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CORNlfeLLUNIVERSITYLIBRARY

Cornell University Library

BL 1201.W68

Modern Hinduism :being an account of the

3 1924 022 925 675

DATE DUE.

'

W68

MODERN HINDUISM

MODEEN HINDUISM

BEING

AN ACCOUNT OF THE RELIGION AND LIFE

OF THE HINDUS IN NORTHERN

INDIA

BY

W. J. WILKINSOf the London MiaBionary Society

ATTinOK OP "HINEU MYTHOLOGY—VEBIO AND PTTEiNIC "

T FISHEE UNWING TATEBNOSTEE SQUARE

J887

HO

/\fof^76

INTEODUCTION.

In a former work,* I have given, as far as possible in the

langaage of the sacred books, an account of the deities com-

monly "worshipped by the Hindus of Northern India. In this

I propose to give an account of the life of the Hindus, which

is largely the result of the worship of those deities. Having

lived for many years in India, and met with all classes of the

community in the cities and in the villages, and having con-

versed with them in their own language, I have learned much

that is not to be found in books written on this most inte-

resting subject. I have read much that has been written by

Europeans and Bengalis concerning the faiths and practices

of the people ; and in conversation with priests and pundits

have tested the accuracy of many of the statements made in

these works, so that what is found in these pages may be

received with confidence as a trustworthy account of the re-

ligious life of the Hindu community. In this book, as in

my former one, I have abstained from comment on the cha-

racter of these practices ; my work here is rather that of a

chronicler than of a preacher. In writing of the mythology

• " Hindu Mythology—Vedio and Puranio." Thacker and Co., New-

gate Street ; and Thacker, Spink, and Co., Calcutta,

VI INTRODUCTION.

of the Hindus, I felt that the most powerful refutation of

Hinduism was a fair statement of what their books themselves

teach concerning the character and conduct of the beings

whom they worship as divine ; and in describing the every-

day life of the Hindus, which is the practical outcome of

such worship, there seems to me to be but little necessity for

comment.

It may perhaps appear strange to some readers to see

several subjects treated of in this book which professes to be

an account of the Hindu religion ; but it must ever be borne

in mind that, with the Hindu, religion is not a thing for times

and seasons only, but professes to regulate his life in all its

many relations. It orders ceremonies to be performed on

behalf of a man before he is born, and gives instructions to

his descendants, which they must follow in order that his

happiness may be secured after death. It regulates the

ceremonies attendant on his birth, his early training, his

food and its cooking, his style of dress and its manufacture,

his employment, marriage, amusements—his whole life from

before his birth until generations after his death. Eeligion

seeks to regulate not only the private life of the Hindu, but

also his domestic and national relations, and no contingencies

are possible for which it has not provided laws. To treat,

then, of the ordinary life of the Hindu is to describe the

Hindu religion.

It should also be remembered that descriptions absolutely

true of certain classes or of certain districts may not be

strictly correct of other classes or other districts ; and also

that some classes are grossly ignorant of the customs of other

classes, and the residents of one district, whilst famihar with

the practices common there, are totally ignorant of what pre-

vails in other parts of the country. This can scarcely be

INTEODUCTION. Vii

Wondered at wlieii we consider the number of books which

are belieyed by the people to be divinely given as authorities

on matters concerning the gods and the rehgious life. Thepeople of one district are familiar only with perhaps a small

part of one of these books, whilst those of other districts

found their religious faiths on other books or different parts

of the same, the religious teachers of the people as a rule

knowing only a small part of one or other of these large

volumes. In addition -to this it must not be forgotten that

until, a couple of generations back there was no prose litera-

ture, no newspapers or magazines, no novels ; whilst the

theatrical representations which the people so dearly love

were almost entirely confined to mythological representations.

It is no uncommon thing to find some custom in the home,

or some ceremony in worship, supported by quite different

authorities by different people. When, therefore, hearing or

reading of certain thiags being believed or done by Hindus,

we are inclined to deny the accuracy of these statements, it

is well to inquire whether it is not our limited knowledge that

is at fault rather than the accuracy of the writer or speaker.

The sacred writings are full of contradictions, and naturally

the beliefs and practices of the people differ widely.

Many books have already been written on this subject, but it

is not by any means exhausted. Any one living amongst the

people with the seeing eye and inquiring mind may see and

hear much that has never been described in print. And it is

the duty of the observant to note these things, as it is true

to-day in India as elsewhere that " the old order changeth,

giving place to new ;" and certainly more true now than it

'

has been in the past. As Hinduism loses its hold upon the

popular heart, and purer faiths are adopted and more reason-

able practices followed by the millions of India, many things

Vm INTEOCUCTIOK.

now patent to the observer will cease to be done, and it will

be only as old men's tales that they can then be known. Men

visiting certain isles of the Pacific search in vain for any

traces of the old idolatries that once prevailed there, and can

learn of the religion of olden time only from the descendants

of those who once followed this faith; men can nowadays

visit the scenes of child murder and sati in India, but are

dependent upon the stories of eye-witnesses, who have passed

away, for descriptions of these obsolete customs ; so will it be,

doubtless, with many of the common forms of Hinduism, In

the meantime, that those who cannot visit India may know

what its people believe and do in their religions worship, and

that those who come after us may know what was the form

the religious life of the past assumed, it is the duty of those

who have seen this gigantic system in its full force and

activity faithfully to describe what their " eyes have seen, and

their ears have heard."

CONTENTS.

EARLY LIFE.

CHAP. PAGE

I. BIRTH AND ITS CEREMONIES .... 3

n. THE HINDU HOME ..... 17

m. THE GURU, AND INITIATION INTO HINDUISM . 28

HINDU SECTS.

I. GENERAL CHANGES OP HINDUISM . . 37

II. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE HINDU SECTS . 41

m. VBDANTISM, OR ORTHODOX HINDUISM . . 48

IV. THE SECTS EXISTING ABOUT THE FOURTEENTH

CENTURY A.D. ..... 52

V. THE VAISHNAVA SECTS . . .59VI. THE SAIVITE SECTS .... 83

VII. THE SAKTAS, ETC. ..... 91

Vm. MISCELLANEOUS SECTS 97

IX. THE MODERN DEISTIO SECTS . . . 106

1*

X CONTENTS.

CASTE.

CHAP, page:

I. GENEEAL EEMAEKS ON CASTE . . . IZS'

n. CASTE DISTINCTIONS AS TAUGHT IN THE SCEIP-

TUKBS ...... 127

m. HISTORY OP THE GROWTH OF THE CASTE

SYSTEM....... 139'

IV. STRUGGLES FOR SUPREMACY AMONGST THE

CASTES ...... 150

V. CASTE AS IT EXISTS AT THE PRESENT TIME . 158'

VI. PROPORTION OF PEOPLE INCLUDED IN THE CHIEF

CASTES ...... 173-

Vn. KULINISM ....... 179"

WORSHIP.

I. PRIVATE WOESmP . ... 193-

II, TEMPLE WORSHIP . ... 209

m. RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS . . . . 214

IV. PILGRIMAGES : BENARES .... 240

V. „ KALI GHAT, GANGA SAGAE, GAYA 253

VI. „ puRi .... 26a

vn. „ BHUVANESHWARA . . .293VIII. WORSHIP HOW SUSTAINED, AND THE OBJECTS

SOUGHT BY IT . . . . . 29!)

rX. RELIGIOUS IDEAS COMMON TO ALL SECTS

EXPRESSED IN WORSHIP .... 3^5

CONTENTS. XI

WOMAN.CHAP. PAGE

I. POSITION OF WOMAN AS TAUGHT IN THE HINDU

SCBIPTUKES...... 325

n. PRESENT POSITION MABEIAGE CEREMONIES, ETC. 337

m. WIDOWS . ..... 364

rv. SATi . . 377

MORALS.

I. THE HINDUS GENERALLY .... 395

II. THE CRIMINAL CLASSES . . . 419

DEATH, SHRADHA, AND FUTURE JUDGMENT.

I. DEATH AND ITS CEREMONIEB . . 439

n. THE SHRaDHA, OR RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES ON

BEHALF OF THE DEPARTED . . . 459

TTT, JUDGMENT AFTER DEATH ; REWARDS AND PUNISH-

MENTS 471

THE EARLY LIFE OF THE HINDUS.

CHAPTEE I.

BIRTH AND ITS CEREMONIES.

The well-known lines of Wordsworth

—

" Our birth is but a sleep Smd a forgetting

;

The soul that rises with us, our life's star

Hath had elsewhere its setting,

And oometh from afar;

Not in entire forgetfnlnesE,

And not in utter nakedness.But trailing clouds of glory do we comeFrom God who is our home,"

are in perfect harmony with the spirit of Hinduism; hence

it teaches that even before a child is ushered into the worl^

certain ceremonies should be performed on its behalf. About

four months before its birth there is the ceremony called

The Uncooked Food (Kacha Sad). The astrologer having

been consulted on this, as on all other important occasions,

and a suitable day having been fixed by him, all restrictions

respecting food, which at other times are most rigorously

observed by the expectant mother, are removed, and she is

permitted to eat all kinds of fruits, preserves, pickles, &c.,

rice and grain of all kinds only being prohibited. Twomonths later comes the Cooked Food (Bhaja Sad) ceremony,

when the lady with a few friends, whose husbands and

children are hving, is permitted to eat parched peas, rice, and

cooked sweetmeats. A month later still the Panohamrita fes-

tival is held. This name is given because on this occasion the

five dehcacies supposed to form the food of the gods, viz.,

4 THE EARLY LIFE OF THE HINDUS.

milk, glii, curds, honey, and cow-dung, are set before her,

though she is permitted to eat only fruits and sweetmeats, a

little of which are put into her mouth by the officiating

priest. She is gaily dressed in a red-bordered sari, or cloth,

which is afterwards most carefully preserved, lest any unfortu-

nate mother who has lost her children from jealousy should

cut it, or take away'any part of it, as any injury coming to it

would be ominous of evil to her child. At this time a day is

fixed as near as possible to the expected day of birth for the

final and more elaborate feast.

At the concluding festival before the birth of the child,

all the lady relatives of the family are invited, and a

liberal supply of varied kinds of food provided. In order to

make the day as Hvely as possible, singing and dancing girls

are engaged. In former years (and in some places even now)

the songs and dances were of a most indecent character,

but nowadays this objectionable element of the feast is

generally absent. When all is ready, the lady on whose

behalf it is given, beautifully dressed, and adorned with her

jewels, walks to her seat, which is painted white, and placed

in the centre of the apartment, whilst her guests sit in rows

on either side of her. A light burns in front of her, the

sacred conch shell is sounded, and a rupee which has touched

her forehead is offered on her behalf to the gods to ensure

her a safe issue from her coming trouble. The guests thenpartake of the sumptuous feast, and, as soon as it is over,

hurry away to their homes in order that they may reach

them before darkness sets in. As the giver of the feast is

expected to provide palanquins and other conveyances to

bring her guests and also to take them home, and as there

are not sufficient to take more than a smaU number of themat once, there is often a rather lively scene as the ladies try

to get the first use of these conveyances. It is customary-for those who have participated in the feast to send presents

to the lady whom they came to congratulate.

So great is the mortality of Hindu women at childbirth.

BIBTH AND ITS CEEBMONIES. 5

that this event has obtained the name of the Hundredfold-

dreaded (Satasanka); and many of the friends, in makingpresents to the hostess, give them as farewell gifts. Accord-

ing to a Hindu proverb, the ordinary life of a woman being

sedentary, and comparatively idle, is preferable to that of a

man ; the dread of motherhood, however, is regarded as anequivalent to the cares and toils of manhood, so that menare content with their lot and willing to remain men.

It may here be mentioned that, excepting on these high

days of festival, the Hiadu wife, until her child is born, is

under many restrictions respecting food, dress, movements,

&c., and generally her fear of the dangers of the coming

event is sufficiently great to lead her carefully to observe

them. As a rule, a Hindu wife is not more than thirteen or

fourteen years of age when her first child is born, sometimes

she is even younger, and at such times is attended only by

some ignorant person, who is quite unable to render her

any real assistalice when there may be special need. Askilled doctor save in the rarest cases, would not be admitted

into a Hindu home; and when they have been sent for,

attempts have been made to prevent them from seeing more

than the hand and tongue of the patient. It occasions no

surprise, therefore, that there should be great fear experi-

enced by the young wife ; the uncertainty whether she

will survive the event being assigned as the reason for

celebrating the festivals referred to. Amongst the manyregulations imposed upon the wife for months before her

child is born, the following may be' mentioned. She,must

not wear any clothes over which birds have flown. She must

always wear a knot in her dress (sari) where it is fastened

round her waist. In order to avoid the contact of evil

spirits, she inust not walk or sit in the open courtyard of her

house, and must wear a thin reed five inches long tied in the

knot of her hair. As a means of easily getting through her

trouble, she has to wear an amulet (maduh) round her neck,

containing flowers consecrated to Baba Thakur, a deity

6 THE EAELY LIFE OF THE HINDUS.

worshipped chiefly by the lower orders of the people ; and

she must daily drink a few drops of water that have been

touched by this amulet.

When the hour of birth draws near, as a mother is regarded

ceremonially unclean for three weeks after childbirth if she

have given birth to a son, and for a month if her child be a

girl, and as her touch is defiling for this period, she can-

not remain in the house. A shed is therefore provided as

her temporary home. In the homes of the poor the lumber

room is generally emptied ; in other places a mat hut is set

up ; whilst in the larger houses a room is kept for this pur-

pose. These rooms are generally quite destitute of furniture,

a little straw only being spread for the woman to lie upon.

In this wretched place she must remain until the day of her

purification, and although it is admitted that under the most

favourable circumstances there is great risk to her life, the

proceedings in this shed seem calculated to largely increase

this danger. Before the lady enters the room the skull of a

cow smeared with red paint is reared up against the wall to

drive away evil spirits. An image of Sasthi, the goddess whopresides over married women and children, is made of cow-

dung, and placed in a conspicuous position and specially

honoured until the time when the mother can rejoin the

family. And during all this time neither husband nor father,

sister nor mother, must enter the shed lest they be defiled, the

poor mother being left entirely to the tender mercies of the

Barber's wife, whose reign is supreme over both mother andchild. When European ladies visiting . the homes of thepeople have expostulated with them on this cruel treatment,

and tried to induce the friends to show a little more con-sideration to the invalid, all their arguments and entreaties

are met by the assurance that any departure from the customof past ages would only anger Sasthi, and lead her to increasethe evils and dangers of any one who was bold enough to dareto introduce reforms amongst those over whom she reigns.

Sasthi is all-powerful over the superstitious minds of the

BIKTH AND ITS CEEEMONIES. 7

Hindu woman. If a child die soon after its birth, it is Sasthiwho has removed it ; if a mother is blessed with many living

sons, it is Sasthi who must be praised.

As so much is said in this chapter about Sasthi, it will notbe out of place to give a brief account of tliis all-powerful

deity, as many of the Hindus regard her. She is called" Sasthi, or the Sixth," because she is believed to be the

sixth part of the Divine essence of Pradhana Prakriti, the

male and female creative principles by whose influence this

universe has been generated. The following legend is re-

lated in connection with her worship :" Priyavrata, the son

of Svayambhti Manu, who had spent many years in enthu-

siastic and solitary devotion, was at last persuaded by Brahmato contract the bonds of matrimony. But as his wife did

not for a long time present him with offspring, he desired

the divine sage Kasyapa to celebrate the ^ndreshti-yaga, on

the completion of which the sage gave her to eat the sacri-

ficial charm (rice cooked in clarified butter), on swallowing

which she became enceinte. In due time she brought forth

into the world a son as bright as gold, but unfortunately

BtiU-born. The king with a sad heart took the dead child

and laid it on the funeral pile, with a view to cremation.

On a sudden, however, there appeared overhead in the sky a

goddess of surpassing beauty, radiant in the summer sun.

The king, entranced with her heavenly grace, asked her whoshe was. The goddess said, ' I am the wife of liartikheya, the

chief of mothers, and as I am the sixth part of Prakriti, mencall me Sasthi.' So saying, the bright goddess took hold of

the child, gave it breath and life, and made a gesture as if

she was going to take it away with her to the realms of glory.

The king, petrified with fear, addressed many a fervent

prayer, beseeching her to restore the infant to him. The

goddess, pleased with the incense of praise, said, ' thou son

of Svayambhti Manu, thou art the lord of the three worlds.

If thou promise to celebrate my praise as long as thou livest,

I will give the child to thee.' As a grateful return for her

a THE EAELY LIFE OF THE HINDUS.

favour he celebrated the worship of Sasthi with the utmost

pomp. From that time the worship of Sasthi became one of

the most popular institutions in the land of Bharat (India).

The proper image of Sasthi is awoman of matronly appearance,

painted yellow, riding on a cat, and nursing a child; but

usually she is represented by a rude stone, not bigger than a

man's head, painted with red-lead, and placed under a vata

tree in the outskirts of the vUlage ; whilst not unfrequently

she is worshipped in the form of a branch of the vata tree

stuck in the yard of a house." *

If the room sacred to Sasthi, in which the young mother

is placed, is bare and uncomfortable, the means of restoration

of her devotees are most painful too. A drink called jhal

(hot) is made of pepper, chillies, &c., and given her to drink ;

and even in the hottest months of the year a fire is lighted,

near which she is made to lie ; and until the fifth day after

the birth of the child no attempt is made to clean this place.

The child, too, has a warm reception ; for firom head to foot it

is smeared with hot mustard oil, and for hours daily is

placed in the bright sunshine. In former times, if the

child did not thrive under this treatment, and refused to take

nourishment from its mother, it was a common practice to

hang it in a basket on a tree to die. It is said that the great

Hindu reformer, Chaitanya, was exposed in this manner, andwould most probably have died had he not been seen by a

passing pilgrim, who declared him to be an incarnation of

Vishnu, and prophesied that he would grow up to be a great

leader of men.

There is another mode of treatment coming into fashion

at the present time, though for the most part it is amongstthe worshippers of Vishnu, and as it too can claim authority

from the sacred writings, as well as the approval of commonsense, it is to be hoped it soon will be universal. It is be-lieved that this plan has the special approval of the godKrishna, and is successful on this account. According to

* "Bengal Peasant Life," p. 44.

BIRTH AND ITS CEREMONIES. 9

this system no hot and spicy drinks are forced upon the

mother, nor is a fire made to scorch her in her cheerless

room. She is allowed to drink cooling draughts, and buthttle restriction is placed upon her diet. A day or two after

the birth of the child, Hari (Krishna) is worshipped by the

grateful mother, and sweetmeats are distributed to the

children of the neighbourhood. It is said that those whoadopt this method come through their troubles without

harm : when this is generally known by the people it will

not be at all surprising if the Krishna method altogether

supplants the Sasthi.

The earnest desire of every Hindu wife is that she mayhave a son. According to the popular idea, whilst daughters

are a source of anxiety and expense to their parents, sons

form their strength and support. One of their proverbs ex-

presses this idea clearly, " Blind sons support their parents,

but a prince's daughters extort money from them." Perhaps

the deepest root of this desire for sons lies in the fact that

the last religious rites of the Hindus can be most successfully

performed by their male descendants. In the Mahabharata

is a story conveying this lesson most forcibly. A Hindu had

remained unmarried for years after he had attained to man-hood. Passing into the spirit-world, he came upon a num-ber of men hanging by their heels from the branch of a tree,

with their heads overhanging a deep precipice, whilst rats

were gnawing at the ropes which bound them, in momentaryfear of being dashed to pieces. Inquiring whom they were,

he was told that they were his ancestors for several genera-

tions, who were doomed thus to suffer because he had not

married, and so failed to procure a son whose proper perform-

ance of their funeral cerenionies would have saved theia from

this pain, and secured entrance for them into heaven.

Doubtless this, though not the only one, is the strongest

reason which leads all classes of the Hindu community so

earnestly to welcome the advent of a son into the family.

The words of Jesus are true in an extraordinary degree in

10 THE EAELY LIFE OF THE HINDUS.

India, when He said that a mother no more remembers the

anguish for joy that a man is horn into the world. A childless

mother is an object of ridicule, whilst a mother of girls only

is regarded as having in some special manner given offence

to the gods; hence it is that the young wife is buoyed up

with the hope that she will soon have a son in her arms

;

and when, instead of this, a girl is born, though for a little

time she may be deceived, very soon the truth comes out

;

for on the birth of a son the conch shell gives forth its

trumpet-like notes to call upon tl^e whole neighbourhood to

rejoice with the happy parents ; whereas when a daughter

is born the shell is silent, and, instead of congratulation,

condolences are offered. Though at first the sense of dis-

appointment is very keen, maternal instincts prevail, and

the little daughter is welcomed to the mother's heart, and is

as dear to the father in the Hindu home as in homes in

other lands.

The food to be eaten by the mother whilst occupying the

lying-in room (Sutika ghar) is all arranged by laws, even to

the one grain of boiled rice that she is permitted to have on

the third day after her child's birth ; but nothing of import-

ance takes place until the fifth day, when the room is pro-

perly cleaned, and its occupant made a little more comfortable

than was possible before. On the following day Sasthi is

worshipped, and praises are presented to her for her goodness

in preserving and giving life. On the night of this day a far

more important event is supposed to take place, viz., the

fixing of the child's destiny, the arranging of its future life. Atthis time Vidhata, a form of Brahma, is supposed to visit the

room, and write upon its forehead the main events of its life.

Before the sun goes down various things have to be placedready for this important visit. There must be a palm leaf,

pen and ink, a snake's skin, a brick from a temple of Siva,

fruit, wool, money : these are all placed in readiness, and as

some one must remain awake during the night, lest the deity

should feel slighted, and in anger write a long list of calami-

BIBTH AND ITS CEBEMONIES. 11

ties upon the forehead of the unconscious babe, it generally

devolves upon the midwife to keep this solemn vigil. If

Vidhata is propitious, a life of prosperity will be arranged

;

if he is angry, suffering and loss will be the characteristic of

the child's experience through life. Audit is the belief of the

mass of the people that at this time the whole plan of their life's

history was written in ineradicable lines. " It is written on myforehead," is a sufficient reason for the greatest calamities

and troubles in after life. This superstitious belief largely

accounts for the stoical endurance of physical pain, disap-

pointment, and loss, that is so noticeable in the Hindu.

What Vidhata (Fate) has written must come to pass ; it is

useless, therefore, to attempt to oppose the inevitable.

In his book called "Bengal Peasant Life," Mr. L. B. Deygives a typical account that the midwives relate ofwhat takes

place on this eventful night. "I heard the sound of foot-

steps at the door, especially on that side where the pen and

ink were. The same sound of footfall was heard all along

the passage from the door to where the baby was sleeping

by his mother. Immediately after, 'I heard a sound similar

to that which is made by a man when writing, but I saw no

figure. By the light of the fire, however, I saw a smile play-

ing on the lips of the baby. Shortly after, I heard the sound

of retreating footsteps, and I rushed towards the door and

said, ' Thaltur ! I hope you have written favourably.' The

god knew me well, as he had often seen me, and told me what

he had written on the forehead of the child, but on condition

of the strictest secrecy. I dare not disclose it to you, for if I

disclose it, Vidhata will be angry with me, and will kill meoutright by twisting my neck; but rejoice, for the child's

forehead is good."

When the child is eight days old, the Atkauri ceremony

takes place, so called because eight kinds of peas, rice, &c.,

are distributed. Children from the neighbourhood come

with winnowing fans near the room where the mother and

her child are lying, and, after knocking at the door with the

12 THE EABLY LIFE OF THE HINDUS.

fan, inquire after the child's health ; and on being told that

all is well, they reply, " Let it rest in peace in its mother's

arms." Led on by the elder folk, they indulge in a little

joking at the father's expense, after which they are regaled

with sweetmeats.

When the three weeks (or, in the case of girls, a month)

have passed by, the ceremonies for the purification of the

mother are proceeded with. Sasthi is again worshipped, her

representative being a small branch of the vata (Indian fig)

tree. Miss Leslie, in the "Dawn of Light," gives the

following account of the purification of a Hindu woman :

"Her nails were cut, her hair tied up; she was put in a

palanquin, the bedding having been taken out, and carried

to the river, a distance of six miles. The bearers waded into

the stream with their burden as far as they could go, and the

sacred waters gushed in, around, and upon her, shut up in her

dark box. She was then carried back all those six miles in

her wet clothes, and such was the efiicacy of the bath, that

from that time she was reckoned ceremonially clean. Theneighbours were feasted with sweetmeats, and puja (worship)

was offered to the goddess Sasthi." In addition to the feast-

ing at the house as part of this ceremony, twenty-one small

baskets, filled with parched rice, plantains, sugar-cane, &c.,

are sent to as many married women whose husbands are

still living. And also the goddess Subhachini, who is said to

be a form of Durga, is worshipped. The reason of this wor-

ship is found in the following legend. In a certain village

there lived a poor Brahman boy, who on one occasion, seeing

a fishwoman with some beautiful fish, cried because he could

not purchase them. The fishwife, seeing his grief, left someof the fish at his house, saying she would call for the moneyon her way home. In the meantime the mother cooked the

fish, but before it was eaten the woman called for her money,and, as the mother of the boy could not pay for it, she con-

sented to take it back, although it had been cooked. Thoughthe boy lost the fish, he tasted the water in which it had

BIRTH AND ITS CEKEMONIES. 13

been cooked, and was so delighted with its flavour, that becould not resist the temptation of stealing a lame duck be-

longing to the king, and quietly eating it. The duck wasmissed, investigation made, and the culprit being discovered,

was tried, condemned, and imprisoned. Upon this the boy's

mother was almost beside herself with grief. When in this

distress Durga, in the form of Subhachini, appeared to her in

a dream, and advised her to worship her under this name.

She did so, and as part of her worship made seventeen ducks

of rice paste, one of which had a lame leg. The worship wascompleted, the burnt-ofifering made, when some of the holy

water that had been brought for the sacrifice falling upon the

feathers of the stolen duck, brought it back to life; and

though its flesh had been eaten by the boy, the living bird wassent back to the king. He, hearing this wonderful event, sent

for the mother, who told him the whole story ; whereupon,

seeing how great a favourite this family must be of the

powerful goddess, he ordered the release of the boy, and,

acting upon the advice of his ministers, gave him his daughter

in marriage. Subhachini is associated .with Sasthi in this

worship, in the hope that she will take the child, on whose

behalf her worship is celebrated, under her especial care, and

rescue him from the difficulties that may beset him in his life.

When a boy is six months old, the ceremony of naming

takes place, and at the same time a festival called Anna

prasan, or rice-eating. On this occasion the child, beauti-

fully dressed and decorated with jewels, is brought' into the

guest-chamber, and a few grains of cooked rice are put into

his mouth. In some families it is the custom to purchase

this rice from the priests of some of the great temples ; when

this is not done, Brahmans are fed, and laden with presents

to purchase their goodwill. As a part of this important feast,

the father performs a sort of thanksgiving service called the

Vridhi Shrad, in which he makes offerings for the benefit of his

ancestors. It will be noticed that these gifts for the good of

their ancestors are frequently given by the Hindus, it being

14 THE EARLY LIFE OF THE HINDUS.

believed by them that it is by this means that those who have

passed away are supported.

The name-giving, however, is the important event on this

occasion. The father proclaims the selected name, though

generally it is the mother who has chosen it. " What's in a

name ? " asks Shakespeare ; but often a history of years of

disappointment and weary waiting, as well as of present

joy, is written in the name a Hindu child bears through life.

As Hannah of old, by calling her son Samuel, proclaimed

that she had spent years of sadness and deferred hope, and

then the gladness with which she welcomed her babe to her

bosom ; so by the name a Hindu mother gives to her boy, a

life's history is often suggested. One story from thousands

of similar ones will illustrate this. A Brahman and his wife

had lived together most*happily for many years, but remained

childless. Their bUss was very greatly marred by this cir-

cumstance. The husband had hinted that the time had

come for him to supersede the wife of his youth by a second,

in the hope that by this means a son might gladden his

home. Many prayers had been offered and gifts bestowed

;

but still no child was given. As a last resource, a long pil-

grimage to Kalighat was made, and a vow registered that if

a son were given within a certain time, money should be

given to the shrine. In due course, as they believed in

answer to their prayer, and as a reward for their faith, a son

was given; and when the naming-day came, in the nameKali Prasad (given by the favour of Kali), the history of the

many years of sorrowful waiting, and then of the fulfilment

of their desires, is clearly written. There are thousands of

Hindus to-day bearing the name of Siva Prasad, DurgaPrasad, Tara Prasad, &c., because it is the belief of the

parents that it was through the bounty of these deities that

their sons were giVen to them.

As a rule the names chosen are those of some of the deities

or deified heroes whose deeds of prowess are written in theEamayana and Mahabharata. Sometimes the humility of

BIBTH AND ITS CEEEMONEES. 15

the parents is seen as they call their children the servants ofsome of the gods or goddesses, as, e.g. , Durga Dass, Kali Dass.A child never bears the same name as his father. Girls arenamed after goddesses, as Lakshmi, Ganga, &c. ; or after

flowers, as Padma (a lotus) and Kamini. A strange practice

prevails where a number of children have been taken awayby death. Instead of calling them by the names of thedeities they are called Dukhi (pain), Tiu Kauri (three cowryshells), Haran (the lost one), &c., the idea being that whenYama, the god of Death, stalks along with his noose in his

hand, and asks. Who goes there ?—hearing such names as

these, he will pass them by as unworthy of his notice, and so

their lives are prolonged. In after years sometimes other

names may be added, when it is seen that these have served

the purpose of saving their children from Yama's noose.

In addition to the name chosen by the parents, and given

during infancy, another name is selected by the astrologer

who casts the horoscope of the child, which has as its initial a

letter from the particular star that ruled at the hour of its

birth. A child, e.<j., born in the last division of Virgo's rule,

whose ordinary name is Gopfil, ajppears in ceremonial docu-

ments, say, as Thakur Dass, because Th is the last letter of

the Sanskrit word for Virgo. Whilst speaking of names it

may be stated here that though the Hindus of course bear

the family name in addition to those selected by their parents,

they are not generally known by them. Excepting in places

where European customs prevail, a man named Hari Nara-

yana Banerjea would seldom or never be called so, but Hari

Narayana Babu, the family name being usually dropped in

ordinary conversation. And when a student obtains a title

from the Sanskrit colleges, the title is taken as a surname in

place of the family name.

Perhaps the most important ceremony connected with

the birth of a Hindu child is the preparation of his horo-

scope. The precise moment of birth is noted and given to

the astrologer, who, according to the fee paid, prepares a more

16 THE EARLY LITE OF THE HINDUS.

or less elaborate forecast of the child's fate. The chief real

service that this document serves in after life, where births

are not registered by government officials, is to determine the

exact age of its owner, and in disputes that are carried into

the law courts this document is considered of equal value

with a register of birth as kept in the police registers in

England. Where evils are indicated or good foretold in this

prophetic scroll, the Hindu seeks to obtain deliverance from

the one, and to obtain the other by liberal donations to the

gods. It seems strange at first, perhaps, that men should

trust to these guesses, but the desire to penetrate into the

darkness of the future seems to be almost universal. Most

important events sometimes hang upon what has been

written by ihe astrologers ; marriage arrangements that

would have been satisfactorily completed are broken off when,

on the horoscopes of the intended bride and bridegroom

being compared, it is found that they were born under

mutually hostile stars.

CHAPTEE II.

THE HINDU HOME.

Aptee describing the ceremonies attendant upon the birth of

a Hindu we naturally pass on to consider the character of

the dwelling-place in which he will live. In order to under-

stand this it will be necessary to dismiss at once and entirely

from the mind all notions that cling round the word homeas the word is used in England, for there is nothing at all

answering to this in the Hindu home. I shall first speak

of the dwellings, and then of those who occupy them.

Amongst the middle and upper classes, no Hindu about to

marry would think, as we do here, of having a home of his

own. It would be quite contrary to his ideas of propriety to

leave his wife alone in a house whilst he went about his

ordinary work ; neither, if his duties called him to a distance,

would he think of taking his wife to live with him there.

When he marries he considers that his father's house is the

safest and best place for his wife to dwell in ; consequently

there is no house to be built or rented ; he simply conducts

his bride to the family house where a room is prepared for

her reception.

The typical Hindu family house is built in the form of a

quadrangle, with an open courtyard in the centre. Opposite

to the entrance gate is a platform built to receive the images

that are made for the periodic religious festivals that are

held in honour of the various deities. On the ground floor

the rooms to right and left of the courtyard are used

3

18 THE EARLY LIFE OF THE HINDUS.

largely as store-rooms, offices, &c. ; whilst over these are

the public reception rooms, well lighted and generally

well furnished, some of them having chairs, &c., for the

convenience. of European visitors. Here also is a roomin which the family idol is kept, before which the priest

performs • service generally twice a day. All these apart-

ments are used by the male members of the family only.

Excepting at feasts the meals are not taken here, unless

there may happen to be a number of visitors other than

members of the family who are not admitted into the more

private portion of the house.. From the back of the court-

yard a passage conducts into a second and smaller yard

which is also surrounded by rooms in which the lady

members of the family Uve. Here the meals are eaten,

and here the sleeping apartments of the family are to be

found. The guests sleep in the rooms adjoining the outer

courtyard. These inner rooms are generally much smaller

than those in the more public part of the house ; and the

windows are also smaller and placed high in the walls, for

^^'Manu distinctly declared that it was not right for a " womanto look out of the windows." During the day the gentlemen

generally occupy the more public rooms, as they may betransacting business, or amusing themselves in various ways,

whilst the women are engag9d in household duties or in

their own forms of recreatjon. As it is considered indecorous' for a man to speak to his wife during the day, their only

time for conversation is when they retire to their own apart-

ment for the night. And as it is not considered right for a

married woman to look at or address her husband's elder

' brothers, it will be clearly realized that anything like thesocial home-life of an English house is impossible undersuch conditions. It is more like hotel life than that of

a home. As during the day the men usually associate

with the men, and the women with the women, and even.' during the meals the husband sits down to his food with

his wife attending on him as a servant, and not eating

THE HINDU HOME. 19

with him as an equal, there is, there can be nothing at all

answering to the pleasant sociality of an English dinner-

table. When further it is remembered that in some of these

immense houses over three hundred people live together it

will be still more clearly seen how vast is the difference be-

tween the Hindu and the English home. Few things in

England seem to please the Hindus who come over here

more than the sociability of an English home.Of course the bulk of the people do not live in these palatial

dwellings. I shall now give a description of the typical homeof the ryots, the rural classes who answer to our very

small farmers in England, and with slight modifications this

would be a true description of the homes of the artizans—of

all, in fact, excepting the very poor, who are unable to keep

their wives in any way secluded, great though their desire is

to do so. This account is taken from Mr. Dey's book on" Bengal Peasant Life "

(p. 28) : " You enter the house with

your face to the East, through a small door of mango wood

in the street, and you go at once to the uihdn, or open yard,

which is indispensable to the house of every peasant in the

country. On the west side of the yard, on the same side as

the gate, . . . stands the hara ghar, or big hut. This is the

biggest, the neatest, and most elaborately finished of all

Badan's huts. Its walls, which are of mud, are of great

thickness ; the thatch, which is of the straw of paddy, is

more than a cubit deep ; the bamboo framework, on which

the thatch is laid, is well compacted together, every inter-

stice being filled with the long and slender reed called sara,

alternating with another of red colour ; the middle beam,

which supports the thatch, though it is not made of the

costly teak or sal, is made of the palmyra, and the floor is

raised at least five feet from the ground. The hut is about 16

cubits long, and 12 broad, including the verandah, which faces

the yard, and which is supported by props of palmyra. It is

divided into two compartments of unequal size, the bigger one

being Badan's sleeping-room, and the smaller one being the

20 THE EABLY LIFE OF THE HINDUS.

store-room of the family. . . . The verandah is the parlour

of the family. There friends and aoquaintanoes sit on mats.

In Badan's sleeping-room are kept the brass vessels of the

house and other valuables. There is no bedstead in it, for

Badan sleeps on the mud floor, a mat and a quilt stuffed with

cotton interposing between his body and mother earth.

There is not much light in the room, for the thatch of the

verandah [coming down very near the ground] prevents its

admission, while there is but one small window high up in

the wall towards the street. I need scarcely add that there

is no furniture in the room : . . . there is only, in one corner,

a solitary box. In one side of the room two whole bamboos

are stuck into the walls, on which clothes are hung, and on

which the bedding is put up in the day.

" On the south side of the yard, and at right angles to the

big hut, is a smaller hut of far inferior construction, which

... is used as a lumber-room, or rather as a tool-room, for

keeping the implements of husbandry. ... In the verandah

of this little hut is placed the dhenld, or rice-husking pedal.

From this circumstance the Uttle hut is called the Dhenki-

salci.

" In the south-east corner of the yard, and at right angles

to the Dhenkisala, is another hut of somewhat better con-

struction, in which Gayarama (Badan's brother) sleeps, anda verandah which serves the purpose of a kitchen. . . . Theonly other hut on the premises is the cow-house, . . . situ-

ated to the north of the yard, nearly parallel to the big hut.

. . . The eastern side of the premises opens on a tank."

As the houses differ in arrangement from our own, the

Hindu family system is even more unlike anything that pre-

vails amongst us. It is a patriaiohal system pure andsimple, as the head of the family rules supreme in the home,and aU the money earned by each member of the family, withsome few exceptions, comes into his hands, and is disbursedaccording to his commands. How long this style has beenin vogue it is impossible to say, but it was probably brought

THE HINDU HOME. 21

•with the Aryan immigrants into India from their home inCentral Asia, It has all the force of a religious institution." Eeligion shaped itself according to the wishes of the legis-

lator, and thus what was intrinsically useful heeame a legal

and religious institution of the land.'' And it is interesting

to see how in this, as in so many instances, sacred texts canbe found to support a system which, but for this, wouldlong ago have passed away. The text of Manu, which is

held to teach authoritatively on this subject, is the following :

" Three persons, a wife, a son, and a slave, are declared bylaw to have in general no wealth of their own ; the wealthwhich they may earn is regularly acquired for the man to

whom they belong." And Narada, another authority, de-

clares of a son :" He is of age and independent in case his

parents be dead ; during their lifetime he is dependent, even

though he is grown old."

The Hindu family system may be described as a sort of

Joint Stock Company, in which the head of the family is

managing director, with almost unlimited powers; or as a

little kingdom, in which he is an almost absolute sovereign.

The sons, grandsons, nephews, who form the family, regard

all their earnings as belonging to the common treasury ; andtheir expenditure is under the direct control of the karta, or

head. Thus it happens that when several members of the

family are absent from home engaged in various ways, the

balance of their salaries or profits must be remitted to the

karta. This has its advantages and its disadvantages. There

is a home in which a man can leave his wife with confidence

when he is hundreds of miles away engaged in business, or

filling some government appointment. This, to the Hindu

who would not regard it as a safe procedure to have his family

with him in an ordinary house, is a source of immense com-

fort. Once a year, if his business is distant from his home,

he takes leave, that he may have a few days with his family.

There is also the certainty of support in case of sickness

or permanent incapacity for work. But it has its drawbacks

22 THE EAKLY LIFE OF THE HINDUS.

too. An idle, worthless son has no necessity laid upon himto work ; he can obtain all the necessaries of life without it

;

and many a family has one or more members who are mere

parasites, doing nothing whatever to increase the income of

the family ; and, according to our ideas of life, it is destruc-

tive of the most sacred institution, the home. Often, how-

ever, the idle son is not altogether without his place in

society. If he will not or cannot go out to earn money as

the other members of the family do, it is something if he re-

main at home to look after the domestic and other affairs,

and to afford protection to the ladies who live there. Whereall are workers, if the head of the family is growing old,

the sons take it in turn to remain at home, perhaps for a

year at a time ; or the one who has the worst prospects of

advancement will resign his appointment at a distance anddevote all his time to the care of the family.

In a description of the members of the Hindu home, the

karta, or head, must first be considered. This will be the

father, or grandfather, of the present generations of workers.

Until recent years all the earnings of the family were underhis absolute control, and without his sanction no important

transaction of any member of the family would be considered

as settled. All sales and purchases of property would be in his

name, and it is he who arranges for the marriage of the

children. The following description of the. typical orthodoxHindu karta is given by a Hindu'gentleman, Mr. B. Mulleck,

in his account of the Hindu family (p. 18, ff.) : "In his

habiliments he is all simplicity. An ordinary cloth of five

yards in length constitutes his usual costume. When he goesout he takes an additional piece of cloth to wrap his trunkwith. To wear heeled shoes or boots is inconsistent with his

venerable position, and he prefers loose slippers. It is his

habit to shave his head and face clean, leaving only a tuft of

hair about the centre|of his head unshaved. This and a beadnecklace mark him as a Hindu, and are prized by him asHindu distinctions. The only perfumery he uses is mustard

THE HINDU HOMK. 23

oil. . . . His education is not of a high order. He can readand write. At all times he is a lover of learning, and suchof his children as are mindful of their studies are his especial

favourites. Devoid of a liberal education himself, he is pos-

sessed of strong common sense, and his judgments generallysmack of practical wisdom. . . . The authors of the Eama-yana and Mahabharata are his great pets, and the stories

contained in those works delight his imagination." For literary and philosophical culture he greatly de-

pends on the priest, versed in ancient lore. He accepts the

truths enunciated by him without question or cavil, andstores them up in his mind. . . . The only science he cares

for is arithmetic, in the knowledge of which he is generally

profound. ... In bookkeeping, too, he has some experience." In regard to morals, the karta knows that falsehood is

a sin. Evasion and equivocation sometimes are his practices

when direct falsehood is impossible. To avert loss or injury

he may tell an untruth. His self-love verges on selfishness,

though he is just and fair in his dealings. . . . Servile

obedience is constitutional with him when he has to deal

with superiors in office. Flattery is the oil he uses to soften

their minds. He is possessed of plenty of gratitude to those

who have benefitted him ; but his hatred towards his enemies

is implacable." Of course, it is the Bengali of the old

school whose picture has here been drawn, the young menof the present generation, when their turn comes to reign in

the Hindu homes, will manifest a very different character.

When the head of the family dies his younger brother maytake his place ; or if he has no brother, his eldest son will

rise to this dignity ; but as a rule it is not until a manhas attained to a good age that he becomes a karta. Andsuch is the respect shown to the person holding this position

that an elder brother will exercise as much authority over

his brothers, who may be but a year or two younger than

himself, as his father had done before him. In the present

age, where the younger members of the family wiU not

24 THE EAELY LIFE OP THE HINDUS.

submit to the authority of an elder brother, a partition of

the property is made ; but frequently before this is agreed

upon a good part of the estate has been squandered in useless

litigation.

Next in authority to the karta is the grihini, or chief wife

in the family. This may be the wife, or it may be the

mother of the karta. In all matters relating to the manage-

ment of the house and to the conduct of the female members

of the family, her influence is as great as that of the karta

in all that concerns the men. She may occasionally con-

sult the head of the family ; but this is by no means the

invariable rule with her. And as his power is. felt in the

more public concerns of the family, so hers is not without

influence in the domestic arrangements. She superintends

if she does not actually do all the cooking, and it is quite

possible for her to make the home a happy or miserable one

for the younger women. "The grihini leads a life of self-

denial. Her personal comforts are few [when, as frequently

happens, she is a widow] .- She lives upon the coarsest of

meals and wears the commonest of raiment. She works

from morn till night. She fasts twice or thrice a month,

and keeps vigils for securing the blessing of the gods to-

wards her children, and, to make assurance doubly sure,

commands her daughters and daughters-in-law to do the

same. . . . It is her pride to enforce purity and cleanliness

with the utmost rigour. She bathes and changes her

clothes half-a-dozen times a day. If she is cooking, she

must wear clothes that have been washed and dried in the

sun. When in the store-room she must have another suit to

wear. Should she be preparing the offerings for the house-

hold god there is another change of her habiliments. . . . Thehouse is washed many times a day, and the cooking utensils

undergo the pangs of constant friction." . . . And othermembers of the family must follow her lead in this respect.

Added to all this is a great number of religious festivals

which she observes, the main object of which is to obtain

ihe prosperity of the family.

THE HINDU HOME. 25

In cases where the husband is dead it sometimes happensthat the widow has charge to a large extent of the family

property, and aU the legal affairs are conducted in her name.Next to the karta and grihini come the sons and their

wives. It is evident, from what has gone before, that in the

home their position is a subordinate one. The sons mayearn the money by which the family is supported, and their

wives may have a fair share of the daily work of the home,but in the management of affairs they have little power.

The only resource that is open to a son's wife when her

husband's family make things unpleasant is to complain at

night to her husband, and to go for a longer or shorter visit

to her father's house. And if all one hears of these matters

is correct, when the husband is absent from home for a year

or two at a time the" position of some of these women is any-

thing but enviable. The bulk of them being totally un-

educated cannot even apprise their husbands of what is

troubling them at home ; but many of the present generation

having learned to write are able to get some relief in pouring

out their griefs to their husbands and in receiving their

cheering letters in reply.

In addition to these the ordinary members of the family,

in cases where a girl has married a KuUn Brahman, or

where her father is rich and her husband poor, the girls

remain in their father's house, and their husbands become

members of the family. In these cases, as a rule, they are

drones in the hive, feeding upon the generosity of their

wives' relations. These by swelling the numbers of the family

tend to destroy altogether the,privacy of the home.

