Narratives of Trauma: A Literary Analysis of Terrorist & Refugee Psychology in Funny Boy & Island...

Running head: A LITERARY ANALYSIS OF REFUGEE AND TERRORIST PSYCHOLOGY

Narratives of Trauma: A Theoretical Insight into Refugee and Terrorist Psychology in

Funny Boy and Island of A Thousand Mirrors.

Student Name:

WANNINAYAKE MUDIYANSELAGE SANURI HELMINI WANNINAYAKE

Student Number: HU/2008/016

Course Code: ENGL42616

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree Bachelor of

Arts (English) at the University of Kelaniya.

December 2013.

A LITERARY ANALYSIS OF REFUGEE AND TERRORIST PSYCHOLOGY 2

FOR MY PARENTS

WITH LOVE.


Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to express my respectful gratitude to my supervisor Prof.

Maithree Wickramasinghe, for her extremely patient and thorough supervision of my work,

and for her insightful comments which have certainly broadened my horizons.

My parents, for their unfailing support and belief in me- thank you for everything.

My sincere gratitude to Ms. Sabreena Niles, Ms. Dinali Fernando, Prof. Manique

Gunesekere, Prof. Eisha Hewabowala and Mr. Lakshman Fernando for their support and

encouragement.

A very big thank you to Mr. Andi Schubert and my aunt Mithila Weerasinghe, who amidst

their busy schedules helped me with my draft.

Many thanks to my seniors, Lakshani Willarachchi and Rusiru Kalpagee Chitrasena, who

helped me by providing valuable research articles and advice. Many thanks to Nandula

Perera, for her help in finding research material.

To my colleagues, Risla Yakooth, Shashini Wijekoon and Sammani Perera, for their

companionship, and for being there through thick and thin.

A big thank you to my friend Amila Gammudali and Sahan Perera, for their help in

designing the cover.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge the cordial assistance I received from the librarian

and staff at the International Centre for Ethnic Studies (ICES) in conducting this research.


Table of Contents

Dedication 02

Acknowledgements 03

List of Appendices 05

List of Abbreviations 06

Abstract 07

Introduction 08

Literature Review 17

Substituting ‘Spinach’ for ‘Gotukola’: Adapting to a Foreign Culture 22

Victim and Terrorist: Two Sides of a Mirror 30

Conclusion 39

Bibliography 43

Appendices 47


List of Appendices

Appendix A- Summary of Funny Boy 47

Appendix B- Summary of Island of A Thousand Mirrors 50


List of Abbreviations

FB………………. Funny Boy

ITM………….. Island of A Thousand Mirrors

LTTE……….. Liberation Tamil Tigers of Eelam

GOSL………. Government of Sri Lanka


Abstract

The main objective of this research is to provide theoretical insights into refugee and

terrorist psychology, as constructed in the two novels Funny Boy by Shyam Selvadurai, and

Island of a Thousand Mirrors by Nayomi Munaweera. They will be analysed with reference

to theories such as refugee theory, theory of acculturation and the causes of terrorism. The

study will be limited to the aspects of memory and trauma and their role in both refugee and

terrorist psychology. Both pre-migration and post-migration experiences of a refugee will be

analysed according to Refugee Theory, and the Theory of Acculturation, to discuss the

refugee mentality, while the psychological causes of terrorism in relation to the traumatic

events experienced by terrorists prior to enlisting will be analysed to provide an

understanding of terrorist psychology. Finally the role of the ethnic conflict, and its level of

victimization will be examined, and it will be argued that both refugees and terrorists can be

considered as victims of the trauma engendered by the ethnic conflict. The study hopes to

benefit the areas of terrorist and refugee psychology, and studies of war-related trauma.

Keywords: refugee psychology, terrorist psychology, trauma, memory, ethnic conflict.


1. Introduction

1.1 Background

The ethnic composition of Sri Lanka as per the 2011 census stands as follows: Sinhalese

74.9%, Sri Lankan Tamils 11.2%, Indian Tamils 4.2%, Muslims 9.2% and other minor ethnic

groups such as the Burghers and Malays less than 1%. (Edirisinghe 2013) The two larger

ethnic groups, the Sinhalese and the Tamils, have had tensions between them which resulted

in a thirty year long war, named as one of the most brutal internal conflicts in the world.

Although the tensions between the Sinhalese and Tamils escalated towards civil war

proportions in the early 1980’s, namely 1983, its root causes can be traced to the post-

independence era. As far back as 1931, Ceylon became one of the very first countries to gain

universal adult franchise under the British regime. However, when independence was gained

in 1948, the Citizenship Act was introduced in 1950, which defined Sri Lankan citizenship,

and disenfranchised the South Indian Tamil plantation sector workers, since the Act deprived

them of citizenship. Thus, the South Indian Tamil people who had enjoyed the right to vote

since 1931, under British colonial rule, were forcibly dispossessed of this privilege under a

predominantly Sinhalese regime, after independence. This could be considered as one of the

earliest possible causes of the conflict: although the South Indian Tamil plantation sector

workers and the Jaffna Tamil population are two distinctly separate groups, the Jaffna Tamils

saw this disenfranchisement as an effective marginalization of the Tamil community.

(Imtiyaz, 2008, p.2)

Another landmark event in the history of the conflict is the landslide victory of SWRD

Bandaranaike in 1956, and the introduction of the ‘Sinhala Only’ Act, which was a ploy to

boost Sinhalese nationalism. This resulted in an inequality of opportunities for the Tamils, as

the access to higher education, trade and administrative services became restricted by the


language barrier. More than 100 Tamil people were killed in the riots which followed after

Tamil politicians opposed the reforms. (BBC News 2013)

Yet again anti-Tamil riots arose in 1958, killing more than 200 Tamils and displacing

thousands. This was followed by Bandaranaike’s assassination in 1959 and the succession of

his widow Sirimavo, who continued with nationalist policies. Although the main opposition,

the United National Party, which was elected into power in 1965 tried to revise the nationalist

policies, with the re-election of Sirimavo Bandaranaike in 1970 these policies were yet again

brought into the fore. The First Republican Constitution enacted in 1972 in which the

country’s name changed from Ceylon to Sri Lanka, further aggravated the situation as

Buddhism being given foremost prominence, was seen as promoting Sinhala Buddhist ideals.

In 1976 the Tamil Tigers, a Tamil rebel group, later known as the Liberation Tamil Tigers

of Eelam (LTTE) began strengthening its stronghold of the North and East, following a series

of bank robberies. Against this backdrop in 1977 the Tamil United Liberated Front (TULF)

sought a mandate for a separate homeland for the Tamil people during the general elections.

(Perera, 1999, p.6) However, after being elected to Parliament having won all seats in the

Tamil populated areas, the party distanced itself from its original objective. This led to further

unrest of rebel groups, and was followed by another anti-Tamil riot, leaving 100 Tamil

people dead.

