework, Nigeria is unable to prevent corruption: in practice, gifts, bribery and facilitation payments are the

norm. While corruption risks are pervasive throughout all institutions, it has been found to be most prevalent among the Nigeria Police (Transparency International, 2013). This is more evident in the commercial transportation business. The cost of these bribes and delays are passed from the driver to the trader, then to the shopkeeper and

ultimately to the consumer; what begins with a corrupt official taking a few extra naira from driver or directly from the trader passing through the trade routes ends with millions of people paying inflated

prices they can hardly afford for essential goods. This lack of checks and informal payments create

market uncertainty and raises food price volatility and as such undermine the livelihood of the traders and consumers. In Ogun State, traders encounter series of

roadblocks mostly set up by law enforcement agencies (such as Police, Road Safety, National Drug Law Enforcement Agency, Customs, Quarantine Services e.t.c.) in the course of their

business activities. In a study conducted by Schuhmann in 2015, a trader mentioned that he encountered fifteen check points leading to Obada/Idi-Emi market and that in some days he

paid more than what he earned. Apart from non-tariff payments often called facilitation fees (‘egunje’); the traders often experience delays and harassments. The drivers are not also left out as

their attitude such as overloading their trucks, failure to have the right documents and lack of professional demeanor usually make them victims to same ordeal from the law enforcement agencies.

On a broader sense, non-tariff payments along trade routes limit the growth of the economy as the food surpluses in the rural areas are frequently hindered from getting to urban areas where they are needed. This leads to poor returns to small-scale farmers due to low demand resulting to rural poverty, inadequate agricultural raw materials for agro allied companies leading to increase

unemployment and food insecurity as a result of poor access to food. Therefore, curbing informal payments along the trade routes will offer benefits to farmers, traders, consumers and the

governments. Such benefits include farmers making more money from meeting rising demands


107

for their products; consumers getting cheaper

access to food as well as job creation as a result of a growing agricultural sector and ultimately government will be better able to deal with the issue of food insecurity. Since these cannot be

achieved without an in-depth knowledge of the nature of the malaise, it is therefore essential for Nigerians to understand which stakeholders are responsible for perpetuating corruption on the trade routes and which stakeholders are responsible for eliminating it, in order to focus efforts of civil society on holding these parties accountable. Efforts at measuring corruption have included

estimates of corruption based on surveys of perception (Olken and Barron, 2012), surveys on bribe-payers (Svensson, 2003) and through direct observation (Olken and Barron, 2009). While these

approaches have been instrumental in bringing issues on corruption to the front burner, they are not without certain shortfalls. For instance surveys of perception have been criticised for not always reflecting the real context of a situation or complexity of the actual level or experience of corruption within a country. This is because, the best perception-based surveys do not always

account for indirect effects of subjective factors, and their margins of error are large when compared with actual corruption (Bertrand and Mullainathan, 2001). Also, the surveys of bribe-payers and direct

observation are deficient in that there is likely to be common unobservable factors affecting the probability of being asked for a bribe and the probability of offering a bribe. This is sequel to the

fact that the presence of researcher may cause people to act or respond differently or as result of bias in observation from the researcher’s interpretation (Lee and Guven, 2013)..

It is against these shortfalls that recent approaches in the measure of corruption are now taking a paradigm shift to the use of technology and especially Information and Communication

Technology (ICT). For instance, the Ogun State Government through the office of the Special Adviser Millennium Development Goals, the Ogun State Council of Chambers of Commerce, Industry,

Mines and Agriculture (OGUNCCIMA) and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) in collaboration with a consortium of civil society organisations, faith-based organisations, mobile network operators, media and other committed actors from the public and private have embarked on a crowd sourcing ICT application called Trade Route Incident

Mapping Incident System (TRIMS) to check non-tariff payments by traders along trade routes in the State. TRIMS is a crowd-sourced facility for traders

and general citizens to send anonymous, coded text messages to a pubic website (www.trimsonline.org)

on non-tariff barriers encountered leading to delays

and increase cost of essential goods such as perishable food items and agricultural goods. The coded messages on agency involved, costs incurred, time lost, sex of the trader, forms of

harassment and location of the incidence are sent to 7447 or 09030007447. The messages are then uploaded on the website to provide information on incidents along the trade routes. As a pilot project that has been on since 2013 it has now becomes necessary to look into its performance. This study therefore examines TRIMS evaluation of non-tariff payments among traders in Ogun state.