There is, however, one thing to be said in favour of this

family system : there is no poor law, and there are no poor-

houses in India. The idle and the weaker members of the

family find shelter and maintenance at the expense of

their more industrious and healthy relatives. Occasionally

men are to be found wandering about leading a beggar's

life ; but though the idle are not always treated kindly, it

26 THE EAELY LIFE OF THE HINDUS.

would be considered a disgrace for them to be in actual

want ; and, to avoid this scandal, food and home are given to

many who would doubtless be better were they forced to toil.

A notice of the Hindu family would be incomplete were

no notice taken of some other members.

First of all there is the family priest. Every well-

appointed house has its shrine with its image or some

representation of the family god. The father, unless he be

a Brahman, cannot officiate ; for this purpose he must either

have a priest supported from the common fund, or he mustshare his services with some other family. The priest's

work is to bathe and anoint the idol, recite the ritual,

and make the offerings of fruits and flowers that the family

present. Occasionally the head and other members of the

family may be present during the performance of this wor-

ship ; but as a rule the priest is there alone, and receives as

his perquisite the offerings that are given to the idol. In

some cases there may also be a piece of land assigned for

this expense which some pious ancestor has bequeathed.

The priest is also present at all the important events, such

as birth, marriage, and funeral ceremonies, for which he

obtains additional presents as fees for the service he renders.

Generally a room in the house is assigned for the priest's

use, for, being of a higher caste than the family in whosehouse he lives, of course he does not take his food with them.

Next to the priest, though not second in importance, may'^be mentioned the guru, or religious guide. Every Hindumust have his guru, as it is by him that he is initiated into

the privileges of the Hindu religion. The power of these

men over their disciples is almost unparalleled in history. It

is even taught in the Hindu scriptures that it is better for aman to offend the gods than his guru, because if he offend

the gods his guru can intercede with the gods on his behalf

and win their favour ; but if a man offend the guru, there

is none can appease his wrath ; the curse of a guru will

condemn a man to untold miseries in hell. It should be

THE HINDU HOME. 27

noticed that neither the guru nor the astrologer live in the ^ j'

family houses of those to whom they minister.

Then comes the astrologer, whose work it is to determine

the proper time for the initiation and completion of any

important work of the family. If the season be inopportune,

no skill, no care in its execution, can ensure success. It is

he who fixes the hour for weddings, religious festivals, starting

on a journey, commencing a new business, &c. ; and without

his advice nothing is attempted.

We have now considered the chief persons in the Hindu

home, and shall pass on to consider the ceremony of initi-

ation into the Hindu community.

CHAPTER III.

THE GURU, AND INITIATION INTO HINDUISM.

When a Hindu boy is about eight years of age, in some

castes not until lie is about twelve, the important ceremony

of initiation takes place. It is a strange coincidence that as

in the Christian Church there is the Sacrament of Confirma-

tion, by which the person is formally received into the

Christian fold, so in Hinduism there is a rite administered

by which the child is supposed to enter the sacred pale. This

rite is performed by the guru, a man altogether distinct from,

and having no connection at all with, the priest. In some

sects—and the Hindu community at the present time is just

a conglomeration of sects—the guru need not be a Brahman,but the office may be assumed by any who desire it. At this

ceremony, in the case of the Brahman, Kihshetriya, andVaisya castes, who are regarded as twice born, the sacred

poitra, or thread, is put on for the first time. This is asimple necklace made of a few strains of thread, which is the

mark of the spiritual aristocracy of India ; and in most cases

an earl is not more proud of his coronet than is the Hinduof this thread which marks him as a special favourite of

the gods.

On an appointed day the guru of the family calls, and the

youth who is to receive the Seed text (Vij mantra) must fast,

bathe, and appear in the most spotless of garments. Theyouth is then left alone with the guru, who selects for himsome special deity, whom he is to regard as his chief object

TBE GUBTJ, AND INITIATION INTO HINDUISM. 29

of worship amongst the many thousands that form the HinduPantheon. The teacher then teaches the child a text ; it may-be simply the name of the selected deity, or some few Sanskrit

words that have a similar sound, which must be kept aprofound secret in after life, and which it is the duty of the

disciple to repeat mentally or in whispers an hundred andeight times every day. The members of many of the Hindusects carry a rosary, which they use to count the times they

repeat this mantra; and as a sign of their humility somecarry this in a bag, that it may not be seen by others ; but,

Pharisee-like, they do not object to this bag being seen, nor

do they hide the movement of their fingers in counting their

beads as they stand in the market and other conspicuous

places muttering this charm. So strong is the superstition

regarding the necessity for secrecy in connection with the

guru's mantra that I have known some Christian converts

shrink from making public the phrase taught to them whenthey were initiated, lest the anger of the gods should somehowvent itself upon them. From those that I have heard it it

is clear that as a rule they are meaningless words strung

together with a rhyming sound.

The person receiving the mantra is regarded ever after as

the disciple of the teacher who gives it. This relationship

continues through life, the son of a guru often taking up his

father's disciples when he dies. In many cases this is a most

lucrative post, as, influenced by superstitious fears, the Hindus

give largely to these men who are believed to wield almost

divine powers. The guru visits his disciples about once a

year, and if he be a really earnest man, as some undoubtedly

are, he avails himself of this opportunity to teach them some

portions of Hindu mythology, or other lessons in religion. I

have often seen the guru with two or three disciples sitting

at his feet listening most earnestly as he read a few lines

from some of their sacred books, and then expounded them

for their benefit. As a rule, however, they are ignorant and

selfish men, their chief object in visiting their disciples being

80 ' THE EARLY LIFE OF THE HINDUS,

to obtain the customary fee. The following account of the

guru from the pen of a Hindu gentleman* will show the

general opinion of these men by the more enlightened of the

community:

—

" Akin to the priest is the guru. The guru is the mediumof salvation, and therefore his position is higher than that of

the priest. Woe to the Hindu whose body and soul have not

been purified by the spiritual counsels of the guru ! Helives and dies a veritable beast on earth, with no hope of

immortal bliss. However charitable may be his gifts, how-

ever spotless his character, be his faith in the gods ever so

strong, his salvation is impossible without the guru.f Both

the guru and the priest vie with each other in ignorance and

conceit. Both are covetous, unprincipled, and up to every

vice ; but the guru is much more revered than his adversary,

owing to the former being a less frequent visitor, and the specu-

lative and mysterious nature of his avocations. The guru's

sway over the family is complete. His visits are generally

annual, unless he be in a fix [for money] on account of animpending matrimonial or funeral ceremony in his house,

when he certainly comes to you for his ghostly fee.'' There

are many who simply pass their time in the disciples' houses,

going from one to another and remaining as long as they

wish, imposing on the hospitality and trading on the super-

stitious fears of their hosts.

"At one time these visits were regarded as auspicious

events. Paterfamilias would consider the morn to haveauspiciously dawned which brought with it the radiant face

ofhisguru. . . . DameNaturehasselectedhimforhisprecious

physiological and anatomical gifts. Picture to yourself a fat,

short man having what the doctors call " an apoplectic make,"ofpretty fair complexion, round face, short nose, long ears, andeyes protruding from their sockets. Picture that face as sleek

* " The Hindu Family in Bengal," p. 156.

t In the chapters on the Hindu sects it will be seen that in many ofthem respect for the guru forms a most prominent feature of the religiouslite.

THE GUEU, AND INITIATION INTO HINDUISM. 31

and soft, shorn of hairy vegetation, and the crown of the headperpetually kept in artificial baldness save a long tuft of hair

in the centre. . . . His countenance does not show the least

sign of worldly care ; plenty and ease have always been his

environment. . . . He comes with half-a-dozen famished beg-

gars, each of whom has an important part to play in his lord's

drama. One prepares his food, another his hemp smoking

and opium pills, a third looks after his treasure, a fourth shaves

him and anoints his body, whilst the sixth helps him in his

amatory transactions. These are not paid servants, but mere

hirelings, who follow him through fire and through water for

anything ' that hath a stomach in it.'

" At the sight of the guru and his crew the whole house is

thrown into commotion, and even the inmates of the Zenana

for the nonce lose their equanimity. ' The lord has come

'

is the alarm given by the karta, and it is echoed and re-

echoed in the whole household. Preparations for his enter-

tainment on an extensive scale are immediately ordered ; all

the while the wily guru laughs in his sleeve with the thought

that so long as there are cunning men in the world there

must be fools. The karta is seen to reach the doorpost of his

house and fall prostrate before the guru, who compliments

him by coolly putting his foot on the devotee's head as if it

'

was a stepping-stone to the attainment of higher honours in

store for him. It is habitual with the guru to enter the

house with a sorry face and cold demeanour. There is a vein

of pohcy in it—viz., to terrify the karta, and extort from him

a higher fee. This attempt sometimes causes unpleasant-

ness. We have seen gurus insulting their spiritual disciples,

cursing and swearing, and exhibiting conduct as would, under

any other circumstances, justify his immediate expulsion from

the house." On entering the house the guru is escorted to a sitting-

chamber, furnished with new carpets (for it is sacrilegious to

make him sit on used ones), and is requested to be seated.

He will not sit at first till the fascination of large promises

32 THE EARLY LIFE OF THE HINDUS.

becomes irresistible, and he yields. Large demands are

sometimes made, which are generally acceded to hy the

terrified disciples. After this the members of the family are

inquired after, and are disraissed with the touch of the holy

man's foot. After his bath the guru is regaled with the

choicest food, and the whole family and their neighbours

esteem it a great privilege to partake of what he mayleave."

Some of these men are very rich, and make a great show

of wealth as they travel in state from village to village. It is

rather a surprising thing that, notwithstanding . this great

display of wealth and comfort, they should continue to retain

their hold of the Hindu mind ; for, as a rule, it is asceticism

in their religious teachers rather than enjoyment, that seems

to have the greatest influence over them. The sacred writings

abound with stories of the way in which men, by hard andlong-continued penance, have prevailed over the gods even

;

it is seldom that the self-indulgent are described as wielding

superhuman power.

It is in the Tantras, probably the latest of all the religious

writings of the Hindus, that the powers of the guru are set

forth with the greatest extravagance. According to these

books, as the following quotation shows, his power is almost

infinite :—" Of this word (guru), the g is the cause of friction,

the r destroys sin, the u is Siva himself, the whole word is the

Eternal Brahma excellent and inexplicable. He whose lips

pronounce the sound guru, with what sin is he charge-

able. The articulation offlr annihilates the sin even of

killing a Brahman ; the sins of the present birth are removedby pronouncing u, of ten thousand births by the pronuncia-

tion of ru. Parasurama murdered his mother, and Indra

destroyed a Brahman, yet they both obtained absolution bypronouncing the word guru." Though this is the teaching

of the form of religion which, it is said, Siva sent his sonGanesa from heaven purposely to teach, the gurus may beand are guilty of the grossest immorality without any very

THE GURU, AND INITIATION INTO HINDUISM. 3S

great loss of lespect amongst the more ignorant classes of the

community.

Having spoken of the initiation of a Hindu into the system,

it naturally follows that we speak of the religious sects into

one of which he must he initiated. Strictly speaking, there is

now no grand division of what may he called orthodox andheterodox systems ; but the whole community of the Hindusis divided into a great number of sects, all to a greater or less

degree differing in faith and practice from each other, and

also from the Hinduism of their forefathers before it had been

modified by the teaching of Buddha and his disciples.

HINDU SECTS.

CHAPTEE I.

GENERAL CHANGES OF HINDUISM.

Befoee passing on to notice minutely the peculiarities of

the many sects into which the Hindus are divided, it will

not be out of place to give a very brief sketch of the phases

through which Hinduism has passed.

When the Indian branch of the great Aryan family mi-

grated to India, the people brought with them the general

religious ideas and mythology common to the whole. Thedeities of the Vedic age differ little from those of the older

forms of the Greek and Latin ; whilst the forms of worship

were almost identical. After settling down in India the

Eishis or Sages developed the ideas they brought with them

;

and the form of this development was largely determined by

the character of the country into which they had come, and

the manifestations of the natural world by which they were

surrounded. The beliefs and practices of the original inhabi-

tants of the country also very largely tended to modify the

forms Hinduism assumed after the Hindus had resided for a

lengthened period in India. As this religious system, with its

elaborate ritual, developed, as the restrictions it imposed upon

its adherents increased in severity, as the distinctions of

caste became more marked, and the privileges claimed by

the higher rendered the position of the despised classes more

intolerable, the people became prepared to hsten to the teach-

ing of Buddha, who rose as a great Eeformer, teaching the

equality and brotherhood of man, and pointing out how the

88 HINDU SECTS.

highest good was attainable by all. For a long time this

work of preparation must have been going on ; the dissatis-

faction with the Hinduism of the day must have been very

general, otherwise Buddha's immense success would not have

been possible. The great teacher commenced his work as

a Eeformer about b.o. 600; by b.c, 300 his system had

become almost universal in North India.

Gautama at first did not manifest antagonism to Hinduism

;

he was trained in its tenets and followed its teaching, and the

larger part of his doctrine is to be found in the beliefs of the

ascetics with whom he associated. What he did was to select,

modify, and emphasize certain parts that appeared to him of

supreme importance. He found Hinduism existing, and his

system was in itself a modified form of it.

Before his death Gautama had gained an immense numberof disciples, for from the first his was a proselytizing religion,

and on his death a council was held for the purpose of

appointing a leader. A century later, a second council met,

and almost a century later, a third council. These councils

had a two-fold purpose : the revision of the creed, and the

selection of methods by which the teaching of the system could

be spread. Missionaries were sent far and wide, and this

rehgion became " established " in several Hindu States. As a

result of this there is no doubt that from, say, the 2nd century

B.C., to, say, the 4th or 5th a.d.. Buddhism was very largely

embraced by the people ^s well as the accepted religion of

the rulers.

What was there in Buddhism that will at all account

for its rapid spread throughout India? It exalted kings.

Previously kings had existed, but they were controlled by theBrahmans. Buddha's teaching undermined the power of

the Brahmans. It repudiated caste. Gradually the chainsof this slavery were forged and rivetted on the Hindu mind

;

and when Buddha proclaimed that all were alike free, his

words were sweet to the low caste and down-trodden races.

It taught each man to use his various powers ; that he was an

GENERAL CHANGES OP HINDUISM. 39

integral part of the great system of the universe, and not amere machine.

Great was its popularity we know ; but how its doctrines

gradually spread; how the Hindus, who were partial to theold system of things, gradually came to see in Buddhism anenemy and not a friend ; how the two at length came to

an open rupture; how they carried on mutual warfare, a

struggle to the death—these most important and deeply

interesting questions at present must be left without anyintelligible answer, for the conquering Hinduism has left but

few ruins to mark the places where once its powerful andmost popular rival had gathered its devotees. The first

record of persecution is about a.d. 196. " King Sadraca

destroyed the workers of iniquity." This, however, could be

but a partial persecution, as in the fifth century Buddhismwas still supreme in many places. Kumarila Bhatta is said

to have been the chief leader of the persecution, for it was at

his instigation that the decree went forth, "Let those whoslay not be slain, the old men amongst the Buddhists,

and the babe from the Bridge of Eama to the Snowy Moun-tains." And Kumarila worked for the accomplishment of his

great purpose of conquest, not merely by the use of the civil

power, but by presenting Hinduism in a far more attractive

character than it had previously assumed. He appealed to

the Vedas as the divine authority, and employed all his skiU

and learning to controvert the tenets of Buddhism. At the

end of the fifth century the hierarchs of Buddhism found an

asylum in China ; and numbers of the people migrated east-

ward to lands where the doctrines, now persecuted in India,

had found a home ; or to countries where as yet its doctrines

had not been promulgated. As late as the twelfth century, it

is known that a few Buddhists remained in certain parts of

the country, but now none are to be seen. A more complete

change of religion in a country the world has seldom seen.*

*For a fuller account of Buddhism and its history, see Dr. Ehys

Davids' book published by the Society for Promoting Christian Enowedge.

40 HINDU SECTS.

But though Buddhism became the fashionable religion of

India, there must have been a large number still adhering to

the older forms, who, though suppressed for a time, had been

gradually recovering their strength. After struggles, extend-

ing probably over centuries, Saivaism (the worship of Siva)

became common, and it again in its turn had largely to give

lyay to Vaishnavism. Saivaism was started in Benares byParamatma Kalanola ; Vaishnavism at Kanchi by LakshmanAcharjya. In the eighth century a great impulse was given to

Saivaism by Sankaraoharjya, a great Vedantist. Though him-self a Deist, he encouraged idolatry in the case of the ignorant.

It is recorded that one of his last sayings was this : "0 Lord,

pardon my three sins ; I have in contemplation clothed Theewho art shapeless with a shape; I have in praise described

Thee who art indescribable ; and by visiting the Tirthas

(shrines) I have ignored Thine omnipresence."

From this brief sketch it will be noticed that the religion of

the Hindus has assumed three distinct forms : the Vedic, the

Buddhistic, and the present Brahmanic ; the transitions

from one to another probably being centuries in duration

.

CHAPTEE II.

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE HINDU SECTS*

To a cursory observer Hinduism appears to be a compactsystem, and the people themselves are under the impression

that their present forms of religious worship have existed

from time immemorial. They know of little change, because

their learned pundits have not excelled in writing history.

And as there is no so-called orthodox church persecuting those

who may differ from them, and at the present time no mutual

jealousies and rival factions fighting against each other, but

a general indifference regarding the beliefs of other than

those of their own sects, any one living amongst them mayimagine that this has been the usual state of affairs in religious

matters. But a closer examination shows that there is as

great (if not even greater) diversity of opinion and practice

amongst the peoples of India as amongst those of Christendom

:

the persecuting spirit,' however, being absent because of the

general want • of earnestness in matters religious. They

cannot proselytize to any large extent because the great

blessings to be enjoyed through the Hindu religion can, ac-

cording to a fundamental belief common to aU classes, only\

be obtained by those who are born in Hindu families. Where

some of the aboriginal tribes have of late years been absorbed

into the Hindu community, they form only the very lowest

caste, and have as their chief hope the possibility of rising

in future births into the higher and more favoured ones. And

* For the materials of this chapter I am largely indebtevl to the bookon Hindu sects by Dr. H. H. Wilson.

42 HINDU SECTS.

SO latitudinarian are the leaders of Hindu society in this

wicked age, the Kali Yuga, that they believe they are only

fulfilling the prophecies of degeneration that have been

made centuries gone by, when they teach that it does not

matter what a man believes so long as he observes the rules

of the particular caste to which he may belong.

So far does the liberahty of the Hindu go, that whilst firmly

believing in the divine origin of his own religion, he will freely

admit that Mahometanism may be also given by God for those

who embrace that system, and that Christianity may be given

by the same Being for those who worship Him according to

its teaching. And further, that it is the duty of those whohave received these differing forms to continue in the system

in which they were born. In the bazaars in Calcutta are to

be found pictures which clearly illustrate this phase of

Hifidu contemporary thought. There is a figure of a manwith eight arms, each of a different colour, as the represen-

tatives of the gods of the universe. These arms indicate

Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, Eama, Kali and Durga, the most

p/bpular of the Hindu deities ; the remaining two, each hold-

ing a book in hand, are to represent Mahomet with the

Koran, and Jesus with the Bible. The Hindu knows that

only birth can admit a man into the privileged classes of

Hindu society, and therefore believes that it would be worse

than casting pearls before swine to preach to and attempt to

proselytize other nations ; he does not seek to interfere with

men of other religions, nor to molest those who as Hindus

may differ in creed from himself. He lets other people alone

to walk on in their own way, whilst he asks in like mannerthat they would not attempt to disturb him in his rehgious

beliefs. Quite as earnestly as the Christian child sings, " I

thank the goodness and the grace that on my birth havesmiled " in making me a Christian, the Hindu thanks the

gods that he is a Hindu ; and the best wish he can express onbehalf of those not so highly privileged is that in some future

birth they may appear on the earth as Hindus.

GENEBAL EEMAEKS ON THE HINDU SECTS. 43

There are gods many and lords many recognized by theHindus, and though each has his own chosen deity, one whosename is on his lips many times every day, one to whom thelarger part of his offerings are made, he recognizes the god-head of all the rest, and when the proper day for their worshipcomes will generally take a more or less enthusiastic part withtheir most earnest devotees. I say generally, for there are

some practices common to the worship of Siva and the various

forms of his consort Kali which the devout worshippers of

Vishnu regard with abhorrence. There can be no doubt

whatever in the minds of those who read the Puranas, whichare largely occupied with the praise of one particular deity,

and to anathematizing those who neglect him, that howeverfree from sectarian bigotry the present generation of Hindusmay be, this was not always the temper they cherished.

There was as bitter animosity, as burning jealousy, and as

fierce conflicts between the worshippers of the rival deities as

the world has seen. But with the general deterioration of

the people, religious earnestness has given place to indiffer-

ence, and the Hindu of to-day will calmly look on, though he

may not actually join in religious rites that he believes his

own particular object of worship regards with detestatjon.

Nay, many of the priests who officiate at the worship of the

goddess Durga, which worship is celebrated by the offering of

sacrifices of buffaloes and goats, are in private the worshippers

of Vishnu, one great characteristic of whose worship is the

saeredness of life. An old Brahman pundit and priest, with

whom I frequently conversed on these subjects, told me that

in his own daily worship he first made an offering to his own

chosen deity, Narayana (Vishnu), and when this was done, he

threw a handful of rice broadcast for the other deities to

scramble for it, and it was his hope that by thus recognizing

the existence and authority of these, though there were no.

clear notion in his mind respecting any one of them, that he

would keep them in good humour towards himself. Hefurther assured me that the general idea of the Hindu was

44 HINDU SECTS.

this : we must worship our own chosen deity with earnest-

ness and devotion ; but in order npt to be disrespectful to the

others, and bring upon ourselves their resentment, we must

give a general acknowledgment of their existence and au-

thority. Stories are to be found in the Puranas clearly teach-

ing that the most earnest devotee of one deity is not at all

safe from evils that others may bring upon him—hence arises

this practice of a general acknowledgment of the other beings

who claim the worship of the people.

In the foUowihg sketch of the many sects into which the

Hindu community is divided, we shall see that human nature

is the same in India as elsewhere ; that pride and jealousy

have played their parts in causing rival sects to war against

each other; and also that some heretical sectarians have

sprung up whose teaching has been distinctly opposed to that

which is found in' the older religious writings. Some have

taught that the Vedas themselves Were obsolete, and have

tried to lessen the authority of the Brahmans. In the case of

Buddha this' effort was most successful for centuries ; andthere is no doulat that it is largely owing to the' teaching of

that great reformer and his followers that the worship of

Vishnu in some of his many incarnations; which is, in somerespects, entirely opposed to that of Siva and his wife, is so

very general' at the present time.' Buddhism was almost

entirely obliterated, and its followers exiled ; but it stiU lives,

with some modifications, under the various forms of Vaishna-

vism.

One marked distinction of the popular Hinduism of the

present day is the substitution of deities that were entirely

unknown in the Vedic age for those then commonly wor-

shipped. The gods of the old Pantheon are almost entirely

forgotten, whilst others to whose praise the Puranas are de-

voted have quite taken their place in the popular faith.

Attempts with very partial success have been made, it is true,

to connect these present-day gods with the gods of the oldentime, but it is not difficult to see that this is a mere trick of

GENERAL EEMAEKS ON THE HINDU SECTS. 45

the writers of the Puranas to catch the faith of the people whowould not willingly have departed from the faiths of their

fathers. So great has been the change in the objects of wor-ship, that the older deities are scarcely known to the commonpeople, the names even of some being quite forgotten. As aresult of the growth of sectarianism, the exclusive laudation

of particular deities in the Puranas, and the conflicts to whichthis rivalry gave rise, "the worship of Brahma has (almost

entirely) disappeared, as that of the whole Pantheon, except

Vishnu, Siva, and Sakti, or their modifications : wiih respect

to the two former, in fact, the representatives have borneaway the palm from the prototypes, and Krishna, Eama, or

the Linga, are almost the only forms under which Vishnuand Siva are now adored in most parts of India." As anillustration of the way in whish the Puranas are devoted to

the special lauding of one deity to the disparagement of the

others, Siva, a god who in some of the other Puranas is madethe supreme, is in the Padma Purana represented as saying that

" those who adore other gods than Vishnu, or who hold that

others are his equals, and all Brahmans who are not Vaish-

navas (worshippers of Vishnu) are not to be looked at, touched,

or spoken to." Siva, in acknowledging that the distinguish-

ing marks of his votaries—the skull, tiger's skin, and ashes,

are reprobated by the Vedas—states that he was directed by

Vishnu to inculcate their adoption purposelyto lead,those whoadopted them into error. Namuchi and other, demons had

become so powerful by the purity of their devotions that Indra

and the other gods were unable to oppose them. The gods

in their distress had recourse to Vishnu, who instructed Siva

to introduce the ; Saiva tenets and practices, by which the

demons were beguiled, and thereby rendered wicked and

weak.

Again the Bhagavata says, "Those who worship Siva

(Bhava) and those who follow their doctrines are heretics and

enemies of the sacred Sastras ;" whilst the Padma Purana

declares "from even looking at Vishnu the wrath of Siva is

46 HINDU SECTS.

Mndled, and from his wrath we fall assuredly into a horrible

hell: let not, therefore, the name of Vishnu even be pro-

nounced."

As a further illustration of the sectarian character of the

Puranas, in the Padma Purana the eighteen boots are

classified as follows : six of them which have a general bias

in favour of Siva, and inculcate his peculiar worship, are said

to be imbued with the spirit of Tamasa, or darkness, and the

study of them condemns a man to hell ; six are imbued with

Sativika, or truth, and are devoted to the praise of Vishnu

:

the study of these is said to procure Mukti

—

i.e., final deliver-

ance from the evils of life and absorption into the Deity ; and

six are said to be imbued with Eajasa, or passion: these are

devoted to the praise of Sakti, or the female principle in nature,

and their study will ensure entrance into Swarga, or heaven

;

a less goodly boon than " mukti," because its bliss is but tem-

porary; for when a person has enjoyed all the bliss his good

deeds have procured- for him there, he has to be re-born into

the world and again suffer all the ills of life on earth. I

shall never forget the lesson I learned from some Brahmanson this subject. After preaching in a village the priests of a

neighbouring temple invited me to their home, and in a

confidential manner asked me to tell them in a few words the

essence of the religion I was trying to set up in India. After

speaking of Jesus and His work, and assuring them that Hisdisciples were by Him made pure and then admitted into

(Swarga) heaven—after a little consideration they said if

that was all I had to oifer, Christianity had no attraction

for them ; they wished for mukti, absorption into Deity, notmerely entrance into heaven, the blessedness of which theybelieved to be terminable.

It should be noticed here that the more intelligent andthoughtful of the Hindus would generally repudiate the ideaof being connected with any sect. If asked to describe

themselves they would say they are Hindus and Vedantists.

And there can be hardly any doubt that they come nearer

GENERAL EEMARKS ON THE HINDU SECTS. 47

in belief and worship to their old Aryan forefathers. Wemay therefore take them as perhaps the most orthodox

section, and the others as more or less heterodox. Thenumber of these is very small ; and whilst it is true that

they repudiate many of the grosser forms of Hinduism that

prevail amongst their more ignorant neighbours, they do not

attempt to instruct or raise them to their own higher level.

They say that though the more popular forms of Hinduism

are not good for themselves, they are suited to the condition

of the ignorant masses. And further, though an outsider

might be disposed to regard the Vedantist as more in

harmony with the older form of the Hindu faith, the people

would not for a moment be disposed to acknowledge their

superiority in this respect. And certainly authority in the

older or more modern Scriptures is to be found for all, even

the grossest forms of Hinduism that now prevail.

CHAPTEE III.

VEDANTISM, OR THE RELIGION OF THE MOREINTELLIGENT OF THE COMMUNITY.

To speak correctly, this is rather a system of philosophy

than of religion; and whilst there are some Vedantists in

philosophy who are really and truly polytheists and idolaters,

still in the case of many it is their form of religion, and,

as said above, may be taken as perhaps the form nearest

to orthodox Hinduism from which the teaching of the sects

has more or less departed.

What polytheism and the popular forms of Hinduism in

their grosser forms are to the mass of the Hindus, Ve-

dantism is to the educated and more intelligent and thought-

ful. This system is generally ascribed to Vyasa, the great

compiler of the Hindu scriptures, but was probably put into

form about 500 b.c. The Mahabharata gives an account of

the way in which it was taught by Krishna to his friend

Arjuna. Its main doctrines are as follows :

—

1. The nature and attributes of the Divine Being. TheVedanta teaches the unity of God. It speaks of Him as

light, and declares that He is eternal, self-existent, immutable,

perfect, incomprehensible, omniscient, almighty, formless,

supremely happy, and the sustainer of all things. It is mostcurious to notice how the Hindus can hold these ideas

respecting God, and yet at the same time entertain such

directly opposite views respecting the various incarnations.

Often have I heard men who were worshipping some of the

VEDANTISM. 49

gross representations of Deity declare Him to be formless,

perfect, and pure. This string of the attributes of God is often

on the lips of the Hindus, even the very ignorant, thoughtheir practice shows conclusively that they cannot realize

their true meaning. Vedantism never speaks of God as

possessing power except when united to matter. It teaches

that He is " within and without everything." The words of

Vyasa are, " The Supreme Being is the material as

well as the efficient cause of the universe ; " and further,

" an effect is not other than its cause." In showing that

the supreme Brahma is at once cause and effect, he uses the

following amongst other illustrations: "Hair and nails

which are insensible grow from a sensible animal body."

" The sea and its waters are one, yet waves, foam, froth,

&c., differ from each other." "As milk changes to curd,

and water to ice, so is Brahma variously transformed and

diversified."

2. Creation. As the Divine Being is essentially connected

with matter, everything visible and invisible in the universe

is but an emanation from the Supreme. Brahma is the first

cause. He educes from himself the materials of creation, as

the spider draws out the web from its own body. At first

the work is carried on with only partial success by himself

;

afterwards he works through the Prajapatis, or progenitors.

3. Man. Man is said to consist of three parts : spirit,

which is an essential part of the Supreme Being ; and two

bodies, a grosser and a more sublimated or refined one.

When the grosser body dies, the spirit still continues to

inhabit the finer one, and by it the consciousness of its

identity is preserved, and the person recognized after death.

"When the spirit is re-absorbed into Brahma, or re-born

into the world, this finer body is supposed to vanish.

It should be noticed here that the idea of recognition

after death is not at all commonly received by the Hindus

generally. Their books teach, and the people generally

believe, that as they bring no reminiscences of past lives into

5

50 HINDU SECTS.

their present life, so they carry with them no memory of the

present into any future life.

4. The Universe. The universe has three main divisions:

—earth, heaven, and hades. Eegarding the earth as the

centre, the seven parts ofheaven are above, the seven of hades

below. Of the seven above the earth, six are to continue for

longer or shorter though definite periods, but the highest of all,

called Satya Lok (the abode of truth), is eternal, in which there

are four kiiids of blessedness : Salokya, dwelHng with God

;

Sarupya, likeness to God; Sajugya, union with God; and

Nirvana, absorption into God. Of the parts under the

earth, the lowest of all is called Fatal, or hell, and is divided

by some into twenty-one, by others into twenty-eight parts,

the names of which correspond with the peculiar punishment

inflicted there, or with the vices that there find their peculiar

punishment.

In this, as in other systems of Hinduism, a great deal is

made of Maya, or illusion. It is owing to this illusion that

men imagine themselves to be free agents, able to think andspeak and act as they desire ; whereas they are impelled bythe divine forces to act as their Maker desires. All men are

more or less under the influence of this Maya, and fancy

themselves to be free ; whilst in reality they are but parts of

God, and are impelled by His subtle power to act in harmonywith His will. All enjoyment and suffering is simply the

result of illusion. And as a natural consequence it is taught

that the universe will continue only for a limited time, after

which it will be re-absorbed into the great Brahma fromwhom it emanated.

Salvation is gained through a recognition of the relation

existing between the soul and God ; when its identity with

God is realized, absorption into the Deity will follow. Henceit is no uncommon thing to see Hindus continuing, throughweeks and months, meditating on nothing ; making the minda complete blank under the impression that they are qualify-

ing for the highest blessedness man can attain unto. Works

VEDANTISM. 51

of merit are inculcated because a certain amount of hap-

piness in heaven is attached to their performance ; whilst

evil deeds will send a man to hell to suffer the penalties analmighty fiat has attached to them. But in both cases there

will be the endurance of other lives on earth until the highest

excellence is attained—viz., realization of oneness with the

Supreme.

There is no moral law given in this system. Some acts are

said to be good, others mixed, and others, again, evil ; but

these are not moral distinctions. Its followers are exhorted

to be truthful, continent, careful of all forms of life, and for-

bidden to steal ; but inasmuch as the Vedantists of the present

day acknowledge deities worshipped as the incarnations of

God, though they may not take an active part in the ordinary

worship, it is evident that their moral nature cannot be well

trained, for nearly all of these popular deities were guilty of

the very acts that are forbidden by their system.

Having glanced at the tenets of what may, to a certain

extent, be regarded as the ordinary creed of the orthodox

Hindu, before passing on to notice the peculiarities of some

of the more commonly known sects, to one or other of

which the great mass of the Hindus belong, I shall give

a very brief account of the sects that were in existence

before the fourteenth century. It is a most interesting fact

that there have come down to us two works, written about

that time, with the express object of refuting the errors

of these sects, from which we learn their peculiar tenets. It

is interesting to notice how similar the history of religious

faiths in India has been to that of other lands. The sects

that in the fourteenth century were regarded as heterodox,

with the exception of those concerned mainly in the worship

of the female energies, are now regarded by the Hindus

generally as orthodox.

CHAPTEE IV.

THE SECTS EXISTING ABOUT THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY A.D.

These may be divided into three classes :

—

1. Vaishnava sects; i.e., sects by wbom Vishnu was re-

garded as the Supreme.

The Bhakta worshipped Vishnu in the form of Vasudeva,

i.e., the son of Vasudeva, but there were no peculiar sectarial

marks, nor was there anything peculiar in their worship. Afew years later the term Bhakta became common to denote

those who, like the Pharisees, professed to be more earnest in

religion than their neighbours.

The Bhagavatas worshipped their deity under the name of

Bhagavan (the mighty one), and wore the usual distinguish-

ing marks of his followers—^viz., the discus, club, &c. Theyalso reverenced the Salgrama, an Ammonite from the rivers

in Nepal, a common representative of Vishnu, and the Tulsi

plant, into which his favourite mistress was transformed.

The name remains, but it is doubtful if any members of the

sect are now to be found.

The Vaishnavas worshipped Vishnu as Narayana (he whomoved upon the waters), and, wearing the common sectarial

marks, looked for a very sensual kind of bHss in the heavenof their chief deity.

The Chakrinas were the Saktis of the Vaishnava sects,

worshipping almost exclusively the female personifications of

the energy of Vishnu, and their descendants are to be foundin the worshippers of Krishna and Eama, or of Sakti or Devi.

SECTS EXISTING ABOTJI THE FOURTEENTH CENTUEY A.D. 53

The Karmahinas, as their name implies, abstained from all

ritual observances and professed to know Vishnu as the sole

source and sum of the universe. These can hardly be said

to exist as a sect at the present time, though their peculiar

tenets are accepted by many in other sects.

It is worthy of notice that at the time these polemical

works were written no allusion is made to the separate wor-

ship of Krishna, or of the infantine forms under which he

is so popular in the North-West Proviaces of India ; nor are

the names of Kama and Sita, of Lakshman or Hanuman,once particularized as enjoying any portion of distinct and

specific adoration. '

2. The Saiva sects ; i.e., sects amongst whom Siva was wor-

shipped as the Supreme Being. These were six in number,

but as they do not appear to have had anything peculiar,

excepting sectarial marks, they do not call for special

mention.

3. The Saktas ; i.e., sects whose chief object of worship

were the Saktis, or female personifications of the Divine

power. These sects were probably as numerous as they are

at present, and appear to have worshipped some of the same

objects as Bhavani, Lakshmi, and Sarasvati ; but Sita,

Eadha, either alone or in conjunction with Eama and

Krishna, never appear. These were divided then, as now,

into a right hand, or purer, and a left hand, or impurer order.

Probably the more licentious rites with which these deities

were worshipped have been modified ; at any rate, they are

not openly indulged in at the present time. But Bhairava

(Siva) is still worshipped by the Saktas and Jogis, though

the naked inendicant, smeared with funeral ashes, armed

with a trident and sword, carrying a skull in his hand, and

haK-intoxicated with the spirits he has quaffed from that

disgusting wine-cup, is not so frequently met with as he was

in past times. This class of men was called Kapalikas

(skuUmen) at the time of the writers of these works.

, Speaking generally of the objects of worship then popular,

54 HINDU SECTS.

it will be seen that whilst most of the deities now wor-

shipped were also worshipped then, other deities that are

only addressed in common with some of the great gods

were then exclusively adored by a larger or smaller number

of devotees. Amongst these may be mentioned Brahma,

who, though not publicly worshipped, save in one or two

temples in India, had then some followers who were exclu-

sively devoted to him. In like manner, Surjya (the sun)

was far more commonly worshipped as a separate and special

deity than he is at present ; the rising sun representing

Brahma, the sun in mid-heaven being regarded as Siva,

whilst the setting sun was the prototype of Vishnu. Others,

again, worshipped the sun, not as visible in the heavens, but

through a mental image, and they had marks to remind them

of him burned upon their skin. Others, again, regarded

Ganesa as the supreme deity,

In addition to these, several other sects are mentioned,

and their opinions controverted, which do not demand any

notice here. It is interesting, however, to find that the

opinions of the Buddhists and the Jains are condemned as

heretical ; also the evil doings of those are condemned who,

though really more orthodox than their critics, gave exclusive

reverence to some of the old Vedic gods who had at that

time dropped into almost complete oblivion. Of these are

Indra (the king of the gods, the lord of the firmament),

Euvera (the god of wealth), Yama (the king of the dead),

Varuna (the Neptune of India), Garuda (the being half bird

and half man, who was the devoted servant of Vishnu),

Sesha (the serpent god, representing the end). Soma (the

intoxicating plant whose praises were so constantly sung in

the Vedic hymns), and last, though not least, Kama (the

Indian Cupid). And "it is a feature that singularly cha-

racterizes the present state of the Hindu religion, that if in

some instances it is less ferocious, in others it has ceased to

address itself to the amiable propensities of the human cha-

racter, or the spontaneous and comparatively innocent feelings

SECTS EXISTING ABOUT THE FOUBTEENTH CENTUEY A.D. 55

of youthful natures. The buffoonery of the Hoh, and the

barbarity of the Charak Puja, but ill express the sympathies

which man in all countries feels with the vernal season, andwhich formerly gave rise to the festive Vasantasava of the

Hindus ; and the licentious homage paid to Sakti andBhairava has little in common with the worship that might

be supposed acceptable to Kama and his lovely bride Eati,

and which, it would appear, they formerly enjoyed." *

In describing the sects as they exist at the present day

it will be seen that in most cases they are but modified

forms of those already mentioned as existing five centuries

back. It is a most interesting fact that Sankara, the great

authority on Hinduism, himself a staunch believer in the

supreme Brahma as distinct from his three-fold manifes-

tation as Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, sent forth disciples to

teach the more popular forms of faith. He professed to ex-

plain this inconsistency by the fact that the mass of the

people were not qualified to receive the more intellectual and

refined forms of religion. It is said that it was on his

authority that the Saiva faith was promulgated at Benares,

and the Vaishnava at Conjeveram ; that others of his dis-

ciples taught men to worship the Sun, the Saktis (female

deities), and also the more dreadful form of Bhairava. The

outward unity of Hinduism is affirmed, as it is declared that

one who had himself no faith in these acknowledged lower

forms, authorized his disciples to teach them because he

considered them better suited to the capacities of the more

ignorant masses. There is of course another explanation of

what appears to be a most glaring inconsistency—viz., that the

teachers of these more objectionable forms of worship bor-

rowed the name of this great teacherin order to obtain respect

for their reaUy heretical teaching.

The same general divisions will be retained in describing

the sects of the present day as in speaking of the older ones.

It will be evident to the reader, as he notices the practices of

* Wilson's "Hindu Sects," p. 17.

56 HINDU SECTS.

some of them, that they are in direct opposition to what maybe termed orthodox Hinduism, as, e.g., where caste rules are

disregarded at feasts ; men of all classes being encouraged to

eat of food prepared by men of a different caste from them-

selves. And it is evident that some of these sects have

arisen through the desire to lower the pretensions and lessen

the influence of the Brahmans. Where, as it has frequently

happened, Brahmans have joined some of these sects, they

have been gladly welcomed, but have had to pay the cost of

this relinquishment of their privileges by being treated as

outcasts by their stricter brethren. At the same time the

members of these sects are regarded as good Hindus even

by those who themselves have kept aloof from them. And it

often happens that when a man, for some violation of caste

rules, is put out of caste by his old associates, he joins some

one of these heretical sects, where he is sure of a hearty

welcome, and finds companions there to take the place of

those who have driven him from their midst. Even prosti-

tutes, who on taking to an immoral life as a profession are

cut ofif at once from their family and caste, can easily enter

some of these sects, and by their generous gifts purchase the

sympathies of their fellow-sectaries, and hope to possess at

death similar blessings to those whose lives have been more

pure. The more one looks into it the more clearly is it seen

that Hinduism is a most expansive and inclusive system

;

those who have most carefully studied the question find it

most difficult to define clearly what Hinduism is—who mayand who may not rightly be classed as Hindus. Thus in the

Bengal Census Eeport of 1881 Mr, Beverley asks, "What is

a Hindu ? is a question which has often been asked with-

out eliciting any satisfactory reply. No answer, in fact,

exists, for the term in its modern acceptation denotes neither

a creed nor a race, neither a church nor a people, but a

general expression devoid of precision, and embracing alike

the most punctilious disciples of pure Vedantism, the Agnostic

youth who is the product of Western education, and the semi-

SECTS EXISTING ABOUT THE POUETEENTH CENTURY A.D. 57

barbarous hill-man wbo eats without scruple anything he can

procure, and is as ignorant of the Hindu mythology as the

stone he worships in times of sickness and danger." Sir Alfred

Lyall, quoted in the same Eeport, says "that the religion

of the non-Mahommedan population of India is as a tangled

jungle of disorderly superstitions, ghosts and demons, demi-

gods and deified saints, household gods, local gods, tribal

gods, universal gods, with their countless shrines andtemples, and the din of their discordant rites ; deities whoabhor a fly's death ; those who still delight in human sacri-

fices." In the account of the fifty-three out of the ninety-

six sects into which the Hindus say their co-religionists are

divided, will be given the peculiar forms of worship which

prevail amongst the great majority of the Hindu people.

The authorities on this subject are two works—one by the

Munshi to the Eaja of Benares, the other by the librarian of

the college of that city. These books contain merely a sort

of catalogue of names and drawings of the sectarial markswhich the members wear, the legendary part 'being taken

from a very popular Hindi work called the Bhakta Mala, or

Garland of the Faithful. This book was originS,lly written

about two and a half centuries ago by a man named Nab-

harji, a Dom, i.e., a member of one of the lowest and

most despised of the Hindu castes, whose occupation con-

sists in making baskets and burying the dead. ' It is said

that he was born blind, but when he was about five ''years of

age, two worshippers of Vishnu happening to ' pass" by saw

his pitiable condition, and bathing his eyes with water from

their drinking vessel, sight was given to him. . They then took

him with them to their monastery and received him into their

fellowship. This work, originally written in prose, Tulsi Dass

has rendered most popular by putting it into a poetic form.

Tulsi Dass, a Brahman by birth, through the influence of his

wife became a most ardent worshipper of Eama. He lived

the greater part of his life at Benares, where he made an im-

mortal name by translating the Eamayana into Hindu. He

58 HINDU SECTS.

also built a temple sacred to Sita and Kama, and a monastery

adjoining, both of which continue to this day. Another poet,

named Jayadeva, is described in the Bhakta Mala, concerning

whom the following wonderful legend is recorded. WhenJayadeva was leading the life of an ascetic, a Brahman, on his

way to Puri to dedicate his daughter to Jagannatha, whose

worship is there celebrated, saw that deity and received from

him a command to give his child in marriage to Jayadeva.

At first the sage refused, but on her appealing to his kindness

he consented to take her. He then set up house and became a

poet. Wishing on one occasion to write a poem descrip-

tive of Eadha's virtues, as he could not find terms sufi&ciently

strong, he went down to the river to bathe and find inspira-

tion. During his absence Krishna himself came and, taking

up the poet's pen, wrote what the poor man had been unable

to do. On another occasion, when in the forest, he wasattacked by Thugs, who cut oil his feet and hands. Sometime afterwards these men came to the king's palace dis-

guised as mendicants : but Jayadeva saw through their dis-

guise and treated them most kindly. As they were departing

some of the attendants asked them how it was that the poet

had treated them so kindly ; they replying that they had saved

his life from robbers who had thus mutilated him, the earth

opened and swallowed them, whilst the hands and feet of

Jayadeva were restored, and hs was enabled to write the

bonk from which the writers of the works on the Hindu sects

have drawn so largely.

We shall now pass on to notice the sects of the Hindus as

they exist at the present day.

CHAPTEE V.

THE VAISHNAVA SECTS, OR THOSE IN WHICH VISHNU ISEEGARDBD AS THE SUPREME DEITY.