In 1981, Sinhalese policemen set fire to the Jaffna Public Library, where over 95,000

manuscripts containing Tamil history were burnt. This further worsened the tensions

between the two communities, as feelings of resentment in the Tamil community increased.

Then came Black July 1983, which is considered the ‘turning point’ of the conflict. An

estimated 2000 Tamil people were killed and their property destroyed by violent Sinhala

mobs, in retaliation for the killing of 13 Sinhalese soldiers by the LTTE in Jaffna. Thousands

of Tamil people fled to neighbouring India, whilst others sought refuge in the North. A large


number of Tamils also sought refugee status in countries like USA, UK and Canada. This

marked the beginning of the ‘First Eelam War’ as it was termed by the LTTE. (BBC News

2013)

The first attempt at peace negotiations, known as the Thimpu Talks, between the

government and LTTE failed in 1985. Later, in 1987 when the GOSL forces launched

‘Operation Liberation’ to recapture the LTTE stronghold of Jaffna, India intervened, and the

Indo-Lanka Accord was signed between the two governments in July 1987. As a result, the

Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was sent to Sri Lanka, who settled in the North and East

parts of the country. They occupied the country until 1990 and after the 13 month peace

dialogue between the government and LTTE failed, hostilities resumed in 1990 marking the

phase of the ‘Second Eelam War’.

By this time the LTTE had already begun the select assassination of Tamil civilians who

were considered traitors or informants to the government forces. This later led to massacres

of Sinhalese and Muslim civilians in border areas, and subsequently to indiscriminate bomb

attacks especially targeting Colombo. By the late 1990s the conflict escalated rapidly, with

conventional battles being fought to capture territory. (Perera 1999, p. 06)

Subsequent attempts at peace talks were made in 1990, under president Premadasa, and in

1994, under the Chandrika Kumaratunge government. Both attempts were unsuccessful as the

LTTE was quick to resume hostilities within a very short period of time. The most successful

endeavour at negotiations occurred in 2001 with the Norway-mediated ceasefire agreement

being signed in 2002.

The conflict assumed a new phase after 2005 with the armed forces launching major

military operations to drive out the LTTE from the Eastern Province. The LTTE withdrew

from peace negotiations in 2006 October, to pursue its liberation struggle and consequently

the government too declared its withdrawal in 2008 January, claiming that the LTTE had


violated the ceasefire a countless number of times. Finally, the LTTE was forced to admit

defeat in May 2009 after the assassination of its leader Vellupillai Prabhakaran by the army,

thus concluding the civil war which had been waged for almost 30 years.

It is against such a background that my thesis is founded, as it studies the impact of the

ethnic conflict on refugee and terrorist psychology through the creative writing of two

migrant writers, Shyam Selvadurai and Nayomi Munaweera.

1.2 Introduction

Minoli Salgado (2007) in her introductory chapter of Writing Sri Lanka: Literature,

Resistance and the Politics of Place states:

Sri Lankan literature in English constitutes an emergent canon of writing that has yet

to find settlement in the field of postcolonial studies. It occupies an uncertain

territory, which, in recent years, has itself been marked by the competing ethnic

nationalisms of civil war and of contestatory constructions of home and belonging.

(09)

According to the above quotation by Salgado, one may gauge the fact that Sri Lankan

writing in English has been greatly influenced by the ethnic conflict, especially when it

comes to works by migrant writers. These writers, who come from varying ethnic

backgrounds, unite in the respect of being Sri Lankan migrant writers, who deal with similar

issues, albeit from different perspectives. Migrant writing is especially significant to this

study, as most migrant writers are refugees, and are, thereby, able to expand clearly on

refugee psychology.

The two texts that I have chosen for the purpose of my study; Funny Boy and Island of a

Thousand Mirrors thus deal with the common issue of the ethnic conflict, from two opposing

viewpoints mainly due to the writers’ different ethnic backgrounds. It was learnt at a later


point in this study that Selvadurai’s latest novel Hungry Ghosts deals with the aspect of

refugee psychology same as Munaweera’s novel, yet the time and space allocated for the

study proved restrictive, and it was, therefore, not included.

Shyam Selvadurai was born in 1965, in Colombo, Sri Lanka and is of mixed Sinhala and

Tamil parentage. He and his family fled the country during the 1983 ethnic riots and settled

down in Canada. Funny Boy (1994) is his first novel, where he deals with the coming of –age

of a young Tamil boy of a wealthy family, named Arjie. The novel traces the family’s

experiences during the 1983 ethnic riots which led to their emigration to Canada. The book

won the Lambda Literary Award for gay male fiction, and the Books in Canada First Novel

Award.

Nayomi Munaweera was born in Sri Lanka, and grew up in Nigeria. She immigrated to the

United States during her early teens. Island of a Thousand Mirrors (2012) is her first novel. It

explores the lives of three women, Yasodhara, Lanka and Saraswathi, and the destructive

effects of civil war upon their lives, which affects them both within and without Sri Lanka.

The novel was long-listed for The Man Asia Literary Prize in 2012(Munaweera 2012) and

also won the Commonwealth Book Prize for the Region of Asia in 2013.

My study focuses on providing theoretical insights into terrorist and refugee psychology

by a close examination of selected characters of the two novels.

1.4 Objectives

The objectives of my research are to:

Examine the psychological impact of the ethnic conflict on the refugee and terrorist

characters in the two novels.

Provide a theoretical insight into refugee and terrorist psychology based on the

character portrayals by the writers.


1.5 Methodology

My methodology consists of a literature review on the theoretical aspects of the study, and

a critical analysis of secondary sources on the chosen texts. Thereafter, a close reading of the

two texts was done according to the specified theoretical approaches, leading to an

understanding of the significance of memory and trauma, in the psyches of both refugee and

terrorist characters in the novels. Thereby, it was hoped to give a considerable insight into

terrorist and refugee psychology, as presented in the texts.

1.6 Theoretical Framework

Both Funny Boy and Island of A Thousand Mirrors are based on the lives of

refugees/immigrants and refugee hopefuls. It is therefore possible to analyze the two texts

through the use of Refugee Theory, introduced by E.F. Kunz (1973) and later amended in

1981.Kunz has accordingly identified two basic kinetic types of refugee movements:

anticipatory refugee movement and acute refugee movement. These have been defined as

follows:

The anticipatory refugee, who arrives door-to-door to the country of immigration,

leaves his home country before the deterioration of the military or political situation

prevents his orderly departure. He arrives in the country of settlement prepared; he

knows something of the language, usually has some finance and is informed about the

ways in which he can re-enter his trade or profession. (Kunz, 1973, p. 132-3)

In other words, the anticipatory refugee leaves his home country by a way of pre-planned

departure, usually accompanied by his family. The anticipatory refugee would leave as soon

as he is aware of a country that is willing to accept him.