The main objective of the study was to examine TRIMS evaluation of non-tariff payments among traders in Ogun state. The specific objectives of the study were to:

1. identify agencies responsible for demanding non-tariff payments from traders along trade routes in the study area

2. determine the volume of non-tariff payments involved

3. ascertain how much time is lost by traders as a result of these trade barriers in the course of doing business and

4. describe the forms of harassment encountered by traders along the trade routes.

Hypothesis of the study

There is no significant relationship between time

lost through trade barriers and non-tariff payments.

METHODOLOGY Content analysis of the project website was

used to obtain data relating to research objectives of the study. According to Krippendorff (1980), content analysis is a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from data to their

context. The crowd-sourced data on statistics section of the home page of the website was chosen as the unit of analysis as it covers all the content categories examined in this study. The content

categories include: agencies concerned, costs incurred, time lost, sex of the trader, forms of harassment and location of the incidence. The data on statistics page was reviewed and content

categories counted on weekly basis within the twenty four (24) weeks starting from 20th March, 2015 (when the website became active) to 10th September, 2015. The population of the study included traders and transporters who ply the trade routes of the state. The sample size represented all the active users from the 20 Local Government Areas who

sent queries to the website at a particular period. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics (means, frequencies and percentages) and Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC).


108


Incidence of non-tariff payments according to

sex of respondents Table 1 shows that 60.7% of male and 39.3% of female encountered incident of non-tariff

payments along the trade routes. This result may suggest that men are more vulnerable to the plight of non-tariff payments hence, they report the incidences more on TRIMS. The result reinforces earlier findings that women are less likely to take part in corrupt transactions than men, are less involved in bribery and that there is worldwide gender difference in tolerance for corruption

(Dollar et al., 1999; Swamy et al. 2001). It implies that men are likely to be involved in speeding up the process and, therefore, experience less delay in the course of doing business along the trade routes

than their female counterparts. Table 1: Distribution of respondents based on sex

Sex of users

Frequency Percentage Mean S.D

Male 748 60.7 31.2 47.8 Female 484 39.3 20.2 30.4 Total 1232 100.0

Source: TRIMS, 2015

Incidence of non-tariff payments based on

government agencies

The result in Table 2 shows that majority (67.8%) of incidence of non-tariff payments from trade barriers were occasioned by the Nigerian

Police Force. The result further shows that on the average the Nigerian Police Force, Road Safety Corps, Local Government Authority were responsible for causing 34.8, 6.4 and 4.2 trade

barriers respectively on weekly basis. The finding is supported by USAID (2014) that revealed the presence of an average of six (6) checkpoints at every 100km in West African countries. The

presence of these multiple checkpoints constitute trade barriers that will invariably discourage itch-free movement of people, goods and services along trade routes in Ogun State, Nigeria.

Table 2: Distribution of incidence of non-tariff payments based on government agency

Agency Freq Perc Mean S.D

Customs 36 3.0 1.5 2.4 Police 835 67.8 34.8 49.6

Road Safety Corps 153 12.4 6.4 8.4 Local Government Authority

101 8.2 4.2 7.6

Others (NDLEA, Immigrations, Nigerian Army

107 8.6 4.5 6.0

TOTAL 1232

Source: TRIMS, 2015

Volume of non-tariff payment based on

governmental agencies Table 3 presents the amount of bribes that road users parted with-in the course of their trading activities. The leading government agency in the

collection of the graft was the Nigerian Police (44.6%), followed by Road Safety Corps (31.1%). The average bribes per week were N18,091.42, N12,639.63, N4,604.17, N3,800.00 and N1,408.30 for the Nigeria Police, Road Safety Corps, Local Government Authority, other agencies and Nigeria Customs Services respectively. This finding is corroborated by CLEEN Foundation (2012) that

rated men of the Nigeria Police as the number one bribe taking public officials in Nigeria. Others in the report after Nigeria Police were; Immigration, Custom, Prison Services and Road Safety Corps.