Most of these, as also those of the other classes, have dis-

tinguishing marks, which it is the duty of those who are

initiated to wear. A most important duty at the great

festivals, when the ceremony of bathing is completed, is to

have these sectarial marks freshly painted on the forehead,

breast, and arms. All the Vaishnavas use for their marks a

white earth called gopichandana, which, to be of the purest

description, must be brought from a pool in Dwaraka, in

which the gopis, or milkmaids, drowned themselves whenKrishna forsook them. A common calcareous clay is, how-

ever, often substituted for this.

1. The Sri Sampradayis, or Udmanvjas. \

[Marks : Two perpendicular white lines from the roots of ^

the hair to the eyebrows, and a transverse line connecting

them across the root of the nose. In the centre there is a

transverse streak of red made with roll, i.e., turmeric and

lime ; also patches of gopichandana, with a red central

streak on the breast and on each arm. These marks are

supposed to represent the lotus, conch shell, discus, and

club, which Vishnu bears in his four hands, the central

streak of red representing Sri, or Lakshmi, his wife. The

members of this sect also wear a necklace made of the seeds

of the Tulsi plant, and carry a rosary made of the same

seeds, or from those of the lotus.] /This is the oldest and most respectable of the Vaishnava

sects, having been founded about the middle of the twelfth

60 HINDU SECTS.

century by Eamanuja Acliarjya. This man is said to have

been an incarnation of the great serpent Seaha, whilst his

chief companions and disciples are said to have been the

embodied discus, shell, lotus, club, &c., the insignia of

Vishnu. He taught the tenets of his creed at Conjeveram

and afterwards visited Sri Eanga and other places, reclaiming

men and recovering temples from the Saiva faith.

On his return to Sri Eanga the dispute between the rival

sects of Vishnu and Siva rose to such a height that the king,

a devout Saivite, ordered all the Brahmans in his kingdom

to sign an acknowledgment of the superiority of his' chosen

deity, and by bribery and fear was successful with the

greater number. Eamanuja refusing to sign this document,

the king sent an armed force to seize him ; but the Bjahmanescaped, and took refuge in Mysore. Whilst there hk is said

to have expelled an evil spirit from a daughter of the. king,

who thereupon embraced the doctrines of his holy gii'est. Onthe death of the king of Sri Eanga, after a stayi'of twelve

years in Mysore, Eamanuja returned to his former home.

The headquarters of this sect are now in the Deccan, and

although the founder is said to have set up seven hundred

monasteries (maths), four only exist at the present time.

The worship of Eamanuja's followers is" addressed to

Vishnu and his consort Lakshpii and their incarnations either

singly or conjointly. The teachers are usually 'Brahmans,

but the disciples may be of any caste. Besides the worship

offered in the temples of either of these gods, or their incar-

nations, images of metal and stone are set up in the houses,

and the Salgrama and Tulsi are also generally worshipped.

The name by which the members are most commonly knownis Sri Vaishnavas. The chief ceremony of 'initiation into

the sect is the communication of the mantra by the guruto the disciple. The initiatory mantra is said to be " OmEamaya namah ;

" i.e., Om salutation to Eama ; but there is

always great reluctance on the part of the Hindus to give

any real information respecting the mantras ; the most re-

THE VAISHNAVA SECTS. 61

liable source of information is that of those once initiated

who, having become Christians, are free from the fear of evil

consequences following the betrayal of the secret.

The chief religious tenet of the Eamanuja sect is the asser-

tion that Vishnu is Brahma, the Supreme Being.- By a merewish he created the universe, which is an emanation fromhimself. He ha^ manifested himself to men in five forms

—

in images, in his incarnations, in certain forms, as Krishna,

Baharaiva, &c., in certain qualities, and in the human soul.

He is to be worshipped in five ways corresponding to these

forms : by cleaning the images and temples, by providing

flowers and perfumes for religious rites, by the presentation of

these as offerings (bloody sacrifices are hateful to Vishnu),

repeating the name of the deity, and by meditation, the

object of which is to unite the soul with the deity ; the

proper performance of which, it is believed, will give entrance

in Vaikuntha, the heaven of Vishnu.

2. Ramanandis, or Ramawats.

[As this is regarded as a branch of the .preceding sect, the

marks differ only in this—the red streaks are narrower.] •

Eamanand, the founder, is said by some to have been

a disciple of Eamanuja, but more probably he was a dis-

ciple of. a disciple in the fifth descent from that leader. As

far as can be definitely known, he flourished about the end

of the fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth century.

The worship of this sect is devoted to Eamaohandra (one of

the great incarnations of Vishnu), together with Sita his wife,

his half-brother Lakshman, and his faithful friend Hanuman,

the commander-in-chief of the monkey army that was raised

to assist Eama to rescue his wife from the great demon

Eavana, who had carried her to Ceylon. Some of the mem-bers regard Eama as their supreme deity, others prefer Sita

;

whilst others, again, give equal adoration to the two. The

other forms of Vishnu are treated with profound respect by

these people, and the Salgrama,'as his special representation,

is worshipped by them.

62 HINDU SECTS.

This sect originated in a very simple manner. Eamanand,in obedience to his superior, is said to have gone from place

to place inculcating the doctrines of his sect. On his return

to the math, or monastery, of his leader, some of his fellow-

disciples accused him of having violated, in the course of his

travels, one of their vital doctrines—viz., the observance of

the closest privacy in partaking of his food. On the matter

being referred to the head of the math, he agreed with the

disciples. This so incensed Eamanand that he at once left

the monastery and started a sect of his own. He lived

chiefly at Benares, at the Panoha Ganga Ghat, where, it is

believed, his math continued until it was destroyed by the

Mussulmans. At present there is a stone platform, which is

said to retain the impression of his feet. In the vicinity of

Benares are several maths of this order, and it is there the

chief council meets to settle all questions connected with the

order.

The members of each of these sects are divided into

two main classes, which answer very nearly to the twodivisions in the Christian church called cleric and lay ; the

clerics, again, are subdivided into monastic and secular. It is

in India that we find the home of the belief of the superior

sanctity of the celibate hfe which was transferred to the

Christian church. In most cases the celibate is regarded asof greater sanctity than the married, and the larger part of

these, for a longer or shorter period of their lives, wanderfrom .place to place visiting shrines and collecting offerings,

which, after deducting necessary expenses, are given to the

math to which they belong. In order to provide a home for

the cehbates who do not wish to travel, as well as for those

who wander, these monasteries are supported, each with its

own mahant, or superior, who sometimes obtains the position

by inheritance, sometimes is chosen by the members of the

order, and sometimes the appointment is made by royalpatrons, in whose country the] math is situated. In fact

in their main features these monasteries and their uses and

THE VAISHNAVA SECTS. 63

government differ very little from similar institutions in theChristian church of the West. The whole scheme appears to

have been borrowed from the East. There are some mahantswho exercise a sort of authority over others, much in the

same way as the archbishop exercises authority over the

bishops under his jurisdiction.

Bamanand, having been driven from his own sect owing to

its many restrictions, laid few burdens on his disciples ; in

fact, he gave them the name Avadhuta, i.e., liberated

;

meaning that they were freed from many of the trying

ordinances that prevailed in other classes. With respect to

eating and bathing he left them free to follow their owninclination. The most important innovation was the virtual

abolition of caste. Amongst his most illustrious disciples were

a Eajput, a weaver, and a chamar (currier), and a barber. Hetaught that God and his worshippers are one ; and as Bha-gavan (Vishnu) appeared in inferior forms as a fish, boar, &c., so

his worshippers may be born in the inferior as well as superior

castes. And what is equally remarkable is this, that though

the founder of this system did not write any works himself,

his followers wrote religious works ; not as Eamanuja andSankara had done—commentaries on the Vedas for the use

of the Brahmans only—but in the common dialects of the

people, and in a popular style, so that they were suited to

the capacities of all. Further, it is possible for any of the

members, whatever his caste, to rise to the position of a

vairagi (ascetic), a guru (teacher), or mahant (head of a

monastery). Prom the success which attended the efforts of

this teacher there is every encouragement to work for the

spread of Christian truth. Multitudes at his call left their

own particular castes and joined his brotherhood, in which

Brahmans and Chamars associated as brethren.

There are said to be twelve chief disciples of Eamanand,some of whom, having founded'new sects, will be mentioned

separately ; but a few facts respecting one of the less con-

spicuous will not be uninteresting.

64 HINDU SECTS.

Pipa, the Rajput mentioned above, originally worshipped

Devi (Siva's wife), but wishful to become a worshipper of

Vishnu, he placed himself under Eamanand's instruction at

Benares. Coming at an inopportune moment, the sage

angrily wished that his visitor might fall into a well close

by. Pipa immediately threw himself in, that his teacher's

wish might be fulfilled. This act of submission so pleased

the onlookers that they at once gave him the title of Eaja. Ona visit to Dwaraka with his master, he plunged into the sea

and paid a visit to Vishnu in his submarine shrine, where he

was hospitably received. On a journey his wife was carried

off by some Pathans, but Eama appearing, rescued the wife

and slew the robbers. On another occasion, meeting an angry

lion in the forest, he placed his rosary on its neck, and whisper-

ing the mantra of the sect (Sri Eama), made him tranquil in

a moment.

3. Kabir Panihis.

[Outward signs are regarded by this sect as of little im-

portance. Some do not wear any, others have the same as

the Eamanandis, others, again, have a streak of sandal woodashes or gopichandana along the ridge of the nose. Theyalso wear the necklace of Tulsi seed and use the rosary.]

Of all Eamanand's disciples, Kabir is the most celebrated.

"With immense boldness he attacked the whole system of

idolatrous worship, ridiculed the learning of the Pundits andthe teaching of the Sastras, and, what is even more remark-able, addressed his remarks to Mussulmans as well as Hindus,making the Koran equally with the Hindu Scriptures anobject of ridicule. It is said that the writings of this manmore than any others influenced Nanak, the founder of theSikh faith.

There are two legends connected with the birth of this

leader. It is said in the Bhakta Mala that his mother aBrahman virgin widow, was taken by her father to see hisguru Eamanand, when the great teacher saluted her withthe wish that she might have a son. His words could not

THE VAISHNAVA SECTS. 65

be recalled ; but as the birth of a son could only be a source

of shame, she was privately delivered of her child, which wasexposed at its birth. Being found by a weaver and his wife,

this child was brought up as their own. The common belief

ignores all this part of the story, and says that a weaver's

wife named Nima found the child, which was an incarnate

deity, floating on a lotus in a lake near Benares. As soon

as the child was in her arms it asked to be carried to the

holy city. Hearing an infant speak, the woman and her

husband thought it must be a demon, and, casting it down,

ran as fast as they could to the city ; but the child ran faster

than they. At length they agreed to take it and bring it upas their own.

Kabir flourished about the beginning of the fifteenth

century, and a curious story is told of his initiation, which

must have taken place before Eamanand had developed his

system. Kabir was again and again refused admission into

the sects because of his being of low caste. Standing one

day on the Ghat by which Bamanand went to bathe, he

touched the sage's foot, who, as a sort of expiatory measure,

cried " Eama, Eama," the initiatory mantra : from that

moment Kabir asserted that he was admitted into the frater-

nity by the involuntary utterance of the text.

Both Hindus and Mussulmans claimed Kabir as one of

their creed. A story is told to the effect that his mother

(in this case said to be a Mussulman!) complained to the

Emperor Sekandah, who sent for the son and ordered him to

make the usual salam. This young man said, " I know none

but Eama—why should I bow down before a king ? " Uponthis the emperor ordered him to be cast into the river, but

the waters would not drown him. He tried to burn him to

death, but fire had no effect upon him. He next ordered his

elephants to trample him to death, but they dared not ap-

proach him. At last the king on his own elephant went to

slay him, but Kabir transformed himself into a lion, and the

king then gave up the attempt. At his death the Hindus

6

66 HINDU SECTS.

wished to burn, and the Mussulmans to bury his body. As

they were quarrelling about this, Kabir himself appeared and

told them to look under the cloth which was supposed to be

covering his dead body. They did so, and found only a heap

of flowers. Part the Eaja of Benares took and burnt, and

the spot where they were burnt is now known as Kabir

Chaura; part the Mussulmans buried at Magar, near

Gorukhpore, where he died.

As Kabir was a disciple of Ramanand, this sect is regarded

as belonging to the Vaishnavas, though the members need

not worship any of the Hindu deities ; and where they are

found doing so it is more out of compliance to the wishes of

others than from any good they expect from it for themselves.

One of their leader's maxims was, " Associate and mix with

all, and take the names of all ; say to every one, ' Yes, sir;

yes, sir ;' and abide in your own abode." This certainly is

rather a free rendering of the apostolic resolve to be "all

things to all men." They do not join much in the outwardworship of the deities ; their chief religious exercise is singing

hymns to the invisible Kabir.

The doctrines of this sect are not very easily learned ; butas far as can be seen they do not differ very much from whatis taught in the Puranas, though the way of stating them is

somewhat original. They say there is but one God, theCreator of the world, and the pure man, the Sadhu of theKabirs, is His living resemblance, and after death Hisassociate and equal. AH that is has come out from God, is

a part of Him, therefore God and man are not only the same,but they together form everything that lives and moves'.The Paramapurush (the Supreme Being) was alone forseventy-two ages. Desiring to renew the world, the femaleMaya sprang forth from whom all errors among men havearisen. From her union with the Supreme the three greatgods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva have come ; and from unionwith them their brides, Saraswati, Lakshmi, and Uma wereborn. Life is the same in all beings ; the great object is to

THE VAISHNAVA SECTS. 67

learn the source ; for as long as ignorance of this continiies,

new births must be experienced. Heaven and hell do not

actually exist, but are simply some of the delusions of Maya.

The moral code of this sect is rather worthy of praise. It

teaches that all life is sacred ; humanity is therefore a car-

dinal virtue, whether the object be man or animals. Truth

is necessary, and retirement from the world is advantageous

to piety ; absolute obedience and profound reverence for the

guru is especially insisted on. Their abhorrence of violence,

love of truth, and unobtrusiveness of life make them most

inoffensive members of the community. In North India their

numbers are great : those choosing the wandering hfe do not

beg for alms.

There are a few other sects similar to those already described

which require but a brief notice.

The Khakis, founded by Kil, perhaps, in the fourth genera-

tion from Eamanand. No mention of this sect is found in the

IBhakta Mala, hence it may be inferred that it is of modern

origin. Most of its members seem to adopt the wandering

ascetic life, and are distinguished by the use of clay and ashes

on their bodies. They also wear the Jata, or braided hair,

which they appear to have copied from the Saiva sectaries.

They worship Sita, and are especially devoted to Hanuman.The Maluk Basis [mark : a shorter streak of red than is

•common with the other Vaishnavas ; otherwise their sectarial

marks are similar] take their name from Maluk Dass;

their gurus and most of their members remain in their homes,

.and do not wander about as do the Khakis. The principal

establishment is situated near a temple of Eama Chandra, at

Kara, Manikpore, the birthplace of the founder, and the

present mahant is reckoned as the eighth in descent from

him. There are six other maths in different places.

The Badu Panthis [mark : the members of this sect wear

no peculiar frontal mark, nor do they wear a Mala, or neck-

lace ; they carry the rosary and wear a round white cap with

.a flap hanging down behind] are an offshoot from Kabir ; their

68 HINDU SECTS.

worship is also addressed to Eama, but is restricted to what

is called Japa, i.e., the raere repetition of his name. The

founder of the sect, Dadu, a cotton cleaner, was born at

Ahmedabad, whence he travelled to other places. At Naramait is said he heard a voice from heaven calling upon him to

live a rehgious life ; accordingly he retired to the Baherana

mountain, and, no traces of him being left, he is believed,

to have been absorbed into the deity. His followers burn

their dead at early dawn ; but the more religious among-

them order that their bodies be left exposed in the open

country to be devoured by birds and beasts, as in the funeral

pile insect life is apt to be destroyed.

The Eai Dasis are the followers of Eai Das, a Chamar,one of the lowest castes of the Hindus, and his followers

,generally belong to the same caste. He mast have been a

man of considerable influence, as the following legend from

the Bhakta Mala will show. It was owing to an imprecation

of Eamanand that a Brahmachari (student) was born in a

Chamar family. When born he refused to take nourishment

until Eamanand, recognizing in this infant the young manhe had cursed, breathed the mantra into his ears and thus

admitted him into his sect. From that moment he begaik

to thrive. When he grew up to manhood he worked at his.

trade, and devoted all he could spare to feeding the poor.

One day Vishnu, pleased with his devotion at a time of great

distress, came and offered him the philosopher's stone ; butEai Das disregarded the gift, as he was so well satisfied withthe knowledge of Hari (Vishnu). Some months afterwards-

Vishnu paid him another visit, and seeing that the stone hadnot been used, caused a number of gold pieces to lie all roundhim. With these Eai Das erected a temple of which hebecame the priest. Again Vishnu caused hisjglory to becamewidely known by inciting the Brahmans in the district to

persecute him. But again Vishnu came to the rescue and.

wrought a miracle on behalf of his servant in the presence:

of the king and court.

THE VAISHNAVA SECTS. 6)

Sena Panthis are the followers of Sena, a barber ; but of

the peculiar tenets of this sect little is known. In connection

with him a story is told similar in spirit to that in Miss

'

Proctor's " Legend of Provence." This barber being intensely

devotional sometimes forgot his professional duties as barber

to the king. Vishnu seeing the sovereign's anger, in order to

save him from punishment, took the poor barber's place, anddid his work so well that the king recognized the god, andmade his barber his guru.

4. Vallbhacharis, or Rudra Sampradayis.

[Marks : Two red perpendicular lines on the forehead

meeting in a semicircle at the root of the nose, and a round

spot of red between them, with the same as those of the Sri

Vaishnavas on the breast and arms. Some make the central

spot of black. Their necklace and rosary are made of the

stem of the Tulasi.]

Perhaps as numerous as the worshippers of Vishnu under

the forms of Krishna and Eadha, or Eama and Sita, are those

who are devoted to him as the in^;nt_GQpal. Krishna, in

order to escape from the anger and jealousy of his uncle

Kansa, immediately after his birth was transferred to the house

of a cowherd named Nanda, who brought him up as his ownchild: the name Gopal.orthecowkeeper, attaches to him fromthat circumstance. This sect owes its origin to Vallabha

Acharjya, and is commonly known as the religion of the

Gokula Gosains.

The original founder of the sect was a Brahman namedVishnu Swami, who admitted Brahmans only into his

society, and imposed on all a vow to lead a life of asceticism.

But Vallabha greatly extended the sect by communicating the

mantra (or initiatorytext) to men of other castes. This man was

a Sanyasi himself, and flourished about the sixteenth century.

Originally he resided at Gokul, near Mathura, then at Vrin-

davana, where he lived under a pipul-tree, which is still

shown to pilgrims. At Mathura, too, there are traces of himto be found : all these places being connected with various

70 HINDU SECTS.

scenes in the life of Krishna. It was at Vrindavana that he

is said to have been honoured by a visit from Krishna him-

self, who enjoined him to extend his worship under the form

of Bala Gopal (the boy Gopal). Vallabha is said to have

gone to heaven from Benares in a miraculous manner. The

popular story is as follows : Entering the river at HanumanGhat, and stooping down to worship, he suddenly disap-

peared: a brilliant flame arose from the spot, and in the

presence of a host of spectators he ascended into heaven, and

was lost to sight in the firmament.

Although some of the other Puranas speak of the child-

• hood of Krishna, it is in Brahma Vaivartha that the fullest

particulars are found ; and though the worship of the infant

Krishna is not distinctly commanded there, yet, as it speaks

of the Creator as a young man, and dwells upon the miracu-

lous doings of his youth, its authority is claimed for this

form of worship. According to this authority, Krishna has

a heaven of his own called Goloka, situated high above the

heavens of Vishnu and Siva. In the centre of this beautiful

home lives Krishna in the bloom of youth, in colour like a

dark cloud, and clad in yellow garments, playing on his

flute. Being alone, he meditated on the world ; then Maya,a female form arose, from whom and himself all beings

came. Vishnu sprang from his right side, Siva from his left,

Brahma from his hand, Dharma from his breath, Saraswati

from his mouth, Lakshmi from his mind, Durga from his

understanding, and Eadha from his left side. Three hundredmillions of gopis {female cowherds) exuded from the pores of

her skin, and the same number of gopas (cowherds) from his.

Vallabha introduced one most remarkable innovation for aSanyasi, which showed that Epicureanism was not at all

confined to Greece. He taught that as privation formed nopart of sanctity, God should be worshipped, not by nudityand hunger, but by costly apparel and good food ; not insohtude and with mortification of the body, but in thepleasures of sbciety and in the enjoyment of the wcrld»

THE VAISHNAVA SECTS. 71

With the founding of the sect Vallabha at once gave up his

ascetic life, and marrying, advised all his disciples to do the

same. The gosains, or gurus, have great influence over their

disciples, and are well cared for as they travel from shrine to

shrine, from disciple to disciple. The mass of the adherents

of this sect are merchants, and the gosains themselves are

not above joining in mercantile transactions. The images

of Gopal that they worship are generally made of metal,

and, in the same temple with those of Eadha and Krishna,

Gopal's representations are also to be seen. The most cele-

brated temple of Gopal is in Ajmere. It is said that the

image there worshipped transported itself to that place from

Mathura. It is the duty of every member of this sect, at

least once in their life, to visit this shrine, and a certificate

is given to each pilgrim who goes there by the chief gosain.

There are several temples at Vrindavana and other places,

5. Mira Bais.

This is really a subdivision of the preceding, found almost

exclusivelyin the west of India; and Mira Bai and Eanachor,

a form of Krishna, are held in great veneration by the fol-

lowers of Vallabha.

Mira Bai is the authoress of several poems addressed to

Krishna, which are read, with those of Nanak and Kabir, by

members of other sects. She was the daughter of a petty

Eaja, and became the wife of the Nana of Udaypore. As her

mother-in-law was a devout worshipper of Devi, Siva's consort,

and Mira as devout a worshipper of Krishna, quarrels arose,

the result being that the younger lady had a separate estab-

lishment, in which she was free to carry on her religious

practices unmolested. She continued to adore Eanachor,

and, as part of her worship, visited the scenes of Krishna's

exploits, and became the protector of his followers through-

out her husband's kingdom. During her absence from home,

a persecution of Bjrishna's worshippers breaking out, a num-

ber of Brahmans were despatched to bring her home. Before

leaving Dwaraka she went to visit Eanachor's temple ; the

72 HINDU SECTS.

deity was so pleased with her that the image opened ; she

threw herself into it, and was never seen again. At Uday-

pore an image of Mira is to be seen beside one of Krishna.

6. Madhwacharis.

[In dress and general appearance they are like the Dandis.

The Brahmans who join cast off the poitra ; all carry a staff

and water-pot, go bareheaded, and wear a single cloth of a

dirty yellow colour. They also have the symbols of Vishnu

stamped with a hot iron on their shoulders or breast. Their

frontal marks are the same as those of the Sri Vaishnavas,

excepting that in place of the red centre streak they have

one made of sandal-wood charcoal, which has been burned

as incense before an image of Vishnu as Narayana, termi-

jiating with a patch of turmeric]

This sect forms a sort of connecting link between the

^ Vaishnavas and Saivas. Their founder, Madhava, who is

said to have been an incarnation of the god Vayu, was bornabout the twelfth century. At first he appears to have beena member of a Saiva sect, but afterwards forsook that for

the Vaishnavas. Unlike most men who change their beliefs,

he was no bigot ; hence in the temples frequented by the

members of this sect we find images of Siva, Durga, andGanesa, side by side with those of Vishnu. One great pecu-

liarity of his teaching was that the human spirit (Jivatma),

though united to and dependent on the Paramatma, or DivineSpirit, is yet distinct from it ; hence final absorption into theGodhead is impossible. This is a most marked departurefrom the orthodox creed.

7. The Vaishnavas of Bengal.

[Marks : Two white perpendicular lines on the forehead,made either with sandal-wood or gopichandana, which arejoined together at the root, and extended to near the end ofthe nose. They have also the name Eadha-Krishna stampedon the temples, breast, and arms. They wear a tight-fitting

necklace made of three strings of beads of Tulsi stalk, andcarry a rosary of the same.]

THE VAISHNAVA SECTS. 73

By far the greater part of the Vaishnavas of Bengal, about ^

8,000,000 in number, and forming, according to some autho-

rities, at least one-fifth of the Hindu community, belong to

the sect of which Chaitanya, a Brahman of Nadiya, was the

founder. This man developed and proclaimed with singular/

earnestness a system which had been partially elaborated by

two men named Adaityananda and Nityananda. Being house-

holders, and indisposed to lead an ascetic life,- they needed

an active co-labourer to propagate their doctrines throughout

the country. And in selecting Chaitanya they certainly

made a most happy choice ; for a more earnest and self-

denying man than he has not been often seen. WhilBt

the success which to this day attends the proclamation of

Ms peculiar views, affords a notable example of the great

innovations in faith and practice that an earnest-minded

man can produce amongst the religiously conservative people

of India.

According to popular belief, and this will partly account

for the immense success that followed his work, he was an

incarnation of Krishna, who appeared in this form for the

special purpose of leading men to worship him. In the temples

of Nadiya, the head-quarters of the sect, the images of Chai-

tanya are of large size, whilst those of Krishna, in the same

shrines, being small and insignificant, are regarded as of

secondary importance. But Chaitanya, having left his family

and lived the life of an ascetic, whilst Krishna is always

worshipped in conjunction with his favourite mistress Eadha,

it is said that he is the manifestation of both Krishna and

Eadha combined, A few facts connected with the life of this

great reformer will not be without interest. The book of the

sect is the Chaitanya Charitamrita, a work most highly valued

by the members. It is written in a sort of jingling rhyme,

in the Bengali language, with a large number of Sanskrit,

Urdu, and Uriya words interspersed.

Chaitanya was born in the year 1485, just two years after

Luther. It is stated in the book just mentioned that before

74 HINDU SECTS.

and at his birth his parents had many indications that the

child was no ordinary mortal, and that the heavenly deities

came down to earth to visit him who was the incarnation of

the second person of the Hindu Triad. Numerous stories of

his miraculous knowledge and power are told, and others

illustrating the character of his teaching in after life. Oneday, when his mother gave him sweetmeats to eat, he took up

clay, which he ate in preference, as he said that there was no

difference between them. When his attention was called to

the fact that he was standing in an unclean place, and ordered

to wash in the Bhagirathi river, he refused, because all places

were alike holy.

When a boy he was well taught in the village school, andhimself became a teacher, and, when his father died, performed

the funeral ceremonies according to the ritual. But very soon

after this the lessons of a book he had carefully read, the

Sri Bhagavata, which is largely taken up with the account of

Krishna, were realized by him in an extraordinary degree, so

that for hours together he would meditate on Krishna, and,

becoming ecstatic in his love to him, was impelled by a mightyenthusiasm to preach to others of the intense joy he found in

the contemplation of and devotion to that deity. It is amost curious fact that whilst Chaitanya himself was anardent worshipper of Krishna, he should now be regarded byhis followers as an incarnation of that deity. At times his

followers declare that he changed his bodily form and appearedas the four-armed Krishna, to the great delight of his disciples.

The Vaishnavas, with Chaitanya at their head, were in thehabit of meeting at night and spending hours together in talk-

ing over the life and singing songs in honour of Krishna,until earth became as heaven. On one of these occasions

Chaitanya urged his companions to go from house to housein Nadiya, until all the inhabitants should know the bliss thatwas within their reach. This was too hard a task for thenew disciples, so on the following morning a procession wasformed with Chaitanya at the head, and the whole company

THE VAISHNAVA SECTS. 75

marclied singing through the streets with their music aeoom-paniment. All came out to see and hear, and amongstothers, two noted enemies of the Vaishnava worship. Seeing

them, Chaitanya prayed that the divine weapon Sudarshanmight destroy them ; hut on heing asked by a follower to

show love rather than hate, the order was countermanded,

and through heavenly blessings the hearts of these opponents

were melted, and they became followers of the new faith.

The conversion of these two opponents, perhaps as much as

anything, led to greater earnestness on the part of the disciples,

and also to the conviction on the part of the Hindus generally

that it was their interest to regard this new movement with

favour rather than opposition.

When he was twenty-four years of age Chaitanya forsook

his family and assumed the position of an ascetic. It was his

duty, he felt, to visit the great shrines of India, and to preach

the tenets of his system to all men. As he was travelling

towards Puri, the shrine of Jagannatha, he was so over-

powered with a sense of the ignorance and sin of men, that

he was almost ready to drown himself. On arriving at the

great temple cf Jagannatha, he sat for hours before the image

and " saw" him and all his glory—a sure sign that he at

least was pure, as it is only to the eyes of the pure that this

deity is said to manifest himseli Whilst at Puri he spent

his time largely in speaking of the glories of Krishna, and

many of the pilgrims who visited that shrine went back to

their homes with their hearts fired with love to Chaitanya's

chosen deity. From Puri he went to the extreme south of

India, to the places rendered sacred as the scene of Eama's

labours and exploits. On his way he gained many disciples,

and on some occasions even manifested his divine form to

confirm the faith of his disciples.

On his return to Puri the people were greatly delighted,

and at the next Eatt Jatra.(the great Car Festival held there -

in^July) his influence was most marked. He divided his

followers into four companies, who sang, danced, and played

76 HINDU SECTS.

their music on the four sides of the great oar as it moved

along ; but the leader himself was said to be present in all

four companies at once, and it is declared that the god

looked down with great delight at the devotion of his servant.

At the close of the day, when the powers of elephants and

men, who had been drawing the car, were exhausted, and it

was found impossible for them to move it further, Chaitanya

touched the back of it with his head, and it then moved easily

along.

After remaining some four years at Puri, Chaitanya returned

to Bengal, where he confirmed the faith of his many disciples,

and then started for Vrindavana and Mathura, the scene of

Krishna's life on earth. Most marvellous are the accounts

given of the power the name of Krishna exerted on beasts

and men when uttered by him. " The lord passed through

herds of tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, and wild boars."

The simple Bala Bhadra (his companion) was astonished to

see those furious beasts keep a respectful distance from the

Mahaprabhu. One day his foot touched a tiger that wassleeping by the side of the road. The lord said, •' Krishna,

Krishna," at the sound of which the tiger, rising up, dancedfor joy. On another occasion, as he was bathing in a river,

a number of wild elephants came there to drink. Chaitanya,

throwing water at them, said, "Eepeat the name of Krishna;"

on which, all the elephants shouted " Krishna ! Krishna !

" and,

moved by faith and love, danced and sang. As he sang flocks

of deer attended him on either side to hear the delightful

sound. Some tigers then joined the company, and when thelord said, " Say Krishna," deer and tigers with this name ontheir lips danced with joy. Tigers and deer embraced eachother, and forgot their natural animosity. Peacocks attendedhim on his journey, and even plants, vegetables, and mineralswere glad, and showed signs of rejoicing as he sang thepraises of Krishna. At Benares and Allahabad he madeconverts ; whilst at Mathura, the home of Krishna, theanimal and vegetable worlds were convulsed with joy, and

THE VAISHNAVA SECTS. 77

manifested their pleasure in a marvellous manner. The writer

of the book declares that " ten millions of volumes will not suf-

fice to describe the transports of Mahaprabhu in Vrindavana."

After this journey he returned to Puri, where he remained

for the rest of his life. During the years that followed it is

clear that he had periodic fits of insanity, in which he

fancied himself to be ICrishna, and in imagination went

through many of the incidents in that hero's life. Nowhe was dancing with the milkmaids, now conversing with

Badha, and at last, in one of these fits, walked into the sea

under the impression that it was the river Jumna, the scene

of Krishna's amusements, and was drowned.

The two chief co-workers with Chaitanya were Nityananda

and Adaityananda ; the former of whom is sometimes wor-

shipped along with his master. The descendants of these

men are now regarded as the leaders of the sect.

The following is an outhne of the theology of the Vaish-

navas who follow Chaitanya's teaching.

Krishna is the Paramatma, the supreme soul, and he is

the supreme object of worship. There is but one sub-

stance in the universe, viz. , Krishna, the earth being only a

modification of him. The peculiarity of the Vaishnavas of

Bengal is their belief that Chaitanya is a manifestation of

deity. The followers of this sect say that Siva and Brahmamanifested a part only of the Divine Being, but Krishna is

God Himself. Another peculiarity of the theology lies in the

stress placed upon bhakti, or faith. The Vedantists teach

that knowledge is aU, and will save ; other more popular

systems say, "Perform penance," meditate, "Do good

works;" do something ; but Chaitanya said, "Trust Krishna."

" The efficacy of good works, austerity, and knowledge, is

nothing compared with that of bhakti. Without bhakti

there can be no deliverance." Simple bhakti without know-

ledge, whatever be the object of this blind and implicit faith,

will ensure salvation. The Vaishnavas maintain that any-

thing, a log of wood, a plant, &c., beheved by the devotee to

78 HINDU SECTS.

be Krishna or Chaitanya, becomes to him such, and ensures

to him happiness in the realms of heaven. Vedantism

supposes knowledge and power of thought ; Puranism pre-

scribes a round of difficult and expensive rites and duties

;

but Vaishnavism is simple and inexpensive ; hence we find

that it is fast becoming the prevailing system amongst the

poor. There are five degrees of this bhakti : 1st, Santa, or

peace. This, the lowest form, is the calm, unimpassioned

contemplation of the deity. 2nd, Bamja, or servitude. Whenthis is attained, the heart is more animated, the mind is more

active, and the affections are warmer. This leads to a vowof service, and the position of him who offers it is as that of

a slave to his master. 3rd, Sdkya, or friendship. When he

attains to this height, the devotee no longer regards Krishna

as his master, but as his personal fi:iend, whom he is impelled

to please because of the love he bears towards him. 4th,

Batsalya, or filial affection, is that degree of affection which

is recognized as natural in a child towards its father ; the

childlike trust which leads its possessor to look up to Krishnaand say. Thou art my father. The 5th and last form of

this bhakti is called Madhui-ya, or sweetness ; and the

illustration given of this is that love which the milkmaids of

Vrindavana bore towards the hero when he was residingdn

their midst, the highest type of all being that which Eadhahad for her lord.

Vaikantha is the heaven of the Vaishnavas wherein theyhope to be united to, or rather identified with, Krishna, andthen reign as divine for ever. Others seem rather to expect

to enjoy a separate existence in heaven.

Amongst the most important duties as taught by theYaishnavas is that of " Ouru Padiisraya," or the takingrefuge under the guru. The gurus in Vaishnava sects arenot necessarily Brahmans, but the adoration claimed bythem is even greater than that demanded by ordinaryBrahmans. The chief work of the guru is gimng the mantra,or text, which it is the duty of the' disciple to repeat 108

THE VAISHNAVA SECTS. 79

times before he eats or drinks anything. The following texts

teach the authority of the guru. "The mantra is manifest

in the guru, and the guru is Hari himself." Krishna says,

" The guru is first to be worshipped, and then I am to be

worshipped." " When Hari is angry, the guru is our pro-

tector ; when the guru is angry, we have no protector."

The gurus, or, as they are often called, gosains, travel

about with considerable state ; and when they come to a dis-

ciple's house expect to be well treated, and on their departure

well paid. The water in which their feet have been washed is

drunk by the disciples and their family, whilst the food that

has been placed before so sacred a person is greedily devoured

by all the followers of the sect. Already there is rebellion in

the camp ; some of the Vaishnavas are throwing off this

adoration of the gurus.

The next important duty is Nama Eirton, i.e., the repetition

of the name of the deity. The common formula in Bengal

is this : Hari Krishna, Hari Krishna Krishna, Krishna Hari,

Hari Hari Eama, Hari Eama Eama, Eama Hari Hari. The

rosary of 108 seeds is often to be seen in the hands of the

Vaishnavas, or the hand and rosary are concealed in a bag,

as the process of counting may not be seen by ordinary

onlookers.

Next in order is the Sankirtan. This is a public act, in

which a number join in singing the praises of Krishna. It

is noisy, irreverent, often indecent ; the singing is frequently

accompanied by dancing.

One of the most important duties is the Mahastab (great

joy). This is a feast which is held at the death of some

gosain or mahanta, or any great personage amongst the com-

munity. At these feasts no castt regulations are observed.

All who come to the feast eat together. The gosain takes a

little food from a dish ;• what is left is mixed with the other

food that is prepared, and the whole becomes prasad, or

sacred. To eat of this is a work of great merit. But the

most valued food of the whole feast is that which has been

80 HINDU SECTS.

left by the gosain on his plate, a few grains of which is given

to those only who are considered specially holy and devout.

It is a great work of merit to hear the Bhagavata read by

the kathaks, or professional readers, and it is amongst the

Vaishnavas especially that the kathaks find employment.

What Benares is to the ordinary Hindu, Mathura is to the

Vaishnava ; residence there is believed to be productive of

indescribable benefits.

The Vairagis, or ascetic Vaishnavas, can marry at a trifling

cost, and obtain a divorce for as little ; they are generally con-

sidered to be most immoral. This class as a rule bury, not

burn their dead.

The chief tendency of Chaitanya's teaching was to break

down caste. Men of all castes can receive the mantra, and

even Mussulmans have been received into the community.

The Vairagis, of whatever caste, eat together, but the secular

members as a rule, except on the festival days, do not eat

with those of other castes,

^ From the main body of Chaitanya's followers are twoclasses that may be regarded as seceders from it. 1. TheSpashtlia Byaks. These differ chiefly with respect to the

authority of the gurus. They deny their divinity. Men andwomen hve together in convents professedly in the relation

of brothers and sisters. The men act as gurus to each other,

and the women are gurus to the female members of the com-munity. All the members of this branch lead the ascetic

'life. 2. The Kartha Bhojas. This is a very modem sect

founded by Eama Taran Pal of Ghoshpara. Its teaching

goes to the other extreme on this question. It teaches that

the gurus are none other than Krishna himself, and he in

the person of the gurus becomes the Ishta Deva, the chosendeity, of his followers. Its main teaching is summed up in

the following: "Attach yourself to your guru, speak thetruth, follow the counsels of your guru."

8. We now come to notice a few of the less influential sects

connected with the Vaishnava worship, and shall simply

THE VAISHNAVA SECTS. 81

notice the particulars in which they differ from the large

masses of the Hindus who are Vishnu's worshippers.

a. Radhic Yallabhis are those who. whilst worshipping

Krishna, prefer to give their chief adoration to Eadha, his

chief mistress according to some, or his heavenly bride

according to others. It is said that it was owing to a curse

that Eadha his celestial spouse became a milkmaid upon

earth, and on this ground Krishna's criminal intercourse

with her is defended.

b. Sakhi Bhavas. The teaching of this sect differs little

from that of the preceding ; but the members, ia order

to show their great regard for Eadha in preference to her

husband, not only adopt woman's dress, but also the manners

and occupation of women. The members of this sect are few,

in number, and not very respectable.

c. Charan Basis. This sect was founded at Dehli, where

its head-quarters are at the present time, by a merchant

named Charan Das. At first this man taught that no repre-

sentative of deity should be worshipped ; he even repudiated/

the Salgram and Tulsi. Gradually, however, innovations

have been made, and the objects common to other Vaishnavas /

are now freely worshipped. He taught, further, that good

works are of equal value with faith ; that a man's works

determine his final condition. There are a few ascetic mem-

bers of this sect who wear yellow garments, and have a

single streak of sandal-wood or gopichandana down the fore- '

head. They also wear a small pointed cap and a yellow

turban.

d. Sanyasis. This name, though usually employed to

denote ascetics of the Saivya faith, is also used with the

qualifying word Tridandi for a class of Vaishnavas of the'

Eamanuja sect who have passed through the first two stages

of the Brahmanical order, and have entered upon the ascetic

life. The word danda signifies a staff, and the Tridandi

Sanyasis are those who have taken up the three-fold staff;

i.e., have exercised a three-fold restraint of speech, body, and

7

82 HINDU SECTS.

mind, or word, deed, and thought. These men do not touch

metals or fire, and cannot, therefore, cook their food, but

depend upon the generosity of the pious Brahmans of the

other orders of the Sri Vaishnava sect.

- e. Vairagis. These are the ascetics of the Eamanand sect

described above. They have no employment and no fixed

abode, but wander from shrine to shrine, and from one

monastery to another, dependent upon the gifts of the

faithful.

/. Nagas. All the great Hindu sects have a division of

nagas, i.e., those who profess to carry their religious earnest-

ness to an extreme length. These men discard all clothing ;

and though regarded as holy (saints) by the community, are

known to be a most dissolute set of men. At some religious

festivals hundreds of these men walk in procession absolutely

naked," in the presence of thousands of men and women.

CHAPTEE VI.

THE SAIVITE SECTS; OR THOSE WHO REGARD SIVA ASTHE SUPREME DEITY.

[The distinguishing marks of these sects are horizontal

instead of perpendicular, the differing widths and colours

marking the difference of sect.]^

The worship of Siva has little of the popular and attra«tive

•element that we have noticed in connection with the Vaish-

nava worship. It is mostly confined to the Brahmaris and

those who are immediately influenced by them. In North

India there are no legends of an attractive kind to lead mento choose him as their Ishta Deva (chosen deity) ; no popular

Tvorks written to lead men to direct their worship to him

;

no breaking down of the strict caste rules as an inducement

for those of the more despised classes to unite themselves

Tffith the Saivite sects. There are many temples sacred to,

Siva, in which he is represented by the Linga ; but as a rule

they are not popular shrines, as are those of Krishna, Jagan-

natha, &c. It is different, however, with the temples of his

consort Parvati, Durga, Kali, in the many forms under which

she is worshipped. Siva is rather a repulsive, dreadful being,

and it is certain that it is fear only which impels men to worship

him. It is as the husband of Parvati that men approach him

with their gifts, rather than for anything that is attractive in

his character and conduct. Krishna appeals to the humaninstincts of men, and his worship is a bright and joyous

thing ; whilst Siva is the embodiment of that which is stern,

cruel, and powerful only.

84 HINDU SECTS.

There are no great sects, in one sense of the word, similar

to those connected with the worship of Vishnu ; the worship-

pers of Siva for the most part agree with each other in faith

and practice. There are, however, classes of ascetics whose

precepts differ somewhat from those of the great mass of

Saivites which call for a brief notice. It is evident that

Vaishnavism is a much more recent form of Hinduism than

that of Saivism ; and having broken away from the 'older and

more stereotyped forms, there has been greater latitude in

their creed and ritual than is seen amongst those who adhere

to the older forms.

The great authority in matters connected with Siva-wor-

ship is Sankara Acharjya. This man was born at Kerala, or

Malabar, and by some is declared to have been an incarna-

tion of Siva. Others, again, say that he was the child of an

adulterous union, for which his mother was outcasted. He.

divided the people into seventy-two classes, eighteen of whichhe assigned to each of the four great Hindu castes. Forsome reason he appears to have been unpopular with the

people of his day ; and when he returned from a pilgrimage ^

bis mother happening to die, the Brahmans of the neighbour-

hood would not attend her funeral ceremonies, or give himany sacred fire wherewith he might burn her body. Sankaraobtained fire by simply rubbing his arm, and having burnedthe body in the courtyard of the house, declared that Brah-mans should no longer read the Vedas there, that religious,

mendicants should not obtain alms, and that the dead should

always be burned near to the house where they had lived.

After this he lived an ascetic life, and was engaged in con-

troversy with the leaders of other sects. His chief work is.

a commentary on the Bhagavata Gita. He estaiblished

several monasteries, lived for some time in Kashmir, and.

died when only thirty-two years of age at Kedarnatb, in theHimalayahs.

a. The Dandis, or Staff-bearers. These, and the Tridandtis.

mentioned before, are the legitimate representatives of the.

THE SATVITE SECTS. 85

fourth Asrama, or mendicant life, into which the orthodox

Brahman's Ufe is divided. Each Brahman's life, according

to the Sastras, ought to be divided as follows :—First, the

Student stage; secondly, the Householder stage; thirdly,

the Hermit stage; and fourthly, the Ascetic stage. As a

student, he learned the Vedas ; as a householder, he obtained

sons ; as a hermit, he taught students ; and as an ascetic, he

had opportunity for reflection and thought to prepare him for

entering into the next stage of existence. Nowadays this the

orthodox way of spending their days is not followed by many,though it is no uncommon thing for Brahmans, when old age

comes, to leave their home and take up their residence in

Benares and other sacred places, that, being freed from the

cares of a family, their minds may be fitted by contemplation

to pass into the presence of the Judge. It is competent for

any who may be disposed to take up the ascetic life to com-

mence this at any period of their lives without going through

the previous stages of student, householder, and hermit.

The Dandi is generally known by his staff, with a piece of

red cloth attached in which his Brahmanical cord is carried.

He wears only a small cloth round his waist, and has his .

head and face cleanly shaven; his food he begs from the

houses of Brahmans, and ought to live alone, near to, though

not inside, a city. They have no particular time for or form

of worship, and their chief employment is meditation. I

have frequently seen these men, and, when trying to converse

with them, have found them to be almost idiotic. Not using

their mind, it seems as though neglect had almost destroyed

it. Some destroy their bodily organs, and certainly the

mental faculties of many of them are impaired, as they pass

their time in idleness, and try not to think ; it is mere exis-

tence, not life, that they regard as the perfect state. Siva,

under the name of Bhairava (the terrible), is their chief

deity, and the mantra they receive is the one common to the

Saivites. They are initiated into the worship of this deity

by a small incision being made under the arm, the blood""

86 HINDU SECTS.

that flows from the wound being offered to the deity. TheDandis do not burn, but bury their dead, or throw them into

sacred streams.