On the other hand, an acute refugee is someone who flees their country of birth at a sudden

instigation, usually caused through political or ethnic violence. Kunz notes that acute refugee

movements heavily rely on the ‘push motive’:

Acute refugee movements arise from great political movements or movements of

armies. The refugees flee either in mass or, if their flight is obstructed, in bursts of

individual or group escapes. And their primary purpose is to reach safety in a nearby

or neighbouring country which will grant them asylum. (Ibid)

It is only after the acute refugees reach their destination will they consider the three

choices available to them, that is to return to the homeland, remain in their first place of

asylum or to accept resettlement in a distant land. (George, 2009, p.33)In 1981 Kunz

introduced the concepts of majority identified, event-related and self alienated refugees:

Majority-identified refugees are those who oppose social and political events in their

home country. Examples are refugees from Afghanistan and Pakistan, who because of

the social and political unrest in these countries were forced to leave. Event-related

refugees are those who must leave because of active discrimination against the

particular group to which they belong. An example would be Sri Lankan Tamil

refugees who faced oppression from the majority Sinhalese. Self-alienated refugees

are those who have to leave their home country due to a variety of individual reasons,

including physical and sexual assault. (George, 2009, p.34)

Anne Paludan further nuanced refugee theory in 1974, by providing a classification of

refugees as traditional and new. Traditional refugees come from countries that are culturally

and ethnically similar to the host country, with better chances of successful resettlement. In

contrast, new refugees are from countries that are usually still developing, often with

problems of language, making resettlement rather difficult. (Ibid) I will be examining the


application of the refugee theory on the characters of the two novels, in order to examine the

influence of traumatic memory associated with their homeland, on refugee psyche.

I will also be using the theory of acculturation, introduced by John Berry (2005) a recent

development in the field of acculturation studies, chosen as it is most compatible with the

texts to analyze the psychological effects of migration on the characters, taking into account

their pre and post -migration experiences, especially depicted in Island of a Thousand

Mirrors. It is hoped to thereby, provide a considerable understanding of the psychological

problems faced by refugees, who have to face the pressures of adapting to a new culture, in

addition to coming to terms with their harrowing past.

Carl Jung’s Dream Theory will also be part of my theoretical analysis, as it is useful in

analyzing the role and impact of dreams on the psyche of the refugee and terrorist characters

in the novel Island of A Thousand Mirrors.

Although no specific theoretical approach could be found for terrorist psychology, I will

be analyzing the psychology of the two terrorist characters, Jegan and Saraswathi, through

the causes of terrorism introduced by Randy Borum (2004) so as to justify my argument that

terrorists are victims of many complex psycho-social issues, that force them to retaliate

violently, in order to express their agony.

1.7 Limitations

In this study, I have chosen to limit myself to a discussion of the psychology of refugees

and terrorists, based on the characters. I have theorized these texts in accordance with the

theories mentioned above, and not according to a specific theoretical approach. Furthermore,

the time and space available for this research also proved a limitation to the study.


1.8 Areas That Need Further Research

It was a notable fact that both FB and ITM had not been given any psychological

criticism. Furthermore, a comprehensive theoretical approach towards refugee or terrorist

psychology was not found. It would be beneficial if further research is conducted in these

areas for a comprehensive understanding of such complex issues.


2. Literature Review

2.1 Review of criticism on Funny Boy and Island of a Thousand Mirrors

There are two camps of criticism on Funny Boy: one which states that the main theme is its

homosexual coming- of- age narrative, and the other that it is a moving criticism of the ethnic

conflict. I have chosen the latter argument for the purpose of my study. Critics who follow

the former argument include Regi Siriwardena and Arjuna Parakrama, whilst critics who

follow the latter include Manique Gunesekera.

In her review Gunesekera (1996) states that the homosexual experiences depicted in the

novel tend to draw attention away from its ‘main strength’; that is the focus on the ethnic

conflict between the Sinhalese and the Tamils in Sri Lanka. (p.70) Although the argument

brought by critics like Siriwardena and Parakrama that the main thrust of the narrative is its

homosexual subjectivity is certainly justified, starting from the title Funny Boy which

indicates the embarrassed manner in which homosexuals are referred to in Sri Lanka,

Gunesekera argues that the suffering and upheavals experienced by the Tamil community

remain the most ‘memorable and moving’ experiences in the novel. (Ibid.)

This line of thought has been especially influential on the present study, as it examines the

psyche of the Tamil community, victimized by the ethnic riots of 1983 and the extent to

which these traumatic events have shaped their lives, leading many of this victimized

community to immigrate to other countries as refugees. In this sense, both themes run parallel

according to Gunesekera, with the naked brutality of war and blatant racial prejudice at times

tending to overshadow the secretive homosexual world of Arjie.

The queer subjectivity as a challenge to the predominant patriarchal status quo, is the most

prominent theme of the novel despite the question of ethnic identity and problems created by

ethnic boundaries being important issues, according to Sara Cecavova. (2007) She further


states that the limitations of ethnic identity are brought out through the growing sexual

awareness of Arjie, and that the patriarchal status quo of maintaining ethnic purity is enforced

by the family unit, as seen in Arjie’s extended family.

On the other hand, critics like Rajiva Wijesinghe (1996) state that Selvadurai has been

adept at handling both themes of homosexual coming-of-age and the violent atmosphere

created by the ethnic tension, without overlapping each other.

Minoli Salgado’s Writing Sri Lanka: Literature, Resistance and The Politics of Place

(2007) defines the boundaries and identity of Sri Lankan writing in English. In it, she argues

how the Sri Lankan canon of English literature has not yet been fully formed, and the wide

range of identities it encompasses. She also examines the work of writers like Shyam

Selvadurai and A.Sivanandan as representations of the ‘border dialogue’, (Salgado, 2007,

p.109) or the ethnic and political boundaries which define their work, and the discourses

which they generate through their work.

No literature on Island of a Thousand Mirrors was found apart from a few basic reviews.

2.2 Review of criticism on migrant writing

The concept of migrant writing is important to the present study as it deals with the work

of two migrant writers. These writers represent the Tamil diaspora and Sinhalese diaspora,

respectively. The diaspora is related to the refugee community, in that it is a stage of that

same community, who after prolonged stay in the host country, develop a small community

representing their native land within that country. The concerns of migrant writers can

therefore be seen as being similar to that of the diaspora, in most instances.

William Safran’s principal work Diaspora (1991) can be seen as a key resource in the field

of migrant writing. His major concerns lie in defining the diaspora in its various stages, and

also in identifying the common characteristics shared by them. It is through Safran’s work


that the concept of diaspora, which was hitherto limited to the original Jewish immigration,

received a broader definition encompassing all ethnicities.

Robin Cohen further expanded the ideas of Safran, in his book Global Diasporas: An

Introduction. (2008) In it, he explores the traditional and contemporary classification of the

diaspora, and describes the particular attributes of each diasporic community, namely: the

Jewish diaspora, the Armenian and African diaspora, Indentured Indians and British diaspora,

Chinese and Lebanese diaspora, and Zionist and Sikh diaspora. He further addresses the

issues of territoriality and the role of globalization in forming Diasporas.