The result suggests that instead of being a crime-prevention measure, checkpoints in Ogun state have become tools for extorting money from road users. This type of corruption which affects mainly the lower income groups may lead to increase in the cost of doing business and push up the price of foods that eventually get to the market, stifle rural development and eventually lead to rural poverty in

the study area. Table 3: Distribution of total amount of non-tariff payments according to agencies

Agency Amount

(N)

Perc Mean S.D

Customs 33,800 3.5 1,408.3 3202.7 Police 434,194 44.6 18,091.4 33032.6 Road Safety Corps

303,351 31.1 12,639.6 23,551.7

Local Government Authority

110,500 11.4 4,604.1 9702.8

Others

(NDLEA, Immigrations, Nigerian Army

91,202 9.4 3,800.1 6922.9

TOTAL 973,047 100.0

Source: TRIMS, 2015

Time lost from trade barriers along trade routes

Table 4 shows time lost while negotiating non-

tariff payment by road users along the trade routes. From the result, 57.2% of the respondents recorded less than thirty (30) minutes time lost, 31.2% recorded up to one hour time lost and 11.6% recorded more than one hour time lost. The delays as a result of trade barriers can lead to reduced revenue from the loss of man-hour or diminished profits especially on perishable goods

that require getting to the market at the right time and in the best condition.


109

Table 4: Categorisation of time-lost from trade

barriers

Time lost Freq Perc Mean SD

Less than thirty minutes

660 57.2 27.5 36.2

Up to one hour 360 31.2 15.0 23.3 More than one

hour

134 11.6 5.6 7.8

TOTAL 1154 100.0

Source: TRIMS, 2015

Forms of harassment arising from non-tariff

payments among traders

Table 5 reveals the forms of harassment experienced from government officials along trade routes in Ogun State. The result shows that

majority (54.6%) of the respondents reported one form of harassment or the other; 31.5% reported physical harassment, 20.4% reported verbal harassment and 2.7% reported sexual harassment.

The result indicates that getting goods to the final destination is not a smooth process but an ordeal for both traders and transporters in Ogun state. This type of situation may in the long run impair trade across towns in the state as the business activities become unattractive and uncompetitive. Table 5: Distribution of forms of harassment

encountered by traders in doing business

Type of harassment

Freq Perc Mean SD

No harassment

526 45.4 21.9 29.7

Verbal

harassment

236 20.4 9.8 16.9

Physical harassment

365 31.5 15.2 21.6

Sexual

harassment

31 2.7 1.3 2.3

TOTAL 1154 100.0

Source: TRIMS, 2015

Hypothesis testing Relationship between time lost through trade

barriers and non-tariff payments

The result of Person Product Moment Correlation in Table 6 shows a significant

association between time lost and non-tariff payments. The PPMC coefficient of 0.88 indicates a strong correlation between the two variables. It implies that time lost along trade barrier depends

on amount of non-tariff payments. This is possible as the traders may want to resist such payments and fight for their right and in the process experience much delay.

Table 6: Pearson Product Moment Correlation

showing significant relationship between time lost and non-tariff payment

Mean r-value

p-value

Decision

Time lost 29.82 0.88 0.001 S Non-tariff

payment

40543.63

Source: TRIMS, 2015


There is no gainsaying the fact that TRIMS has marked an innovative approach in the study of corruption and sharp practices in Nigeria. The Nigerian Police was found to be a prominent government agency in collection of graft in the

study area. The volume of non-tariff payments involved and time lost by traders as a result of trade barrier were found to be substantial. Also, the traders reported to have experienced one form of

harassment or the other in the course of doing business. The study found a strong positive correlation between time lost as a result of delays from trade barriers and non-tariff payments. This pointed to the fact that the traders were aware of their rights to free movement by offering some resistance and might just be helpless to this social malaise of corruption. Therefore, any efforts

channeled at reducing the time lost will inevitably have direct effect on the ease of doing business in the study area. Thus special task force against trade barriers should be constituted in the study area. The

task force will among others monitor the activities of government officials along the trade routes. Similarly, anti-graft agencies in the study area should be empowered to promptly apprehend

officers responsible in any case reported to the website so as to serve as deterrent to other corrupt officers. This will remove existing bottlenecks in doing business and stimulate economic growth

toward achieving food security.

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Nigerian Journal of Rural Sociology Vol. 16, No. 1, June 2015

Documents

Transcript of Nigerian Journal of Rural Sociology Vol. 16, No. 1, June 2015