Originally the profession of the Dandi was open to men of

the three highest castes only ; now many of the lowest castes

assume the dress, symbols, and life of the ascetic. To an

outsider it seems to be a most idle and miserable life. More

sleepy and dirty specimens of humanity than these holy menone has never seen. But it is evident that the honours given

to them in this life, and the hopes of heavenly rewards, are

sufficient to allure men from their work and home and fami-

lies in order to lead this wandering life. These blessings,

have an attraction that the uninitiated cannot understand.

At certain festivals, such as the Charak Puja, many of the

low caste people assume this garb and profession for a few

days only, and wander about the streets begging; but this is

a part of the fun and frolic of the time.

b. The Dasnami Dandis. The name of this sect is given

because the members are divided into ten classes after the

ten chief disciples of Sankara, and are regarded as the legiti-

mate descendants of the fraternities founded by him. Thechief difference between them and the Dandis lies in the fact

that at first they admitted Brahmans only to their fellowship.

Of the ten classes, now four only are regarded as true to their

founder's doctrine. The chief deviation of the other six.

classes, who bear the name of atits, or guests, is this : theyhave given up the use of the staff ; they wear clothes andornaments, prepare their own food, and admit other thanBrahmans to their order.

c. The Yogis. This is another class of religious mendi-cants. The name signifies one who meditates, and meditation

has been always regarded by the Hindus as the most sacredof religious duties. The Yogis of the present day professto be the descendants of men who in olden time possessedimmense influence over the people. The object of the Yogiwas to concentrate his attention until he had come to regard

THE SAIVITE SECTS, 87

himself as one with the supreme spirit. Methods by -whichthis state of perfection could be attained are carefully taughtin the Hindu Scriptures. The Yogi must breathe in a par-ticular manner, sit in eighty-four different postures, fix theeye on the tip of the nose, and meditate on Siva until he andthey become one. And these Scriptures go on to describe

most marvellous effects which follow this complete mentalabstraction. In this state they declare the Yogis can makethemselves lighter than the lightest, and heavier than the

heaviest substances; can magnify or lessen their forms at

will, can instantaneously travel immense distances, reani-

mate corpses by breathing their own spirit into them, render

themselves invisible, and know the past, present, and future

at a glance. Such high pretensions are made of this pro-

fession in the past. Nowadays these men go about the

country as fortune-tellers and conjurors, and often imposeupon the ignorance and credulity of the people. No doubii

many of them are clever jugglers. The founder of the sect

was named Goraknatha, and his disciples are called Kanphati,

because at their initiation they have their ears pierced. Traces

of this sect are to be found at Peshawar, and at Gorakhpore

there is a temple and a math of the order. Tradition says

that the original temple was erected by Siva himself in the

Treta age of the Hindus, which answers to the silver age of

the classics. The present temple is of modern date, and in

the adjacent math the superior or mahant of the order resides.

Besides the regular members, there are many who simply for

gain assume their dress and manners, and practise as con-

jurors without taking any religious vows, or making any pre-

tensions to a religious life.

d. Jangamas. This class of Saivites is distinguished by

the fact that they all wear a representation of the Linga, the

emblem of Siva, on their bodies or in their dress : these are

often made of copper or silver, and either worn round the

neck or in the turban. In North India occasionally the

members of this sect are to be seen leading about a bull to

88 HINDU SECTS.

represent Siva's favourite animal Nandi ; but in South India,

where their numbers are very large, they are known by the

name of Lingayets, and priests of the Siva temples generally

belong to it. The founder of this sect, or the restorer of the

worship of Siva in these parts, was named Basava, who was

said to be an incarnation of Nandi, the bull of Siva. At

Siva's command this faithful servant came to earth to resus-

citate the worship of his master. He lived at Kalyan, where

he was Minister of Police.

The Basava Purana, as the book is called in which the

history of this revival of Siva-worship is given, contains some

wonderful legends of the benefits of Linga-worship, and is

very different from the works on this subject in North India.

On one occasion Basava, who had been profuse in his gifts

to other members of his sect, was accused to the king of em-

bezzlement ; but when the treasury was opened it was found

that all the minister's gifts had not in any way diminished the

treasures. A fellow-casteman, living with a dancing-girl, sent

to Basava's house for his daily supply of rice. The servant onhis return spoke so strongly of the richness of the dress of the

minister's wife that the cupidity of this dancing-girl was excited.

Her lord, therefore, went to ask Basava for it. The minister

ordered his wife to give it up ; but, as she took it off, another

equally beautiful sprang from her body, which was also given

to the Jangama. It is also taught that Basava was escorted

to heaven by Siva and Parvati themselves, who came fromheaven thus to show their respect. It is supposed, as far as

can be told, that the revival or institution of Siva-worship

occurred in the early part of the eleventh century.

, ' e. Paramhansa. The Sanyasi is of four kinds, the Kuti-

chara, the Bahudaka, the Hansa, and the Paramhansa, the

difference between whom, however, is only one of graduatedintensity of self-mortification and abstraction. Of these theParamhansa is the most eminent, and denotes the ascetic

who is solely occupied with his meditations on the deity, andwho is indifferent to pleasure or pain, insensible to heat or

THE SATVITE SECTS. 89

cold, and incapable of satiety or want. Some of those whoprofess to have attained to this excellence are to be met with.

In proof of this they go naked, never speak, and never ask

for anything they may want. They have attendants, whocollect what is necessary, and feed them as they would a

child. Of course there are some who make a gain by their

professed sanctity, but some, so far as one can see, have cometo believe that they are right in adopting this mode of life.

/. Aghoris. These differ from the former in this respect

:

that whilst the Paramhansa does not parade his virtues, the

Aghoris make their supposed sanctity a reason for liberal alms-

giving. The original Aghori-worship seems to have been de-

voted to the female powers, or Devi, in one of her many forms,

and to have demanded human victims. The votaries of this

sect carried a staff set with bones, and a human skull for a

drinking pot. Though the regular worship of this kind has

been suppressed a few miserable wretches go about the country

professing to belong to the sect ; and, as a proof of their utter

indifference about worldly objects, eat whatever is given them,

even carrion. In order to extort money they gash their

limbs, that the crime of blood-letting may rest upon those

who refuse to give them alms. Moor in the " Hindu Pantheon"speaks of the Paramhansas being seen sitting on a corpse

as it floated down the Ganges, and eating the decomposing

body; but he must have been misled; the Paramhansas,

though professedly perfect, would not do this ; it must have

been one of this class of Aghoris that was seen in this dis-

gusting attitude, probably as a means of extorting moneyfrom the bystanders.

g. In addition to the above are a few less known ascetics

which may just be mentioned, men who practise austerities

of various kinds, from which their names are taken. The

Vrddhahahus (holders up of arms) are those who stand in one

posture for years, holding one or both of their arms above the

head until the muscles become contracted and they cannot

bring them down again to their side. Some also close their

90 HINDU SECTS.

fists, and allow their nails to grow until they completely pas®

through the hands. These men generally travel alone, and

wander from shrine to shrine. The AMsmukJds are those whoturn their faces towards the sky until the muscles of the neck

become fixed, and they cannot alter this most painful position.

The peculiarity of the Nakhis is that they allow their nails to

grow without being cut. The OUdaras travel about with a

small pan of metal, in which they burn sandal and other

scented wood in the houses they may visit collecting alms

;

their method of asking alms being the mere repetition of the

work Alakh, meaning that God's nature is incapable of being:

described; He iswithout any marks or distinctive features. Th&Sukharas, Eiikharas, and Vkharas have nothing distinctive savfr

their dress, excepting the last-named, who drink spirituous-

liquors and eat meat. The Ndgas are those who go aboui

naked, allow their hair and beards to grow, use arms, and.

seem to be ready to take part in any rows that may arise ; a.

sort of professional vagabond life is that which these menelect ; but when tired of this it is open for them to re-enter

any of the more respectable sects from which they may havecome. It will be noticed that all the Sanyasi or ascetic sects

of the Saivas are celibates ; it is, in fact, a much harsher andmore repulsive form of religious life than that followed by theVaishnavas.

CHAPTEE VII.

THE SAKTAS; OR THOSE SECTS EXCLUSIVELY DEVOTEiyTO THE WOnSHIP OF THE FEMALE DEITIES.

It has been estimated that of the Hindus in Bengal about

three-fourths 3,re devoted to the worship of Saliti ; i.e., the

power or energy of the God as represented in some of th&

many female forms. Of the remaining quarter, three parts-

are Vaishnavas, and the remaining quarter are mostly Saivas.

Each deity has his consort, to whom the worship of the

people is in some cases more freely given than to her

husband. Thus Brahma, the creator, is now almost entirely

neglected ; but Saraswati, his wife, is regularly worshipped

as the patroness of learning. Lakshmi, Eadha, and Sita,

are, to say the least, as popular as their lords ; whilst the

many forms of Parvati, Durga, Kali, are of all deities the

most commonly worshipped by the masses of Bengal. Andas the worshipper of Vishnu, or Siva, declares that his par-

ticular object pf worship is the supreme from whom all the

other gods derive their origin, the devotees of the goddesses

have no hesitation in saying that they are the cause of all

created things. Thus they are likened to the active energy

of the soul, and to the power of burning in the fire. These

goddesses are regarded as the divine force or energy of the

god personified. The explanation commonly given is as

foUows : The Supreme Being wishing to create, divided

himself into two parts ; the one became Brahma, the other

Prakriti, or nature ; and as from Brahma all males, bo from

92 HINDU SECTS.

Prakriti all females sprung. But as without the female the

male is unproductive, the female is regarded as the real

force in nature, and hence the almost exclusive adoration

that is paid to the female deities by so many of the Hindus.

In some of the Puranas the adoration of Prakriti or Sakti,

the energy of the gods, who is worshipped under the forms of

Saraswati, Lakshmi, Durga, &c., the wives of the gods, is

authorized to some extent ; but it is in the more modern books

called Tantras that this worship is chiefly upheld. It is

, probable some of these books were written almost as early as

' some of the later Puranas, but most of them are certainly

not older than the eleventh century. There are two maindivisions of this sect, the Ba^shinas, or right-hand wor-

shippers, and the Yamacharis, or left-hand worshippers.

But perhaps less is known of these sects than of any others,

because as yet the Tantras have been kept in greater secrecy

than most of the other books of the Hindus.

1. The Dakshinas, or right-hand worshippers, are those whoworship the female deities and regard them as the supreme

in an open, public manner, in accordance with the Puranic

ritual, and free from the gross impurities connected with the

Vamachari form of worship. The great difference in this

worship from that which is offered to Vishnu, in any of his

various forms, consists in the offering of Bali, or bloody

sacrifices. On the great festival days at Kali Ghat, near

Calcutta, and other popular shrines, the courtyard literally

streams with the blood of the hundred of kids, aid the

many buffaloes that have been offered in sacrifice. Andin the courtyards of the Hindu homes it is customary to

offer up in sacrifice kids and buffaloes when the festivals

of Durga in any of her forms are held. One of the Pur-ranas declares that whilst it is true that animal sacrifices

gratify Durga, it is also true that this act subjects thesacrificer to the sin which attaches to the destruction of

animal life. This teaching is the result of the Vaishnavafaith, one prominent article of which is the sacredness

THE SAKTAS. 93

of all life ; and to the earnest follower of Vishnu the scenescommonly witnessed at a Durga or Kali Puja must necessarily

be most repulsive, and the worshippers cannot but be-

regarded by him as most guilty. The offerers of sacrifice

can plead the authority of the Vedas and the customs of

their remote ancestors, and it is probably the sanction that

is given in those works to animal sacrifices that has led

many of the Vaishnava sects to regard them with but,

little respect. The general worship of the Saktas is similar

to that of the other Hindus, with the addition of the offering"

of these bloody sacrifices. The reason assigned for th&

presentation of blood to these deities is said to be this.

When the goddess was weary in her great conflict with the-

demons she came on earth to destroy, as there was nothing

else at hand to sustain her strength, she drank of the blood of

her slaughtered foes. By the presentation of blood it is

beheved that the satisfaction she had when refreshed by that,

draught is brought to mind, and, being in a benignant mood,

she will bestow blessings upon her worshippers. It should

be noticed that it is only to the consort of Siva in her manyforms that animal sacrifices are offered ; Saraswati, Lakshmi,

'

Eadha, and Sita, &c., the wives of Brahma, and Vishnu in his.

incarnations, are never worshipped in this manner.

2. The Vcimacharis. [When in public the members of this

sect generally wear the sectarial marks of some other sect,

because it is regarded by the more respectable Hindus a&

disgraceful to be connected with it. A few, however, are

met with who glory in their shame, and boldly proclaim

themselves Vamacharis by their marks. These signs are the

following : a semicircular line or lines of vermilion on the

forehead, or a perpendicular line of red in the middle of the

forehead, with a round red spot at the root of the nose.y

They use a small rosary of Eudraksha, or coral shells, small

enough to be concealed in the hand, or carried in a purse.

At the time of worship they wear a strip of scarlet silk round. ^

the loins, and a garland of scarlet flowers round the neck.]

fl4 HINDU SECTS.

This sect worships the goddesses not in accordance with the

teaching of the Puranas, hut follow the instructions of the

Tantras. Their services are carried on in secret, only the

initiated heing admitted to them. They worship Devi, the

Sakti of Siva, Lakshmi, Saraswati, the Matris (i.e., the

mothers), Yoginis, and Dakinis (a sort of ghost, or demon),

Siva himself, under the form of Bhairava, being sometimes

joined with his consort at their feasts. The aim of the

worshippers is, by the reverence paid to Sakti, to obtain super-

natural powers in this life, and to obtain a reunion with the

deity after death. Their worship varies, of course, with the

•object to whom it is directed, but it generally includes one or

all of the following : the offering of flesh, fish, wine, union

with women, and mystical gesticulation.

When the object desired is to interview a spirit, a corpse is

Jiecessary. The inquirer must visit a cemetery or burning

^hat alone at midnight, and, seated upon the corpse, makethe necessary offerings. If he can do this without fear, the

Bhutas (spirits), Yoginis, and other imaginary goblins, both

male and female, become his slaves.

The principal ceremonies connected with this worship are

not, however, performed in solitude, but by the members of the

eect together, a naked woman being worshipped by them as

the representative of Sakti. The men present regard them-selves as the representation of Bhairava (Siva), and the

women as Bhairavis (Devis). The ceremony is followed bydrunken and sensual orgies. The members are numerous,especially amongst the Brahmans. The following is oneform of the ritual' as far as it can be pubUshed. Theobject of worship at the ceremony must be a dancing-girl,

a female devotee, a harlot, a washerwoman, a barber's wife, afemale of the Brahmanioal or Sudra caste, a flower girl, or

a milkmaid. The worship is to commence at midnight witha party of eight, nine, or eleven couples of men and women.According to the person selected for the Sakti, appropriate

mantras, or texts, are fixed by the ritual. She must be dis-

THE SASTAS. 95

Tobed, but richly adorned with jewels, &o., and then is

rendered pure by the repetition of certain mantras. After

ithis, with its appropriate formula, she is sprinkled with wine,

:and, if not previously initiated, now receives the initiatory

•text. The rites then proceed, but if the reports given of

*hem are at all correct, they are quite unfit for publication.

It is only right, however, to say that the Hindus generally

repudiate the doings of this sect, and regard them as evil ; at

-the same time it is beyond dispute that it exists, and in

certain parts of the country has a considerable number of

members. A great deal of the teaching is not written, its

precepts being taught verbally to the initiated, who in their

turn become the instructors of the new members.

3. The Kiratis. These are the worshippers of Devi in her

most terrible form as Kapalika, who in former times was pro-

pitiated by human victims. As these cannot now be offered to

her, her votaries seek to please her by making offerings of their

own blood. They pierce their flesh with hooks, out themselves

with knives, lance their tongues and cheeks, and, as long as

the law permitted, swung from bamboos with hooks fastened

into their bodies, and threw themselves from platforms upon,

knives fixed upright upon the ground. At the present time

ihese practices are resorted to after a fashion ; cords are tied

jTOund the waist in which the hooks are caught, and the

knives are so arranged that as the man falls upon them, they

lie flat upon the ground. Before the Government interfered,

-these cruel rites were freely practised, and many were

seriously injured by them. Whenever I have seen these menthus lacerating themselves it has appeared to me that it was

more from the hope of gain than from devotion that they

did it. In every case they were quite intoxicated with a

preparation of hemp that is common in India, which has the

effect of exciting the brain, and at the same time lessening

the pain they would otherwise suffer. But whatever the

motive, it is certain that at these festivals there are plenty

of men to be found who are ready to suffer, and, were it per-

96 HINDU SECTS.

mitted, would gladly run the risk of permanent injury to

/themselves from these frightful modes of worship. The true

Kirati is thus described: His body is smeared with ashes

from a funeral pile, around his neck is a garland of humanskulls, his hair is matted, his forehead streaked with a black

line, his loins are covered with a tiger's skin, in his left hand.

he carries a skull, and in his right a bell, which he rings as

he walks, shouting, " Ho ! Sambha Bhairava ";" Ho ! Lord of

'^, Kali." It will be noticed from this description that, as the

name implies, the members of this sect try to imitate tha

dress and general appearance of Siva.

GHAPTEE VIII.

JIISCELLANEOUS SECTS.

1. Saurapatas. These are Hindus who regard Surya (the

sun) as the supreme deity. Nowadays there are few of themto be met with, though at one time they were more numerous.On Sundays, and also on the days when the sun passes fromone zodiacal sign to another, they eat but one meal, and that

without salt. They must never eat until they have seen the

sun.

2. Ganapatyas are those who regard Ganesa as the

supreme. AU the Hindus worship Ganesa, along with the

other deities ; but there are a few who place him as headover all, and direct their worship almost exclusively to him.

It is difficult to see why this should be done ; for although

Ganesa is regarded as the god of wisdom, he is not credited

with many very marvellous works in the Hindu scriptures.

3. Sikhs. The religion of the Sikhs is an offshoot from

Hinduism, and as such calls for a brief notice. The wordSikh is simply a corruption of the word Sishya, meaning a

disciple. The founder of the religion was Nanak, who wasborn at Lahore, in the year 1469. To him succeeded nine

Pontiffs, of whom Govinda was the most influential. Theaim of Nanak was to lead Hindus and Mussulmans to

recognize what was essential in the religion of each, and to

reject or treat with indifference non-essentials. In order to

this, whilst he recognized the divinity of the Hindudeities, he

also acknowledged the inspiration of Mahomet. The chief

8

98 HINDU SECTS.

tenets of the system as taught by Govinda were these : Toworship one supreme being, to eschew superstition, to

practise strict morality, and to live by the sword. This last

doctrine greatly influenced his followers, and moulded them

into one of the bravest people of the East, enabling them to

form themselves into a nation and fight until they gained their

freedom. The gums claimed to be true Kshetriyas. There

are seven classes of Sikhs, each with some slight modifica-

tion of creed and ritual ; the following only need special

mention :

—

a. The Udasis (solitary), as their name implies, profess to

be indifferent to worldly vicissitudes, and dwell apart from

the world in sangats, or colleges. They regard themselves

as the true and genuine followers of Nanak. They do not,

however, think it incumbent upon them to despise good food

and clothing ; nor is celibacy a necessary ordinance, though

many of them are unmarried. Their office consists largely

in reading and expounding the works of Nanak and Govinda,

as collected in the Adi Grantha and Das Padshali Ki Grantha

;

they also read the works of Kabir, Sur Dass, and others that

have been previously mentioned in the description of the

Vaishnava sects. The books of their religion are worshipped,

and at the close of the services in which they have been read

the presiding Udasi gives a feast from the prasad, i.e., food

offered to the idols which were worshipped along with the

books. The main object to be effected by this worship is

benevolence and self-denial, and, in common with most of the

Hindus, they look for deliverance from the delusions of Maya,through whose influence it is that they regard themselves as

distinct from the Godhead. Generally speaking, the creed of

the Sikhs is very similar to that of the disciples of Kabir,

6. The Bamrayk take their name from their leader, EamaEaya, who disputed with Hari Krishna for the position ofPontiff. He was unsuccessful in his attempt, but, as manythought him entitled to the office, they and their descendantsare known as his adherents.

MISCELLANEOUS SECTS. 99

c. The Suthreh Shahis are a wandering set, who carry two

sticks in their hands, which they strike together as a meansof asking alms. Generally they are a dissolute set of men,and are regarded as a disgrace to the community by the

:genuine Sikhs.

d. Govinda Siiighas, It was the leader of this sect whoentirely changed the Sikh religion and made it a strong

political institution. He welcomed Hindus and Mussulmansalike who discarded their faith in the Hindu deities andMahomet, and took up the sword in his cause. He profes-

sedly ignored the distinctions of the Hindu castes, though

great reverence was paid to Brahmans, and they continued

to worship the Hindu deities. His followers, however,

declare that they have given up their faith in the HinduScriptures, and regard the work of theirj leader, the DasPadshali Ki Grantha as their authority in religious matters.

e. The Nirmalas are an ascetic, contemplative class, wholive alone generally, but who are to be found at the great

Hindu shrines. They will give part of their prasad to Chris-

tians even, as several writers speak of having partaken of it.

f. The Ntigas differ little from the preceding class, except-

ing in the fact that they wander about the country naked.

g. There are a few followers of a Kshetriya named Pran

Nath who tried to form a religious system on the same lines as

Nanak, but his followers are now nearly all merged into the

other sects of the Sikhs.

4. The Jains. The leading tenets of the Jains, and those

which distinguish them from the main body of the Hindus,

are the following : They deny the divine origin and infallible

authority of the Vedas ; they hold that certain saints have, by

a life of purity and self-mortification, attained not only to an

equality with, but even superiority over, the deities commonly

worshipped by the Hindus ; and they show excessive regard

for all forms of animal life. It will be noticed that in the

Jfirst two articles of their creed they agree with the Buddhists,

Ihough the calendar of saints who have attained to this

100 HINDU SECTS.

exalted position differs in the two great sects. The disregard

which both the Jains and Buddhists manifest for the Vedas

leads to the neglect of the rites they prescribe. The chief

reason assigned for this is the fact that the Vedas sanctioned

animal sacrifices; and the Homa, or burnt-offering of ghi,

is repugnant to their feelings, because it is possible that

by it animal life is destroyed, as insects may be crawling on

the ground where the offering is made, or may exist in the

ghi itself.

The Jains {i.e. the worshippers of the Jinas) profess to-

reverence twenty-four Tirthankaras, or deified mortals of a

past age, twenty-four of the present, and twenty-four whohave as yet to attain this honour. These they declare to be

greater than even the chief deities of the Hindu Pantheon.

Statues of these beings in black and white marble are to be

seen in their temples. They are all of the same style of

feature, quietness and calmness being their chief charac-

teristic ; nothing at all approaching to the grotesque, as ap-

pears in many of the ordinary Hindu objects of worship ; andthe Jain temples for beauty and cleanliness are in every waysuperior to those of the orthodox Hindus. The saints mostgenerally worshipped by the Jains of North India are Paris-

natha and Mahavir, the twenty-third and twenty-fourth of

the present race of saints. The following epithets applied to

the saints will show the profound reverence that is paid to

them. They are called Jagatprabhus (lords of the world),

Kshina-karma (free from ceremonial acts), Sarvagna (omnis-

cient), Adiswara (supreme lord), Devadideva (god of gods),

Tirthankaras (those who have passed over the sea of life), andJina (victors over all human passions and infirmities).

The previous jinas, or saints, are said to have been ofcolossal height, and to have lived for millions of years ; butas the two last mentioned alone are believed to have been ofordinary size, and to have lived for the ordinary term of life,

it is generally admitted that they were historical personages,

the others being the offspring of a fertile imagination, employed.

MISCELLANEOUS SECTS. 101

to carry back the origin of the sect into a remote antiquity. It

is taught that these deified saints lived on earth as ordinary

mortals through several lives until they finally attained to

union with the supreme. It is uncertain when the sect wasformed originally, but there are many reasons for believing

that it is of later origin than Buddhism.

The Jains hold that all existences are divisible into twoclasses, Jiva and Ajiva; i.e., life and not-life. Their forms

may change, but they remain imperishable. They continue

for a time in a certain form, undergo some change, and then

return eventually to their previous state.

1. JivaQife). All beings possessed of jiva are of two kinds :

those that can move and those which cannot. In' the first

class are included men, animals, demons, and gods ; in the

second are the four elements, earth, water, fire, air, and the

whole of the vegetable kingdom. According to the actions of

each living thing during the continuance of its present life

will the next be higher or lower. A man, e.g., through his'

sins in his present life, in his next life is born as an animal.

If his life be made up of virtue and vice, he will be born again

as a man ; if his life is virtuous only, and unmixed with vice,

he ascends to heaven, and passing through various stages of

probation, finally obtains emancipation from future separate

existence. This is in accord generally with the teaching of

the Hindu system.

2. Ajiva. In this class we find time, religion, &c., enu-

merated. Eeligion, again, is composed of many elements, the

chief of which are the following :

—

Punya, religious merit

—

whatever is of benefit to human beings. As the nearest ap-

proach to this may be mentioned the works of supererogation

of the Eomish Church ; i.e., works not essential to salvation,

but the performance of which will greatly conduce to the

spiritual advancement of the doer of them. Pap (sin), the

opposite of Punya. Of these there are 1,082 ; but it is notice-

able that generally these are not moral offences, but the

violation of some arbitrary caste rules. For although in some

102 HINDU SECTS.

parts of India caste rules are partially disregarded by them,

in other parts, the Jains are as scrupulous in caste matter*

as are the orthodox Hindus. Asrava. This signifies the

organs of sense, passion, &o., the source whence evil in manproceeds. Samvara; i.e., the power by which acts are aided

or hindered, as attention, secrecy, patience, asceticism, con-

viction of truth, &c. Nirjara; i.e., penance, such as fasting,

repentance, study, &c. Banda (union) ; i.e., the union of life

with acts, as milk with water. Molcsha, or liberation of the

vital spirit from the bonds of action ; exemption from the

necessity of being again bom into the world. It is not at all

clear in what state the liberated spirit will continue to live.

It is, however, not incompatible, in the opinion of the Jains,

with the enjoyment of Nirvana, which means " gone out," as-

a fire ; " set," as a sun ; " defunct," as a saint who has

passed away enjoys repose. "It is not annihilation, but

unceasing apathy, which they regard as supreme felicity,

worthy to be sought by the practice of mortification as well

as by the acquisition of knowledge."

The Jains are divided into two classes : Yatis, the clerical,

and Sravakas, or lay members. Implicit belief in the teach-

ing and life of the Tirthankaras is considered a necessary

part of their religious system. Their moral code is summedup in five laws : refraining from injury to life, truth, honesty,

chastity, and freedom from worldly desires. There are four

dharmas, or works of merit : liberality, gentleness, piety, andpenance ; and three kinds of restraint, viz., that of the mind,tongue, and person. It is a clear evidence of the lack of

power of the system over the conduct of its members that

some of the most religious of the Jains are amongst the mostimmoral of men. Some minor instructions are somewhatludicrous. At certain seasons of the year abstinence fromsalt, flowers, green fruit, roots, honey, grapes, and tobacco

must be observed. Water must be twice strained before it is

drunk, lest any living creature should be in it ; and no liquid

must be left uncovered, lest an insect should fall into it and

MISCELLAXEOUS SECTS. lOS

be drowned. And that they may not happen to swallow a fly,

they must never eat in the dark. The very religious mem-bers of the sect generally wear a piece of gauze over their lips,

lest in breathing they should kill any insect ; and for the

same reason a brush is used to sweep a seat before sitting

down upon it. It is a system of quietism, which renders its

followers harmless members of the community; but gene-

rally it produces indifference respecting the world to come.

The ritual of the Jains is very simple. The Yafcis, or

devotees, can worship in the temples or not ; but the laymenmust visit a temple at least once a day, and walk three times

round the building ; they then bow to the image, and offer aflower, and repeat a short mantra, or text. In ordinary life

they certainly are not purer than their Hindu neighbours.

The builder of one of their most beautiful temples, which is

situated in a splendid garden, has his own house decorated,

in a most indecent manner. This house is most expensively

furnished, but its ornamental parts are of the worst conceiv-

able form. The officiating priests at the temples are generally

Brahmans, and whilst acknowledging the deity of the Hindugods, they devote their chief worship to the deified saints.

Sometimes the images of Bhairavas and Bhairavis, the

attendants of Siva and Kali, are found in these temples, and

the ritual differs but little from that of the Saiva and Sakta

worship.

The mythology of the Jains is generally wilder even than

that of the Hindus ; and from this it seems pretty clear that

their books are of later date. It is possible that the Jains

were a sect of the Buddhists, but it seems more likely that

they are a remnant of that sect, whose leaders at a time of

religious toleration formulated their creed and gathered a few

disciples long after the Buddhists had been banished from

the country. The effect of Hinduism upon the Jains, is seen

in the fact that in the South, where caste prejudices are

stronger, the Jains carefully observe the caste regulations ;

but in North India, where the regulations of caste are

104 HINDU SECTS.

not so stringently observed, they generally regard tbemselves

as all belonging to the Vaisbyas, the third of the great

castes.

The main body of the Jains is divided into two great

classes, the Swetambaras, or white-robed; and the Digam-

baras, or air-clad, i.e., naked. Between these the most bitter

animosity prevails. Probably the Digambaras went about

naked, or nearly so ; now they simply divest themselves of

their upper garrjient, a many-coloured one, during meals;

the Swetambaras, on the other hand, retain their clothes

during their meals. This, however, does not constitute the,

only or main difference between them. The Swetambaras

decorate their images with jewels ; their opponents consider

this action to be wrong. The gurus of the Swetambaras eat

their food from vessels ; those of the Digambaras must take

it from the hands of their disciples. The Swetambaras

assert that the angas (Scriptures) were the work of the imme-diate disciples of the Tirthankaras ; the Digambaras affirm a

much later origin for them. The Swetambaras assert that

women can obtain nirvana ; the Digambaras deny this.

In addition to these two main divisions, there are a few

insignificant sects, some of which discard the use of imagesaltogether.

5. Sadhtis. The term Sadhu (saint) is commonly applied

to any Hindu ascetic, but there is a sect who accept it

as their own i^roper name, which was founded by a mannamed Birbhan, who was born in the neighbourhood of

Dehli, in the year 1658. This man declared that he received

his teaching in a miraculous manner from the Satguru (the

true teacher), Udaya Das. The doctrine held by these

people does not materially differ from that of Kabir andNanak. Their great hope is final emancipation from living.

They have no temples, but declare that the true shrine is

the meeting of the faithful. At certain times the membersmeet together, read the writings of their leaders, sing songs,

and partake of a common meal. They speak of God as the

MISCELLANEOUS SECTS. 105

Satnama (the true name), and differ but little from the

following sect.

6. The Satiutmis. This sect was originated by a mannamed Kohidas, a disciple and developer of the system of

Eamananda. Eamananda taught that any of the three

highest castes could enter the ascetic order; his followers

freely admitted men of lower castes; whilst at the present

time nearly all the members of the sect are Chamars, one ,

of the lowest and most despised of all the Hindu castes. It

is possible, however, that those joining the sect from other

castes have been regarded as Chamars, because they asso-

ciated with such people. It is a noticeable fact that whilst,

as their name implies, they profess to be worshippers of the

one true God, many of the people worship the many Hindudeities just as their neighbours do. As a rule, however, the

members differ from the rest of the Chamars in this : they

are a quiet, industrious, sober people, who regard it to be a '

duty to abstain from meat of all kinds, intoxicating drinks,

and tobacco. Their necklaces having been touched by the

guru are regarded with especial reverence. They hate the

orthodox Hindus ; Brahmans most of all.

7. The Siva Narayanas are the followers of a Eajput '

named Siva Narayana, who lived in the eighteenth century.

His teaching was pure theism. All classes of Hindus, and

Mussulmans too, are welcomed to join the sect. Truth,

temperance, and mercy form its main tenets, and its mem-bers are enjoined to observe the outward social observance

of the community from which they came, though they

repudiate the religious rites and faiths.

CHAPTER IX.

THE DEISTIC SECTS FORMED DURING THE PRESENTCENTURY.

Any account of the Hindu sects would be very incomplete if

those were omitted that have arisen during the present

century, and which are receiving accessions from the edu-

cated classes every year. The aim of the leaders of these sects

has professedly been to lead back the Hindus to the primitive

worship of their Aryan forefathers, although it is evident to

all unprejudiced students of their doctrines that it is in

many respects the teaching of the Vedas, very largely modi-

fied by that of the Christian Scriptures, that is prevailing

amongst them. This will become more clear as we consider

the development of these sects from their commencement.There is no doubt, as Augustine declared, that if Stephen

had not prayed, the church would not have had Paul ; if

Christian missions had not been established in India, the

various deistic Samajes would not have sprung up in her

midst.

1. The Brahma Samaj, founded by Bama Mohun Eai.*

Eaja Eama Mohun Eai, the founder of the Brahma Samaj >

or Divine Society, was born in the year 1774. His father

and grandfather being attached to the Mohamedan princes

at Moorshedabad, he early learned Arabic and Persian, and.

* For a fuller account of the rise and deTelopment of the modemTheistio sects, see " Life of Babu Keshub Chundra Sen," by Eev. T. E.Slater, Bangalore.

THE DEISTIC SECTS. lOT

thus gained some knowledge of the teachings of the Koranand the Persian poets. As a Brahman he was educated

in the mythology of Hinduism ; but at the early age of six-

teen his mind revolted against the heathen practices of

his household, and as a result of his persistent opposition to

the religious worship^of his family he was persecuted, and left

his home. When about twenty years old his father invited

him to return ; he did so, and, in order to qualify himself for

employment under the East India Company, studied English,

and was successful in obtaining a position of influence for

several years under the East India Company. In 1814

he settled down in Calcutta, where he purchased a house,

and, again speaking freely of the evils of the Hindu religious

and social customs, was openly repudiated by his father. Onthe death of his father he became still more bold, and,,

purchasing a printing-press, published a number of pamphlets

in various languages against prevailing errors. " This raised

such a feeling against me," he says in an autobiographical

sketch, " that I was at last deserted by every person except

two or three Scotch friends, to whom, and to the nation to-

which they belong, I always feel grateful. The ground

which I took in all my controversies was not that of oppo-

sition to Brahmanism, but to a perversion of it; and I

endeavoured to show that their idolatry was contrary to the

practice of their ancestors and the principles of the ancient

books and authorities which they profess to revere and

obey." In 1819, after publishing several pamphlets con-

taining religious lessons as taught by some of the Hindu

scriptures, he published a tract called " The Precepts of

Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness." It is interesting

to see how the modern reformer availed himself of the im-

proved methods of communicating truth. In the case of the

leaders of the sects previously considered, it was by a life of

penance that they gained attention, and by wandering from

city to city that they spread their views ; but Eaja 'Rama.

Mohun Kai could live in his own house, and by the use of

108 HINDU SECTS.

his press speak to far greater numbers by means of the

pamphlets his loving heart and fertile brain prepared.

In the year 1828 the Sabha was founded. A few friends

had been in the habit of meeting with their leader since 1815,

but as the numbers increased it was agreed to hire a room in

the Chitpore Eoad, Calcutta, where this monotheistic Church

was founded under the name of the Brahma Samaj. In

1830 the numbers had so increased, and money having

been given, a new house suitable for the purpose was built

;

and the following extract from the trust deed will show the

purpose of this building : it was " for a place of public meeting

of all sorts and descriptions of people as shall behave and

conduct themselves in an orderly, sober, religious, and devout

manner, for the worship and adoration of the Eternal, Un-

searchable, and Immutable Being who is the Author and

Preserver of the Universe." His object in founding the

church was declared to be this—" to persuade my countrymen

to forsake idolatry and to become monotheists."

Eama Mohun Eai did not himself give up caste observances,

neither did he teach others to do so ; and though he was him-

self largely indebted to the Bible for his religious knowledge

and impulse, he did not have it introduced into the meetings

of this Theistic Church. The Hindu scriptures were read

and expounded. Soon after the opening of this building the

Eaja visited Europe, and died in Bristol. Though he never

openly avowed himself a Christian, those who were most inti-

mate with him speak most strongly of his belief in the

divine authority of Jesus Christ, in His miracles, and in Hisresurrection.

The next great step in advance was made by Devendra NathTagore, who was born in 1818. When twenty years of age

this gentleman was brought under deep religious impressions.

At this time he spent days in silent meditation,, seeking light

from heaven. At length " the Friend of the sinner, the

Protector of the helpless, destitute, and castaway, vouchsafed in

His infinite mercy to appear in my corrupt heart to heal me

THE DEISTIC SECTS. 10&

and chasten me." The result of this was that after a longstruggle "the world lost its attractions, and God became myonly comfort and delight in this world of sorrow and sin."

Unlike Eaja Eama Mohun Eai, his successor does not appearto have gone farther than the Hindu scriptures for light. In1839 he formed a society called the Tattvabodini Sabha, asociety for the knowledge of truth, which in 1843 united

with the Brahma Samaj, and soon afterwards developments

appear.

Up to this time the profession of Brahmist doctrine did not

necessarily involve the giving up of all share in idolatrous

worship. Many who in the meetings of the Samaj andelsewhere were most eloquent in denouncing the idola-

trous worship of the people were themselves found, when the

idols were worshipped in the home, joining openly in their

worship. To prevent this a covenant was drawn up, whichthe members of the Sarriaj were expected to sign, containing

a promise to abstain from idolatry, and cultivate the habit of

prayer. About twenty signed this covenant at the first, andby doing so brought upon themselves considerable persecu-

tion. Still their doctrine spread, and in 1847 the numberof " covenanted " Brahmas was 767, whilst many more, whoverbally professed to hold the same views, were not bold enough

to sign the covenant.

Very soon another onward movement is seen. Up to this

time the members of the Samaj had regarded the Vedas as

divinely inspired, and therefore as a supreme authority in re-

ligious matters. But as doubtb had arisen in the minds of some

of the members, learned Pundits were sent to Benares to copy

and study these books. On their return the matter was mosti

carefully considered by the members, and at last it was de-

cided that the teaching of the Vedas was not in accordance

with their religious views, and though regarded as valuable

guides, their infallibility was denied. Soon after this decision

had been arrived at, the society was re-organized, and a clearer

and fuller form of covenant drawn up, the substance of which

110 HINDU SECTS.

was as follows : " That there is but one God ; that He is

the Creator of all things, that love to Him, and the doing of

what He loves, is worship ; and that such worship alone

ensures all present and future bliss."

This theistic movement was not confined to Bengal. In

INorth India a sect called the Arya Samaj was founded byPundit Dayananda Sarasvati. He, however, continued to

repose an implicit faith in the divine authority of the Vedas

;

at the same time he " opposed idol worship, repudiated caste,

advocated female education, and the re-marriage of widows,

and secured hundreds of followers, and a much larger num-ber of sympathisers." *

The next important event in the history of religious activity

amongst the Hindus was the accession to the ranks of the

Brahma Samaj of Babu Keshub Chundra Sen. It will havebeen noticed that the history of this movement is largely the

history of its leaders. As they advanced, their followers

advanced too ; when they remained stationary, or took aretrograde step, they were not left alone. Eaja EamaMohun Eai groped after the light, and the members of the

Samaj in his day moved slowly on. Eaja Devendra NathTagore went a little farther in giving up implicit faith in the

Tedas. And now it will be seen that, led on by Babu KeshubChundra Sen, a further advance was made. In 1858, whenhe was twenty years of age, Keshub Babu joined the Samaj , andvery soon made himself leader of the community. For three

years he continued as a clerk in the Bank of Bengal, butafterwards, wishing to be free from secular employment, heresigned his post and devoted his whole time to the work of

the Samaj. Inl862 he was chosen Minister,and soon after this,

because he took his wife to dine with his friend, Devendra NathTagore, who was regarded as an excommunicated Brahman,mainly because he had the marriage of his daughter celebrated

without the usual idolatrous ceremonies, he was cut off fromintercourse with his family for six months.

* "Keshub Chundia Sen," by Bev T. E. Slater, p. 29,

THE DEISTIC SECTS. Ill

For a time all went on well, but soon it became evidentthat the new Minister was progressing in thought too rapidlyfor many of the older members. He was thoroughlyopposed to the restrictions of caste, and was wishful

that all who took part in the services of the Samaj shouldhold similar views. He advocated a still further violation of

Hindu customs, viz., the intermarriage of people of differing

oastes. When such a marriage took place a great outcry

was raised, and the more progressive separated from the

Samaj. The older and more conservative of the membersiield that the Samaj should concern itself only with religious

reforms, and continue to respect the social customs of

Hinduism, Keshub Babu and his party protesting that the

two could not be separated. Before the separation took place

the progressive party put their views into the following

shape :

—

1. That the external signs of caste distinctions such as

the Brahmanical thread should be no longer used.

2. That none but Brahmas of sufficient ability and good

moral character, who lived consistently with their profession,

should be allowed to conduct the services of the Samaj

.

8. That nothing should be said in the Samaj expressive of

liatred or contempt for other religions.

These simple regulations not being accepted, the progres-

sive party left the Samaj, and established what was after-

wards called the Brahma Samaj of India ; the Society they

left afterwards took the name of the Adi, or original, Samaj.

Since this separation the Adi Samaj has not made any

advance in theistic faith, but has rather gone back towards

Hinduism.

From this time the history of the Brahma Samaj of India

is really the history of the phases of faith of Keshub Chundra

Sen. At the anniversary meetings of the Society he generally

gave an address in English to an immense audience in the

Town Hall of Calcutta, from which the theological position

of the Society can be learned.

112 HINDU SECTS.

Before passing on to notice the progress of the Brahma,

Samaj of India, I will give the covenant of the Adi Samaj :

—

1. God alone existed in the beginning, and He created

this universe.

2. He is intelligent, infinite, benevolent, eternal, governor

of the universe, all-knowing, omnipresent, refuge of all,

devoid of limbs, immutable, alone, without a second, all-

powerful, self-existent, and beyond comparison.

3. By worshipping Him, and Him alone, we can attain

the highest good in this life and in the next.

4. To love Him and to do the works He loves constitute

His worship.

By declaring my belief in the above-mentioned four fun-

damental principles of Brahmanism, I accept it as my faith.

2. The Brahma Samaj of India.

The most conspicuous feature of this Samaj in its earlier

days was the reverence shown to Jesus Christ, and the unique

position assigned to Him by the leader in his public utter-

ances as well as in his own private faith. In almost the first

public lecture that he delivered he claimed Jesus as belong-

ing to India and the East more than to Europe, and there

can be no doubt that it was largely owing to Keshub Babu's

teaching that the educated Hindus generally regarded Jesus

with very different feelings from those which had: generally

been common to that class. At the public services of the

Samaj, which were held soon after the secession in a mandir,

or church, that was built for this purpose, selections fromt

the Bible were read along with parts of the Vedas, Koran,

and other sacred writings. That fact ia the key to under-

stand this sect. It professes to draw its religious light fromall quarters, whilst it gives exclusive reverence to none.

Whilst admitting the inspiration of all great writers and thebenefit of all good books, it teaches that there is a present

inspiration for those who will receive it ; and that this divine

light being available to each, its teaching is the test of truth.

The individual conscience is regarded as the final test oftruth, from whatever source it may come.

THE DEISTIC SECTS. 113

In the history of this Samaj under Zeshub's leadership,

there are two main chapters—viz., the earher efforts to

adapt the older forms of Hindu faith and practice, and the

attempt to introduce, in a Hindu form, some of the dis-

tinctive rites of Christianity. Amongst the Hindu forms of

worship are yoga, or meditation, i.e., the study of the divine

nature, as taught in the writings of the old Vedic sages. InHinduism this was carried to great extremes ; in the public

services of the Brahmas silent meditation finds a prominentplace. Then bhakti, the loving trust of the Vaishnavas, is

most earnestly commended, and Chaitanya, as the apostle of

this doctrine, is held in high esteem by the members of this

sect. The great peculiarity of the religious life of this Samajlies in the fact that it seeks to awaken the emotional as well

as appeals to the intellectual side of human nature. Andmany in its religious exercises profess to have found the

truest bliss.

Annual festivals called Brahmatsavas were also instituted.

For days together religious meetings with music and other

festivities were arranged for, and by this means, as by the

Hindu festivals, the faith of the members was strengthened

and their zeal fired. Added to this were religious pro-

cessions with music and singing, and later on a tendency set

in favourable to Vairagya, i.e., the practice of asceticism.

This, it will be seen, is in perfect harmony with the genius

of Hinduism, as nearly aU the other sects have had their

vairagis, or religious ascetics, who were regarded by the rest

of the community as the perfected members of the com-

munity. This teaching of the benefits of asceticism as muchas anything else shows the close affinity of Brahmaism

with Hinduism.

But Brahmaism, whilst holding out one hand to Hin-

duism, holds out another to Christianity. Keshub Babunever failed to express his love to Jesus Christ and his

loyalty to His commands ; and the spirit of Jesus is seen in

nearly all his teaching. He began by claiming Him as an9

114 HINDU EECTS.

Asiatic, and offers India to Him as a people. He next pro-

fesses to show in the " Future Church " that whilst the

dogmatic teaching of the Christian Church is not acceptable

to India, the true Church is one which will embrace Chris-

tians and Hindus, and a few years later proclaims the fact

that a new "dispensation" has been inaugurated by Godthrough him and his apostles. As God appointed the Jewish,

then the Christian, now He has also appointed this newer

all-comprehensive Church, and the whole world is invited to

enter. Long before this, efforts of a missionary character

iad been made by the leader and his more eminent fol-

lowers, and by men solemnly set apart for this special work.