Gayatri Gopinath’s Impossible Desires: Queer Diasporas and South Asian Public Cultures

(2005) explores how ‘queer diasporas’ function in comparison to traditional diasporas. She

states that while the conventional diaspora, which is based on patriarchy, expresses the desire

to return to ‘lost origins’, the queer diaspora:

... mobilizes questions of the past, memory and nostalgia for radically different

purposes. Rather than evoking an imaginary homeland frozen in an idyllic moment

outside history what is remembered through queer diasporic desire and the queer

diasporic body, is a past time and place riven with contradictions and the violences of

multiple uprootings, displacements, and exiles. (Gopinath, 2005, p. 4)

Shyam Selvadurai’s Funny Boy which has been classified as gay fiction, therefore, can be

seen to deal with the queer diaspora and its particular concerns.

2.3 Review of Criticism on Memory and Trauma

Memory and trauma are the two key areas which this research hopes to focus on, with

regard to refugee and terrorist psychology. It will be argued that traumatic memories of the

past have an enormous role in shaping the destinies of both groups, leading each to their own

fate.


Trauma and memory share an intricate and complex bond. Although memory specifically

relates to the past and past events, the past, as argued by Katharine Hodgkin and Susannah

Radstone, (2003) is not ‘fixed’ but subject to change; thus both the narratives of events and

the meanings attributed to them are in a state of constant transformation (p. 23) Therefore,

memory can be seen as a ‘process’ rather than a static entity. (Ibid.) They further argue that a

remembered event or emotion cannot have the same impact as when it occurred originally, as

in retrospect it would have changed, as a result of the passage of time, and the number of

incidents that would have occurred since the original event.

This argument by Hodgkin and Radstone, has been furthered in Sasanka Perera’s

contention that the ‘past is a product of imaginative reconstruction and re-orientation both at

the level of the individual and the collective.’ (2007, p.01) On one level, the individual may

choose to remember the least traumatic events of his/ her life, whereas on the other, he /she

may choose to remember the most harrowing ones. Since remembering and forgetting is,

thus, a choice laid on the individual, the past cannot be taken as an ‘authentic reflection’

(ibid.) of what happened.

He also states that traumatic memory often has the ability to transcend time; although it

occurred in the past, a person is likely to be re-traumatized, by remembering the said event in

the present. This is proven in the argument by Roth and Salas (2001) that a ‘trauma breaks

through the categories we use to take in the world, and thus it seems to be registered in or

memories in ways that are unlike those used to register conventional experience’. (quoted in

Perera, 3-4)

Neloufer De Mel (2005) in her book Militarizing Sri Lanka: Popular Culture, Memory

and Narrative, argues that trauma is an expression beyond words. Quoting Elizabeth Jelin,

who states ‘One of the characteristics of traumatic events is the massive character of their

impact, creating a gap in the capacity “to be spoken or told about”. (De Mel, 2005, p.113)


De Mel contends that this impact ‘provokes a hole in the ability to represent symbolically

the event. There are no words, and therefore, there cannot be memories. Memory remains

disarticulated, and only painful traces, pathologies and silences come to the surface.’ (Ibid)

She further explores the role of the female suicide bombers, whose standards have been

predetermined by the ‘masculine ideal’ in the military, and therefore are expected to conform

to the ideals of masculinity, through rigorous training. (De Mel, 2005, p.118) De Mel’s

arguments have especially been relevant in analysing the psychology of Saraswathi, one of

the protagonists in Island of A Thousand Mirrors who is a LTTE female suicide bomber.

The present study follows the line of thought presented by Gunesekera on the thematic

aspect of the novel, Funny Boy, and the argument presented by Sasanka Perera, on the role

and function of traumatic memory, with regard to refugee and terrorist psychology.

Furthermore, it will draw on the aspects of migrant writing, where relevant, and draw

parallels between the refugee community and the characteristics of the diaspora as discussed

by Safran, especially with regard to refugee psychology.


3. Substituting ‘Spinach’ for ‘Gotukola’: Adapting to a Foreign Culture

3.1 Refugee Psychology

In this chapter, I hope to focus on analysing the psyches of the three refugees Yasodhara, Lanka

and Shiva, and also the psyche of Arjie, who is a refugee hopeful, through Refugee Theory. Refugees

cannot be treated as any ordinary group of people as they embody very complex psychosocial issues.

There are a number of different factors which influence each individual refugee’s reactions to exile,

according to Papadopoulos (2006, p.03) They are:

Personal: history, psychological characteristics, coping mechanisms,

strengths/weaknesses, status, education

Relational – supporting systems (‘social capital’): family (nuclear and extended),

community (local as well as wider, international)

Gender

Power position: degrees of helplessness and humiliation

Circumstances of the actual devastating events: predictability, isolation, duration,

lasting effects

Meaning given to the events and the experience of these events: political, religious,

ideological

Hope or the lack of hope

Both texts depict the different psychological reactions of the characters towards

involuntary exile from their motherland. In Funny Boy,1 it is Arjie’s mother, Nalini, who

continuously urges her husband to apply for emigration for the sake of the children, although

he staunchly opposes the move: “How can you want to emigrate? You saw the way our

friends lived when we went to America. They come here and flash their dollars around, but 1 Hereafter referred to as FB


over there they’re nothing.” (FB 195-6) Yet, he too is compelled to go back on his decision

and emigrate, as the violence threatens to jeopardize the safety of his family. His hopes are all

lost once he hears the President’s speech which does not empathize with the plight of the

Tamils, making it very clear that they no longer belong in the country. It is this

disillusionment and hopelessness that finally motivates him to leave, despite the bleak future

that awaits them. However, Selvadurai’s novel stops short of their implied immigration, so

the details of the family’s settlement in Canada may only be surmised.

In the case of the Rajasinghes and the Shivalingams in Island of A Thousand Mirrors2 by

Nayomi Munaweera, the ethnic violence plays a major part in shaping their destinies. Even

though the Rajasinghes are in no imminent danger, they choose to migrate to America as the

violence escalates. On the other hand, the Shivalingams have no option but to flee for the

sake of their lives. Whereas the Rajasinghe family can be seen as immigrants, the

Shivalingams and Arjie’s family, the Chelvaratnams, are ‘ event –related refugees’ who must

leave their homeland because of active discrimination against the particular group to which

they belong, according to the classification by Kunz (1981).

A refugee’s psychological state is not only influenced by pre-immigration experiences but

also post. Andersson(2000) has identified seventeen ‘states of being’ which a newly arrived

refugee goes through which include the state of being a stranger, loneliness, missing, guilt,

shame, separation and loss, sorrow, language degradation, value degradation, inferiority,

sense of non-identity, bitterness, suspicion, prejudice and the scapegoat syndrome. (p.21) A

refugee may feel each of these states with varying intensities, feeling some more than others.