Addresses were given in various parts of India commendingtheir doctrine to others, and, as a result, branch Samajes

have been formed in many places ; but with the formation of

the " New Dispensation " the offer went beyond India to

men of all nations, and the blessings of this newly-given light

were offered freely unto all men. It is interesting to note,

too, that the distinctive rites of the Christian Church wereadopted by Keshub Babu. Baptism was administered in the

tank in the grounds of his house; the Lord's Supper wasobserved, rice and water being used instead of bread and"wine ; and later on a religious dance was inaugurated. Thefollowing is the proclamation of the New Dispensation to

the world :

—

" THE NEW DISPENSATION.'' Extraordinary

.

" New Yeak's Day.

" 1st January, 1883.

" Keshub Chunder Sen, a servant of God, called to be anJipostle of the Church of the New Dispensation which is inthe holy city of Calcutta, the metropolis of Aryavarta.

" To all the great nations in the world, and to the chiefreligious sects in the East and the West.

THE DEISTIC SECTS. 115

" To the followers of Moses, of Jesus, of Buddha, of Con-

fucius, of Zoroaster, of Mahomet, of Nanac, and to the various

branches of the Hindu Church.

"To the saints and the sages, the bishops and the elders,

the ministers and the missionaries of all these religious

hodies

:

" Grace be unto you and peace everlasting.

" Whereas sectarian discord and strife, schisms and enmi-

iiies, prevail in our Father's family, causing much bitterness

and unhappiness, impurity and unrighteousness, and even

war, carnage, and bloodshed.•' Whereas this setting of brother against brother and sister

against sister, in the name of religion, has proved a fruitful

source of evils, and is itself a sin against God and man." It has pleased the Holy God to send unto the world a

message of peace and love, of harmony and reconciliation.

"This New Dispensation hath He, in boundless mercy,

vouchsafed to us in the East, and we have been commanded"to bear witness unto it among the nations of the earth.

" Thus said the Lord : Sectarianism is an abomination

unto me, and unbrotherliness I will not tolerate.

" I desire love and unity, and my children shall be of one

heart, even as I am one.

" At sundry times have I spoken through my prophets,

and though many and various my dispensations, there is

unity in them.

"But the followers of these, my prophets, have quarrelled

and fought, and they hate and exclude each other.

" The unity of Heaven's messages have they denied, and

ihe science that binds and harmonizes them their eyes see

not and their hearts ignore.

" Hear, ye men, there is one music, but many instruments

;

one body, but many limbs ; one spirit, but diverse gifts ; one

.blood, yet many nations ; one church, yet many churches.

"Blessed are the peace-makers who reconcile differences

and establish peace, goodwill, and brotherhood in the nameof the Father.

116 HINDU SECTS.

" These words hath the Lord our God spoken unto us,

and His new gospel that He hath revealed unto us, is a

gospel of exceeding joy.

" The Church Universal hath He already planted in this

land, and therein are all prophets and all scriptures har-

monized in beautiful synthesis.

" And these blessed tidings the Loving Father hath

charged me and my brother apostles to declare unto all the

nations of the world, that being of one blood they may als«>

be of one faith and rejoice in one Lord.

"Thus shall aU discord be over, saith the Lord, andpeace shall reign on earth.

" Humbly, therefore, I exhort you, brethren, to accept this

new message of universal love.

"Hate not, but love ye one another, and be ye one in

spirit and in truth, even as the Father is one.

" All errors and impurities ye shall eschew, in whateverchurch or nation they may be found, but ye shall hate noScripture, no prophet, no church.

" Eenounce all manner of superstition and error, infidelity

and scepticism, vice and sensuality, and be ye pure andperfect.

"Every saint, every prophet, and every martyr ye shall

honour and love as a man of God.

" Gather ye the wisdom of the East and the West, andaccept and assimilate the examples of the saints of all ages,

" So that the most fervent devotion, the deepest com-munion, the most self-denying asceticism, the warmestphilanthropy, the strictest justice and veracity, and the

highest purity of the best men in the world may be yours." Above all love one another, and merge all difference in

universal brotherhood.

" Beloved brethren, accept our love and give us yours, andlet the East and the West with one heart celebrate the jubilee

of the New Dispensation.

" Let Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, with diverse

THE DEISTIC SECTS. 117

instruments, praise the New Dispensation, and sing the

Fatherhood of God and the Brotherhood of man."

The later years of Keshub Babu's life were given rather to

the development of the religious than the social improvement

of his followers ; for, owing to a departure in practice from

his previous teaching, there was a split in his community,

and the more progressive part left and formed another

Samaj called the Sadharan Samaj. The ground of offence

was the marriage of Keshub Babu's daughter to the young

Eaja of Cooch Behar when she was below the age at which

he had taught that marriages should be celebrated ; and,

further, that idolatrous practices were permitted in con-

nection with the marriage ceremony.

Keshub Babu died in Calcutta in January, 1884, and

great was the lamentation made over him. He was a noble

man, and one who was greatly beloved by all classes of the

community. After his death his family and the Apostolic

Durbar, as the council of the apostles of the New Dispen-

sation was called, refused to allow the platform from which

he had taught to be used, it being declared that Keshub,

though absent in body, was still the leader of- the society

This may be the first step towards the deification of their

great leader. And when this Durbar declares that their

conscience authorizes them to take this position, it is diffi-

cult to set aside their decision. In the matter of Keshub's

daughter's marriage, it was the result of a supposed inspira-

tion that led him to go against his own teaching. His

disciples, in making conscience the test of truth, are but

following their great leader's example.

The covenant of this New Dispensation, which is far fuller

and more comprehensive than that of the Adi Samaj, is as

follows :

—

" One God, one Scripture, one Church.

Eternal progress of the soul.

Communion of prophets and saints.

118 HINDU SECTS.

Fatherhood and motherhood of God.

Brotherhood of man and sisterhood of woman.Harmony of knowledge and holiness, love and work.

Yoga and asceticism in their highest development.

, Loyalty to sovereign." *

Among the numerous objects in view are the following :

—

To reduce the truths of all Scriptures to one eternal andunwritten Scripture. To preach Christ's kingdom of heaven.

To kill idolatry by taking its life and spirit out of it. Toexplain the mystery of the Trinity, and to show Unity in

Trinity. To reconcile ancient faith and modern science.

To reconcile pure Christianity and pure Hinduism. To turn

men's hearts from physical to moral miracles. To makescience supersede supernaturalism. To preach Christ as theSon of God, as the Logos in all prophets before and after

Him. To put down all manner of sin, and promote all

manner of purity by the power of prayer.

3. The Sadharan (Universal) Samaj.

This, the most active and socially powerful of the three,

originated in 1878. The occasion of the secession, as noticed

above, was the marriage of Keshub Babu's daughter at anearlier age than he had taught was right ; the cause, however,lay a little deeper. It was a growing dissatisfaction with theautocratic rule of the leader and the claim to an almost infal-

lible inspiration. The greater number of the Calcutta mem-bers of the Brahma Samaj forsook their old leader, andtheir action was approved by twenty-nine of the countrybranches, altogether 425 of the recognized Brahmas andBrahmicas, i.e., lady members of the Samaj, condemninghis conduct.

The covenant of this sect, which largely agrees with thatof the New Dispensation, is as follows :

—

1. There is only one God, who is the Creator, Preserver,and Saviour of the world. He is a Spirit, infinite in wisdom,love, justice, and holiness ; omnipotent, eternal, and blissful

• " Keshub Chundra Sen," p. 107.

THE DEISTIC SECTS. 11^

2. The human soul is immortal, and capable of infinite

progress, and is responsible to God for its doings.

3. God must be worshipped in spirit and in truth. Divineworship is necessary for attaining true felicity and salvation..

4. Love to God, and carrying out His will in all the con-

cerns of life, constitute true worship.

5. Prayer, and dependence on God, and a constant realiza-

tion of His presence, are the means of attaining spiritual

strength.

6. No created object is to bo worshipped as God, nor anyperson or book to be considered as infallible and the sole

means of salvation.

7. The Fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man.8. God rewards virtue and punishes sin. His punishments

are remedial, and not eternal.

9. Cessation from sin, accompanied by sincere repentance,

is the only atonement for it ; and union with God in wisdom,

goodness, and holiness, is true salvation.

In order to prevent the undue influence of any one man in

this Samaj, a form of government somewhat of Presbyterian

form has been adopted. The society is ruled by officers

elected for this purpose by the members. " These officers

are four in number, and are elected annually ; they act in

conjunction with a general committee of forty members, also

elected annually, and a certain number of representatives of

branch Samajes in the country towns ; and this committee in

its turn appoints an executive of twelve persons for the year." *

This latest sect has built for itself a meeting-house that

will seat 1,200 people, at a cost of Es. 40,000, and is most

active in its efforts in Calcutta and Bengal. There are more" covenanted " Brahmas in connection with it than with the

other two, and its organs in the press are always on the

side of social progress. It has its prayer-meetings and

Philanthropic Society, a first-class college, and a night school,

for the benefit of working men. It is part of the con-

» "Keshnb Chundra Sen," p. 87.

120 HINDU SECTS.

stitution of the society that " only those who have dis-

carded idolatry and caste in their private lives as well as in

public can be office-bearers, ministers, missionaries, or mem-

bers of the Executive Committee of the Samaj." In 1880

there were 514 full members of this sect in India, and from

the earnestness of those who have joined, and the self-sacri-

ficing character of the missionaries they employ, there appears

to be reason to believe that their numbers will quickly and

largely increase. Taking all these sects together, in 1884

there were 173 Samajes, 1,500 enrolled members, and about

8,000 adherents.

The census returns of 1882, however, do not give quite so

large a number, as the following extract from the Census

Eeport will show ; but at the same time it suggests the ex-

planation of the apparent discrepancy :—" In 1872 the Brah-

mas were included among Hindus, and the figures seem to

indicate that a large proportion of them have again been

shown in the same manner. The adherents of the sect are

almost entirely educated Bengalis, with, sometimes, their

wives and families ; and they are therefore chiefly found in

large towns, and at the headquarters of districts, at few

of which are they unrepresented. The census tables, how-

ever, only show 788 in the whole of Bengal, out of whom763 are in Bengal proper, and from thirty-six districts none

at all have been returned. It is beyond doubt that they have

described themselves, or been described, in many cases as

Hindus—a course which is not remarkable when we consider

that many persons rank them as a puritanical monotheistic

sect of the Hindus ; while the fact that the sect is in manyplaces looked on with disfavour would be enough to induce

many to shrink from avowing the principles which they really

entertain. Two-thirds of the whole number returned are to

be found in Calcutta."

CASTE.

CHAPTEE I.

GENERAL REMAUKS ON CASTE.*

Pbide of birth is not by any means confined to the Hindus.

Wherever there has been the belief that the gods have beenincarnated, and dwelt on earth amongst mortals, there has

been an endeavour to show that some of the residents in

those lands are their direct descendants, and consequently

entitled to greater honour and privilege than the masses of

their fellow-countrymen. In order to secure reverence for

their ancestry, their origin is ascribed, with more or less

consistency, to one or other of these deities. A man whocould trace his descent from a god naturally expected and

generally received a greater share of the reverence and riches

of his fellows than ordinary mortals who were fashioned by

his hands. In modern times, great though the privileges

of the nobility have been as compared with those of the com-

mons, the privileges claimed and generally conceded to them,

compared with those of the caste families of India, are as

nothing. " The existence of a common brotherhood in the

human family and the practice of a common sympathy and

succour have, by the majority of men, been grievously over-

looked. Tyranny, mischief, and cruelty have been most

extensively the consequence of anti-social presumption and

pretension. The constant experience of the general observer

of human nature has been not unlike that of the Hebrew

sage Agur, the son of Jakeh :

—

* For this book I am largely indebted to Dr. Muir's " Original Sanskrit

Texts " and Dr. WUson's " Caste."

124 CASTE.

"' There is a generation that are pure in their own eyes,

And yet is not washed from their filthiness.

There is a generation, how lofty are their eyes 1

And their eyelids are lifted up.There is a generation whose teeth are as swords,

And their jaw-teeth as knives,

To devour the poor from off the earth.

And the needy from among men. '*

"It is among the Hindus, however, that the imagination

of natural and positive distinction in humanity has been

brought to the most fearful and pernicious development ever

exhibited on the face of the globe. The doctrine and practice

of what is called caste, as held and observed by this people,

has been only dimly shadowed by the worst social arrange-

ments which were of old to be witnessed amongst the proudest

nations, and among the proudest orders of men in those

nations. The Egyptians, who, according to Herodotus, con-

sidered themselves ' the most ancient of all nations,' and whoare described by him as excessively religious beyond anyother people,' and 'too much addicted to their ancestorial

customs to adopt any other,' most nearly approached themin their national and family pretensions,' and the privilege

and customs of priests and people viewed in reference to

descent and occupation ; but in the multitude, diversity,

complication, and burdensomeness of their religious andsocial distinction, the Hindus have left the Egyptians far

behind. Indian caste is the condensation of aU the pride,

jealousy, and tyranny of an ancient and predominant people

dealing with the tribes which they have subjected, and over

which they have ruled, often without the sympathies of a

recognized common humanity." t According to native testi-

mony, "it is by means of these caste distinctions that the

Hindu religion has been so' well preserved ; they are its chief

support ; and when this support is removed there can be nodoubt that it will sink to destruction."

Caste is a Portuguese word " signifying cast, mould, race,

* Prov. XXX. 12-14. f Wilson, p. 11.

GENERAL EEMAKKS ON CASTE. 125

kind, and quality. It was applied originally by the Portuguese,

when they arrived in the East, to designate the peculiar

system of religious and social distinctions which they observed

among the Hindu people, particularly as founded on race. TheIndian word which partially corresponds with caste is

Jati = gens, and yhog, ' race or nation ' ; while Jdti-bheda, the

representative of the foundations of the caste system,

means the distinctions of race. Varna, another word used

for it by the Hindus, originally meant a difference in ' colour.'

Gradually these Indian words, conveniently rendered by

caste, have come to represent not only varieties of race ani

colour, but every original, hereditary, religious, instituted,

and conventional distinction which it is possible to conceive."

To give some idea of the minute regulations of this system

of caste, and how its laws are framed to regulate the life of

its slaves, it may be mentioned that " it has for infancy,

pupilage, and manhood its ordained methods of sucking,

sipping, drinking, and eating; of washing, anointing; of

clothing and ornamenting the body; of sitting, rising, re-

clining ; of moving, visiting, travelling ; of speaking, reading,

listening, and reciting ; and of meditating, singing, working,

and fighting. It has its laws for social and religious rights,

privileges and occupations ; for education, duty, religious ser-

vice; for errors, sins, transgressions ; for intercommunion,

avoidance, and excommunication ; for defilement and purifi-

cation; for fines and other punishments. It unfolds the

ways of committing what it calls sins, accumulating sin,

and of putting away sin ; of acquiring, dispensing, and losing

merit. It treats of inheritance, conveyance, possession, and

dispossession of property ; and of bargains, gains, loss, and

ruin. It deals with death, burial, and burning ; and with

commemoration, assistance, and injury after death. It inter-

feres, in short, with aU the relations and events of life, and

with what precedes and follows, or what is supposed to pre-

cede and follow, life. It reigns supreme in the innumerable

classes and divisions of the Hindus, whether they originate

126 CASTE.

in family descent, in religious opinions, in civil or sacred

occupations, or in local residence ; and, it professes to regulate

.all their interests, affairs, and relationships. Caste is the guid-

ing principle of each of the classes and divisions of the Hindus

viewed in their distinct and associated capacity. A caste is

.any of the classes or divisions of Hindu society. The au-

ihority of caste rests partly on written laws, partly on

legendary fables and narratives, partly on the injunctions of

instructors and priests, party on custom and usage, and partly

on the caprice and convenience of its votaries. ' The roots

of the law,' says Manu, ' are the whole Veda, the ordinances

und observances of such as perfectly understand it, the im-

memorial customs of good men, and self-satisfaction.' Nodoubt that man who shall follow the rules prescribed in the

Shruti (what was heard from the Veda) and in the Smriti

{what was remembered from the laws) will acquire fame in

this life, and in the next inexpressible happiness."

Most of the castes have peculiar marks which those initi-

ated have to wear, but there is one common to all. " Thegreat index of Hinduism is the tuft of hair on the crown

of the head" (by which, according to the popular notion,

the wearer is to be raised to heaven), "which is left there

on the performance of the sacrament of tonsure, on the

first or third year after birth in the case of the three

great classes of the Hindus ; and in the eighth year after the

•conception of a Brahman, in the eleventh from that of a

Kshatriya, and in the twelfth from that of a Vaishya, the

investiture with the sacred cord should occur."

CHAPTEE II.

CASTE DISTINCTIONS AS TAUGHT IN THE SACRED BOOKS.

I SHALL now proceed to give a general account of the four

principal castes, their duties and privileges, as taught in the

sacred writings of the Hindus.

The following account from Manu's Dharma Sastra of the

creation of man may be taken as the commonly received law

on the subject of the duties of each caste : " For the sake

of preserving the universe, the Being supremely glorious

allotted separate duties to those who sprang respectively from

his mouth, his arm, his thigh, and his foot. To Brabmanshe assigned the duties of reading (the Veda) and teaching, of

sacrificing, of assisting others to sacrifice, of giving alms,

and of receiving gifts. To defend the people, to give alms,

to sacrifice, to read (the Veda), to shun the allurements of

sexual gratification, are in a few words the duties of a

Kshatriya. To keep herds of cattle, to bestow largesses, to

sacrifice, to read the Scriptures, to carry on trade, to lend at

interest, are the duties of a Vaishya. One principal duty

the Supreme Euler assigns to a Sudra, viz., to serve the

before-mentioned classes, without depreciating their worth."

This may be taken as the typical teaching on the subject,

and it is that which is generally received at the present time;

and though the phraseology of other books is in some re-

s|pects opposed to it, it is twisted, and made, as far as it is

possible, to harmonize with it.

The position of the Brahman as taught by the Sastras.

128 CASTE.

The Brahman being the first-born, having sprung from the

mouth of the Supreme, and being the rightful possessor of

the Veda, is the chief of the whole creation. The birth

of a Brahman is said to be a constant incarnation of

Dharma (religion) ; for a Brahman is born to promote re-

ligion, and to procure ultimate happiness. Whatever exists

in the universe is all in effect the wealth of the Brahman,since he is entitled to aU by his primogeniture and pre-emi-

nence ; and it is through his benevolence that other mortals

enjoy life. His ideal inherent quaUties are quiescence, self-

control, devotion, purity, patience, rectitude, secular and

sacred knowledge, the recognition of spiritual existence andthe inborn disposition to serve Brahma. Power and glory

reside in every part of his body : the Ganges is in his right

ear ; his mouth is that of God Himself ; the tirthas, or sacred

places of pilgrimage, are in his right foot ; the cow of plenty

(kamdhenu), from whom all desires may be satisfied, are the

hairs of his body. The Brahman is the first-born by nature,

the twice-born by the sacrament of investiture with the sacred

thread, the deity on earth by his divine status, and the intelli-

gent one by his innate comprehension.

According to the same scripture, the Brahman is superior

to law, even to moral law, when it clashes with his worldly

interests ; and though it is disgraceful for him to live as

a hired servant, he may without hesitation take the property

of a Sudra. The gradations of punishment for offences

according to the caste of the offender is most startling to one

trained under just and equitable laws ; e.g., a priest shall be

fined five hundred (panas) if he slander a Kshatriya, twenty-

five if he slander a Vaishya, twelve only if he slander a

Sudra. In like manner a crime against a man of his owncaste by a Sudra is a venial offence ; but a similar offence

committed against a man of a higher caste is proportionally

greater. And should a Sudra through pride venture to' give instructions to priests concerning their duty, let

the king order some hot oil to be dropped into his

CASTE DISTINCTIONS. 129

mouth and ears. An adulterer of the Brahman class mightsuffer the loss of his hair ; but a similar offender, if a Sudra,

might be made to forfeit his life. Whatever a Brahman'soffence, the king must on no aocoimt put him to death ; hemay, at the most, banish him, allowing him to take his

property with him. And it will be remembered how great wasthe astonishment of all India, owing to the general idea

of the sacredness of life of the Brahmans, when it wasknown that by order of the Governor-General a Brahmanwas executed in Calcutta. Further, in case of wrong-doing

against him, a Brahman need not have recourse to the civil

power, but is free to take vengeance upon the offender.

It win be borne in mind that the books in which their ownorder is so exalted were written by the Brahmans themselves,

in which stories most marvellous are to be found to lead

the people to believe in the superhuman, and in some cases

super-divine, power of some of their number. One of them

is declared to be the father of the sun, and another the

father of the moon. Brihaspati is said to have reduced the

moon to a cinder ; Visvakarma cut off the hands and feet of.

the sun ; and Manu seems to acknowledge their truthfulness, as

he says, " Who without perishing could provoke those holy

men by whom the all-devouring fire was created, the sea with

waters not drinkable, and the moon with its wane and in-

crease ? What prince could gain wealth by opposing those,

who, if angry, could frame other worlds, and regents of worlds,

and could give being to new gods and mortals ? What man,

desirous of life, would injure those by the aid of whomworlds and gods perpetually exist ? " The following lines sum

up in a few words the popular idea of the power of the

Brahman :

—

" The whole world is under the power of the gods.

The gods are xinder the power of the mantras (charms used

by Brahmans)

;

The mantras are under the power of the Brahmans.

- The Brahman is therefore our god."

10

130 CASTE,

As a deterrent from injuring a Brahman, and as an in-

ducement to testow gifts upon him, the following texts are

inserted in Manu : " A man who basely assaults a Brahman,with an intention to hurt him, shall be whirled about for a

century in a hell called Tamisri; but having smitten him in

anger and by design, even with a blade of grass, he shall be

bonn in one-and-twenty transmigrations from the wombs of

impure animals." " If a man sell his cow he will go to hell

;

if he give her to a Brahman he will go to heaven." " If onGanga's (the river Ganges) anniversary whole villages be

given to Brahmans, the person presenting them will acquire

all the merit that can be obtained ; his body will be a million

times more glorious than the sun, he will have a million

virgins, many carriages, and palanquins with jewels, and hewill live in heaven with his father as many years as there

are particles in the land given to Brahmans." A propergift to a Brahman on a deathbed will secure heaven to a

malefactor. The Brahmans confer a favour on the people of

other castes when they receive their presents.

The authority for the almost divine honours, which are

even now paid by the more superstitious of the lower orders

of the people, is found in such passages as the following, fromthe more recent Puranas: "Whatever good man bows to aBrahman, reverencing him as Vishnu, is blessed with long life,

sons, renown, and prosperity. But whatever foolish man does

not bow down to a Brahman on earth, Kesava (Vishnu ) desires

to strike off his head with his discus. Whosoever bears buta drop of water which has been in contact with a Brah-man's foot, all the sins of his body are immediatelydestroyed. Whosoever carries on his head the holy thingstouched by a Brahman's foot is freed from all sins. What-ever good man worships a Brahman by walking round himobtains the merit of going round the world with its sevencontinents."

The Brahmans, though thus, highly favoured amongstmortals, had not a position of ease and idleness. Accord-

CASTE DISTINCTIONS. 131

ing to the Laws of Mann, their life was divided into four

parts, in each of which there were special duties for them to

discharge ; and it is no doubt partly owing to the idea of

their superior goodness, and to the supposed holiness of their

life, that they were held in almost divine reverence. I shall

briefly state the duties peculiar to these states through

which it is taught that they ought to pass. It will be borne in

mind that it was by their efforts that the sacred scriptures

were written and then transmitted to posterity.

1. The first order is that of Brahmachari, or pupil. Inthis order the Brahman boy is to render the greatest reverence

and pay the greatest attention to his instructor. His reli-

,gious exercises must commence with the early dawn, and, ex-

cepting during the times appointed for eating and study, must

be continued throughout the day. He is ordered to collect woodfor the holy fire, beg food from his relations, sleep on a low

lied, and perform such offices as may please his preceptor.

He must carefully study the Veda, abstain from honey,

flesh, perfumes, garlands, women, unguents for his limbs,

sandals; must not use an umbrella, indulge in sensual

desires, wrath, covetousness, dancing, singing, dice, disputes,

detraction, falsehood. He is ordered to sleep alone, and to

perform the duties of a religious mendicant.

2. The second order is that of the Ghrihastha, or house-

holder. He enters this when he has chosen, or has had

•chosen for him, a wife, whose qualities are carefully described.

She must have an agreeable name, but no bodily defect ; she

must walk like a goose or a young elephant; her hair

moderate in quantity ; her body soft, and who, in the first

marriage at least, must be of a Brahman family. He must

live with her in the strictest fidelity, give her elegant

attire, seek to raise up a family, or, at any rate, to have a

son, without whom, natural or adopted, the salvation of the

father cannot be effected. He has to practise unceasingly

various minute and burdensome rites and ceremonies, such

&a study, the offering of oblations to fire, the presentation of

132 CASTE.

food to spirits through living beings, particularly the " twice-

born," the entertainmeiit of guests, and the offering of water

and rice to the manes of his ancestors. At the Shraddhas, or

ceremonies performed for the benefit of the departed, he has

to avoid inviting and holding intercourse with any who maybe diseased, or ceremonially unclean, or who may be follow-

ing pursuits forbidden to Brahmans. During the feasting his

mind must be kept in perfect composure, for the shedding of

a tear would send the food to restless spirits ; anger would send

it to foes ; falsehood to dogs ; touching it with his foot to Eak-

shasas ; and agitation of mind to scoundrels. At the same

time he must read for the edification of the guests from

various Hindu scriptures. At these feasts, in the earlier

writings, it is stated that animal food avails more in the

work of propitiation than vegetable—a passage that the Brah-

mans of the present day utterly ignore. His ordinary modeof life is most carefully marked out for him. He must not

have long nails or beard ; he must neither eat with his wife,

nor see her eat ; he must keep his passions under control.

He must not sing, dance, or play with dice. He must care-

fully observe all religious festivals. Moral duties, too, are

carefuUyJordered. If he sin, either himself or his descendants

will suffer for it ; by falsehood, sacrifice becomes vain, pride^

nullifies the effect of austerities ; by the dishonour of priests

life is diminished, by the display of charity its fruit is-

destroyed. Strange as it may appear to those who know the-

strong objection the orthodox Brahmans of the present dayhave to eating flesh, it is distinctly stated that " no sin is

committed by him who, having honoured the deities and.

manes, eats . flesh meat which he has bought, himself ac-

quired, or had presented to him by another." The touch ofa person ceremonially unclean, or of a low caste man, is

pollution; so that, in addition to the positive duties of his

calling, which are many, he has ever to be on his guard lest,

pollution come to him through others.

3. The third order isthat of the Vanaprastha, i.e., the hermit.

CASTE DISTINCTIONS. 183

in the wilderness. When the Brahman enters this order his

self-denial must be fargreater than in that of either the student

or householder. At the approach of old age he must leave

his family and worldly affairs, feed on herbs, fruits, and

roots only. He must wear a black antelope's hide, or the

bark of a tree, and suffer his nails and beard to grow. Hemust be constantly engaged in the reading of the Vedas, or

engaged in acts of penance, of which the following are to

form part : Let him slide backwards and forwards on the

ground, stand a whole day on tip-toe, continue in motion,

rising and sitting alternately ; but at sunrise, noon, and sun-

set, he must bathe. In the hot season let him expose him-

self to five fires ; in the rains let him stand uncovered where

the clouds pour the heaviest showers ; in the cold season

(when the evaporation caused by the dry air is excessive)

let him wear damp clothes ; and let him increase by degrees

the severity of his austerities. Abandoning the use of all

means of gratification, he must engage in meditation, for he is

assured that if he is attacked by disease through the use of

these means, his soul will unite with the Divine Spirit, andall his troubles be over for ever.

4. The fourth order is that of the Sanyasi, or anchorite.

For those in this class also austerities are enjoined, but

their chief employment is meditation. Delighted with

meditating on the Supreme Spirit, free from all sensual

desires, let him live in this world, seeking bliss in the

next by absorption into the Deity. He is ordered to

wander from place to place, asking but one meal a day,

giving pain to no living being. Meditating on the identity

of his spirit with that of the Supreme, he is ready cheerfully

to leave the cumbersome and miserable body.

Dr. Wilson wisely adds here, " The profession of the

Brahmans, that with certain non-essential modifications they

have still this sacred character, and that they follow these

injunctions esteemed divine, gives them a powerful hold

upon the mind of India, quite independently of their

134 CASTE.

pretensions to pre-eminence through their origin from

Brahma's mouth. "With Brahmanical discipline and pur-

suits there is real sympathy even on the part of those large

portions of the community who are legally debarred from

participating in them. There is an admiration and approval

of the Brahman among the people, as well as much dread

and distrust of him, and contempt for his extravagant

claims. Hence the attempt, in late centuries especially, of

multitudes precluded from all priestly service, to become

wandering saints, and devotees of various orders and grades.

There is very great deference shown to the Brahman even in

view of the fact that he is now left without a legal remedy

for enforcing on his own behalf the unjust laws which he has

made connected with his own life, honour, and support. I

add another observation. I have a strong impression that a

great deal of the Brahmanical legislation was from the first

intended only for effect, and that it was never designed to

be carried into execution as far as the priestly practice

itself was concerned." In harmony with this last suggestion

is the opinion of a native writer in the Calcutta Review:*" Those who arrogate to themselves great honours must at

least profess to be guided by a more elevated standard of

duty than their neighbours, A man who prides himself onthe greatness of his origin must admit that it behoveth him to

observe higher principles of morality than those over whomhe affects superiority. The Brahmans have accordingly

laid down severe rules for the government of their order.

Whether the authors of the Sastras intended that their

austere rules should be followed out in practice, or whetherthey merely proposed to exhibit their idea of priestly dignity

without intending to realize it, it is not easy to determine.

One thing, however, is certain, that as the Brahman acknow-ledged no earthly superior, he had little apprehension of his

dehnquencies being severely visited. He could not be called

to account for departing from his maxims, because no one* Calcutta Reiiew, J 851, p. 53.

CASTE DISTrcCXIONS. 135

was at liberty to judge him. An austere rule of life couldtherefore prove no greater restraint on his inclinations thanhe himself chose to allow."

Having given at some length the teaching of the Scriptures

respecting the status and employment of the Brahman, I

shall now in a few words describe the position of the secondgreat caste of Hindus, viz., the Kshatriya, or warrior.

The Kshatriya is generally held to have been producedfrom the arms of Brahma, and is described as the great

dispenser of justice, particularly as the one whose duty it is to

punish offenders, the civil power to whose tender mercies the

Brahmans could band over law-breakers. He it is who hasto see that the various castes attend to their prescribed

duties ; but in doing this work he must abide by the

decisions of the learned Brahmans. He must cultivate

humility, and is warned by the example of kings, who,

through the absence of this virtue, have been ruined. Heis enjoined to seek sacred and secular knowledge from the

Brahmans, and to avoid various kinds of immorality andsensuality. Of his eight ministers, some are to be versed in

the art of war, some in the doctrines of religion. He should

have for a wife a woman of his own caste, and appoint adomestic purahit, or priest, and be liberal in his gifts to the

Brahmans, for " an offering in the mouth of a Brahman is

far better than offerings to holy fires ; it never drops, or

dries, or is consumed." In battle he must be brave, resolute,

and generous ; but at the same time self-preservation is care-

fully taught. " Against misfortune let him preserve his

wealth, at the expense of his wealth let him preserve his

wife, but at all events let him preserve himself, even at the

hazard of his wife and riches." This latter instruction habeen embodied by Brahmans in the following proverb :

" Preserve your wife, preserve your pelf,

But give them both to save yourself

;

There's other wealth, another wife,

But where is there another life ?"

136 CASTE.

His duties for morn, noon, and night are most carefully

prescribed for him, as are those of the Brahman ; nothing

that a man can have to do but he will find some definite

instruction given concerning it : the men to form his army;

the time and manner of march ; how to attack and how to

defend, and the method of dealing with a conquered foe.

When unable to attend to his state duties himself, he is advised

to appoint a Brahman substitute ; and if at any time he is in

need of advice, it is to the Brahman, and not to the Sudra,

that he must turn. The king is the guardian of all property

;

all treasure trove is to be divided equally between him andthe Brahmans ; and whilst all wealth that may be left by anyof the other castes dying intestate, goes to the king, the Brah-

mans claim what was so left by Brahmans. Sir W. Jones

says of this legislation, by which the members of the several

castes are to be guided, that it is " a system of, despotism andpriestcraft, both indeed limited by law, but artfully conspiring

to give mutual support, though witH mutual checks." Andwe shall see, later on, how these two highest castes came to

entertain the bitterest hatred towards each other, and tried

their best to wrest from each other the privileges each hadenjoyed in harmony with these laws. There is one importantstatement respecting the effect of punishment by a king." Men who have committed crimes, and have received fromkings the punishment due to them, go to heaven pure, andbecome as clean as those who have done well." " Thisdictum," says Dr. Wilson, " which removes man from his

responsibility to God, has taken a great hold of the popularmind of India. Native musicians attend the capital execu-tions of the vilest criminals throughout the country, seekingto introduce them into the other world with joy andrejoicing, simply because they view their death by the pubhcsentence of the law as an atonement for all their trans-gressions." It is also the duty of the Kshatriya to keep thecastes below him to the works prescribed for them toregulate all market prices with a due regard to the interests

CASTE DISTINCTIONS. 137

of buyer and seller, and to aid the male community in

maintaining its lordship over the female.

3. We now come to note the third of the chief castes,

the Vaishya. This comprises the merchant, agriculturalist,

and keeper of cattle. This caste, springing from the thigh

of Brahma, is naturally inferior both to the Brahman and

Kshatriya. After performing the initiatory sacraments,

ending with that of the sacrificial thread, and marrying a

wife of his own caste, he should be attentive to his ownproper work, which is chiefly that of keeping cattle ; for Godhas committed cattle to Vaishya' s care, as He has committed

men to the care of the Brahman and Kshatriya. He must

acquaint himself with the prices of goods, learn to sow and

reap, be able to distinguish good land from bad—in fact, he

has to study the various branches of the subjects which

tend to make him a good farmer or merchant.

4. The fourth class is the Sudra, or servants' caste, which

is said to have sprung from the feet of Brahma. As the

Sudra has been created especially to minister to the comfort

of the three higher castes, of course his duty lies in doing

anything and everything that will in any way tend to their

well-being. He is spoken of as a slave, his property, as well

as his person, being at the disposal of his master. His

religious degradation, too, is complete. According to Manu,

a Brahman is forbidden to give advice or food to a Sudra,

the ghi portion of which, having been offered to the gods, must

not therefore be eaten by him. Further, the Brahman must

not give '.' spiritual counsel to him," nor inform him of the

legal expiation of his sin. He who declares the law to a

servile man, and he who instructs him in the mode of ex-

piating sin, sinks with that very man into the hell named

Asamvrita. A Brahman should never be the preceptor of a

Sudra. " While the first part of a Brahman's name should

indicate holiness, that of a Kshatriya's power, aad that of a

Vaishya's wealth, that of a Sudra should indicate contempt.

The Veda is never to be read in the presence of a Sudra, and

138 CASTE.

for him no sacrifice is to be performed. He has no business

with solemn rites."

The privileges of a Sudra are very limited. He must not

marry a woman of the higher castes, or their offspring will

sink into a class even lower than his own. He must not aid

in carrying the corpse of a Brahman, even of his own master,

that obstructions to the dead man's entrance into heaven maynot result. He is allowed to carry his dead only through the

southern gate of the city where he may live. His morals-

are not to be strictly looked after. The murder of a Sudra

by a Brahman is equal only to killing a cat, or a frog, or a.

crow. " ServUe attendance on the Brahmans learned in the

Vedas, chiefly on such as keep house, and are famed for

virtue, is of itself the highest duty of a Sudra, and leads himto future beatitude. Pure, humbly serving the higher classes,

sweet in speech, never arrogant, ever seeking refuge in the

Brahmans, he may attain the highest class " in another birth.

CHAPTE|l III.

HISTORY OF THE GROWTH OF CASTE.

Having sketched the peculiarities of the four chief, castes as

they are described in the Law Books, and considered their

ideal characteristics, I shall now give a few quotations fromother Hindu sacred books, as far as possible in chronological

order, so that some idea may be formed respecting the origin

and growth of this most elaborate system. Dr. Muir,* re-

viewing the texts which he had cited on this subject, says,

" First, we have the set of accounts in which the four castes

are said to have sprung from progenitors who were separately

created ; but in regard to the manner of their creation wefind the greatest diversity of statement. The most commonstory is that the castes issued from the mouth, arms, thighs,

and feet of Purusha, or Brahma. The oldest extant passage

in which this idea occurs, and from which all the later myths

of a similar tenor have no doubt been borrowed, is to be found

in the Purusha Sukta ; but it is doubtful whether, in the

form in which it is there represented, this representation is

anything more than an allegory. In some of the texts from

the Bhagavata Purana traces of the same allegorical character

may be perceived ; but in Manu and the Puranas the mys-

tical import of the Vedic text disappears, and the figurative

narration is hardened into a literal statement of fact. In the

chapters of the Vishnu, Vayu, and Markandeya Puranas,

where castes are described as coeval with creation, and as.

* "Old Sanskrit Texts," toI. L j}. 159.

140 CASTE.

having been naturally distinguished by different gunas, or

qualities, involving varieties of moral character, we are never-

theless allowed to infer that those qualities exerted no

influence on the classes in which they were inherent, as the

condition of the whole race during the Krita age is described

as one of uniform perfection and happiness ; while the actual

separation into castes did not take place, according to the

Vayu Purana, until men had become deteriorated in the

Treta age.

" Second, in various passages from the Brahmanas, epic

poems, and Puranas, the creation of mankind is described

without the least allusion to any separate production of the

progenitors of the four castes. And whilst in the chapters

where they relate the distinct formations of the castes, the

Puranas assign different natural dispositions to each class,

they elsewhere represent all mankind as being at the creation

Uniformly distinguished by the quality of passion. In one

text men are said to be the offspring of Vivasat ; in another

Ms son Manu is said to be their progenitor, whilst in a third

they are said to be descended from a female of the samename. The passage which declares Manu to have been the

father of the human race explicitly affirms that men of all

the four castes were descended from him. In another re-

markable text the Mahabharata categorically asserts that

originally there was no distinction of classes, the existing

distribution having arisen out of differences of character andoccupation. " In these circumstances we may fairly conclude

that the separate origination of the four castes was far frombeing an article of belief universally received by Indianantiquity."

The first quotation is from the Purusha Siikta, one of the

latest additions to the Eig Veda. This is believed to be the" oldest extant passage which makes mention of the fourfold

origin of the Hindu race," and this, as noticed above, hasevidently more the character of poetry than intended to

describe a literal fact. " When (the gods) divided Purusha,

mSTOBY or THE GROWTH OF CASTE. 141

into how many parts did they cut him up ? What was hismouth ? "What (his) arms ? "What (two objects) are said

(to have been) his thighs and feet ? The Brahman was his

mouth, the Kajanya (Kshatriya) was made his arms, thebeing (called) the Vaisya, he. was his thighs ; the Sudrasprang from his feet, the moon sprang from his soul, the

sun from his eye," &e. There is great interest attaching to

this hymn, as it is found among the formulas referring to

human sacrifice, and in all probability has been used at

them. " That at the earliest period of the Vedic time humansacrifices were quite common with the Brahmans, can beproved beyond any doubt. But . the more eminent and dis-

tinguished amongst their leaders soon abandoned the practice

as revolting to human feelings. The form of the sacrifice,

however, seems to have been kept for a long time, for th&

ritual required on that occasion is actually in the Yajur Veda;but they simply tied men of different castes and classes to

the sacrificial posts, and released them afterwards, sacrificing

animals instead of them." *

In the Satapata Brahmana another poetical account is

given of the origin of the three castes—viz., that they sprang

from the four Yedas. " This entire (universe) has been

created by Brahma. Men say that the Vaishya class wasproduced from the Eich-Verses. They say that the Yajur

Veda is the womb from which the Kshatriyas were born.

The Sama Veda is the source from which the Brahmanssprang. Thisword the ancients declared to the ancients.'' In

the same book is another poetical account. "Brahma (in

the form of Agni, and representing the Brahman race) was

formerly this (universe) one only. ... It energetically created

an excellent form, the Kshatriya, viz., those amongst the gods

who are powers, viz., Indra, Varuna, &c. ; hence nothing is

superior to the Kshatriya. Therefore the Brahman sits

below the Kshatriya at the Eajasuga sacrifice ; he confers

that glory on the Kshatriya. This Brahma is the source of

* Dr. Haug, quoted in Moir's " Old Sanskrit Texts." vol. i. p. 11,

142 CASTK.

the Kshatriya. Hence, although the king attains supremacy,

he at the end resorts to the Brahma as his source. Whoeverdestroys him (the Brahman) destroys his own source. . . . Hecreated Vis, viz., those classes of gods who are designated

bytroops, Vasus, Eudras, &c. . , . He created the Sudra class,

Pushan. This earth is Pushan : for she nourishes all that

exists." In yet another text it is declared that Prajapati

<{Brahma) formed " animals from his breath, a man from his

isoul," &e.*

The Vishnu Purana makes the distinction of castes to be

ithe result of the character of those forming them. In answer

to a question as to how these distinctions arose, the sage

Parasara replied, " When, true to his design, Brahma be-

•came desirous to create the world, creatures in whom good-

ness prevailed sprang from his mouth; others, in whompassion predominated, came from his breast ; others, in whomboth passion and darkness were strong, proceeded from his

thighs ; others he created from his feet, whose chief charac-

teristic was darkness."

The Vayu Purana teaches that a thousand pairs of these

different castes were formed at once. "As Brahma wasdesirous to create, and, fixed in his design, was meditat-

ing upon offspring, he created from his mouth a thousandcouples of living beings who were born with an abundance of

goodness, and full of intelligence. He then created anotherthousand from his breast ; they all abounded in passion, andwere both vigorous and destitute of vigour. After creating

from his thighs another thousand pairs, in whom both pas-

sion and darkness prevailed, and who are described as active,

he formed from his feet yet another thousand couples whowere all full of darkness, inglorious, and of little vigour ;

"

and further on this Purana declares that in the Krita age,

which answers to the golden age of the Greeks, when all menwere good, " there were no distinctions of castes or ordersand no mixture of castes !

" " These perfect beings, who* Muir, " Old Sanskrit Texts," vol. i. p. 20.

HISTOBY OF THE GROWTH OF CASTE. 143

were descrilped by me as existing formerly in the Krita age,

the mind-born children of Brahma, who had been producedin this world when they came from the Janaloka, who weretranquil, fiery, active, or distressed, were born again in the

Treta age as Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, Sudras, and in-

jurious men governed by good and bad actions (performed

in former births)." A few verses afterwards we find that

Svayambhu (the self-existent) " established divisions amongst(men) according to their tendencies. Those of them whowere rapacious he ordained to be Kshatriyas, protectors of

the others. As many men attended on these, fearless,

speaking the truth, and propounding sacred knowledge with

•exactness (were made) Brahmans. Those who had previously

been feeble, engaged in slaughter, and cultivators who wereactive with the ground, he made Vaisyas ; and he designated

as Sudras those who grieved, and were addicted to menial

tasks, inglorious and feeble." Prom this it would appear

that the writer believed that at first there was no distinction

of caste; but that owing to the character and conduct of

men, in their later births they were thus subdivided byBrahma. These various and apparently contradictory state-

ments of the origin of the castes are explained as referring to

the commencement of things in different kalpas, or ages ; for

at the end of each kalpa all created things are destroyed,

and with the commencement of each a new creation takes

place. Professor Wilson suggests that a better reason is

that they have been borrowed from different original autho-

rities.

The Eamayana teaches that the four castes were the off-

spring of a woman named Manu, the wife of Kasyapa, a son

of Brahma. The Mahabharata contains various and self-

contradictory statements on this subject. In some places

the prerogatives of the Brahmans are described in the style,

and almost in the identical language, found in Manu. In

another place, Mahadeva, addressing his spouse, says, "Aman, whether he be a Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaisya, or Sudra,

144 CASTE.

is such by nature;" and goes on to say that "if a higher caste

man acts as a lower, he will be born again as the lower

;

whilst one who, in the lower, acts as those in the higher, he

will be born into the higher, i.e., that in life no real change

of caste can be effected." In another passage it declares that

" until a man is born into the Veda {i.e., until he is initiated

by the investiture of the Brahmanical thread) he is on the

level with a Sudra ;" hence the removal of the thread by a

Christian reduces a man at once in the estimation of the

Hindus from his high position as a Brahman. And in yet

another passage the sage Bhrigu says, " There is no differ-

ence of castes : this world, having been at first created byBrahma entirely Brahmanic, became (afterwards) separated

into castes in consequence of works." Once all were Brah-

mans, but some, owing to their evil deeds, in succeeding

births were reduced to the position they now occupy.