She further notes that:

The refugee/ immigrant seems to live between two worlds. He/she has changed

countries and cultures. The language and customs are different. Values, religions and

2 Hereafter referred to as ITM


moral codes, even modes of thinking may differ. He/she may have a different

appearance than inhabitants of the new country. Within the individual, a process

seems to begin of comparing homeland childhood and adult experiences with those of

the new country. He/she seems to be forced to see, remember, question and compare

the old with the new. A long, difficult and sometimes painful psychological process of

questioning oneself and one’s life, lifestyle and values begins which may be

experienced differently. (p.18)

We see a prime example of the situation described in the above quotation, principally in

ITM which analyses the refugee/ immigrant psychology through the experiences of

Yasodhara, Lanka and Shiva: their turbulent mindset has been well portrayed in the novel, as

they struggle to come to terms with their sudden loss of identity through migration.

In order to successfully adapt to their new society, immigrants or refugees have to go

through an acculturation or adaptation process, from which they learn to reconcile the diverse

elements of life in their home country and life abroad. Westin (1971) states that adaptation or

an assimilation cycle is based on the amount of time the individual has been based in a

country and its effects. (Andersson 165) This cycle has three stages: arrival, confrontation

and flashback, where the individual compares and contrasts his or her relationship with the

homeland and host country in order to achieve a balance.

3.2 Adaptation: A Psychological Process

In ITM, a very comprehensive analysis of these three stages is made through the

experiences of Yasodhara and her family, in America. Since their arrival, they confront the

contrasts between Sri Lanka and their host country, to which they must slowly adapt, lessons

learnt through the shame of their inadequacies:

In school we learn quickly that the smell of our bodies is shameful, and must be

dissipated by perfume, deodorant. That the hair on our legs, that fine down which we


had never noticed before, must be daily shaved to smoothness… We learn also that

hair conditioner comes in bottles and must be bought separately from cooking oil.

(ITM 110-11)

The problem of language that a refugee/ immigrant faces in a host country, has been

discussed in detail by Andersson. Language is an essential part of a person’s identity, and is

vital in asserting his or her individuality. However, an immigrant or refugee experiences a

sense of rootlessness and non-identity when confronted with the language barrier in a foreign

country:

He/she may speak the new language fluently but lack rhythm and tone, making

him/herself difficult to listen to and understand. It can take many years for the

individual finally to master these in the new language, if he/she ever does. Adults and

older children may never lose their accent, and may be constantly reminded of it when

they are not understood by others. (2000, 118)

Yasodhara and Lanka face this very problem immediately upon arrival, as they realize that

they have become aliens in a strange land that does not understand their language:

We learn that although we have been speaking English from birth, people cannot

understand the crispness of the Queen’s English mixed effortlessly with the roundness

of Sinhala in our mouths. We have singsong accents they say. A tendency to

substitute V’s when W’s are called for and vice versa so that ‘veil’ comes out

sounding like a large sea mammal. Various conversations are thus rendered

incoherent. (ITM 111)

This is one among many problems faced by an immigrant, who comes to realize that he or

she would never be fully accepted within the host country, and thus must remain a stranger or

an outsider for life. These further justifies the point made by Safran (1991) as stated in the

previous chapter, that immigrants can never be fully accepted in their host societies and so


remain partly separate. This isolation is further aggravated through prejudice, which is

another contentious issue faced by new immigrants, which can be seen as a consequence of

‘confronting’ a new culture.

Andersson defines prejudice as an expression or feeling towards ‘a person or group of a

different sex or country, religion or creed, color or race. It can be expressed verbally or by

actions – as a superficial generalization or deep-seated conviction – from joke to open

discrimination, hatred and abuse.’ (2000, 151-2) Prejudice is also a two way process, an

individual may feel prejudice against others and become the object of others’ discrimination.

In the novel we see how Yasodhara and Lanka face the discrimination of their peers who

wrinkle their noses and pretend not to see them when seated next to in the bus or cafeteria.

However, this discrimination is far better than what the Shivalingams face in London:

He tells us of the years in London. All of them crowded into a flat where they slept

head to toe, turning in unison like a row of grilling chickens. The early days when he

spoke to no one and only watched the other adolescents, calling them names in Tamil

under his breath, ‘Moon Face’, ‘Whitey’, ‘Ugly’. Days of deprivation and bad food…

(ITM 191)

Prejudice, can therefore, be seen to differ according to the levels of racism predominant in

each country.

John Berry (2005) states that long-term accommodation in a particular region or country,

results in acculturation, which can be defined as ‘a process of cultural and psychological

changes that involve various forms of mutual accommodation’. (p. 699) Such long-term

accommodation would involve learning a different language and adapting to palatal changes.

This adaptation process is however, a slow procedure, depending on the personality and age

of the person who is subject to it; usually younger people find it easier to adapt to new

situations than adults. Both Yasodhara and Lanka are fortunate in this respect as they adapt to


the change of circumstances rather quickly: ‘So quite quickly we learn to shed our old

clothes, our old manners. We say ‘cookie’ now quite effortlessly, knowing that the word

‘biscuit’ will be answered with blankness.’ (ITM 111)

Once fully imbibed within the dominant American culture, however, they must always

assiduously maintain their status as ‘Americans’; any deviation towards their old

personalities would endanger their position and make them ‘Ameri-can’ts’. (ITM 154) They

are, therefore, compelled to keep a safe distance from other new immigrants who ‘look lost’

and speak in ‘thick accents,’ lest they are associated with the aura of foreignness that they

have so painstakingly shed. (ITM 122)

Yet this constant need to consciously maintain their status as new Americans, results in

great psychological stress. They are never able to completely forget their roots, and as the

strain of maintaining their new identity becomes stronger, the yearning to return becomes

greater. It is the flashback of the ‘fluorescent green paddy fields’, and ‘sapphire skies’ (ITM

112) that claim first Lanka, then Yasodhara back to the island where they left so many

unfading memories. It is, therefore, evident that immigrants may never be able to completely

erase the past memories of their homeland, although driven from it through harrowing

experiences.

Age is also a significant characteristic in determining the success of adaptation. Unlike a

child, an adult’s mind is far less resilient. He or she may not be able to successfully reconcile

the past and present experiences of existence. A child’s developing brain has more scope for

a wider range of experience than an adult, who has achieved a sense of identity. The sudden

loss of identity engendered by migration would, therefore, result in loss of stability. This

would result in psychological issues such as depression and aggressive behaviour, as the

person struggles to come to terms with his or her feelings of despair. This may result in the


person descending into the state of bitterness. Andersson (2000) has identified three main

causes for the state of bitterness to occur within the psyche of a refugee/immigrant:

The refugee/ immigrant situation

Ambivalence towards life in the new country

Previous homeland experiences (p. 143)

The refugee/immigrant situation involves the degrading position new immigrants have to

face in a host country. Although he / she may have been a prosperous individual back in

his/her homeland, he/she would need to forge a new life in the host country. This often results

in unbearable pressure on the individual, expressed through aggressive behaviour.