Dr. Muir,* having given a number of texts from the parts

of the Eig Veda and other Sastras, which are generally

admitted to be more ancient than the Purusha Sukta,

from which a quotation has been made, draws the following

conclusion : " In general the authors of the hymns of the

Eig Veda regarded the whole of the Aryan people, embra-

cing not only the priests and chiefs, but the middle classes of

the population, as descended from a common father, or an-

cestor, whom they designate by the name of Manu. Thisreference to a common progenitor excludes, of course, thesupposition that the writers by whom it is made could havehad any belief of the myth which became afterwards current

among their countrymen—that their nation consisted of four

castes, differing naturally in dignity, and separately made byBrahma. ... It will, I think, be found on investigation that

not only the older hymns, but the great bulk of the hymns,supply no distinct evidence of the existence of a well-defined

and developed caste system at the time when they werecomposed."

• " Old Sanskrit Texts," ypl. i. p. 239,

HISTORY OF THE GROWTH OF CASTE. 145

The origin and progress of the caste system is of course

difficult to trace with anything approaching certainty ; never-

theless a tolerably accurate idea may be formed by the care-

ful study of the Hindu literature as far as it can be done in

chronological order. The root Brahma signifies hymn or

prayer ; " the term Brahman must therefore, as we conclude,

have been ordinarily applied (1) to the same persons who are

spoken of elsewhere in the hymns as Eishi, Kavi, &c., and

have denoted devout worshippers and contemplative sages

who composed prayers and hymns, which they themselves

recited in praise of the gods. Afterwards, when the cere-

monial gradually became more complicated, and a division

of sacred functions took place, the word was more ordinarily

employed (2) for a minister of public worship, and at length

came to signify (3) one particular kind of priest with special

duties." * Dr. Muir cites a number of texts in which the

word Brahman is employed in the three senses indicated

above, and a number of others in which gifts to the Brah-

mans are encouraged ; whilst the niggardly are blamed in

strong language for their want of liberality. It seems

evident from these texts that the irreUgious man was by no

means a rare character amongst the Aryans of the Vedio

age, and that the priests often found no little difficulty in

drawing forth the liberality of their contemporaries towards

themselves, and in enforcing a due regard to the ceremonials

of devotion. StiU, "it will remain certain that the Brah-

man, whether we look upon him as a sage or poet, or as an

officiating priest, or in both capacities, was regarded with

respect and reverence, and even that his presence had begun

to be considered as an important condition of the efficacy of

the ceremonial." "While, however, there thus appears to

be every reason for supposing that towards the close of the

Vedic period the priesthood had become a profession, the

texts quoted (excepting that from the Purusha Stikta) do not

contain anything which necessarily implies that the priests

* '' Old Sanskrit Texts," p. 243.

11

146 CASTE.

formed an exclusive caste, or at least a caste separated from

all others by insurmountable barriers, as in later times."

Still further, to prove that in the Vedic age the caste system

had nothing approaching to the exclusiveuess it assumed

later on, there are texts which show that some who were not

Brahmans were authors of Vedio hymns and exercised priestly

functions. When in later ages it was found that this fact

might encourage others to attempt to perform the work andobtain the emoluments of the Brahmans, legends were in-

vented to show that these priests had, by miraculous means,

been first made Brahmans, and then allowed to perform the

duties peculiar to that privileged casto. Again, from other

hymns it is evident that the Brahmans intermarried with

women of the other classes, taking the widows and, it maybe, in some cases the wives, of men still living ; whilst at the

same time the terms in which the evils of interference withthe Brahman's rights and privileges are described show adecided tendency to growth in strength and bitterness.

Dr. Eoth's opinion on the subject, as quoted by Dr. Muir, is

as foUows :" The religious development of India is attached

through the course of three thousand years to the wordbriihma. This conception might be taken as the standardfor estimating the progress of thought directed to divine

things, as at every step taken by the latter it has gained anew form ; while at the same time it has always embraced in

itself the highest spiritual acquisition of the nation. Theoriginal signification of the word brahma, as we easily discover

it in the Vedic hymns, is that of prayer ; not praise or thanks-giving, but that invocation whichy with the force of the will

directed to God, seeks to draw Him to itself, and to receive

satisfaction from Him.' From this oldest sense and form ofbrahma was formed the masculine noun Brahma, which wasthe designation of those who pronounced the prayers, orperformed the sacred ceremonies ; and in nearly all the pas-sages of the Eig Veda, in which it was thought that this wordmust refer to the Brahmanical caste, this more extended

HISTORY OF THE GEOWTH OP CASTE. 147

sense must be substituted for the other more limited one.

Prom this sense of the word brahma nothing was morenatural than to convert this offerer of prayer into a particular

description of the sacrificial priest : so soon as the ritual

began to be fixed, the functions which before were united in

a single person, who both prayed to the gods and sacrificed

to them, became separated, and a priesthood interposed itself

between man and God." *

" In many places of the liturgical and legal books, the

promise of every blessing is attached to the maintenance of a

priest by the king. Inasmuch as he supports and honours

the priest, the latter ensures to him the favour of the gods.

So it was that the caste of the Brahmans arose and attained

to power and consideration : first, they were only the single

domestic priests of the kings ; then, the dignity became here-

ditary in certain families ; finally, a union, occasioned by

similarity of interests of these families in one larger com-

munity, was efifected ; and all this in reciprocal action with

the progress made in other respects by theological doctrine

and religious worship. Still the extension of the power

which fell into the hands of this priestly caste would not be

perfectly comprehensible from this explanation alone. The

relation of spiritual superiority in which the priests came to

stand to the kings was aided by other historical movements.

When at a period more recent than the majority of the

hymns of the Eig Veda, as the Vedic people, driven by some

political shock, advanced from their abode in the Panjab,

further and further to the south, drove the aborigines into the

hills, and took possession of the broad tract of country lying

between the Ganges, the Jumna, and the Vindhya range,

the time had arrived when the distribution of power, the

relation of king and priest, could become transformed in the

most rapid and comprehensive manner. Principalities sepa-

rated in such various ways, such a division into tribes as had

existed in the Panjab were no longer possible here where

* " Old Sanskrit Texts," vol. i. p. 289.

148 CASTE.

nature had created a wide and continuous tract, with scarcely

any natural boundaries to dissever one part from another.

Most of these petty princes who had descended from the

north with their tribes must of necessity disappear, their

tribes become dissolved, and contests arise for the supreme

dominion. This era is perhaps portrayed to us in the prin-

cipal subject of the Mahabharata, the contest between the

descendants of Pandu and Kuru. In this stage of disturb-

ance and complication, power naturally fell into the hands of

those who did not directly possess any authority ; the priestly

races and their leaders, who had hitherto stood rather in the

position of followers of the kings, now rose to a higher rank.

It may easily be supposed that they and their families, already

honoured as the confidential followers of the priaces, wouldfrequently be able to strike' a decisive stroke to which the

king would owe his success. If we take further into account

the intellectual and moral influence which this class pos-

sessed in virtue of the prerogative conceded to or usurped bythem, and the religious feelings of the people, it is not dif-

ficult to comprehend how, in such a period of transition, power-ful communities should arise amongst the domestic priests of

petty kings and their famihes, should attain' to the highestimportance in every department of life, and should grow into

a caste, which, like the ecclesiastical orders of the middle agesof Christianity, began to look upon secular authority as aneffluence fi:om the fulness of their power to be conferred attheir will ; and how, on the other hand, the numerous royalfamilies should sink down into a nobility which possessedindeed, the sole right to the kingly dignity, but at the sametime, when elected by the people, required inauguration inorder to their recognition by the priesthood, and were en-joined above all things to employ only Brahmans as theircounsellors." Dr. Both goes on to speak of the three highestcastes as being altogether different from the fourth, in thatthe latter were not permitted to sacrifice or to know the Vedas •

the supposition being well founded that the Sudras were not

HISTORY OF THE GROWTH OF CASTE. 149

originally part of the Hindu system, but were engrafted

into it, and were originally composed either of the descen-

dant of a previous migration, or were the aborigines of the

country.

CHAPTER IV.

STRUGGLES FOE SUPREMACY AMONGST THE CASTES.

It is of some interest to see that the position assumed and

generally held by the Brahmans was not obtained and held

without some severe struggles on their part against the

Kshatriyas whom they sought to make subordinate. In

Manu * is the following verse which forms the text concern-

ing which legends are found in more recent works showing

the evils that those suffered who attempted to subvert the

power of the Brahmans. " Let the king constantly reverence

ancient Brahmans skilled in the Vedas and pure in conduct

;

for he who always respects the aged is honoured even byEakshasas. Let him, even though humble-minded, be con-

tinually learning submissiveness from them : for a submissive

monarch never perishes. Through want of this character

many kings have been destroyed with all their possessions.

Vena perished through want of submissiveness, and KingNahusha, and Sudas the son of Pijavana, and Samukha, andNimi. But through submissiveness Prithu and Manu at-

tained kingly power, Varuna the lordship of wealth, and the

son of Gadhi Brahmanhood." In the later books the legends

of these men's doings and their results are fully told ; andthe time of their existence is put back hundreds of thousandsof years in order that it may be believed that they are those

referred to by the great legislator. I shall now giye an out-

line of some of these stories.

Vena was the grandson of Mrithu (death), and was, like him,

" Old Sanskrit Texts," vol. i. p. 296.

STRUGGLES FOB SUPEEMACY AMONGST THE CASTES. 151

of a corrupt nature. When he was inaugurated he forbade

men to sacrifice to the gods, declaring that he was the right-

ful lord of offerings. The Eishis came and entreated him to

recall this dreadful order, promising that if he would do so

he should have a share of the offerings, but that men mustsacrifice to the gods. Vena, waxing more arrogant by all this,

asked, " Who are the gods ? They are all present in a king's

person ; he is composed of all the gods." As the king

would not hearken, the Munis took each a blade of the sacred

grass which had been consecrated with a sacred text and

smote him with them. After this they rubbed his thigh and

produced from it a hideous black being who became the pro-

genitor of the Nishadas ; and by this means the evil of the

king was extracted. The Munis thenrubbed his right hand,

and a glorious son named Prithu was the result, who by his

many virtues delivered his father from hell and himself

showed great respect to the Brahmans.

Nahusha is said to have been a powerful king, who, intoxi-

cated with pride, made the Brahmans carry him from place

to place upon their shoulders. At length his arrogance be-

coming unbearable, a sage named Agastya was at his ownrequest placed amongst the bearers. As the holy men were

proceeding with their load, the monarch touched him with

his foot, whereupon the sage cried out, " Fall, thou serpent."

Immediately the proud monarch, who had raised himself to the

position of Indra, or king of the gods, by his austerities, fell to

the earth in the form of a serpent, and continued in that form

until he was released by Yudhisthira, the righteous king. Avariation of the story is that a sage named Bhrigu was con-

cealed in Agastya's hair ; this sage had the power to bring

any one to submission on whom his eye fell ; but Nahusha

had also the power to prevent any one he saw from injuring

him. Bhrigu having assumed a diminutive size, and being

hidden in Agastya's hair, was able to see Nahusha without

being seen by him, and in this disguise effected the arrogant

king's destruction.

1S2 CASTS.

The King Nimi, referred to above, had requested a Brah-

man Eishi to celebrate for him a sacrifice which was to last a

thousand years ; but the Brahman being engaged for the next

five hundred years, said he would be glad to come at the ex-

piration of that period. Without saying anything in reply

to this offer, Nimi engaged another priest to do his work.

For a time all was proceeding satisfactorily, but at the

expiration of the five hundred years the Brahman to whom the

king had first spoken,coming when hiswork elsewherewas com-

pleted, and being incensed at the slight that had been shown

to him by the engaging of another priest without consulting

him, said, " Let Nimi be deprived of his body." Nimi, on

awaking, learned what had been done, and because the

Brahman had cursed him without any previous notice, ordered

that the vigour of the Brahman should be given to Mitra and

Varuna. When Ninii's sacrifice was complete, the gods, onthe intercession of the priests, were willing to restore his

form to Nimi ; but he, being unwilling to take it, asked that

he might live in the eyes of all living creatures. It is in

consequence of this that they are always opening and shiitting

them, " Nimisha " meaning " the twinkling of an eye."

The story of the quarrel between Visishtha, a Brahmansage, and Visvamitra, figures very largely in Hindu legend.

Briefly, it is as follows :" One day the Kshatriya king,

Visvamitra, visited the hermitage of Visishtha, by whom hewas entertained in a right royal manner, and was surprised

to find that the wonderful provision, of which he and his

followers had partaken, had been given by a wonder-workingcow which belonged to the hermit. King-like, Visvamitrawished for this cow, offered a million other cows for it, or

even his kingdom, but the Brahman steadily refused to yield

his treasure. The king then tried to drive her away, but shewould not move. The cow, addressing her mastsr, asked if it

was his wish for her to go, otherwise no power could possiblymove her. The Brahman, intimating that he had no wishto part with her, her appearance suddenly changed, and the

STRUGGLES FOB SUPREMACY AMONGST THE CASTES. 153

calm and quiet cow became the source of an immense and

powerful army, which put to flight the king's troops in a

moment. The king, witnessing this miracle, which he

believed to have been wrought through the Brahman's in-

fluence, immediately gave up his opposition, and betook himself

to prayer, meditation, and asceticism, by virtue of which, in

process of time, he obtained the coveted position of Brah-

manhood." Some marvellous stories are told of the wonderful

fervour of Visvamitra's austerity. On one occasion Dharma(religion), assuming the form of Visishtha, visited the ascetic

and asked him for food. The man came with it freshly

cooked and hot, upon which Dharma asked him to remain as

he was for a little time. At the close of a hundred years,

returning to the same spot, and finding him still standing

there as he had commanded, he was so pleased, that at once

he said, " I am pleased with thee, Brahman rishi;

" by which

word the desired effect was accomplished, and the Kshatriya

king became a Brahman.Visvamitra, thus raised to the position of a Brahman, is

regarded as the author of many Vedic hymns, and, chief of

all, the mysterious, awe-inspiring Gayatri. Perhaps a more

correct view of the facts would be the following. In the

early Vedic days the rules which prescribed the duties of each

caste were not so carefully drawn as in later times. Probably

at that time the Brahman and the kingly Kshatriya alike

performed priestly functions ; but in after years, when the

Brahmans claimed an exclusive right to perform the duties

of priest and teacher, it was found inconvenient to have one

so prominent as the Kshatriya Visvamitra in their religious

history, and to be acknowledged as the author of their most

sacred hymns. Hence the idea was started, and numerous

legends invented to substantiate it, that this man, though

born in another caste, by means of protracted and intense

religious fervour had gained admission into the privileged

class. For in a work later than the Vedas, but older than the

Puranas, it is stated that a Brahman must officiate at sacri-

154 CASTE.

fices that only a Kshatriya can offer. In the Markandeya

Purana is a most interesting story of Harischandra, a king

who offended a great Bishi, and of the sufferings he had to

endure in consequence. The story was evidently written to

show that Brahman though he had become in spirit and in

conduct, he was still inferior to the Brahman born. It mayalso have been inserted with the intention of showing the

great benefits that kings obtain when they bow submissively

to Brahmans, even though the demands of the spiritual

man be most unreasonable. The king when hunting, hearing,

as he thought, the cry of a woman in distress, and being

bound as a Kshatriya, like the knight-errants of the West,

to redress human wrongs, inspired by Ganesa, uttered ,an

imprecation which aroused the anger of the sage. It appears

this sage was attempting to master the sciences by his

religious fervour, and they in their distress cried out, and

their cry reached the ears of the king. The sage, bursting

forth into a rage at this interruption of his religious occupation,

destroyed the very spirits he was trying to overcome. Haris-

chandra, grieved and terrified at what he had done, offered

most costly gifts—gold, his son, his wife, his body, his life, his

kingdom. The sage's first demand was the empire of the world

;

everything, in fact, but the king's person, his son, his wife, andhis virtue. All this being freely given, the king and queen

having cast off their jewels and royal robes, and having put

on the ascetic dress, the sage now demanded a fee for offering

the sacrifice thus presented. As the king had only his son

and wife left to him, he asks for a month's delay. The king

set off to Benares, hoping to find a " city of refuge " in that

holy place, but is mistaken ; his relentless creditor is there to

meet him. There being no other course open to him, the

king has to sell his wife as a slave, who takes her little boywith her to her master's house. But alas ! the money he re-

ceived for his wife is regarded as altogether too small a gift

by the savage priest. Then Harischandra sold himself to a

Chandala (one of the most degraded and despised castes),

STRUGGLES FOR SUPREMACY AMONGST THE CASTES. 155

who sent him into graveyards to steal the clothes from the

dead who were buried there. For a whole year the king

followed this dreadful occupation, at which time his wife

came there to burn her son, who had just died. At first

the husband and wife did not recognize each other; but

when recognition was made, they talked over their miseries,

and determined to end them by burning themselves with the

corpse of their child. As they are just about to carry their

purpose into effect, Dharma (religion) appears, and tells the

king that he has assumed the form of the cruel Ghandala to

try the faith of his servant, and that, being pleased with his

readiness to suffer and die rather than fail to fulfil his vow,

husband and wife ascend to heaven with a divine escort, and

are richly rewarded for all their painful service.

In the legends of Parasurama we have the story told of

Vishnu becoming incarnate in that hero in order that he

might destroy the Kshatriya race, and how he again, and

again almost succeeded in the attempt. All these legends

show most clearly, as might reasonably have been expected,

that the Brahmans were not suffered to attain to almost

divine superiority without a contest. In the story of Parasu-

rama we read of the final struggle in which the Brahmans

gained the supremacy.

The few instances just given are of men of other (twice-

born, i.e. , the three highest castes) castes being raised into

the position of Brahmans. The following story from the

Mahabharata will show the impossibility of any of the fourth,

or lowest caste, attaining this privilege. A man named

Matanga, the reputed son of a Brahman, was one day riding

in a car drawn by asses. As he was urging on one of the

asses by pricking its nose, the mother tried to comfort her

suffering son with the remark, " Be not distressed, my son;

it is a Ghandala who is in the car. There is nothing dread-

ful in a Brahman ; he is kind, a teacher who instructs all

creatures—how can he smite any one? The wicked man shows

no pity to a tender colt, and thereby indicates his origin, for

156 CASTE.

it is birth which determines the character." Hearing these

words of the mother-ass, Matanga descended from the car

and asked what she meant by casting reflections on his birth.

The ass then assured him that he was no Brahman's son

;

but that his mother, when in a state of intoxication, had

received the embraces of a barber, and that he was really

the barber's son. Speedily returning home, he commenceda life of such severe penance as to alarm the gods, who in

their fright extracted from Indra the promise of a boon for

the devotee. He asked to be made a Brahman, but this

Indra refused, as he assured him that such a gift would

mean his death. For a hundred years more Matanga con-

tinued his austerity, when Indra again refused to grant the

gift he asked, and told him that a " Ghandala can only

become a Sudra in a thousand births, a Sudra a Vaisya

after a period thirty times as long, a Vaisya a Eajanya

(Kshatriya) after a period sixty times the length, a Eajanya

a Brahman after a further period of sixty thousand lives."

Dissatisfied with the answer, Matanga performed the severest

penance for a thousand years, but again Indra assured himit was impossible for him to give the boon desired.

Having considered the teaching of the Hindu Scriptures

respecting the Hindus, let us now see what is their teaching

respecting those outside of the four castes, the people, i.e.,

whom they found in India when they migrated there, andthe people of other lands who had no connection whatevM-with the Hindu system. Manu is very explicit on this

subject. He says :" Three castes, the Brahman, Kshatriya,

Vaisya, are twice-born ; the fourth, the Sudra, once-born;

there is no fifth." And in harmony with this teaching hedeclares them all to be outoastes, as we should now termthem, such as the Chandalas, the descendants of mixedmarriages of those who were included in one or other of thefour castes ; the descendants of such mixed marriages beingregarded by him as the offseouring of the earth. And heenumerates a large number of outcaste tribes, and gives their

STRUGGLES FOR SUPREMACY AMONGST THE CASTES. 157

pedigree, showing that in all cases they are the descendantsof some who were once within the bounds of the Hinducastes. The common name Dasyas (slaves) is appUed to

all these outcaste peoples. In the same book it is taught

that all these classes ought to respect the Brahmanicalinstitutions ; and certain general moral lessons are given for

their guidance. " Such duties as these, which have been

ordained of old, ought to be observed by all people." In the

Vishnu Purana is a story which- accounts for their origin in

harmony with Manu's teaching. A child named Sagara, whowas born in a forest where his father and mother had escaped

after being deprived of their kingdom, hearing his &milyhistory from his mother, when he was grown up raised an

army and recovered his paternal estate. When he was about

to exterminate his conquered foes, they applied to Vasishtha,

his family priest, for protection. On their behalf this priest

interceded with the king, saying, "You have done enough,

my son, in the way of pursuing these men who are as good

as dead. I have compelled them to abandon the duties of

caste and all association with the twice-born." Acting on

the advice of his spiritual guide, Sagara compelled these

tribes to alter their costume. He made the Yavans shave

their heads, the Sakas shave half their heads, the Paradas

to wear long hair, and the Pahlavas beards. These and

other Kshatriyas he deprived of the study of the Vedas,

in consequence of which, and of their desertion by the

Brahmans, they became Mlechhas, or outcastes. From these

and similar stories it seems clear that the writers imagined

that the people inhabiting the countries bordering on their

own were once part of their own nation, who through their

wickedness lost their position as the members of one or other

of the four great castes. Of other nations beyond the Hindu

writers betray the grossest ignorance.

CHAPTEE V.

CASTE AS IT NOW EXISTS.

Hating considered caste as far as it is referred to in the

sacred books, I shall now describe it as it is seen in the present

day. It is true there are those who declare that it never

actually existed in the precise form there indicated; that

the whole scheme is purely imaginary. This may to someextent be true ; but that there was an approximate realiza-

tion of it, there can be little doubt. Nowadays it is very

different from what it once was ; but that we have a fairly

faithful account of caste as it once existed, there seems to

be no reasonable ground for doubt.

In Bengal there are virtually but two of the original

foiu" castes, viz., Brahmans and Sudras. The Brahmansare subdivided into an immense number of classes, someof whom will not eat or intermarry with some others. Thepure Kshatriyas are almost extinct, though there are in

other parts of India many who profess to be such, as are

also the Vaisyas ; whilst those who are known as Sudras,

in the large majority of cases, are really the descendants of

some of the mixed classes. It was a peculiarity of this

system, the object of which was, as far as possible, to

prevent the intermarriage of the classes, that the children of

such mesalliances did not enjoy the position even of thelower-caste parent, whether father or mother, but sank into

a class far below either. In civilized countries the wife.

CASTE AS IT NOW EXISTS. 159

whether nobler or baser, takes the rank of her husband;

but this was not the case in India. The heaviest penalties

had to be paid by the children when a woman married a

man of a lower caste.

But this has been changed. In the present day those whocontract these forbidden marriages themselves suffer. Perhaps

one fruitful cause of these mixed marriages in former times

lies in the fact that in addition to the proper marriage form

there were others that were recognized amongst the Hindus,

the one called the Gandharva rite, where man and womanmeeting, and being mutually willing, might live as man and

wife without any rite or ceremony ; the other, the Edkshasa

rite, by which the victors in war were at perfect liberty to

appropriate to themselves the women of the vanquished.

At the present time the most numerous of the well-to-do

Hindus of Bengal are the Vaidya and Kayastha castes.

These are reckoned as Siidras, though, according to Manu,

the former was originally the offspring of a Brahman father

and Vaishya mother ; the latter, the offspring of a Vaishya

father with a Siidra mother ; whilst almost the lowest caste

of all, the Ohandala, was the offspring of a Siidra father

with a Brahman mother.

In theory the supremacy of the Brahman remains. There

can be little doubt that in many places the people generally

reg&rd the Brahman as little less than divine. It should,

however, be clearly understood that all the Brahmans never

were, nor are they now, engaged as priests. Some Brahman

families have for generations been acting as priests in the

various temples, and others have so officiated in the palaces

of the kings and in the homes of those who were able to pay

them for their services; but these, styled Pujari Brahmans,

i.e., those who perform religious services for payment, are

regarded by their fellow-Brahmans with considerable con-

tempt. It is not because of his office as priest, but by reason

of his birth as a Brahman, that he obtains the adoration of

the people. The guru, who in many sects is not necessarily

160 C^SCB.

a Brahman, is also leTerenced as a god by lus own disciples.

Bat \rhen the office of gum is snpenddel to the biryuig^t

of Brahmanhood, no class of men on earth haTO greater

reverence sho\m to &em by their fellow-men. Some Brah-

mans are priests : all priests are Brahmans : it is not Uieir

employment but their birth that secures them respect Andthis respect is most ptofirand. As he iralks throogh the

streets loir-caste people account it an honour to take the

dnst from his feet and pkce it upon their head; and in

extreme cases to drink the water in which Ms feet have bean

washed. This is done partly through fear of the holj man's

corse, partly through reverence for his imagined sanctity andpower to inflnence the gods.

In some exceptional cases the four stages of a Brahman'sideid hfe, as prescribed in the Law Books, are r^arded. Hepasses through the student, householder, meditative^ andascetic periods ; but this is bv no means geueraL A modifi-

cation of the scheme is more commonly seen. Brahmans,when growing old and infirm, will hand over tiieir property

to their heirs, and go away to Benares, Gaya, or some other

place on the banks of the sacred streams, tli^re to await their

end in peace. This is the wish of multitude who have notthe means of its gratification. The old idea that it is

derogatory to the dignity of a Brahman to sell his services

has quite given way to the pressure of circumstance, andmen glorying in the peitrm and in the possession of mosthonourable names are to be found engaged as derks, school-

masters, physicians, engineers, and shopkeepers. The oldpundits admit that the proper portion and work of the Brah-man does not pay in this d^enerate age, as the ^"IshnnPurana predicted would be the case in the Eali Tnga. Inthe towns, at any rate, they can with impunity violate almostevery law laid down for their guidance by Manu ; though insome of the country places, where superstition is stronger, it

is necessary for them to be a little more careful Each eastsin a district has ite dal, or committee, presided over by its

CABTB AS IT NOW EXISTS. 161

dalapati, or president, to whose judgment the members are

bound to submit ; and when any violation of the rules of the

caste are reported against a member, the dal considers the

matter, and, if it is proved, sentence is pronounced ; and this

pimishment must either be endured, or the delinquent is put

out of caste, i.e., the members " boycott " him. They will

neither visit nor eat with him ; nor will they allow their

sons to intermarry with his family. The punishment of this

social ostracism is most severe.

Some of these dais are very strict in their observance of

the rules of their caste, some are just as lax. In cities like

Calcutta, some of them allow their members openly to violate

rules that at no distant age were most rigorously observed,

and which to thiH hour are binding amongst sections of the

Hindus who are not so much influenced by European ideas.

Nowadays a man may eat beef, drink wine, wear shoes

made of cowhide, sit down to table with Europeans, without

losing his position in society. I know gentlemen, who are

regarded as orthodox— at any rate are not expelled &omtheir dal—who frequently visit houses of Europeans, eat-

ing and drinking quite freely with them. In ooimtry districts

I have partaken of roast moat in Hindu gentlemen's houses

where a Mahomedan cook was kept ; and this quite openly

;

the Brahman host sitting down with me at the table. Public

dinners are given in European hotels where Hindu gentlemen

of various castes publicly partake of food together. The

young men who ventured to cross the sea were, on their

return to India, subjected to most severe penance as a method

of purifying them from contact with the despised Mlechhas

;

but as many resented this, the process of purification has

been very considerably modified. The Hindu community

found that by outcasteing those who had been bold enough

to go to England to qualify for good positions in their own

country, they were casting off the men who were throwing the

brightest lustre upon their nation, and therefore a way was

soon made by which they could be retained. With the ex-

12

162 cvsiE.

ception of a very few of the more orthodox dais, Hindus maydo almost anything they wish except receive Christian bap-

tism. That still remains as a recognized separation from the

community, although certain pundits in Calcutta have openly

declared that they could find no word against baptism in

their Scriptures. However, the feeling of the community at

present is in favour of the expulsion from caste of those whothus openly assert their faith in Jesus Christ.

Dais exist in connection with all the various castes,

and the members are subject to their authority, in some

cases the power of the dais being superior to law; e.g., it

has been enacted that it is lawful for a Hindu widow to re-

marry ; but though this law has been in existence for years,

the number who have availed themselves of it is exceedingly

small ; the power of Hindu prejudice has proved itself so

strong, that those have been excommunicated who have trans-

gressed what they consider the Hindu sacred law on this

question. Some of these communities are much more strict

than others. Some years ago a Hindu gentleman, who hadby his mode of living (he was a frequenter of European hotels,

and freely partook of forbidden food) made himself obnoxious

to the members of his own set, for a time got on verywell indeed without being admitted into their strict society.

He had friends like-minded with himself, who afforded himthe society he needed. But as years rolled by, and his

daughters were old enough to be married, he found bis isola-

tion prevented him from obtaining husbands for them. Hetherefore applied for admission in vain to several sets of his

own caste, and was refused. At last he found one liberal

enough to admit him as a member, and so he died " in theodour of sanctity, " though he scarcely changed his mode oflife. In addition to these smaller communities, there arewhat might be almost termed Hindu General Assemblies;i.e., societies formed for the express purpose of explainingand enforcing Hindu law and custom, to whom importantsocial questions are referred for decision, the members

CASTE AS IT NOW EXISTS. 163

of which are mostly learned pundits, with a sprinHing of

well-to-do men engaged in secular employment. As a speci-

men of the subjects taken before them for discussion andsettlement, and also as an example of the subtlety with

which they harmonize common sense with the teaching of

the Scriptures, may be mentioned that connected with the

introduction of the water supply into Calcutta. Hinduismforbids its followers from drinking water &om a vessel that

lias been touched by people of another caste. The water that

flows through the pipes in the city is obtained by the massof the people from stand-posts with taps, to which low-caste

Hindus, Mussulmans, Christians, &c., have £ree access. Atiirst an attempt was made to have taps set apart for the

different castes, but when this was found to be impracticable,

the Hindu Dharma Bakshini Sabha {i.e., the Society for the

Preservation of the Eternal Behgion), determined that

although it was contrary to the teaching of Hinduism for

men of different castes to drink water which came from the

same vessel, yet, as the people bad to pay taxes to meet the

expenses of bringing this water, this money payment should be

considered a sufficient atonement for violating the ordinances

of the Hindu religion. This certainly is a great concession,

when it is remembered that in many places in India there

Are tanks set apart for the high-caste people, which the low-

«aste people are not permitted to approach. The idea of an

indulgence being granted for an open violation of a religious

ordinance is certainly a clever mode of obtaining a desired

though forbidden boon. That there are degrees of strictness

amongst Brahmans, and that some esteem themselves of a

very superior stamp, the following story will show. A few

months ago, when travelling on the East India Bailway, I met

with two Brahmans from Mysore. They were educated men

;

one of them was expecting to aj)pear in the following B.A.

Examination of the Madras University. When we were

leaving Benares, it occurred to me to ask if they had any

Iriends in that holy city. They said, " No, but we soon

164 CASTE.

found some Brahmans from our part of the country." I said,

" Oh, then you were well received and hospitably entertained

by them, of course?" I shall never forget the look of infinite

disdain with which one of them replied : " Do you think wewould eat with men who live in such a city as Benares, and

associate with the Brahmans of this district ? No, we con-

tented ourselves whilst there with one meal a day, which wecooked for ourselves." My question appeared to them about as-

reasonable as if I had asked a nobleman in England if he haddined with scavengers.

Even Christianity is not sufficiently strong in every case

to obliterate this caste prejudice. In some churches in the^

South of India at the communion service two cups are used,,

one for those who have come from the higher castes, and one

for those from the outcastes, and it is believed that if this

custom were not permitted, many of the caste Christians,

would absent themselves from the Lord's table rather than

drink from a cup that was used by those who were formerly

outcastes. In some parts of Bengal a similar spirit wasallowed to manifest itself for a time ; but a few years of

severe discipline was successful in restoring the people to

conformity with what seems to be the Spirit of Jesus Christ in

this matter. In cases of church discipline the system of caste

is occasionally imitated in the Christian Church. When for-

any misconduct a man is put out of fellowship with his

church, the members refuse to visit him, or to give him their

hookah (pipe). And it is said that frequently this exclusion

from the friendly offices of his brethren leads to penitence,

and restoration to the fraternity follows.

The position of the mixed castes is considerably im-proved. Next to the Brahmans, in Bengal, at any rate, the-

most respectable castes are the Vaidyas and Kayasthas. Theseclasses are regarded as gentlemen, and a Brahman will asso-

ciate with them on almost equal terms, though of course hewill not eat, nor will his family intermarry with them. He will

drink water that they may have brought as water-carriers, &c..

CASTE AS IT NOW EXISTS. 165

These classes tread hard upon the heels of the Brahmans in

the colleges and schools, and secure some of the highest

honours in the universities. It is very difficult to say howthis change has been effected. Certainly at one time these

were despised classes ; now their position is almost equal to

that of the Brahmans ; whilst the mechanics, who probably

were the Sudras in ancient times, have sunk much below

them in modern times. A good story was told me by an eye-

witness of the way in which European training acts in destroy-

ing these caste prejudices. On one occasion, at the Medical

College, Calcutta, a professor, in illustration of his lecture on

Hygiene, brought samples of different kinds of cooked food.

There was beef roast and boiled, and ham—all, of course,

obnoxious to the strict Hindu. No sooner was the lecture

concluded, and the lecturer's back turned, than the stiidents

rushed from their seats and boldly ate up the various kinds of

food in the presence of each other—an act that a generation

before would certainly have been followed by the excommuni-

cation of every member of the class.

The lines have been far more tightly drawn around the

different classes with respect to intermarriage and to the

taking of food together. It is evident that in Manu's time

it was a most common thing for men of one caste to have a

wife belonging to another ; and that the punishment for such

offences did not fall upon the guilty parties, but on their chil-

dren. Nowadays, those who commit the fault are made to

suffer ; hence it very rarely occurs. To an outsider it is difficult

to understand the minute distinctions that are made between

the classes of the same caste. For example, the Brahmans of

Bengal are divided into several Srenies, or classes, as Eauries,

Barenders, Vaidiks, and Saptasatis. The Srenies are again

subdivided into Kulins, Srotiyas, and Vangsajas. Those

belonging to the subdivisions will interchange hospitalities,

but will not freely intermarry; the Srenies, however, will

neither exchange hospitalities nor intermarry with each other.

Though it is a most common thing in India for a man to

166 CASTE.

follow the same profession and calling as his father—so com-

mon, in fact, that Europeans have come to speak of different

trades and callings as castes ; as, e.g. , they speak of a manbelonging to the weaver caste, the blacksmith caste, the car-

penter caste, &c. ; yet this is a mistake ; the caste of the people

is really different from the trade or calling ; though it is

very common indeed, almost universal, for men of the same

trade to be of the same caste. Custom rules with an iron

hand throughout India, and generally a father trains his

son to work at the same trade as himself. It is not at all

common for a boy to be apprenticed to strangers as in England;

as soon as he can be of any assistance to his father, he goes

with him to his work, and continues in the same walk of

life. In our schools are found, side by side with Brahmans,

boys whose fathers are mechanics or small farmers, and

though they may not have the same influence to obtain em-

ployment as the Brahmans, it is not their religion that prevents

them from engaging in oifice or scholastic work. In the armyare to be found men from all castes, and it has been used as

an argument against the men of lower castes obtaining pro-

motion, that though, when on duty, the higher caste manwould be under the authority of the lower, when relief from

duty came, the low-caste officer would bow before the high-

caste private. The spread of education has done much to

level up the masses of India, and to lessen the profound

veneration for the Brahman that he has received as his birth-

right for many generations.

Another interesting fact is the ease with which a manwho has been excommunicated can regain admission to his

caste. In most cases it is by the mere payment of a sumof money to provide a feast for the members of his dal,

after which the offender is as pure in their eyes as he ever

was. A man may be brought up before the tribunal, and if

the penalty be promptly paid, it fully atones for his misdeeds;e.g., a servant is seen to touch an egg, or food in which there

are eggs; on this being reported, he must spend about a

CASTE AS IT NOW EXISTS. 167

month's wages on a feast, and is then absolved ! A man openly

joins in a dinner with men of other castes, or goes to Englandto study ; he has to pay a fine and go through certain puri-

fying ceremonies more or less difficult, according to the

character of his society, and all is well with him. It is cer-

tain that the great majority of educated men of the present

day do not care for the benefit of being retained in caste, so

far as they are concerned ; but they do not like to be passed

by when birth, marriage, and funeral ceremonies of their friends

are held ; neither do they like a father to object to allow his

son to marry their daughters. Hence multitudes, purely on

social grounds, continue under the restraints of caste. In

former times it was the greatest disgrace that could happen

to a man for a son to embrace Christianity : not only was the

son lost to his family, but the whole family was shunned as

contaminated. Now some fathers say to their sons, " Youcan become a Christian if you wish, and, were I alone to be

consulted, you should remain at home as before ; but for the

sake ofmy caste connections, and the disgrace ostracism would

inflict on the family, you must go elsewhere." As most of

the large families now have lost at least one member of their

family, through the efforts of missionaries, the disgrace that

was felt on this score has largely diminished. It is perfectly

true that there are many still who regard caste as a divine

institution, and dread the divine penalties that follow any

infringements of its rules ; more especially is this the case

with the vast majority of the lower orders. They would pre-

fer death to partaking of forbidden food, or doing anything

that they thought was contrary to the teaching of theii

peculiar sect. And there can be no doubt whatever that

it was largely owing to a widespread report that the Govern-

ment was about to abolish caste that led to the Indian Mutiny

of 1867. Lies on this subject were circulated, and men to

whom caste purity was dearer than life listened to the advice

of the seditious, who cared little for caste themselves, but

who hoped out of the general commotion to gain something.

168 CASTE.

Sometimes in a European household in India these caste

distinction present themselves in a ludicrous light. If a

Hindu servant is sent for anything, from a child to a letter,

that is in the hands of a low-caste servant, the article cannot

he taken direct from the hand of the one who has it ; it must

be laid down on the ground, or whatever is near, and taken up

by the other. There must be no personal contact ; nor must

they touch the same article whilst the hand of the low-caste

person is upon it, or they are defiled, Hindu servants will

not object to assist in removing a piece of furniture with

Christians, but if a sweeper or other low-caste man attempts

to touch it, they will at once turn away. Of course it often

happens that when a man does not wish to do anything, or is

ordered to do what he regards as the work of another ser-

vant, he pleads caste difficulties where those rules do not at

all apply.

There is one thing more that should be mentioned here,

and that is the widespread notion that the prohibition of

flesh meat for food is one of the most general restrictions of

caste. As a rule it is doubtless true : Hindus are vege-

tarians and abstainers from intoxicating drink ; but there are

many who are not so, and yet are good Hindus. What is

forbidden as ordinary food becomes lawful when it is eaten as

part of the worship that is rendered to a deity. There are

some classes who will never partake of fish even, but these

are few; as a rule fish is freely eaten by Hindus of all

castes, venison is generally allowed, and goat's fiesh may be

eaten under certain conditions. The goats that are sacri-

ficed to Kali in some of her many forms are by that act

sanctified, and may be freely eaten. Hence, if a man wish

to eat meat, he has simply to send his goat to the shrine

of Kali, pay his fee to the priest, bring home the body, andhe can then partake of it. Flesh, though distinctly ordered to

be eaten at the Shradhas, or funeral feasts, is not often pro-

vided. For men too poor to purchase a whole kid or goat,

there are butchers' shops in the cities in which an image of

CASTE AS IT NOW EXISTS. 169

Kali stands, before which the goat is slain where he canpurchase as much as he may require of this sanctified meat.In like manner, when a man wishes to indulge in bhang, or

any other intoxicant, he has simply to engage in the worshipof Siva, who, when incarnate, was particularly addicted to theuse of intoxicants. In fact, though, looked at in some aspects,

Hinduism is a most rigid system of rules for the guidance of

men in all the relationships of life, in other aspects it is amost accommodating system, as it provides a way by whichmen may indulge in pleasures which by some of their Scrip-

tures are forbidden.

It would necessitate far more space than I can spare, andbe most tedious to the reader, were I to enumerate, with the

briefest notice of their peculiarities, all, or nearly all, of the

many castes that now exist. Dr. Wilson describes no less

than twenty-five classes of Brahmans alone, and these again

are subdivided into numerous subdivisions. These divisions

are largely geographical ; but yet each class has markedpeculiarities, and in many cases there is no real intercourse

permitted between them. The following is a brief account

of the Brahmans in Bengal. "Formerly only one order,

called the Satgati Brahmans, were found there, all of whomwere equal in honour. Matters stood thus till the time of

Adishura, a Bengal Eaja, who, offended with their ignorance

when wishing to offer a sacrifice to obtain rain, solicited from

Vira Singha, the king of Kanyakuvja, five Brahmans to

of&ciate at this sacrifice. The first Brahmans sent were

rejected because they wore stockings, and rode on horses

;

those afterwards sent were approved ; they performed the

sacrifice to the great satisfaction, of the monarch, who gave

them grants of land in what the Hindus call the province

of Barha ; and from these five Brahmans are descended

almost all the Brahmans now in the province. They still

retain the family names of their original ancestors—Kasyapas

from Kasyapa the sage, Bharadwajas from the sage Bharad-

waja, Sandilyas from Sandilya, Savarnas from Savarna,

170 CASTE.

Batsyas from the sage Batsya. Some of the descendants of

these Brahmans, in consequence of removing into the pro-

vince of Varendra, are called Varendra Brahmans, and those-

who remained at Earha are known as Rarhis. These com-

prise all the Brahmans in Bengal, except the Vaidikas, and

about 1,500 or 2,000 families of the Satsati, or original

Bengal Brahmans, of whoip there were about 700 families

in the time of Adhisura. The Vaidikas are said to have fled

from Orissa from the fear of being made Vajjaacharis ; and.

because they were better students of the Vedas than the

other Brahmans they were called Vaidikas.

" From these ancestors have branched no fewer than ISO-

families, of which the precedence was fixed by Ballala Sen,

who reigned in the twelfth century of the Christian era. Onehundred of these families settled in Varendra, and fifty-six in

Earha, or Northern Bengal. These, though now dispersed

through the province, retain the family distinctions fixed by

Ballala Sen. They are denominated from the families to

which their five progenitors belonged, and are still considered

Kanyakuvja Brahmans." *

The principal classes amongst them are the following :

—

1. Barha Kidina Brahmans. These form the highest class-

as fixed by Ballala Sen, because of their possessing the fol-

lowing nine good quaUties: Observance of Brahmanieal

customs, meekness, learning, good report, a disposition to

visit holy places, devoutness, observance of marriage amongstequals only, asceticism, and liberality. And, because possessed

of these high qualities, special privileges were given to them,

particulars of which will be given in another chapter.

2. Bhanga Kidinas ; i.e., those whose kul, or honour, is

broken : this has resulted from their marrying beneath them.

Of these there are no less than thirty-six classes.

3. The Vanshaja class is formed of those who are born in

the fifth generation after the first act by which a Kulina of

the first class fell into the second, or became a Bhanga* Wilson, p. 205.

CASTE AS IT NOW EXISTS. 171

Kulina. The Ghattaka, or marriage-brokers for the Brah-mans, generally belong to this class.

4-8. The Eadiya Shrotiya Brahmans, or Vaidikas. Theseare said to possess only eight of the nine excellent Brahmanicalqualities. These are generally themost learned in the Sastras.

of the Brahmans of Bengal ; the Vurmdras are similar to the

Eadiya Srotiyas ; the Saptashatis are the descendants of theoriginal Brahmans who were passed over by king Adhishavabecause of their ignorance. They earn their living byattending at Shradhas, &c. The Vaidikas were originally

the priests of the five tribes of Brahmans who came to

Bengal. These are said to have been excluded by Ballala

Sen from the higher classes because of their want of learning

;

they said it was because they questioned the right of the kingto make arbitrary divisions of their order.

9. The AgradUnis. These have sunk in caste, and can only

intermarry amongst their own class, because they do not

scruple to take presents of gold, &c. , at the Preta Shradha

;

i.e., the first ceremonies for the dead. 10. The Maraiporas

are those who repeat the mantras over the dead, by whichact their honour is lost, a fee of ten rupees being taken by

them as compensation. 11. The ii(a^aZ» Brahmans are those

who perform religious ceremonies for the Eapalis who work

in jute : in like manner, those who do similar acts for gold-

smiths, fishermen, &c., bear the name of the class for whomtheir services are available. Generally the doing of duty in

this manner for low-caste Hindus greatly lowers them in the

esteem of then- caste fellows, who will not eat with them onthis account. After doing this work they have to find their

associates in those who are ready to sell their services in a

similar manner. 12. The Pir Ali Brahmans. To this class

some of the most respectable families of Calcutta belong.

Years ago one of their ancestors went to the house of a

Mussulman law officer, where a trick was played upon him.

The Mussulman had heard it said to " smeU food was half

eating it ;" and in the wish to convert some of the Brahmans

172 CASTE.

in his neighbourhood he invited them to his house, and

whilst they were seated there he ordered his dinner to be

served. They smelt the food, and their caste was gone

—

so it was decided. Some of them became Mussulmans ; but

one who preferred to remain a Hindu, though his caste was

injured, became the founder of another class, called the Pir

Ali, after the man who had played the trick upon him.

Though many of the Brahmans have taken to other employ-

ment, a large number are supported by lands that were given

for this purpose by kings and rich men. At the religious

festivals they are well paid for their presence and work,

though they complain bitterly of the evil times in which their

lot is cast. Ward says, " I have been informed that in the

district of Burdwan, the property appHed to the support of

idolatry amounts to the annual rent of fifteen to twenty lacs

of rupees. It has been lately ascertained that in the ZiUahof Nadiya the lands amount to above 600,000 acres. WhenaU these things are considered it will appear that the clergy

in Catholic countries devour little of national wealth com-pared with the Brahmans."

CHAPTER VI.

PROPORTION OF PEOPLE IN THE CHIEF CASTES.

Fbom the last census (1881) a few interesting facts can be-

gathered respecting the numbers included in several of the

most important castes. The divisions adopted by the Govern-

ment were as follows :—1. Brahman s ; 2. Kshetriyas ; 3.

Other Hindu castes ; 4. Aboriginal classes ; 5. Hindus not

recognizing caste distinctions ; 6. Castes not stated. I shall

give a general idea of the distribution of the Hindus in

Bengal, which may be taken as a fair example of the con-

dition of the people in India generally. The Hindu popu-

lation of this province being reckoned at about 45^ millions^

we find them classified as follows :

—

I. Asiatics other than natives of the Indian Empire 7,026

II. Natives of the Indian Empire :

—

u. Aboriginal tribes 1,365,215

b. Semi-Einduized aborigines 10,618,415

c. Hindus proper :

—

1. Superiorcastes(Brahmans,Kshetriyas,&o.) 4,897,426

2. Intermediate (Yaidyas, 84,990 ; Eayasthas,

1,450,848, &o.) 2,777,124

3. Trading classes (Vaisyas, 9,320) 963,159

4. Pastoral classes, chiefly Gwallas 4,115,377

5. Classes engaged in preparing (cooked) food 924,984

6. Agricultural classes 6,875,197

7. Classes engaged in personal service {i.e.,

barbers, washermen, palanquin-bearers,

&c.) 2,804,003

8. Artizans , 4,482,471

9. Weavers 1,619,344

174 CASTE.

10. Labourers 546,839

11. Pish and vegetable salesmen 142,417

12. Fishermen and boatmen 2,131,433

13. Dancers, musicians, beggars, and vagabond

classes 43,255

d. Persons enumerated by nationality only 48,114

e. Persons of Hindu origin not recognizing caste,

such as Vaishnavas, Gosains, &c 683,227

/. Hindus, castes not stated 376,451

la this enumeration about 100 different castes are men-

iioned; of these the Gwalla, or cow-herds, are the most

numerous, numbering nearly 4,000,000 ; the Brahmansnumber about 2J millions. The proportion of the classes

mentioned above are as follows :—

1. Superior castes 10.77

2. Intermediate 6.10

3. Traders 2.11

4. Pastoral classes 9.05

5. Food sellers 2.03

6. Agriculturalists 15.12

7. Servants ' 6.16

8. Artizans 9.86

9. Weavers 3.56

10. Labourers 1. 2011. Greengrocers 0.31

12. Boatmen and fishermen 4.68

13. Musicians, &e 09

14. Uncertain, and those not recognizing caste 1.50

"Thirty castes have representatives in every division of

the province, and a reference to their names in the marginwill show that they are all castes of general utility, whoseservices are indispensable to that microcosm, the BengalTillage.

Brahman, Kandu, "The Brahman has a home in

Rajput, Kayastha, every hamlet as family or templeBaniya, Kumhar, priest, or in secular employ asBarhi, Kurmi, teacher, orderly, or other superiorBarni, Madak, service. The Eajput plays a simi-

PBOPOBTION OF PEOPLE IN THE CHIEF CASTES. 175

Chamar,

176 CASTE.

Kurmis in Behar, and Chassas in Orissa. The Gwalla

(cow-keeper) is a familiar and frequent figure in every corner

of the land. The cow is to the Hindu much more than the

camel to the Arab, and it fills a large place in every phase of

his daily life. . . . The great rivers of Bengal support a

numerous race of boatmen (Mallah), and the craving for

fish among a people to most of whom other animal, food

is interdicted, either by necessity or prejudice, employs a&

large a number of fishermen (Tevi). The Zahar is ubi-

quitous, sometimes as a carrier of palkies, and therefore

indispensable at all weddings, or as a domestic servant. TheKayastha, who once shared with the Brahman the monopoly

of learning, still thrives in every hamlet, from Patna to

Cuttack, as the schoolmaster, the village accountant, or the

landlord's confidential secretary. Lastly, the shifting popu-

lation of the community, the daily labourers and field hands,

are supplied by two castes, the Bhuinyas and the Khawars;

the former of whom Mr. Magrath thought were once the

autochthones of Behar ; while the latter name, being that of

a large separate tribe, is an alternative epithet for one sub-

division of the Santhals." *

There is one very important and interesting fact brought

out by these returns as compared with those of the census of

1872, respecting the semi-Hinduized aboriginal tribes, as

they are called, showing how very rapidly those who only

nine years ago were regarded as aboriginals are nowreckoned as Hindus.

CensuB of 1872. 1881.

Aboriginal tribes 2,738,813 1,365,215

Semi-Hindnized tribes 9,474,248 10,618,451

The Census report says : " Looking first at the figures for

1881, the most obvious point to the observer is the large pro-

portion of the class of semi-Hinduized aborigines. Accepting

the distribution of 1872, they now appear to number nearly

one-fourth of the Hindu population. They are for the most* Bengal Census Beport, vol. i. p. 138.

PKOPOETION OF PEOPLE IN THE CHIEF CASTES. 177

part hewers of wood and drawers of water, and are beyondcavil the remnants of the nations whom successive invaders,

culminating with the Aryans, found in possession of the

country, and absorbed more or less into their system of pohty.

Those of the aboriginal tribes which were most remote from

the scene of the invasion, or were so situated as to be able to

withstand it, have retained to this day their primeval lan-

guage and customs, and their tribal faiths. Those, on the

other hand, who were most exposed to the wave of conquest,

who were least able to resist, or who were most ready to

amalgamate with the new-comers, were absorbed into their

community, but relegated to its lowest grades, and employed

in its most menial offices. Such was the treatment which

the inhabitants of the country received at the hands of the

Hindu invaders. The question of absorption is only one of

time and opportunity. Many of the castes shown as low-

caste Hindus, and now universally accepted as such, have

peculiarities which give rise to the suspicion that they are not

pure Hindus of the Aryan type ; but they are to all intents

and purposes low-caste Hindus, and are treated as such with-

out question. The class of semi-Hiaduized aborigines are

only a" stage behind them in their progress towards Hinduism.

"What many of the low-caste Hindus once were, the semi-

Hinduized aboriginals are now ; and in the lapse of time

they, too, will recruit the ranks of the Hindus, as inter-

marriage and social intercourse gradually obliterate more

and more their distinctive characteristics."

It is interesting to see how the embracing of Hinduism in

past ages has dignified their descendants in the present day.

It is probable that Brahmanism did not spread through

Nepal until the fifteenth century. Driven there by the Mus-

sulman invasion, the Hindu exiles readily received converts,

making them, and also their own descendants by the hill

women, Kshatriyas. From these two sources spring the Khas,

originally the name of a small clan of creedless barbarians,

now the proud title of the Kshatriya order of the kingdom of

13

178 CASTE.

Nepal, who also bear the family names of the Brahmanical

orders. And, strange to say, the Brahmans there who officiate

in temples and at festivals not only eat goats and sheep, but

also fowls, and rear pigs for their own tables. Both the strict

Brahmans and the so-called Kshatriyas may also drink water

that is brought by the Kachar Bhutiyas, men who kill cows

and eat beef without scruple; yet in some other respects

caste is most rigorously observed. In the matter of marriage

and adultery the strictest rules prevail. A Brahman, if

a soldier, and the Kshatriyas are bound in honour, if their

wife prove unfaithful, themselves to slay the offender and

«ut off the wife's nose and drive her from their home.

The history of the conversion of the Manipuris to

Hinduism is most interesting, and shows clearly how the

propagation of the faith is carried on. About a hundred

years ago Ghorit Nawaj, the founder of the family of the

present Baja, was converted to Hinduism by a wanderingSanyasi, who then declared that the Manipuris were all

Hindus, but had forgotten their privileges and duties. Heordered the people to bathe and make expiation for their

long neglect, and then declared them to be good Hindusof the Kshatriya caste. A similar story is told of the Hindusof Cachar.

CHAPTEE VII.

KVLINISM AND FOLYGAMY*

T HAVE reserved all notice of Kulinism for a separate chapter,

as it is one of the worst excrescences of Hinduism, and affords

a notable instance of the way in which the bestowal of honour

upon those originally regarded as worthy has come to carry

with it a license to indulge to an almost unUmited extent the

worst passions of human nature.

As a rule the Hindus are not polygamists. It is true that

Tinder special circumstances it is permitted to them to take

a second wife whilst the first is still living. In cases where

seven years after marriage no son is born, the Law Books

authorize a man to take a second wife, because a son is

regarded as necessary to perform the funeral rites of his

father, and not for his father only—for three previous

generations the happiness of his ancestors is imperilled

by the neglect of these ceremonies. In these cases the new.bride comes to her husband's home, and though the super-

seded wife remains the nominal head of the household, it

follows that the presence of the new and favoured wife,

especially when she has a son in her arms, renders the posi-

tion of the older woman most painful. One has only to read

the domestic life of Jacob to see what must inevitably follow

where the younger and more fortunate wife resides in the

same house with the older and despised one. Sometimes,

it is true, the older wife receives the younger with kindness,

* See Calcutta Review, vol. ii., Article " KuUnism."

180 CASTE.

but if the home Ufe as depicted in tales by native -writers be

correct, generally there is jealousy and misery. Many of

the well-to-do men do not scruple to keep concubines, but

these have a separate establishment ; it is, however, not

uncommon for the children of these separate homes to meet

together, fully aware of their common fatherhood. But' though

concubinage is by no means peculiar to India, in the privileges

of the Kulin Brahman, however, who may marry as manywives as they wish, there is something peculiar to Hinduism.

In order to make the origin of this system clear it will be

necessary to repeat a little of the history of the Brahmans in

Bengal.

In the reign of King Adisur, himself a member of the Sen,

or medical caste, the number of Brahmans in his kingdom

of Gour was considerably reduced, and those who remained

were for the most part ignorant men who were unable to

read the Vedas in the original Sanskrit ; whilst of the Sagnic

Brahmans, i.e., those versed in the ritual of certain sacrifices,

not one was to be found. A drought of unusual duration

threatening his country, the king, wishing to make a sacri-

fice at which only Sagnic priests could officiate, sent to the

king of Kanouj, the capital of Hindustan proper, for a

number of these learned men. When this request was read

five priests who happened to be present, tempted by the^

liberal offers made by the king of Gour, consented to migratft

to his kingdom to perform his sacrifice.

These five men were Brahmans of the highest order, who-

could trace their origin to the divine sages, the sons of

Brahma himself. They belonged to the Sandilya, Kasyapa,.

Bharadwaj, Savarna, and Batsya gotras, or tribes. Im-mediately on their arrival at Gour they commenced their

sacrificial work, and the names of the ofiadants are still

remembered—"Vedagarva, Siiharsa, and Chandra chantedthe Eich, Yajus, and Saman Vedas, while Daksha andNarayan officiated at the sacrifice." Neighbouring princes^

who were, present at this important celebration returned to

KULINISM AND POLYGAMY. 181

their homes dehghted and amazed at the superior piety andknowledge of these newly-arrived priests who had come fromwhat they regarded as their ancestral home.When the work for which these men had been brought

was completed they settled down in their new home to enjoy

the honours and emoluments the king showered upon them.But despising the native Brahmans on account of their

ignorance and mode of life, they would not associate withthem in their feasts, nor would they intermarry into their

families, but continued to form an entirely separate sect.

After a time, however, their descendants becoming numerous,were not so scrupulous; many of them fraternized to a

greater or less extent with the Brahmans of the country.

At length a king named Ballala Sen coming to the throne,

a king who in the stories of the country is said to have been

a son of the river Brahmaputra, and whose doings the poets

have never ceased to praise, dissatisfied with the ecclesias-

tical condition of his kingdom, determined to arrange the

priests into classes. He saw that many of the Kanouj fami-

lies were not as pure, nor were their priests as learned, as they

ought to be. He selected some from their number whom he

believed to be possessed of certain excellences * to whom he

gave the title ofKul, or Honourable ; whilst to others, as he con-

ceived them proportionately less worthy, he gave less honour-

able titles. These men, styled Kulim, were intended to be

the founders of a spiritual aristocracy ; their children, if born

as the result of marriages into families equally honourable,

were to inherit all the honours and privileges granted to their

fathers. In fact, the privilege of a Kulin cannot be taken

away from him for any personal transgression, even though

he marry a woman other than of a KuUn family ; it is his

children, not himself, who is called upon to suffer.

At the present time, however, we find that this Kulinism

is the cause of unnumbered ills, many of those regarded

as Kulins esteeming it quite beneath their dignity to work,

* These qualities are mentioned in the previous chapter.

182 CASTE.

though they do not object to be supported by the parents

of those whom they have condescended to ennoble by

marriage; in most of them the virtues for which the title

of " honourable " was given being conspicuously absent.

" The KuHns, who were ennobled by Ballala Sen, and after-

wards enlarged by Lakshman Sen, were of divers mels, or

orders, of which four were, and are still, considered primary.

They take their designation from the places where, at their ownrequest, they were allowed to settle, and they are to this day

distinguished by the names of Fule, Khardah, Sarvanandi,

and Ballavi. In these orders were comprehended the most

meritorious of the descendants of the five colonists fromKanouj ; that is, the most virtuous of the Banerjeas, Moo-kerjeas, Chatteqeas, Ghosals, and Ganjulies." It will of

course be understood that not all bearing these very commonnames are Kulins, nor are aU the immediate descendants

of these regarded as honourable at the present time. Someof the Banerjeas, for instance, were never admitted into the

honourable brotherhood, and some once honoured have,

through intermarriage with other than Kulins, caused their

descendants to pass into lower grades. It is a noticeable

fact that the honours of Kulinism continue to a man throughlife; born a Kuhn always a Kulin was the rule; and further,

that a mesalliance is the only means of depriving their off-

spring of the same honour. " Of the Banerjea family twopersons were raised, Maheshwar and Makarand ; of the sons

of Daksha, i.e., the Chatterjeas, Bahurup and Arabind werehonoured ; Utsava was the only member of the Mookerjeafamily descended from Sriharsa that was distinguished

;

three of the Ghosals, or sons of Chandra, viz., Jagat,

Govardhan, and Kami ; and two of the Ganjulies, or descen-

dants of Vedagarva, viz., Sisho and Eodhaker, were likewise

exalted. These were aU the principal Kulins raised to dignity

by King Ballala, and they were designated either after oneor other of the four mels already named, or from the familyto which they were respectively attached.

KULINISM AND POLYGAMY. 183

" Lakshman Sen, the son and successor of Ballala Sen,

followed up and improved the heraldry instituted by his

father, and enlarged the names and orders of the Kuls to

an enormous length. The primary orders were left un-

touched ; the inferior or secondary orders were spun out into

nearly thirty subdivisions.

"Besides these Kulins another order of Brahmans washonoured in Ballala's time who were called the Srotriyas.

The descendants of the five Kanouj Brahmans, though at

first they avoided all intercourse with the Saptasati or abori-

ginal Brahmans of Bengal, were subseq[uently induced to

accept their daughters as wives. The offspring of these

marriages were considered inferior to their fathers, but

superior to their mothers and maternal grandfathers. Theyhad half the blood of Kanouj, and were therefore esteemed

superior to the aboriginal priests, and they had half the

blood of the Saptasatis, and so were held inferior to their

fathers. The most meritorious of these persons the king

honoured with the title of Srotriyas. They had this privilege

amongst others, that the Kulins might marry their daughters

without prejudice to their ranks. They have accordingly

proved a connecting link between the KuUns and the

Saptasatis. Their houses are the authorized nurseries for

breeding wives for the exalted Brahmans, and they take no

small pride in reflecting on the importance which this honour

imparts to the class. What enhances their privilege is the

fact that the Kulins cannot marry women from any other

families, not even from the subordinate Kulins themselves,

without degrading their offspring.

" The Kulins are strictly forbidden, on pain of forfeiting

their title, to receive wives from families which are inferior

to themselves, with the exception of the Srotriyas just men-

tioned. When this rule is transgressed, although the delin-

quent himself does not suffer personally, his kfil is said to be

broken. He himself dies, as he was born, in the enjoyment of

his honour ; but his offspring forfeit the title, and the glory

184 CASTE.

of the family becomes tarnished." "Although an unequal

marriage breaks a person's Ml, his immediate descendants

are not classed with the common (Vansaj) Brahmans; for

four or five generations the recollections of their ancestral

dignity secures for the sons of a broken Kulin great honour

and distinction. The descendants of a Kulin, even after the

disruption of his kul, are for several generations considered

superior in rank and dignity. The brightness and lustre of

a noble family are supposed to be incapable of being tarnished

at once and by a single act, though the days of its glory are

numbered, and nothing will restore it to its primitive great-

ness. The immediate offspring of such a family are designated

the sons of a Swakrita bhanga, or self-broken Kulin, and

esteemed as a second grade, or inferior by one step only to

the untainted orders. The next generation is esteemed the

third in rank. This gradual deterioration continues to the

fourth and fifth generations, after which the glory of the

family is obscured, and it sinks to the level of the ccanmon-

alty." It is said that it is now difiScult to find Brahmans of

unbroken kul. Many of the highest rank are once or twice

removed from those who had this honour.

The law prohibiting under these severe penalties the

marriage^ of Kulins with those of less honourable rank wasmade to secure the family purity of this high class, and in

order to become united to this aristocracy it is considered

desirable for a Brahman to marry his daughter to a Kulin

husband. Not the Srotriyas only, but the Brahmans of the

inferior orders, are most anxious to obtain a Kulin son-in-law.

Hence these men are eagerly sought after, and immensesums of money paid to purchase their consent to wed their

daughters ; and hence has arisen the great evil of the system

—viz., polygamy to an almost unlimited extent.

" The laws which regulate the marriage of Kulin females are

cruelly stringent ; these must not on any account be given

to any unless they are of an equal or superior grade. Neither

the Srotriyas nor any inferior order can aspire to the hand of

KULINISM AND POLYGAMY. 185

a Kulin's daughter. Aii indelible disgrace would be affixed

upon such a prostitution of a girl of birth and family. Thusher hereditary honour becomes her heaviest misfortune.

The greatest difficulty is experienced in settling her in life.

The only circles from which a husband can be selected are

in request everywhere and by everybody. To outbid the

Srotriyas and others in the purchase of a noble bridegroom

requires larger funds than many a Kulin can command. Thegreatest misery and distress are accordingly occasioned. . . .

No parent dares to risk his daughter's virtue by allowing her

to live a single life. The institutions of Hinduism, too, denounce

the fiercest anathemas against such conduct. The severest

condemnation is passed on a Brahman who neglects to get

his daughter married before her tenth year. The most

meritorious way of disposing of her is to present her at the

hymeneal altar when she is eight years old, the next before

her ninth year is terminated. At all events her wedding

must not be delayed beyond her tenth year. Longer delay

entails upon the delinquent the guilt and infamy of infan-

ticide." Under these cu-cumstances the poor Kulin father

is in the greatest difficulty. He cannot allow her to marry

any one belonging to a lower caste; he cannot afford to pur-

chase a husband in his own. His only resource is to appeal

to some decrepit old KuUn Brahman, who already has a

multitude of wives, to save the honour of his family by adding

one more to his list. Parents have been known, when a manhas evidently been at the point of death, to go through the

marriage ceremony of their daughter with him rather than

incur the disgrace of having her remain unmarried.

Kulinism, then, is the root cause of polygamy. Sometimes

from cupidity, sometimes from pity, sometimes from mere

animalism, a man is led to marry a multitude of wives. Of

course he cannot live with them all, nor does he attempt to

take them to his father's house as the ordinary Hindu bride-

groom would do. He chooses the house of one of his fathers-

in-law as his home, and pays an occasional visit to his

186 CASTE.

other wives -when their fathers offer inducement sufficient

to lead him to honour them with his presence. It is true

some Kulins are content with one wife, and work hard to-

maintain a oomfortahle home ; but many are simply the

husbands of their many wives, and expect to be supported

by the men whom they have honoured by becoming their

sons-in-law. Some well-to-do Srotriyas and other Brahmanamake the home so comfortable for their sons-in-law that they

are content to be the husband of one wife only. A system

more calculated to lead to immorality and misery it would,

hardly be possible to imagine. And this is the outcome of

an arrangement that was ordained for the special purpose

of doing honour to some who were considered by the king

more worthy than the rest of their caste-fellows.

The kuls hitherto spoken of are those of the Eareya Brah-mans, so called from the neighbourhood in which they settled*

But the neighbouring princes, seeing the glory of the five-

Brahmans who came at Adisur's invitation, wished to have

their country also illumined by the presence of these wise andholy men, Birmallah, king of Barender, father-in-law to

Adisur, preferred a similar request to the king of Kanouj,in answer to which five Brahmans were sent to him also.

These two classes, although they came from the same place,

and might have been considered equal in their own country,

now form two great classes—the Barenders and the Eareyas—^between whom intermarriage is prohibited, as are also

the rites of hospitality. The patron of the Barender Brah-mans arranged their descendants into classes, as BaUalaSen arranged those in his dominions. Of the Barenders,

eight families are reckoned as Kulins: viz., the Maitras,

Bhims, Eudras, Sandels, Lahurys, Sadhobs, Bhaders, and theBhaduris ; whilst the Karanjans, Nandabasis, Nauris, Atars,

Bhandashalis, Kamdebs, Champatis, and the Jhampatis,were reckoned as Srotriyas.

BaUala Sen did not only estabhsh kuls amongst the Brah-mans, but gave titles of honour also to the Kayasthas who

KULINISM AND POLYGAMY. 187

came as their attendants, altliough, according to tlie sti-ict

teaching of Hinduism, they were sankers, or half-castes >

viz., descendants of the Vaisya fatliers and Sudra mothers.

Sriharsa was attended by Makaranda Ghose, Chandra by Da-saratha Bose, Daksha by Kali Dass Mitter, Karayan by Pu-rushottama Datta, and Vedagarva byDasaratha Gnha. Thesefive men were the progenitors ofthe mostrespectable Kayasthasin Bengal. Of these five, three only, viz., Ghose, Bose, andMitter, acknowledged themselves to be the slaves of the

Brahmans, and were rewarded for their servility by being

made Knlin Eayasthas. Datta made the same admission,

though with some reserve, and was not thus honoured, though

intermarriage between his family and that of the Kulins waspermitted ; but Guha, refusing to give up his freedom, wasregarded as a Kulin only as compared with the Kayasthas he

found ah-eady settled in Bengal.

Such, then, is the origin of Kulinism, a source of nnmiti-'

gated evil to many families at the present time. It is,

however, only fair to say that some of the more respectable

Hindus, and amongst them some of the Kulins themselves,

have endeavoured again and again to have an end put to this

most iniquitous system; and when it is known that the

authority for the institution is not to be found in the HinduScriptures, but was an arbitrary arrangement made by a manwho was a great admirer of the Brahmanical order, and one

who wished to increase their honom- and add to then- wealth, it

certainly seems to be one of those cases in which humanity

cries aloud to the Government to step in to put an end to

most cruel practices for which there is no authority in the

writings regarded by the people as sacred. There would be

an outcry, doubtless, from those who now benefit by the sys-

tem ; but the immense relief that the stoppage of the practice

would give would be far "greater than any such discontent.

Ward gives the following description of the evils of the

system :

—

"Each Kulin Brahman marries at least two wives—one

188 CASTE.

the daughter of a Brahman of his own order, the other of a

Srotriya ; the former he generally leaves at her father's, the

other he takes to his own house. It is essential to the honour

of a Kulin to have one daughter, but by the birth of manydaughters he sinks in respect. . . . Some inferior Kulins

marry many daughters. . . . Numbers procure a subsistence

by excessive polygamy : at their marriages they obtain large

presents, and as often as they visit their wives they receive

presents from the father ; and then, having married into forty

or fifty families, a Kulin goes from house to house and is fed,

clothed, &c. Some old men after the wedding never see the

females ; others visit them once in three or four years. Arespectable Kulin never lives with the wife who remains in

the house of her parents ; he sees her occasionally as a friend

rather than a husband, and dreads to have offspring by her,

as he thereby sinks in honour. Children born in the houses

of their fathers-in-law are never owned by the father. In con-

sequence of this state of things both the married and un-

married daughters of the Kulins are plunged in an abyss of

misery." He then goes on to speak of the natural results of

this iniquitous system : immorality, public prostitution, andabortion.

The following official notice of their doings may be taken

as a sober, carefully weighed statement. It appeared in the

Gazette of India, Feb. 7, 1867, and is signed by C. P.

Hobhouse, H. T. Prinsep, Suttshara Ghosal, Ishwar ChandraSurma, Eamanath Tagore, Joy Kissen Mookerjea, DegumberMitter; the last three gentlemen, while subscribing to the

report generally, state that the practice of polygamy amongthose who observe it obtains in a much more mitigated formthan a few years before.

" We will now describe some of the main customs in thematter of marriage, which, on the authority of the statementsmade in petitions to the Legislative Council, and in someinstances within the knowledge of more than one of thenative gentlemen on our committee, obtain amongst the

KULINISM AKD POLYGAMY. 189

Bhanga Kulinas ; and -we -will state -what are declared in tlie

papers before us to be the evil results of some of those

customs :

—

1. In addition to the presents usually given amongst all

classes of the Hindus on the occasion of marriage, a BhangaKvdina always, except when he gives his daughter to a brother

Bhanga, andtakes in exchange that brother Bhanga's daughter,

exacts a consideration formarriage from the family of the bride.2. A present is often given in addition on the occasion of

any visit made to the house of the father-in-law.

8. K the daughters of the first and second subdivisional

classes of Bhanga Kulinas cannot be given in marriage to

husbands of theii- own classes, they must remain unmarried.

i. The number of wives, including those of the same class,

is said to be often as many as 15, 20, 40, 50, 80.*

5. Polygamy is said to be resorted to as a sole means of

livelihood by many Bhanga Kulinas.

6. Marriage, it is said, is contracted qitite in old age, andthe husband often never sees his wife, or only, at the best,

visits her once in every three or four years or so.

7. As many as three andfom*, even twenty-thi-ee marriages,

have been known to have been contracted in one day.

8. Sometimes all a man's daughters and his unmarried

sisters are given in marriage to one and the same individual.

9. It is so diflBcult to find husbands in the propei- class for

Kulina women 'that numbers, it is said, remain xmmarried.

10. The married and unmarried daughters and wives of

Kulinas are said to hve in the utmost misery: and it is

alleged that crimes of the most heinous nature, such as

adultery, abortion, infanticide, and prostitution are the

common results of Bhanga Knlina marriages generally.

11. Gases are cited of men who have mai-ried 82, 72. 65,

60, and 42 wives, and have bad 18, 82, 41, 25. and 32 sons ;

and 26, 27, 25, 15, 16 daughters.

* Vilson mentions some cases kno\ni to pmidits, with Trhom he had

conversed on this subject, where the nmnber was 100 and 150.

190 CASTE.

12. Lists have been adduced of families in the Burdwanand Hugli districts alone showing the existence of a plurality

of wives on the above scale, and of numerous cases.

18. The principle on which Kulinism was perpetuated, viz.,

that of preventing intermarriages between certain .classes, is

violated.

14. Families, it is said, are ruined in order to provide the

large sums requisite to give a consideration on the occasion

of their daughters' marriages, or are unable to marry their

daughters at all for want of means to procure such ooijsider-

£ition.

15. Marriages, it is said, are contracted simply in order to

[obtain] this consideration, and the husbands do not even

care to inquire what becomes of their wives, and have never

•even had any intention of fulfilling any one of the marriage

duties.

16. The crimes that are said to result from the Kulina

system of marriage are said to be habitually concealed by the

actors in them and by their neighbours, and this so as to

bafSe the efforts of the police at discovery.

17. No provision is made for the maintenance of one wife

before marriage with an unlimited number of others."

Surely if these statements can be relied on, and they formthe body of a report on the subject to the Legislative Council

of India, and if it were possible would certainly have beencontroverted, no words of comment can add to their weight.

These Kulinas are strict Hindus, and are accounted worthyof the respect of the community. They are the " honourable

class," the aristocracy of India.

WORSHIP.

CHAPTER I.

HINDU WORSHIP.*

In this and the following chapters, the worship, the strictly

religious life of the Hindus, will be described, as distinguished

feom their ordinary social, or, as we might say, secular life. It

is true that the whole life of the Hindu is religious. His Scrip-

tures teach him how he must dress, eat, work, and conduct

himself in all his various relationships. According to the behef

of a Hindu, he is as guilty, in many respects more guilty, in the

sight of God, when he violates some apparently trivial caste

regulation, as when he is guilty of falsehood, dishonesty, or

immorality. Still, as we make a distinction between reli-

gious acts and ordinary life, I wish to treat in this chapter

of that which is known amongst us as rehgion proper

;

i.e., the worship that the Hindus pay to their deities, and the

time and manner of doing it.

As the Christian's aim in worship differs diametrically from

that of the Hindu, it naturally follows that their methods will

* The books that are regarded as authorities for teaching the worshipproper of the Hindus, and also for regulating their daily life, are theVedas, the Epics (i.e. , the Mahabharata and the Eamayana) , the JPuranas

,

and the Tantras. Some of the Tantras are older than some of thePuranas, though generally it may be said that they are the most modernof all the EKndu Scripturse. The Tantriks, indeed, claim respect for their

books, as afifth Veda, and regard them with reverence equal to that given

to the Vedas. Thus in the Siva Tantras that deity is represented as say-

ing,'' The five seas issued from my five mouths. These five are known as

the paths to final liberation. There are many seas, but none equal to the

upper one " (i.e., the Tantra, which came from the uppermost head). It is

said that it was owing to a curse of Gayatri that in the KaU Yuga theBrahmans have become Tantriks.

14

194 wonsHip.

widely differ. In a word, the Christian's aim is to know and

love God ; that knowing Him he may know the character it

is his duty to strive after, and loving Him, he may have an all-

constraining motive impelling him to attain it. To this end

he reads the Word of God, has spiritual fellowship with Him,

and strives, by uniting with others like-minded, to deepen that

love, until his whole nature shall become like to that of

God's. With the Hindu the aim is altogether different from

this. His belief is that he is part of God, but through igno-

rance is unable to realize this identity. He fears the objects of

his worship, and tries by presents to purchase their favour,

and by knowledge of his identity with the Supreme, as a drop

of water falling into the sea loses its identity, to obtain re-

union with Him. His books teach him that there are twoways of gaining that desired end. The one is meditation, bywhich a man at length ceases to think of anything, becomesidiotic, as it seems to an onlooker, so far as the appearanceof those who have nearly gained this end can be relied on,

The other is by the performance of works of merit ; religious

acts, which, though not absolutely necessary, will in the endensure the doer of them great reward in the future life. Indescribing the duties of the Brahman, I have already spokenof the holiest life man can live according to Hinduism, viz.,

the -mendicant or a.soetic life, which is regarded as the best

preparation for meeting God. All Hindus hope eventually to

attain, after numerous successive births, to that high position.

But for those who are not Brahmans, and who, therefore,

cannot in their present birth by any possibility attain to thatholy character, a system of religious works is prescribed bywhich they may raise themselves in the estimation of thegods, and in another birth, after enjoying years of happinessin heaven, appear on earth as Brahmans, and then have theopportunity of living the holy and devout life which willenable them to obtain final absorption into deity. The " goodworks," then, the religion proper of the Hindus, such asbathing, visiting temples, shrines, worshipping the gods, are

HINDU WOBSmp. 195

not the means by wliieh the " highest good " is to be directly

attained ; by their aid a step in advance may be made ; the

possibility of obtaining absorption coming to them when in

another life they are born as Brahmans, which they consider

the highest type of manhood. By this means, too, Brahmansrise from the lower to the higher grades, and by a gradual

process attain to the most perfect stage. I shall now describe

the religions acts, i.e., worship proper tanght by Hinduism.

Brahmans have assured me, and I have no reason for

doubting their truthfulness in this matter, that if they perform

their daily rehgions rites properly, at least two hours in the

morning and the same time in the evening would be fnlly,

occupied with them ; and an hour or so in the middle of the

day should also be devoted to similar work. Many of the ortho-

dox Hindus, there is no doubt, do spend a long time before

and after business hours in this manner. Men living the

ascetic life, whose whole time is at their own disposal, maynot find this very trying ; but for those engaged in school or

office for a good many hours of the day it certainly mustprove irksome. Some of the more wealthy engage a familv

priest to perform many of these ceremonies for them, and byoccasionally looking on, hope to obtain the benefit that would

come to them had they personally performed them. Menoften come to their daily work weary with the efforts they

have made before leaving their homes to comply with the

demands of their religion. As the daily reUgions duties of a

Brahman are very numerous, and the instructions most

minute, it will be possible to mention only the more im-

portant The ordinary religious duties of the lower castes

will be described afterwards.

There are four chief duties or sacraments to be performed

daily by all good Brahmans :—

^The study of the Yedas, offer-

ing of gifts to the departed, and to the gods, and the reception

of guests. But first, and as a preparation for the due perform-

ance of any of these, there is

—

Ablution. On rising from his conch he most clean his teeth

196 woESfiip.

with a twig of the pipul-tree, after wliich the twig must be

thrown away. Then he must proceed to the Ganges, or some

holy stream, or a tank, if no river is near (or to a well, and

bathe by pouring water upon his body), and first sip a little

water and sprinkle some before him. He must then throw

water eight times over his head, and pour a little upon the

ground, by which he destroys the demons who war upon the

gods. Then thrice plunging into the water, and repeating each

time the expiatory prayer which recites the creation, he

washes his clothes and sits down to worship the rising sun.

With each of these acts there are appropriate prayers to be

offered, the object of which is to enable him to perform the

rites properly, and to be blessed with health and general

prosperity.

The sun is next worshipped. To do this properly, reciting

the Gayatri, he ties up the lock of hair which is allowed to

grow long on the top of his head, by which he hopes to be

lifted up to heaven. He then again sips water several times,

and touches the various parts of his body with his wet hand.

If during this exercise he happens to sneeze, he must wait for

R moment and touch his right ear as an expiation. For fire,

water, the Vedas, the sun, moon, air, all reside in the right

ear of a Brahman ; and Ganga being there too, and sacrificial

fires in his nostrils, when these are touched all sin vanishes ^

in a moment. He then closes his eyes and meditates onBrahma, Vishnu, Siva, in their respective forms, and whilst

holding his breath, his left nostril being closed with thefingers of his right hand, three times repeats the Gayatri.

This notable text is as follows :" Om (a word indicating the

three great gods of Hinduism—Brahma, Vishnu, Siva), earth,

sky, heaven ! We meditate on the adorable light of the re-

splendent generator (the sun), which governs our intellects,

which is water, lustre, savour, immortal faculty of thought,

Brahma, earth, sky, heaven." This text is interpreted bythe commentators to mean the following :

'< That effulgent

power which governs our intellects is the primitive element of

HINDU WOESHIP. 197

water, the lustre of gems, and other glittering substances, the

savour of trees and herbs, the thinking soul of living beings

:

it is the creator, preserver, destroyer ; the sun and every

other deity, and all which moves or which is fixed in the three

worlds named earth, sky, and heaven. May he unite my soul

to his true radiance." Another interpretation of the Gayatri

differs from the former mainly in the last part, in which it is

said, " The power exists internally in my heart, and externally

in the sun ; being one and the same with that effulgent power,

I myself am an irradiated manifestation of the SupremeErahmfi." From the foUowing explanatory passage it is

clear that the sun is thus really worshipped :" That which

is in the sun, and thus called light or effulgent power, is ador-

able, and must be worshipped by them who dread successive

births and deaths, and who eagerly desire beatitude." This

prayer is preceded by the names qf the seven worlds, sig-

nifying that this glorious light permeates them all. These

seven worlds are as follows : 1. Earth, in which we are nowliving. 2. The world, in which beings who have passed from

the earth are now unconsciously awaiting the end of the pre-

sent age, when they will again awake to consciousness. 3.

Ileavev, the abode of the good. 4. The middle world, i.e., the

region between these three lower and the next three higher

worlds. 5. The world of births, in which animals destroyed

at the great conflagration which closes each age are born

again. 6. The mansion of the blessed, which is occupied by

the sons of Brahma, who by their austerity are fitted for its

blessedness. 7. The sublime abode of truth, the home of

Brahma, the Supreme. Entrance into this is attained by

true knowledge, the regular discharge of duties, and veracity :

once attained it is never lost. The mystic syllable Om must

precede and follow this repetition of the names of the seven

worlds, or the efficacy of their 'repetition is lost. Though

all rites, oblations, sacrifices, pass away, it is declared that

this iiwful word, as it is the symbol of God, cannot pass

away.

198 WOKSHIP.

After the three suppressions of the breath which repre-

sent the threefold utterance of the Gayatri, the worshipper,

after again sipping water, prays to the sun and the deities whopreside over sacrifice to prevent him from imperfectly per-

forming the ceremony ; and asks, further, " May whatever

sin I have committed by night, in thought, word, or deed,

be cancelled by day. Whatever sin is in me, may it be

far removed;" and, with. other prayers, he offers water to

the sun, throws water eight times over his head, and then

upon the ground. As a means of cleansing his heart from

sin, he takes up a little water in .the hollow of his hand,

inhales a little with one nostril, and exhales it by the other,

and concludes the ceremony by again sipping a little water.

The worshipper next worships the sun standing on one foot

and resting the other on his ankle or heel ; looking towards

the east, and holding his joined hands opened before him,

repeats other prayers ; again and again the Gayatri, in a

slightly altered form, is repeated, and an offering is made of

flowers, grains, water, &c.

A Brahman who is living the religious life must also

bathe at midday and in the evening ; whilst the forms are

very similar, the prayers differ slightly ; but it is stated that

for a householder who has other duties to attend to, themidday and evening bathing may be dispensed with, and the

prayers shortened in the morning. Where bathing in wateris inconvenient, other modes of ablution are prescribed

—

rubbing of the body with ashes, standing in the dust raised

by cows treading the earth, exposure to the rain—these,

under special circumstances, may be substituted for bathingin a river.

Preparatory to any religious act, or when he bathes withthe express object of obtaining freedom from sin, the wor-shipper must bathe with certain rites, and uttering of certain

prayers that do not essentially differ from the .foregoing.

He calls on the names of the sacred streams, and con-cludes with a prayer to earth, saying, after taking up a

HINDU WOESHIP. 199

handful and scattering it, " Earth, whatever sin has

been committed by me, do thou, who art upheld by the

hundred-armed Krishna, incarnate as a boar, ascend mylimbs and remove every such sin." On continuing in the

water and seeking deliverance by them, after addressing the

water and plunging three times in the stream he says, "

consummation of solemn rites, who dost purify when per-

formed by the most grievous offenders, thou dost invite the

basest criminals to purification, thou dost expiate the most

heinous crimes, and atone for sins to the gods by oblation

and sacrifice ; I expiate sins towards mortals by employing

mortals to officiate at sacraments ; defend me from the

pernicious sin of offending the gods." This form of worship

is also used at the ordinary midday ablution. The sun is

then to be worshipped with uplifted arms, not as in the

morning with joined hands.

There are also instructions given as to the prayers to be

offered, and rites to be performed, before the reading of the

Vedas commences ; offerings have to be made of grain,

&c., with various ceremonies to the gods inviting them to be

present and cheerful as he reads the holy writings ; then to

the great progenitors of mankind, to Yama, to his father,

grandfather, and great-grandfather, mother, and other near

relatives who have died; afterwards for those more remote,

and lastly, for all men—the idea being that the gifts of water

and grain will relieve the wants of any who may be suffering

in some of the many hells, or give increase of blessedness to

those in the regions of the blessed. When the Vedas are not

read, the offerings of grain, water, &c., to the progenitors,

spirits, deities, and ancestors are made. These ceremonies can

be shortened or lengthened at the wish of the individual ; but

the duties are all prescribed, and in some cases literally

fulfilled, and when they are performed the Brahman prepares

for his meal. Here, again, other religious rites have to be

observed. He first gives a portion to the gods, progenitors,

relatives who have passed awaj', and to all other beings, then

200 WOKSHIP.

feeds his guests, and is ready for bis first meal. After

washing his hands and feet, and sipping though not swallowing

the water, he sits on a stool or cushion, not on a couch or bed,

which must he placed in a clean place and marked off with

quadrangular lines. When the food is brought in, be bows

to it, raises his hands in the form of a bumble salutation

to bis forehead, and adds, " May this be always ours." After

sitting down he should lift the plate with his left hand, and

say, " Thou art invigorating." As the food is given to him

he says, " May heaven give thee !

" and accepts it with the

prayer, " May earth receive thee !" Before eating he moves

bis hand round the plate to insulate it and bis person from

the rest of the company. He then offers five lumps of it to

Yama, sips the water, makes five oblations to breath, wets his

eyes, and commences to eat in silence.

At night similar duties to those of the morning are gone

through, and in many cases offerings of flowers, &c., are madeto the gods. If a Vaishnava, the Salgrama, the common repre-

sentation of Vishnu, is worshipped : if of some other sect, some

emblem of the special deity. Thus an unceasing round of

duties are discharged, though it is difficult to see how the great

majority of them can have any moral or beneficial eiffect onthe character. Eepetition of the same rites and words so

frequently one would think must lead to a merely mechanical

performance. And as far as one can see this is the case ;

though of course some of the Brabmans are better than

their creed, and better than their ritual could ever makethem.

The Vishnu Purana gives the following interesting par-

ticulars respecting part of the daily worship of the Brabmans,and it is quite in harmony with the teaching of other

Scriptures. As part of the morning worship it is the duty of

a man to make a daily oblation of water for the benefit of his

ancestors and relations in any former birth who may besuffering in hell. The prayer is as follows : " May the gods,

demons, serpents, and trees, birds, fish, all that people the

HINDU WOKSHIP. 201

waters, earth, or air, be propitiated by the water I have pre-

sented to them. This water is given by me for the alleviation

of the pains of aU those who are suffering in the realms of

hell. May all those who are my kindred, and who are not

my kindred, and who were my relations in a former life, all

who desire libations from me, receive satisfaction from this

water. May this water and sesamum presented by merelieve the huager and thirst of all who are suffering fromthose inflictions wheresoever they may be " (p. 303). After

making an offering to the gods in general, he is then to

cast a few grains of rice broadcast on a clean place, for the

good of creation at large, with some such formula as that

above.

Before taking his food, when all is ready, he must wait in

expectation of a guest's arrival; for "he who feeds himself

and neglects the poor and friendless stranger, in want of hos-

pitality, goes to hell." And it is his duty to treat his guest

well, for if he depart from one house unsatisfied and goes

to another in order to obtain a sufficiency of food, he transfers

his sins to the man whose house he leaves, and at the sametime robs him of all his merit that he may have laid up in

heaven. Brahma himself is present in every guest, and he

it is who partakes of the food that is given. Next he must

see that any married woman in his house, any who are

ill, aged, and very young, are fed, and then he can him-

self partake of his foodj but the severest punishment is

threatened if he eat without first bathing, praying, and con-

secrating his food, and before the children and the aged are

supplied.

Whilst the daily duties of the Brahman are thus numerous

and lengthy, those of the mass of the people are not so by

any means. Most Hindus regard it as a rehgious duty to

bathe daily if this is at all convenient, and to raise their

hands and bow towards the sun as he rises ; but beyond this

little or nothing is done daily. In the houses of the well-to-do

there will be an image with its ministraut priest, and as the

202 woEsniP.

conch shell is blown or the bell rung some members of

the household may look on at the ceremony, and some of

the poorer neighbours run in for a few moments, as flowers,

fruits, grain, and water, are offered to the image. But the

mass of the people have no regular daily private worship.

The shopkeepers, as a rule, have a picture or an image of

Ganesa in their shops, and before commencing business in the

morning a little incense is burned before it ; and occasionally

a devout workman will salute his tools before he commences

work for the day. But except in the homes of the Brah-

mans, who have rites to perform for themselves, and the

homes of the rich in which there are hired priests to attend

to these matters for them, there is no ordinary house-

hold religious worship. The professed ascetics are supposed

to devote all their time to religion of course ; but I am nowspeaking of the people who have not given up their secular

life.

The worshippers of Vishnu, if they can spare the money to

purchase it, have a Salgrama in their houses, or at any rate

try to cultivate a small Tulasi plant the representative of his

favourite mistress, after whom the plant, is named. Vishnu's

spouse, being jealous of her husband's attentions to Tulasi,

changed her into a plant ; Vishnu, in order that he might

still enjoy her company, transformed himself into the Sal-

grama, an ammonite that is found in some rivers in the

Nepalese territory, and which is most highly valued by the

Vaishnavas or worshippers of Vishnu. In the houses of

the people these Salgramas are most carefully kept and re-

garded as though they were living beings. In the hot

season they are carefully bathed, and in many cases a jar

of water is hung over them, from which, through a little

string, the water slowly drops upon them and keeps themcool. The Tulasi plant is also most carefully tended. Be-fore these the daily prayers are offered, or at least their

deity is acknowledged by a most profound salutation manytimes during the day.