This strain brought by the pressure of changed circumstances is evident in the relations

between Yasodhara’s mother and father, during their new immigrant days. Her father who

has contracted the ‘recent immigrant’s fever’ (ITM 105) is anxious to assert his capabilities in

a foreign land, in order to win back his stability in life. This can only be achieved through

passing the Professional Engineer Exam, which would assure him a position as a prestigious

engineer, for which he studies with due diligence. Yet the pressure it brings is expressed

through the violent fights with his wife which end with smashing dishes like ‘rapid gun fire.’

(Ibid.) Another character who has feelings of embitterment as a result of immigration is

Kanthi Aunty in FB. Arjie, as a young boy observes how although she was seemingly

benevolent she had a ‘seething anger, tempered by guile that could have deadly consequences

if unleashed.’ (FB 08)

His mother observes the reason as the humiliation she had to suffer ‘working as a servant

in a whitey’s house to make ends meet.’(ibid) Her anger is a consequence of her humiliation

as a proud Tamil woman of good parentage, being forced to demean herself due to poverty.


Adapting to even ordinary circumstances in a foreign country can be odious for an adult,

who has been accustomed to a certain lifestyle for the major part of his/her life. This can be

seen in the manner in which Yasodhara’s mother, Visaka, reconciles herself to cook for her

family, a burden which she had not shouldered until then. Not only is she unfamiliar with its

intricacies, she is also faced with the problems for having to find substitutes for every native

ingredient such as gotukola, jaggery and coconut oil. Similarly, she finds herself yearning for

her past life, for which her present is but a mere substitute. Her only solace is the photographs

which she treasures, of her life back in the island that was so close to the sun and sea:

We had forgotten that such colors existed. For a moment we too feel the sea breeze.

But Amma holds the picture, gazes at it for so long that we are uneasy. For all her

determination to build a new American life, we can see her longing to return to that lost

weave of women. (ITM 107)

These memories are her only precious mementos of a life she’d lost and longs to return

to: this sense of longing can be defined as the feeling that one cannot meet a particular

person, or see a particular place. For a refugee or an immigrant this would usually mean

someone or somewhere in the homeland, that they were compelled to leave behind when

fleeing.

The feelings of regret at having to leave a place which one loves, heightens the feelings

of nostalgia and longing. This could be far worse for a refugee than an immigrant, as

although an immigrant may be consoled at the thought of returning to the homeland one day,

a refugee who has fled for political reasons, for example, may not be able to do so. They may,

therefore, be haunted by the thoughts of their homeland for the rest of their lives, making

adapting to their changed circumstances more difficult. The concept of memory and its

functions will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.


4. Victim and Terrorist: Two sides of a Mirror

4.1 Role of Memory

In this chapter, I will focus on the role of memory and trauma in the lives of victims of

violence as well as terrorists, who are considered perpetrators of violence, as depicted in the

two novels. Although the terrorist and trauma victim seem binary oppositions, they are in

reality reflections of each other. The trauma victim turned refugee, flees from the country

which holds terrifying memories, whereas the trauma victim turned terrorist seeks to confront

trauma through the means of arms. In a sense, therefore, both may be seen as responding to

the same circumstance in two different manners. Both can also be taken as prisoners of

memory, which continues to haunt them through flashback. It is, therefore, necessary to

define memory as a concept, before proceeding further. Mariana Achugar, quoting Schacter

(1996) states:

Memory is a central part of the brain’s attempt to make sense of experience, and to

tell coherent stories about it. These tales are all we have of our pasts, and so they are

potent determinants of how we view ourselves and what we do. Yet our stories are

built from many different ingredients: snippets of what actually happened, thoughts

about what might have happened, and beliefs that guides us as we attempt to

remember. Our memories are the fragile but powerful products of what we recall from

the past, believe about the present and imagine about the future. (2008, 07)

Memory can be divided in two as personal and collective memory. Whereas personal

memory relates to an individual’s personal history, collective memory refers to the joint

memories held by a community about the past. It can refer to any period in the past, but in the

current context, it has the more specific meaning of the collective memories held over about

three generations. (Hunt, 2010, p.97)


In both novels, we may see the interaction between personal and collective memory;

personal memory detailing the individual’s own experiences, and collective memory

narrating what the community witnessed as a whole. This can also be taken as interplay

between fiction and fact, the personal narrative of the protagonist is fictional, whereas the

collective memory is the factual account. It is also notable that the collective memory of the

protagonists in both novels collaborates with each other, although told from different

perspectives. Another significant feature to note is that both personal and collective memories

are linked to destruction and trauma resulting from the ethnic conflict.

In the case of FB, Arjie recalls how many Tamil people were killed and their property

destroyed by violent Sinhala mobs going on rampage during the 1983 riots. Although many

descriptions of the violence are not available, he recounts how Tamil shops were looted and

set on fire, whilst many people including his grandparents, were burnt alive. This has been

supported in the description of the aftermath of the violence in ITM:

Behind them, they leave burnt cars, shattered glass like ice on the streets, looted

textile factories from which bolts of cloth lick the sky like dragon’s tongues, towers of

garbage, bodies blackened beyond recognition, orphans, torn women, and destroyed

men. Arteries, streams, and then rivers of Tamils flow out from the city. Behind them

they leave: looted, soot blackened houses, the unburied or unburnt bodies of loved

ones, ancestral wealth, lost children, Belonging and Nationalism. (ITM 89)

It is interesting to note how the violence against the Tamil people is vividly described in

ITM, than in FB. This is against the backdrop of criticism leveled at Selvadurai for

‘“reinforcing the prevailing tendency to read Sri Lankan political violence through a historically-

transcendent, binary logic of Sinhalese-Tamil discord.”(Salgado, 2007, p. 12) By presenting the

violence through the voice of a Sinhalese narrator, Yasodhara, Munaweera corroborates with

Selvadurai’s stance, negating the accusation that it was written through racial prejudice.


Certain turning points of the conflict have been given prominence in both FB and ITM.

Whereas FB narrates the incident when 13 Sinhalese soldiers were killed and the resulting

rampage in 1983, ITM records the burning of the Jaffna Public Library in 1981. Both these

incidents have significant consequences for the characters; Arjie and his family are forced to

go into hiding, while the relationship between Yasodhara and Shiva changes for the worst.

Even the violence prior to 1983 has been recorded in two perspectives in the novels. FB

relates how Ammachi’s father was killed in the violence of the 1950’s:

Janaki sighed and said “You were too young to remember when they brought the

body home. You should have seen it. It was as if someone had taken the lid of a tin

can and cut pieces out of him.” (FB 59)

This same period is described in ITM where Yasodhara’s father, Nishan witnesses how a

young Tamil schoolgirl is nearly killed by an angry mob on the train:

“Tamil? No pottu? Trying to get our boys to think you’re a Sinhala girl? “Maybe we

should make a pottu for you, no? In the middle of the forehead. Nice big one. Red I

think.” Swift as a striking cobra, a streak of red across the girl’s curved forehead. The

sudden and unmistakable smell of urine. The front of her white uniform yellowed,

spreading. (ITM 28)

Thereby, we may see how both ITM and FB corroborate when narrating incidents of the

past, indicating the fact that they relate to the same circumstances albeit through different

viewpoints. The role of personal memory is closely linked to trauma, which will be

discussed next.


4.2 Role of Trauma and Responses towards It

Trauma plays a vital role in both FB and ITM and can be defined as:

[A]n extremely painful event in the life of an individual or collective that due to its

very intensity does not allow an individual’s or society’s routine skills or capabilities

to deal with it. It exceeds such capacities and overwhelms them. (Perera,2007, p.3)

Both novels consist of characters who are traumatized to varying degrees, including those

who are unable to come to terms with it, as the trauma of the past returns to haunt their present.

They can be divided mainly into two groups as refugees and terrorists. As such, this

interpretation will mainly focus on examining the traumatic memories of the characters

according to the theories pertaining to refugees and terrorists.

Refugees cum immigrants are a very special category of people, to whom the ordinary

application of psychoanalysis does not apply. Their psychological state should be taken into

account according to their experiences of pre-migration, post-migration and resettlement. A

refugee’s psychological state may differ according to his or her experiences in the homeland,

with those who have been traumatized finding resettlement more difficult than others. The

protagonists Arjie and Yasodhara fall into this category.

Arjie, the adolescent narrator of FB, finds himself torn between fear and nostalgia at

having to leave his motherland during the ethnic violence. His ambivalence is well brought

out when he states:

Those spend-the-days, the remembered innocence of childhood, are now coloured in

the hues of the twilight sky. It is a picture made even more sentimental by the loss of

all that was associated with them. By all of us having to leave Sri Lanka years later

because of communal violence and forge a new home for ourselves in Canada.

(FB 05)


Arjie’s sense of nostalgia and longing can be seen as common features of refugee

psychology. As stated by Andersson (2000) the ‘state of missing’ something or someone from

the homeland, is a common problem faced by most refugees and immigrants. Unlike the

immigrant, however, a refugee’s situation is more complicated, as although an immigrant may

have the choice of returning to the homeland, a refugee would not. This would also be

aggravated by the multiple losses faced by a refugee, often of close family. Refugees of war

often experience violent losses and separations closer to the period of migration, which remain

branded in their memory.

Refugees who experience a number of violent losses subsequent to each other, often

experience dissociative symptoms such as ‘numbing, detachment or an absence of emotional

responsiveness.’ (Kluft, Bloom and Kinzie, 2000, p.04) Their response to repeated trauma is

often delayed due to shock and disbelief, and they can come to terms with the destruction

only a while after the incident. This can be seen in Arjie’s shocked response at his

grandparents’ funeral:

The whole funeral had an unreal feeling to it. Even while they were lowering the

coffins into the grave, I found it hard to believe that it was Ammachi and Appachi we

were burying. I think that the other aunts and uncles felt the same way, for nobody

cried at the funeral. We simply stood around the grave, watching the coffins disappear

under the clods of earth that were thrown on them. (FB 308)

Trauma victims are often unable to believe in the future, as there is an alteration to one’s

belief system after such an incident, in it that one loses ‘trust, hope, loss of previously

sustaining beliefs and loss of belief in the future’. (Kluft et al. 05) Arjie finding it impossible

to believe that the world would ever be normal again, is a justification of this statement.


Dreams can also be seen as manifestations of trauma. Kluft et al. (2000) state that trauma

victims often experience nightmares of the traumatic event; an example would be Saraswathi’s

recurrent nightmares of her rape. Dreams indicate the connection between the conscious mind

and the subconscious, the extent of a person’s trauma may be examined through the repetitive

dreams of the harrowing incident that victimized them .Often the harrowing details of the

incident may be distorted in the dream, a common occurrence in trauma victims; an example

would be Saraswathi’s dream of being raped by the Leader, when in reality she was raped by a

group of soldiers.

In Carl Jung’s assessment, dreams may also serve a ‘prospective’ function; of looking into

the future. (Bulkley, 2005, p.2) The best example of this would be Yasodhara’s recurrent

nightmares of a young girl with sunset colored bruises on her clavicles, and grenades tucked

like extra breasts under her own. (ITM 122) Years later, this young girl would turn out to be a

suicide bomber and murderer of her sister Lanka, who dies in the explosion.

Avoidance is a coping strategy used by trauma victims; by avoiding stimuli directly related

to the traumatic event they hope to keep pain of mind and suffering at bay. (Kluft et al. 04)

Traumatized victims, who are coming to terms with the destruction, will often be reluctant to

talk about it, wishing to avoid it altogether. An example would be how Yasodhara lies to her

daughter about her aunt’s death, saying that she died of a heart attack, instead of admitting

that she was killed by a suicide blast. The act of migration itself can be taken as an avoidance

strategy in order to avoid the resurfacing of tragic memories.

Terrorism as a response to trauma will be discussed in the next section.


4.3 Terrorism: A Response to Trauma

Terrorists are also victims of trauma, although thought otherwise. Victimization of others

through acts of violence, has been indicated as a side effect of trauma. (Kluft et al. 05) Both

FB and ITM have two terrorist characters, Jegan Parameswaran and Saraswathi, respectively.

Both of them have become terrorists in the aftermath of harrowing trauma; Jegan witnesses

the police torturing his friend, whilst Saraswathi is brutally raped by the soldiers. Thus,

vengeance can be seen as their reason for resorting to terrorism, as stated by Crenshaw

(1992).

A desire for revenge or vengeance is a common response to redress or remediate a

wrong of injustice inflicted on another… vengeance can be specific or diffuse, but it

is an obsessive drive that is a powerful motive for violence towards others, especially

people thought to be responsible for injustices. (Borum, 2004, p. 25)

The motive behind both Jegan’s and Saraswathi’s conscription to the LTTE is the desire

for revenge. As Jegan tells Arjie: “We cannot live like this under constant threat from the

Sinhalese, always second-class citizens in our own country”. (FB 176) He presumes that

through becoming an LTTE cadre, he can assert his position as a free citizen who is not

dominated by the majority Sinhalese regime. Prior to conscription, he had been an active

member of the Gandhiyam movement, an organization to assist Tamil refugees, who were

affected by the riots in 1977 or 1981, when his friend was taken into custody and tortured by

the police. The trauma at having witnessed his friend being tortured affects him deeply,

leading him to vent his frustration through aggression or terrorism to express his agony.

In Saraswathi’s case, the trauma of being raped leaves her broken forever. It returns to

haunt her even years later, the insult ‘tiger Bitch’ reverberating in her ears. Her first kill, is

therefore strangely satisfying as she kills a soldier captured by the LTTE, his pleas for mercy

strengthening her rage.


Another psychological cause for terrorism is the need to belong to a group. Saraswathi

realizes that after being polluted by the army she no longer belongs to her family; she only

finds solidarity within the LTTE. Her rape signifies her rejection from the patriarchal society

of her birth, and as she later onwards states of her family: ‘My true family is back at the

camp, these are strangers I knew in a different time.’ (ITM 185) As depicted in ITM, the

plight of women who are raped by the army in Tamil villages, is indeed very pathetic.

In an independent survey, Miranda Alison (2003) states that Tamil society usually blames

women for their own rape; in contrast the LTTE views rape as an ‘accident’ and thus abjures

the victim’s guilt. (p. 43) This exclusion from society instills a feeling of hate in these

women, who, thereafter, seek to avenge themselves by becoming suicide cadres who wreak

massive havoc on society.

Perhaps one of the most motivating factors to become a terrorist is the desire for social

status. (Borum 24) The hope of becoming elevated to the level of a hero is an inspiration

offered by most terrorist outfits, for which many youngsters with no real purpose in life

aspire to. Saraswathi, too, contemplates how she would become elevated to the position of a

‘martyr’ (ITM 203) by virtue of her sacrifice, with new cadres idolizing her. Whereas she

would otherwise have been despised as a ‘spoilt girl’, the Tigers offer her fresh hope of

becoming a worshipped heroine who has sacrificed her life for her people.

Thus, in conclusion, we may see that terrorism is a result of the combination of very

serious psycho-social issues: terrorists are often at the receiving end of society’s wrath, often

for no just cause other than racial prejudice, with the outcome being an explosion of

repressed hurt, causing massive harm to the society that victimized them. It is an expression

of anger by those whose rights have been brutally violated, denying them a life of dignity and

decency, thus compelling them to retaliate through violence.


We may also see that memory and trauma have a very significant role in the lives of

refugees and terrorists who can both be taken as victims of the psychological trauma of war.


5. Conclusion

5.1 Summary

In concluding, I would like to summarize the points which I have been discussing so far:

Both refugees and terrorists can be considered as victims of war –related trauma.

Memories of the past largely influence the psychological processes of both refugees

and terrorists.

Refugees and terrorists both respond to the same circumstances through different

means.

Although refugees and terrorists are largely seen as representing two extremes, and thus

contrasts, a close examination of their psychological processes render them both victims

responding to overwhelming trauma. Just as the refugee, the terrorist too has no intention of

violence prior to conscription as seen in the texts. In fact, most terrorists have dreams and

aspirations which are fatally crushed by war. As depicted in both Jegan and Saraswathi’s

narratives, they are innocent youth with bright hopes who are driven towards terrorism

through a fatal encounter with unspeakable violence, for which they have no redress. From

this perspective, FB and ITM reveal that the causes for terrorism are always social, and have

no connection with the individual’s thirst for blood.

It is very evident that memories of the past influence the characters of both books; all of

them cling sentimentally to the past, in order to comprehend the unfathomable violence caused

by the conflict. The memories which occur in flashback are an indication of the power of the

past, to which they recede in order to comprehend the present, which in its entirety is

overwhelming.

Both flight and fight can be seen as coping mechanisms: the refugee unable to face the

horrors of his past flees his home country, the terrorist seeks to defend himself through battle.

However, both are visited by memories of their past in fleeting moments, always accompanied


by a sense of regret at their change in fate; Arjie reminisces about his childhood washed in the

‘coral pink of memory’ (FB 273) , Saraswathi dreams of dancing under the mango tree once

again. Although very different in circumstances, both youngsters yearn for their past, which

contains the only shred of hope to face their incomprehensible present which has been brutally

violated by war.

The diaspora is a community that is largely dependent on memories of their motherland,

to sustain themselves in a foreign country. They have to struggle against the power of

forgetting, to keep their memories intact, for just as foot prints are washed away by the waves

the passage of time makes memories fade away, and they would be left bereft of a history or

an identity. They are, therefore, a community whose identity is completely founded on their

motherland, for if not, they would be caught between two worlds belonging in neither.

5.2 Concluding Remarks

Memory and trauma are two vital aspects of both novels, FB and ITM. It is apparent that

they function on different levels, according to the dispositions of each individual character.

He or she may be traumatized according to the circumstances he or she faces, and often find

it difficult to recover from horrifying past experiences. Acculturation or adaptation to new

circumstances in a foreign land is an additional cause of distress for refugees who arrive in a

host country, in order to escape the horrifying tragedies of the past, for they are made to feel

inferior, within a dominant foreign culture. This would make the process of reconciling with

the past more arduous, as one has to contend not only with the tragedies of the past, but also

with the psychological distress of the present.

Although critics like Salgado have argued that Selvadurai has presented a viewpoint of the

ethnic conflict that is largely one-dimensional, I have tried to argue in my thesis that it is not

so. In comparison to ITM by Munaweera it is clear that the Tamil community was indeed


victimized by the ethnic conflict, perhaps even more so than the Sinhalese community, as

they were made to feel the wrath of a dominant Sinhalese regime and victimized simply due

to reasons of ethnicity.

I have also tried to argue that the dominant ideology concerning terrorists should change,

taking into account their circumstances and the causes which compelled them to commit acts

of violence. Often, the causes behind terrorism go unheeded, with only the final act of

violence which is an expression of unspeakable agony, being focused on. Rather than

ostracizing such persons as criminals who are beyond redemption, attention should be

focused on their rehabilitation and gradual incorporation and acceptance in society, in order

to pursue their ambitions as ordinary citizens.

Both groups of refugees and terrorists can be seen, therefore, as victims who were worst

affected by the ethnic crisis. If not for the conflict, both groups would have been able to lead

peaceful and contended lives within their native land, yet the ruthlessness of Separatism and

Nationalism brutally violated their right to peace, and the right to pursue and fulfil their

dreams.

On the other hand, the diaspora and its role in affairs concerning the country’s welfare can

often heard to be criticised, as the imposition of an outsiders’ view on largely internal affairs.

Yet, it should not be forgotten that the diaspora consists of citizens who were born and bred

within Sri Lanka, who were compelled to leave during the ethnic conflict for the sake of their

lives. Sri Lanka, being the country of their birth, entails them the right to concern about its

state, for it is the only heritage which they have to offer their children; it is the only country

to which they can really ‘belong’ to as stated by Safran (1991).

It is, therefore, unethical to consider the influence of the diaspora as being prejudiced, or

interfering, simply as they demand the equal treatment of their fellow kinsmen. Their

concerns over the internal affairs of the country should be read in the light of their desire to


return once again to their country of birth, and once again be citizens of the land of their

ancestors, and the world of their dreams and hopes.


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Narratives of Trauma: A Literary Analysis of Terrorist & Refugee Psychology in Funny Boy & Island...

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