HINDU WORSHIP. 203

As aiiother part of the private -worship of the Hindushould be mentioned the repetition of the names of the gods.

It is considered a meritorious act to repeat these names agreat number of times during the day : some of the sects

prescribing the use of the rosary so that the people mayeasily reckon up the number of times that they repeat

these names. Stories are found in their religious books

showing the immense benefit that comes from this—someeven obtaining entrance into heaven, though they had lived

very immoral lives, because they had uttered the sacred

name in teaching it to their parrots. It is a most commonthing to see Hindus sitting at their doors loudly or silently

repeating these names.

When the women go to the rivers to bathe, where there is

no temple of Siva present, they make an image of mud in

the form of the Linga ; but as the Saivite women are not

taught the mantras or sacred texts, their worship consists in

bowing the head or body to this little image, after which it

is thrown into the river.

Though the deity worshipped differs, and to some extent

the form of worship varies with the different Hindu sects, yet

in the main there is great similarity in their forms of wor-

ship. In the following account of the ceremonies of the

Saktas,* i.e., those who worship the female deities chiefly,

will be found a fair example of the religious exercises of the

rehgious members of the Hindu community. As there are

Brahmans devoted entirely to religion and Brahmans en-

gaged in secular work, so there are men of other castes

who devote far more time to their religious duties than do the

rest of their brethren. And as it is allowable for the Brahmanto shorten his morning and evening exercises, so is it for the

other castes. In fact, when circumstances are unfavourable

for a lengthened period of devotion it is taught that it is

sufficient for a man simply to repeat the mul mantra as it

is called, i.e., the text that he was taught by his guru when

* Calcutta Review, vol. xxiv. p. 41.

204 won SHIP.

be was originally received into the sect to wbioh he maybelong. In fact, as mentioned previously, many of the

Hindus content themselves with bowing to the sun as be

rises, and with the uplifting of their hands before partaking

of their food, and the repetition of the name of their deity.

It will be noticed that in the daily devotions of the Brah-

mans there was the distinct utterance of petitions for pardon

;

prosperity, long life, &o. ; but in the case of those whose

worship consists in attending to the Salgrama and Tulasi,

there is no prayer, no expression of the heart's desire to God.

There are twenty distinct acts in the following elaborate

ritual of the Saktas :

1. Anchmana. The object of this is the purification of the

worshipper, and consists in taking up water from a copper

vessel with the left hand in a small copper spoon, and

pouring a small quantity on the half-closed palm of the right

hand. A little of this water is sipped three times with the

lips, but it must not be swallowed. The fingers are then

dipped into the spoon, and thus wetted touch the lips, eyes,

ears, and other parts of the head, during which an appro-

priate mantra is recited.

2. Sastid Bacliana. The object of this ceremony is to

render the whole act of worship beneficial to him who per-

forms it, and consists in repeating the name of the month,the age of the moon, the day of the week, and certain

mantras, the recital of which are supposed to bring general

prosperity to the reciter.

3. Sanlialpa. This forms what may be termed the petition-

part of the ceremony. At this time the worshipper mentionsthe object he has in view in this act of devotion : he thenrepeats again the name of the month, the age of the moon,the day of the week, his own name, and that of the great

progenitor from whom he believes his family has descended.During all the time of this exercise a betel nut, or someother fruit, is held in the water that stands in the coppervessel standing near.

HINDU WORSHIP. 205

4. Ghatastliapana. This consists in placing an earthen-

jar, a brass pot, or sometimes simply a piece of mudhollowed out, in which, if it is obtainable, a little water from

a sacred river is placed. A bunch of leaves, a green cocoa-

nut, or a ripe plaintain is then put on the top of the vessel,

and the distinctive marks of the worshipper's sect are painted

in red paint upon it. This ordinarily takes the place of an

image, but sometimes an image of the deity is set up and

worshipped : when this is not done the jar of water is re-

garded as the representative of the deity.

5. Sumanya Argha Sthapmia. This is the offering of

prayers to the ten guardians of the earth ; i.e., to the beings

who are supposed to rule over the eight main points of the

compass, the Zenith and the Nadir. This is done by

offering an argha, i.e., a small quantity of soaked rice, and

a few blades of durva grass which are placed in a conch shell

to the left of the worshipper. If a Brahman happen to be

present, a few grains of rice must first be given to him, and

then the whole is thrown upon the representative of the

deity, whether it be an image or the pot of water mentioned

above.

G. Ashan SuddJii, i.e., the purification of the seat. This

really means the determination of the posture of the wor-

shipper during the ceremony. The Tantras declare that

there are 80,000 postures in which the worshipper should

sit or stand, the form being determined by the object he

has in performing the worship. The most common position

is to sit cross-legged upon the ground.

7. Bhuta SuddJd, i.e., the purification of the body. The

body is said to be composed of five elements—earth, water,

fire, air, and ether. In this part of the ceremony the fire

and ether, which dwell in the forehead, are supposed to

work wonders owing to the force of the mantras that are

here repeated. The fire consumes the whole of the old body,

and the ether, mixing with the ashes, forms a new one from

them.

206 WORSHIP.

8 and 9. Pranuyam and Eishyddinyas. These are prayers

or invitations to the goddess to be present at the celebration

of her worship. During the repetition of these mantras, the

worshipper must close his nostrils with his fingers, and

remain without breathing as long as possible. It is said

that some can do this for a great length of time, owing to

which their bodies become so buoyant that they float in the

air. Most wonderful stories are told of the doings of some

of these worshippers, but imfortunately I have never seen

any who could thus set at defiance the law of gravitation.

9 and 10. Matrikanyas and Barnanyas. These consist in

the repetition of the Sanskrit alphabet, first simply, and then

with the strong nasal sounds peculiar to that and the cog-

nate languages. Whilst this is being done, the worshipper

touches fifty different parts of his body. If an earthen

image of the goddess forms the object of worship, the cor-

responding parts of the idol are also touched by the minis-

trant.

12. Dhyana ; i.e., meditation. Closing his eyes, the wor-

shipper forms a mental image of the deity ; the mantrarepeated at this time being a description of her.

13. Abakan. When an earthen pot is regarded as the

representative of the Deity, a simple invitation is given to

make it her temporary dwelling-place ; the words used are

as follows :" goddess, come here, come here ; stay here,

stay here. Take up thine abode here and receive my wor-ship." But when an image is employed for the same purpose,

two more elaborate rites are performed, viz., the Chak-shrudana, or the giving of eyes, and the Pranpratishtha, or

the giving of life. These ceremonies are performed by the

officiator touching the eyes, breast, and cheek of the imagewith the first two fingers of the right hand as he says, " Letthe soul of the goddess long continue in happiness in this

image."

14. Piija or worship. This consists in the offering of

rice, fruit, flowers, incense, &c. There are two kinds of

HINDU WOHSHIP. 207

puja—the one simple, the other more expensive. In the

simpler form only five articles are required—incense, a

burning lamp, sandal-wood powder, flowers, and a cone of

soaked rice, adorned with fruits, grain, curds, sweetmeats,

&c. In the more elaborate form of puja, sixteen articles are

mentioned as necessary—^an ashan, or seat, i.e., a small

square plate of gold, a formal reception of the deity, water to

wash her feet (this ceremony is performed by lading water

from one vessel to another), argha (an ofifering of sandal-woodpaste and rice as a sign of respect), water for cleaning her

mouth, a copper jar containing ghi, honey, and sugar, water to

clean her mouth a second time, water for her bath, clothes,

ornaments for her hands, feet, nose, ear, neck, and waist

;

and finally praise is given to her as the person officiating

walks round and round the image. This praise is expressed

in the most adulatory strains, in which her greatness and

goodness are extolled, and in which she is reminded that she

is the one supreme deity, of which all the others are but

representatives.

15. Lelchi niudra. This consists in shaking of the fingers,

with the palm of the right hand placed upon the back of the

left.

16. Aharana, i.e., the worship of the ghosts and demons

who form the usual attendants of the goddess.

17. Mahalcala is the worship of Siva, the husband of the

goddess, in one of his many forms. It is understood to be a

most sinful thing, an act that wiU ensure the sufferings of hell,

if a man worship Sakti and neglect at the same time to adore

her lord.

18. Baliddna. The offering of a sacrifice ; it may be a kid,

sheep, or buffalo.

19. Eabajan Path. The reading or the reciting of the

warlike deeds of the goddess.

20. Homa. This is a burnt-offering. For this a bed of sand

about a foot square is prepared, on which a little ghi is laid,

together with a few sacred leaves. This is then set on fire,

208 WORSHIP.

and with some of the ashes the forehead of the worshipper is

marked ; the rest is most carefully kept in the house.

It will of course be understood that this elaborate andexpensive ritual is not gone through daily in its entirety.

On ordinary days parts of it only are performed, the whole

being prescribed for special occasions.

CHAPTEE II,

TEMPLE WORSHIP.

Befoke noticing the worship as it is carried on in the Hindu

temples it will not be out of place to give a sketch of

an ordinary temple. Accustomed as we are to Christian

churches, we are apt to imagine that heathen temples are of

somewhat similar style, and used for a similar purpose. Butthis is an altogether erroneous view. The churches of

Christendom have been built to hold great crowds of wor-

shippers, who have come together to witness the grand

processions of the officiants, to hear the solemn strains of

music, and, in later times, to listen to the instructions and

exhortations of the preachers. And for such a purpose they

are well adapted. Further, though there are small and costly

buildings that have been erected through the munificence of a

few faithful and generous givers, as a rule they have risen

through the united offerings of many people for their commonconvenience and good. But the ordinary temples of the

Hindus, having a very different purpose to serve, are built in

a very different style. There are in India a few large temples

but as a rule they are quite small, not being more than ten

or twelve feet square. No congregation gathers in them

to witness an imposing ceremonial ; no addresses on religion

and morals are given ; there are no seats for those who come.

With the Hindu the object of visiting a temple is simply to

walk round the building, hand over his offering to the

officiating priest, and, if possible, catch a glimpse of the idol it

15

210 WOKSHIP.

contains, and after prostrating himself before it, to return to

his home.

The Hindu temple comprises an outer court, quadrangular

in form, sometimes with verandahs round, in which the

pilgrims may reside for a day or two when they come there

to worship, and an edifice at one end containing the shrine.

This shrine is again divided into two parts—the Sabha, or

vestibule ; and the Garbhagriha, or shrine in which the image

is placed. This inner room is so small that it permits only

of the entrance of the priest as he performs the worship.

Generally a bell is suspended over the door of this shrine.

When, therefore, a worshipper approaches, this bell is rung

to call the attention of the god to the presence of his

follower, who, having walked round the building, hands his

gift to the priest, bows to the image, and then walks away.

On the great festival days, when a constant stream of people

pass in front of the idol to make their offerings, all

appearance of devotion and reverence is wanting, as they

jostle against each other in the attempt to approach the

shrine. In temples such as that at Kalighat, where bloody

sacrifices are offered, the courtyard has all the appearance

and frightful smell of the worst shambles, for on certain days

of the year the executioners are at work from dawn till dark

decapitating the victims, whose blood streams over the pave-

ment, whilst the sun is shining in all his strength; the

frame-work in which the animals are placed being in the

courtyard of the temple about thirty or forty feet from the

shrine itself.

Many of the temples are the gifts of private individuals,

who have erected them in order to obtain " merit," i.e., the

fruit of works of supererogation as a set-off against a certain

number of sins. If a man has determined to spend acertain amount of money for this purpose, in most cases

he will devote it not to the building of a grand andimposing structure, in which a number of people could

unite in presenting their praises and their prayers to

TEMPLE WORSHIP. 211

God, but in erecting seven, fourteen, twenty-one, or

some greater number in multiples of seven of these small

shrines. When the visitors desire to make their offerings

in more than one of these, worship is performed in

them; but generally one or two of them may be used,

whilst the others are seldom entered. This fact also

suggests a reason why so many new temples are springing

up, whilst others in their close neighbourhood are allowed to

fall into ruin. If a man of the present generation were to

spend his money in repairing a temple that was already

standing, the " merit " of his deed would be reckoned to the

account of the original builder, and not to himself.

There are other temples that are kept in good repair,

because they are largely endowed ; some of these endowmentsbeing the gifts of previous governments, some of devout

worshippers now passed away. As these are largely frequented

by hosts of pilgrims who by this means hope to obtain

entrance into heaven, and as all who come make an offering

of some kind, they are a source of considerable income to

their owners or guardians. In some cases men are employed i

in travelling fi'om place to place proclaiming the benefits that I

a visit to them will secure. In this way large revenues are

obtained, and it is the interest of their owners to make them

as attractive as possible. In speaking of Pilgrimage, I shall

dMcribe some of these larger temples ; but it must be under-

sfooa that whether the temple be large or small, the plan is;

much the same in all, and the part the worshippers take!

identical—it is a mere promenade round the shrine, the

bestowal of an offering to the deity, and an attempt to catch

a glimpse of the idol in whose honour and for whose worship

the building has been raised. So far as I have seen, no in-

structive work is done in them ; nor is there any gathering

of a congregation for the presenting of their united prayers

to the gods.

In the Hindu temples the worship proper is all performed

by the priests (who must of necessity be Brahmans), though

212 WORSHIP.

they are regarded as of a lower order than others who do not

engage in this work. There may occasionally be some people

curious enough to watch the ruinistrant at the altar, but, as

a rule, he has no lookers-on, except those who may assist.

There is no attraction to the ordinary Hindu to stand by,

because the texts are muttered, not distinctly whispered

even ; and if it were possible for the words to be heard, all

being recited in the Sanskrit language, they would be unin-

telligible to him. Moreover, the meaning of the various

parts of the service are known only to the priests;

this is their proper work, and the common people would

not for a moment attempt to understand, much less to

practise that which belongs by birthright to the sacerdotal

' class. It is the priest's duty to repeat the texts, and make

iofferings to the gods ; it is the people's duty to provide these

gifts, and to fee those who condescend to be their mediators

with the gods. The mass of the people have nothing more

to do with the temple worship.

Looking now to the worship as it is performed by the

priests, we find that they treat the images as though they

were living beings ; the ritual observed and the attentions

paid being precisely similar in spirit to those that would be

shown by a servant to his master. In the worship of different

deities, of course the texts somewhat differ, as also do the

offerings presented ; Vishnu, e.g„ in all his forms being mostcareful of all forms of life—no bloody sacrifices are made in

his temples ; whilst Durga, delighting in blood, is regaled

with the blood of slaughtered victims in vast numbers.

Still, a description of the daily work in one temple is very

similar to that in others. I shall now give the worship that

is paid in the temples in which Gopal is worshipped. This is

the name given to Krishna, one of the incarnations of Vishnu,

when he was a boy living in the house as the reputed son of

Nanda, a cowherd. The word Gopal signifies the cowherd.

1. Mangala. About half an hour after sunrise the god is

taken from the couch on which he has been supposed to sleep

TEMPLE WOKSHIP. 213

during the night, is then washed and dressed, and placedupon his seat ; slight refreshments are offered to him withbetel-nut, pan-leaf, and spices—a mixture of which the

Hindus are very fond.

2. After an interval of about an hour and a half, SringUrais performed; the image is anointed with oil, camphor,and sandal-wood, and robed in gorgeous garments.

3. Next comes Givala, about three quarters of an hoarafter the preceding ; he is visited as though he were nowgoing out to do the work of a cowherd, which in his youagerdays was Krishna's occupation.

4. Baja Bhoja. This is the midday meal, when Krishna is

supposed to come ia from the fields to dine. All kinds of

delicacies are placed before the image in the way of food

;

these are prepared by the officials of the temple, and after-

wards distributed to the votaries present, and sometimes

even sent to the homes of well-to-do people in the neighbour-

hood, who are friends of the temple and of its priests.

5. Utliapan, i.e., the awaking of the god from his afternoon

sleep, which takes place a couple of hoars or so before sunset.

6. Bhoja. The afternoon meal ; this is given about half anhour after he has been awakened from his sleep.

7. Sandhya. At sunset the ornaments, &c., are taken off

from the image, and he is anointed and perfumed afresh.

8. Sayan, repose. About eight or nine o'clock in the

evening the image is placed on a bed, refreshments, water,

and betel-nut are left near at hand, when the priest retires,

and the temple is shut until the following morning.

This goes on, with slight variation in the offerings madeand texts recited from day to day, the whole year round.

There is no established ritual for general use, nor any pre-

scribed form of public adoration. At certain festival days

—

some account of which will be given in another chapter—other

rites are performed, having reference to the chief events in

the life of Krishna. When, as is sometimes the case, the

images are very heavy, they are not made to lie down at night.

CHAPTEE III.

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS.

In addition to the daily worship of the deities whose images

are set up in a permanent form in the temples and in the

homes of the people, there are certain days of the year

on which important events in the earthly life of these deities

are commemorated by festivals, and there are other deities

whose worship is almost entirely limited to the days that

are regarded as sacred to them. Just as we have the events

of the Saviour's life especially brought to memory on Christ-

mas Day and Good Friday, so the Hindus commemorate

the birth, &c., of Krishna and the other gods by special

festivals ; and as we have saints' days, such as St. John,

St. Matthew, &c., so the Hindus have gods' days, i.e., special

days for the worship of certain deities, such as Lakshmi,

Sarasvati, &o. On the special festival days an image is

prepared for the occasion, which, as soon as the worship

is completed, is destroyed. As it is considered a work of

merit to observe' these festivals, on these days the houses

of nearly aU the well-to-do Hindus are converted into temples

for the time being, and crowds of people flock in to see the

images there set up for worship.

Opposite to the entrance-gate to the Hindu house is a

platform, which is built for the special purpose of receiving

the images that are connected with the religious festivals

;

whilst the open courtyard in front is evidently made for

the purpose of admitting a large number of spectators who

EELIGIOXJS FESTIVALS. 215

may come in to witness the ceremony, or to enjoy the amuse-

ments that are generally provided for the night, when the

worship proper of the idol is completed. Though ordinarily

no one would enter the house uninvited, on these occasions

all who wish may come, and a cordial welcome is given

them. Generally—though the image itself may not be very

costly, and the fees to the officiating priests may not be very

large—it is an expensive affair to have one of these celebra-

tions, because amusements for the public must be provided,

and a great number of guests entertained. In places where

there are not many of the large family houses, it is no

uncommon thing for a number of neighbouring villages to

unite in celebrating these pujas, each householder being

expected to pay his share. In this case a temporary building

of mat-work is erected, and the donations are spent in pro-

viding the idol and the requirements of a feast.

When a gentleman determines to set up an image for

public worship in his house, or when in the case of a cluster

of villages doing the same, the first thing is to order the

image. These are made of various sizes and styles of deco-

ration, according to the price agreed upon by the purchasers.

The workman receiving the order first gets hi-s bamboos,which

are split and tied together into the shape of the desired

image. On this framework he binds hay, until there is some-

thing of the human form made. Upon this mud from some

sacred stream is laid and moulded into shape, and then

placed in the sun to harden. As soon as it is dry it is

painted, dressed, and decorated according to certain designs,

the authority for which is found in the Sastras.

When the image is completed it is taken to the house

where it is to be worshipped, and at an auspicious moment

the priest who has been engaged to conduct the worship goes

through an interesting ceremony called the giving of life

(pran pratishtha), by which he invites the deity to reside

in it for one, two, or three days. Prior to this the image

is regarded as ordinary mud, &c., and any one may even touch

216 WORSHIP.

it with impunity ; but the mere repetition of certain magical

words is supposed to change all this ;just as in the Catholic

Church the repetition of the words, " This is my body," is

supposed to convert the bread and wine' into the body and

blood of our Lord. After this it would be regarded as pro-

fanation for any one except a Hindu to approach the image,

or for any one but a Brahman to touch it. The officiating

priest is occupied for a couple of hours or so in the morning,

and the same time in the evening, repeating texts, offering

flowers, fruit, &c. , engaging in a similar round of ceremonies

to those that are rendered to an image in a temple. In the

case of the worship of Durga, in any of her forms, a kid,

sheep, or buffalo is sacrificed in front of the image, and a

vessel of the blood from the victim is placed before her. In

the courtyard of Hindu gentlemen who worship Durga, the

frame for holding the victims whilst they are sacrificed

remains permanently.

After the evening worship is concluded, in the courtyard

immediately ia front of the image which is believed to be

inhabited by the deity, ' amusements of varied kinds take

place. Sometimes, these consist of the singing of songs byprofessional singers, not necessarily in favour of the par-

ticular deity whose worship is then being celebrated . These

songs are often of a most lascivious kind. Sometimes there

will be a Nautch, in which professional dancers, who as

a class are prostitutes, dance, sometimes without, sometimes

with, most immoral gestures. Sometimes there are Jatras,

or theatrical representations of mythological scenes, after the

style of the miracle plays of Europe, in which men always

perform. It will be understood that at these festivals womenin large numbers are present, and these indecent represen-

tations are made, not only in their presence, but in front

of the image supposed to represent the deity. In homeservices, as in the temples, it will be noticed that the

people generally have no part in the worship proper of

the deities ; this is all done by the officiating priests, gene-

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. 217

rally with merely a few curious onlookers, who are not

supposed to have the remotest connection with this part of

the ceremonial.

On the day following the worship of the images another

interesting ceremony is performed, viz., the farewell of the

deity is taken. Before her supposed departure, the priest

thanks her for the favour she has bestowed on the wor-

shipper in becoming his guest, and after asking her to regard

him with special favour, an invitation is given to her to

return the next year, when another image will be prepared

for her habitation. After her departure, the materials that

for a time were regarded as sacred are considered so no

longer. Any one may now touch them. Just before sunset

the image is carried to the river bank, or if there be no

river near, to the side of a tank, preceded by a procession

headed by a band of music, and as darkness comes on

torches are lighted. With bands playing, women dancing,

men shouting, and torches burning, a most weird proces-

sion is formed. On reaching the water's edge, a couple of

boats are lashed together, on which the image ' is placed.

These boats are then rowed into the middle of the stream,

the lashing cut, the image falls into the water, and the

whole ceremony is complete.

I shall now pass on to notice the various festivals that

are held during the year. It should be noticed that although

a Hindu may have his own chosen deity to whom he gives

special worship daily, he is bound by the fear of evil from its

neglect, and by the hope of benefit arising from its celebra-

tion, to worship the many who form the Hindu Pantheon.

A few are to be found who are content with the wor-

ship of one of the many gods ; but I have known men who

themselves, in their private worship, are the devout followers

of Vishnu, to whom all life is sacred, not only witnessing,

and thus countenancing the offering of bloody sacrifice to

Durga, but themselves officiating as priests at these festivals.

When this inconsistency is pointed out to them, they excuse

218 WORSHIP.

themselves on the ground that they must live, and it is only

by this means that they can gain a livelihood.

I shall follow the order of the Bengali Festivals from the

commencement to the end of the year, as marked in their

almanack.

1. Vaisakh.

This is the first month of the year, according to the

Bengali reckoning, answering to parts of April and May.

No public religious ceremonies inaugurate the New Year.

On this day the tradespeople and others open new accounts,

and the year's business is commenced by the painting of an

image of Ganesa, the god of wisdom, on their shop doors.

The Bengalis have great faith in omens, and are most anxious

to transact a good amount of business on this day, in the

belief that it will then prove a prosperous year. In order

to have a large number of transactions to record, it is no

uncommon thing for friends to pretend to purchase goods, so

that their names may appear on the books, tho^igh the goods

and money are returned a day or two afterwards.

Though no great ceremonies occur, it is considered a

specially holy month. Generally it is the hottest month of

the yeaSr, and as a work of merit the Hindus place jars of

water near their houses, that the cows as they pass mayquench their thirst ; and vessels of water are also placed in

the trees for the birds. Jars of water are suspended over

the Lingam and Shalgram, that these representatives of the

great deities Siva and Vishnu may be kept cool and not

suffer, from thirst. In this month, too, the gods are fed with

more dainty food, and the Brahmans gladdened with morecostly gifts. The worship of the river Bhagirathi and the

bathing of the images of Vishnu take place, but these are

comparatively unimportant festivals. There is, however, one

festival that calls for notice, viz., the worship of the Dhenki.The Dhenki is a large wooden beam working on a pivot, bywhich rice is husked. It is said that Narad, the patron of

the pivot, hearing a guru teaching his disciples to repeat the

EELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. 219

word Dhenki a hundred and eight times a day, was so pleased

with the man's devotion that he paid him a visit riding upon

a Dhenki and translated him to heaven. At several important

domestic ceremonies—such as the giving rice to a child for

the first time, marriage, the investiture with the sacred

thread the Dhenki is worshipped ; but in the first month of

the year the women worship it, as it is to them one of the

most useful implements of domestic use. The head of the

beam is painted with vermilion, anointed with sacred oil,

and presented with rice and the holy Durva grass. Dhar-

maraja, the lord of virtue or religion, too, is worshipped in

some places ; as also, in a few localities, but not at all

generally, a log of wood called Devani, i.e., partaker of the

Divine nature. This wood is said to have the power of

visiting the sacred places of pilgrimage through subterranean

roads for the benefit of its worshippers.

2. Jaislitha.

(1) Dasahara;* this festival commemorates the descent of

the Ganges from heaven to earth and is called Dasahara,

because bathing at this season is said to remove all the sins

committed in ten births, i.e. , during ten different lives. This is

a most interesting ceremony. Thousands upon thousands of

the people bring their offerings of flowers, fruits, and grain to

the river side, and then enter the sacred stream. It is a

thing worthy of note that although in many places men and

women bathe together, tlie men having on simply a cloth

round their loins, and the women often having the upper

part of their bodies exposed, I have never seen the slightest

impropriety of gestures on these occasions. In some festivals,

as previously noticed, the grossest impropriety of language

and gesture are freely indulged in ; but at bathing festivals

I have never noticed anything indecent. It is proper to

bathe in the Ganges for those who live near enough ; but

other rivers may take the place of the Ganges, and legends

have been manufactured to show that their virtues are even

* For a fuller account of this, see chapter on Pilgrimages, Ganga Sagar.

220 WOESHIP.

greater than those of the Ganges ; if there is no river con-

venient, then a tank can be substituted.

(2) The Snan Jatra; i.e., the first of the three great festi-

vals performed in honour of Jagannatha. At Puri, the head-

quarters of Jagannatha's worship, this is the great festival of

the year ; but it is not confined to that place. At several

places in Calcutta this ceremony is performed. Near Seram-

pore, in a village called Mahesh, is a temple with cars almost

as ponderous as those at Pari, that are called into requisition

in the following month for the Eath Jatra, which attracts

almost as many people from the neighbourhood as Puri itself,

whilst most large villages has its own car for the festival.

The ceremonies are much the same as those at Puri ; but,

being performed in a place which has no sacred enclosure

to shut out the non-Hindu population, it can be witnessed

by any who may wish to do so. And I certainly think that,

of all the festivals of Hinduism, this is the most imposing

that I have seen. On this occasion the image that has been

kept in its shrine since the similar festival of the preceding

year is brought outside the temple, and on a high platform,

erected for the occasion, bathed, anointed with holy oil

and clothed by the priests, in the sight of an immenseconcourse of people. From 60,000 to 80,000 people

stand round this platform, with their gaze directed to the

priests engaged in their holy work, and as the time for

its completion approaches, there is scarcely a sound heard.

Many of the people probably have gone there out of merecuriosity, some have gone simply for amusement ; but mul-

titudes, it is certain, have been brought there with the earnest

desire to see Jagannatha, the sight of whom they believe will

take away all their sins. At length the bath and the robing

being completed, the god is raised up so that the people can

see him ; and from the vast crowd there goes forth a shout,

" Jai, Jai, Jagannatha; Jai, Jai, Jagannatha,'' which once heard

will never be forgotten. On this occasion the whole neigh-

bourhood has the appearance of a fair, and when the religious

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. 221

ceremony is over, the fair begins. There are stalls with all

kinds of goods for sale, shows, and various kinds of amuse-ments. And as the great majority of fallen women, havingbeen outoasted when they took to a life of immorality, havebecome Vaishnavas, they are to be found in great numbersat this, almost the only religious festival in which they can

have a share. Certainly the music, dancing, and general

merry making, that prevail after the religious part of the

festival is over, are altogether out of harmony with what has

always appeared to me as the most impressive ceremonyI have seen connected with Hinduism. Every large townand many villages have their image of Jagannatha, so that

yearly there is the observance of this festival within an easy

distance of almost every part of Bengal. It is my belief

that this festival is more largely attended, and its lessons

more widely taught, than those perhaps of any other ; not

excepting even the Durga Puja. There are ceremonies, such

as the sacrificing of goats in the Durga Puja, that offend the

prejudices of the more earnest followers of Vishnu ; but in

Jagannatha's worship, as it is practised away from Puri,

there is nothing to offend the prejudices of any Hindu. AtPuri caste distinctions are ignored ; but this is not commonat other places.*

(3) Sasthi, the goddess who rules over women and the

protector of children, though regularly worshipped at six

seasons of the year, and at special seasons also, has her

proper festival in this month. At childbirth, and even

before, her blessing is invoked ; and after birth until the

child attains to manhood or womanhood, it is suppose^ to be

under her special care. In the sickness of children her aid

is first invoked to effect their recovery. At this festival it is

not common to set up an image of the goddess; but as

the banian-tree is regarded as specially sacred to her, she is

represented by it on this occasion. On the day of worship

the women of the neighbourhood march with music playing

* For farther account, see chapter on Pilgrimages.

222 WOBSHIP.

to the tree ; the mothers of sons with joy written upon their

faces, those as yet unhlessed with disappointment in their

looks and fervent prayers for this blessing in their hearts and

even on their lips. The mantras are recited by the priests ;

the honoured mothers who have sons give presents to those

who have none, and the procession wends its way back to the

village. After this is over sons-in-law are invited to the

houses of their fathers-ia-law, and after being hospitably

entertained there, are sent home laden with presents. On the

whole, it is one of the happiest days of the year.

" On this festive occasion, the son-in-law is invited to spend

the day and night at his father-in-law's house. No pains or

expense is spared to entertain him. When he comes in the

morning, the first thing he has to do is to go into the female

apartments, bow his head down in honour of his mother-in-

law, and put on the floor a few rupees, say five or ten, some-

times more, if newly married. The food consists of all the

delicacies of the season, and both the quantity and variety

are often too great to be done justice to. . . . Surrounded bya galaxy of beauty, the youthful son-in-law is restrained by asense of shame from freely partaking of the feast ' specially

provided for him. ... If this be his first visit as son-in-law,

he finds himself bewildered in the midst of the superfluity

and superabundance of preparation. Many are the tricks

employed to outwit him, and in their own way the good-natured females are mistresses of jokes and jests ; andnothing pleases them better than to find the youthful new-comer completely nonplussed. This forms the favourite

subject of their talk long after the event. Shut up in the

cage of a secluded zenana, quite beyond the influence of the

outside world, it is no wonder that their minds and thoughtsdo not rise above the trifles of their own narrow circle. . .

Ample presents of clothes, fruit, and sweetmeats, are sent to

the house of the son-in-law, and every lane and street in

Calcutta is thronged with male and female servants trudgingalong with their loads, in full hope of getting their share

EELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. 223

of eatables and a rupee or half a rupee each, into the

bargain."'''

3. Asarha.

The festival of this month is the Eath Jatra, or CarFestival. For fifteen days after the Snan Jatra Jagannatharemains invisible to the public. It is supposed that by the

exposure on that occasion he caught cold and suffers fromfever during the days that he remains hidden. At Puri,

this is the time for cleaning and repainting the image, which,

owing to the many offerings of his worshippers has in the

course of the year become covered with dirt. The deity

having recovered from his indisposition on this day is placed

on a ponderous car and dragged a mile or two to the temple

of some other god whom he is supposed to visit, and with

whom he remains a few days. The ceremonies connected

with this festival will be described when speaking of Puri,

the ritual observed at the head-quarters of his worship being

most scrupulously followed in the other places. In former

days, these cars were, and in some out-of-the-way places are

still, adorned with most obscene pictures, but the purer

tastes of the people, or the watchful eyes of the magistrates,

being averse to this, in most places they have disappeared.

Great profits arise from the establishment of such a popular

temple and car as those at Mahesh, in Bengal ; and it hap-

pened a few years ago that, owing to a dispute arising

between those who benefited by them, a rival car was built

and a rival image set up. But after a year or so, the popu-

larity of the old establishment proved too strong for the

opposition; for whilst the old car found plenty of willing

assistants to drag it to the appointed place, the other Lad to

remain stationary, and the god had to lose the benefit of a

ride and a change of residence.

The Ulta Eath, or the return of Jagannatha to his temple.

About a fortnight after the Car Festival, another of a some-

what similar character is held, though it is by no means so

* " Hindoos as they are," p. 90.

224 WORSHIP.

popular as the former. The image of Jagannatha is brought

out from the temple where it has been on a visit, placed upon

the car, and then dragged back to its own proper temple.

The people come in large numbers, but there is nothing like

the same enthusiasm manifested as when the deity was taken

out for his visit. Sometimes the people have to be rewarded

by sweetmeats, &c., to induce them to give assistance in

dragging the car ; whilst at the Car Festival there were more

volunteers than necessary. To assist in the holy work of

removing the ponderous car is believed by the more super-

stitious to secure the favour of the god, and to improve their

position in heaven. Jagannatha being a form of Vishnu, it

is this great deity's favour that is obtained when honour is

shown to this idol, hence the Vaishnavas, as a whole, take

part in these ceremonies.

4. Sravana.

The Julana Jatra. This festival is held in the temples

of Krishna, and also in those houses where a regular shrine

of this deity is set up. On this occasion, in a room ad-

joining the shrine, the god is placed in a swing, and after

swinging for a time taken back to the shrine, when the

feasting and merriment commence. Friends are invited to

the feast, and then Jatras and other celebrations are per-

formed. As the Jatras form an important part in most of

the Hindu festivals, and as they are one of the most im-portant agencies for teaching the people about Hinduism, afew words descriptive of them will not be inappropriate here.

These Jatras come nearer to the old miracle plays ofEurope than to anything else with which we are familiar.

In front of the platform on which the image is placed is aspace railed off for the performers. I have never seen themon a raised platform or stage ; but as the front rows of peoplegenerally sit down, those standing behind can obtain a goodview of the performance. The actors are men and boys, whoare in great request at these seasons. There is generally abaud of music, which plays between the scenes of the Jatra.

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. 225

The performance takes place immediately in front of the idol,

although it can hardly be regarded as part of the worship,

as it commences after the worship proper is over ; yet it is

supposed to be as much for the delight of the god as for the

amusement of the people who gather to witness it. These

plays, which begin about eleven o'clock at night, and are

continued until six or even seven o'clock the following morn-

ing, give representations of the important parts of the lives of

the gods and goddesses of the Pantheon—the amours andamusements of Krishna, the quarrels of Siva and Parvati, the

life of Eama and Sita, being the most common. The actors

are dressed and painted in imitation of the deities they

represent, and frequently the conversations are rendered

attractive by sensual and obscene allusions ; whilst in the

interludes boys dressed in women's clothes dance with most

indecent gestures. The worst dances that I have ever seen

have been in front of an image, and as part of the rejoicings

of a religious festival. Crowds of men, women, and children

sit to watch them the whole night through, and certainly

these theatrical representations of the acts and words of the

deities form a most successful method of teaching the people

the most memorable events of their lives. The words and

dress of the actors being aU according to the teaching of the

,Sastras, there can be no doubt that they exert an immense

influence over the people. Lessons taught by this method are

not easily forgotten.

Manasa. At this time there is also the worship of Manasa,'"

the queen of snakes, who, though not forgotten at other

seasons, has her chief celebration towards the end of this

month. Sometimes an image is made, sometimes a pot of water

is regarded as her representative. It occasions no surprise

that in a country infested with snakes, some of which are so

venomous that death follows their bite in about half an hour,

some protection from their baneful influence should be sought.

And as they all, large and small, are supposed to be under

* " Hindu Mythology," p. 395.

16

226 WORSHIP.

the control of Manasa, she is worshipped with Divine

honours. A day or two before the festival it is no un-

common thing for mothers to prepare a dish of rice with

treacle, which is placed before a pot of water under a village

tree or in the homes. After it has been offered to the deity

it is eaten by the mother and her children, whom she hopes

to preserve from these reptiles by this simple worship. AtManasa's festival the snake-charmers are called into requi-

sition, and receive presents for their performance. These men,seated on a platform of bamboos, expose themselves to the

bite of the most venomous reptiles, pretending that by their

religious mantras they are proof against the poison. It maybe that they are inoculated with it, or, what is more pro-

bable, the poison glands of their snakes have been previously

removed. Some of these performers are remarkably skilful,

for to hear them speak and watch their actions, it wouldappear that there are snakes everywhere, that they havesimply to call them and they appear. I have seen large

snakes suddenly show themselves in most unexpected places

where it had been indicated that it was the wish of thespectators that they should be found. The reason of this

worship is found in stories in the Mahabharata and elsewhere.It should be noticed that this, the chief worship of the snakedeity, is held at the commencement of the rainy season,

when, owing to the earth being saturated with moisture,snakes are driven from their holes, and become unusuallydestructive of human life.

5. BhMdra.

In this month is one great festival, viz., that of the birthof Krishna, and is called Nandotsaba, the joy of Nanda, theadopted father of the great cowherd. In describing thisfestival as it is observed at Puri,* we have said all thatis necessary to be said. It is a festival that is observed all

through the country where there are Vaishnavas. Awayfrom Puri there is one form of it that is not practised there.

* See chapters on Pilgrimage.

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS, 227

After the strictly religious rites.are over, the excited worship-

pers dig a hole in the yard before the image of the deity, andpour in water, curds, turmeric, &c. ; and, after plunging into

this filthy mess, dance and shout the praises of their god.

They then walk through the streets in this state until they

reach another tank where they bathe. In the afternoon pro-

cessions of singers walk about singing the praises of Krishna

and Eadha. It should be noticed that' in no worship does

singing and music figure so largely as in that of Krishna. Hewas a musician himself, and there is no doubt that the

rejoicing and merriment attendant on his worship have done

much to attract followers from the more quiet and some-

times cruel ceremonies that constitute the worship of Siva.

At this season of the year the disciples are looked up bytheir gurus, and receive more liberal donations than at other

times.

6. Asivin.

In this month fall the festivals connected with Durga and

Lakshmi. As the Durga Puja is emphatically the festival of

the year in Bengal, I shall describe it in detail.

A Hindu who determines to have the Durga Puja celebrated

in his house on the day of the Eath Jatra takes a piece of

split bamboo into the room where the family idols are kept,

and the family priest, after a prayer to Vishnu, anoints it

with sandal-wood paste, and invokes Durga's blessing upon

it. This bamboo remains there until the Janmasthami, i.e.,

the birthday of Krishna, when the maker of the image

removes it, that the work of constructing the idol maycommence. The materials for this purpose — bamboos,

grass, and Ganges mud are carefully selected, and on an

auspicious moment the holes are drilled in a piece of

wood on which the images are to be fixed. When this is

done, and the rough skeletons made, they are covered with a

preparation of mud, cow-dung, and the husks of rice. The

figures that cluster around Durga are her two sons, Kartikeya

and Ganesa ; and Sarasvati, the bride of Brahma, and

228 woKSHip.

Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu. There are also representations

of Mahesha, the buffalo fiend, whom Durga came to slay.

When the figures are dry, at appointed times the painters

come to paint and the decorators to adorn the image.

Bound these figures, on what is called a roof, but which is

really a circle, divided into compartments, pictures of other

deities are painted, or some mythological scenes represented.

These vary considerably according to the taste of the gentle-

man in whose house and at whose expense the worship is

carried on. The central figure, Durga, has ten hands, in

which are various weapons ; for, though bearing a mostmild and gentle expression, it is supposed to represent her

when victorious over the great Asura, the enemy of gods andmen.

This worship may be performed or not, according to the

religious state of the householder. On the one hand, it is a

sin of omission to neglect it, whilst to perform it will ensure

great good to the worshipper. One Sastra says : " "Whoeverfrom ignorance, vanity, or jealousy, or from any other cause,

does not worship Devi (Durga), the wrath of the goddessfalls on him, and destroys all his wishes." Another declares

that "the gratification of Bhavani is the assurance of happi-ness for the whole year, is for the destruction of spirits,,

goblins, and ghosts, and for the sake of festivity." Anotherspeaks still more strongly, as it declares that "the meri-torious effects of gratifying Durga, even for half a minute,cannot be described by Mahesh (Siva), the five-faced, in

a hundred years." Where circumstances prevent a manfrom incurring the expense of setting up an image in his

own house, it is no uncommon thing to worship her asrepresented by a picture or a jar of water, or to sendtheir offerings to the temporary shrine that is set up atthe house of a neighbour or relative. It is declared in oneof the Puranas that the offerings of even slaves and outcastsare acceptable to the goddess at these festive seasons.

The first part of the ceremony is the Bodhana, or the

EELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. 229

awaking of the goddess, who is supposed to have been

sleeping for the past two months, a part of which ceremony-

is the worshipping of a twig of the bel-tree, which is

especially dear to her. The texts differ as to when this

ceremony should take place. "When the time arrives for the

commencement of the worship, the head of the family, after

certain purifying ceremonies, declares his name and expresses

his purpose to perform theDurga Puja with proper rites. Hethen, in due form, appoints the officiating priests, who in his

name and on his behalf perform the ceremonies. The priests

then go through a long and tedious list of ceremonies,

worshipping other deities as well as Durga, and sanctifying by

their mantras all the various implements, &c., that are used

in the celebration. Part of this worship is called Dhyan, or

meditation, in which the priest thinks of Durga according to

the representation that is there before him. The most

interesting part of the ceremony is that in which the goddess

is invited to visit the house, and dwell in the image that has

been prepared for her. The priest, in order to obtain this

blessing, after several other ceremonies have been performed,

places his right hand on the breast of the image and says,

" Om ! welcome, Devi, to my house with thy eight Saktas.

Accept my worship done according to the Sastras,

Dispenser of blessings ; Lotus-eyed, I perform this

autumnal festival. Respond to me, great goddess ; . . .

Annihilator of all trangressions in this unfordable ocean of

the world. Save me, blessed goddess. I salute thee, beloved.

Sankara (Siva), protect my life, my honour, my offspring,

my wives, and my wealth. As thoii art the only defender

of all, goddess, the most beloved in the world, enter and

stay with this sacrifice as long as I am worshipping thee."

First the right eye, then the left, then the eye on the fore-

head are touched by the priest, and after this the other parts

of the body, and an appropriate mantra recited, by which

means the ceremony of Pranpratiahtha, or the giving of

the life to the image, is performed. After this all the vari ous

230 WORSHIP.

vessels and articles used in the worship are sanctified by

mantras.

For three mornings and three evenings the worship is

continued. In some houses, though not in all, a kid, or

three, or seven, are sacrified. In some cases a buffalo is

added. The victim is sanctified by certain ceremonies, Ganges

water is sprinkled on its head, a little vermilion is placed

on its forehead, and its head, having been made fast in a

strong frame, with one blow of the sacrificial knife is severed

from the body. A little of the blood and a piece of flesh is

then placed before the image.

On the afternoon of the fourth day the goddess is supposed

to take leave of the image. Most elaborate dismissal

ceremonies are gone through, and an invitation is given to

her to return at the next annual festival. "When this is over

the image is taken down from the platform, and the womenof the household and others walk round it, and throw rice,

water, and betel leaves upon it. It is then carried to the

riverside, and, accompanied by music, cast into the stream

amidst the shouts of the spec tators.

This festival, in Bengal at any rate, is the most popular of

all. It is a universal holiday, and at this season husbands

and sons, who by their business may have been absent from

their homes, endeavour to rejoin their families. It is not

inaptly termed the Christmas of Bengal, in the sense that it

is a time of universal rejoicing and merriment. In front of

the image at this festival as at others already described, whenthe evening worship is concluded, there is the usual singing,

dancing, and theatrical representation throughout the whole

night. As these images are set up in the villages as well as

in the towns, the poorer people are able to attend them. Andwhen it is remembered that the amusements are perfectly free

for all, it is not surprising that immense crowds are seen at

these religious festivals. In the three nights of the Puja

Calcutta is awake the whole night, and any one unacquainted

with the cause, as the drums are beating all over the city,

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. 231

might fancy that the whole city was in arms. And although

these nights are given up to merriment, the police have little

to do except to keep the vehicles in motion, in order to pre-

vent a block. Occasionally a few drunken men are seen, but

this is a rare exception. As a rule, the immense crowds that

are afoot are most peaceably inclined and well conducted as

they walk from house to house to see the jatras and nauches.

The other festival of the month is the Lakshmi Puja, which

takes place on the night of the full moon following the DurgaPuja. This is the goddess of prosperity, the wife of Vishnu.

Where an image is not made, her representative is kept in every

house, viz., a basket for measuring corn. On this occasion the

basket, filled with rice, and decorated with flowers, is covered

with a piece of cloth. Some people prefer to have an image

made, and then the worship is performed by priests, as in the

case of other deities. As Lakshmi is supposed during the

night to pass over all who may be awake, it is usual for the

people to sit up playing at cards, or amusing themselves in

some way, so as to keep themselves awake. Here we see a

custom not unlike one that prevails in many parts of England

on New Year's Eve, where the people sit up in the belief

that it is a proper thing to watch the old year out and the

new year in.

7. Eartik.

ShyUma Puja. This is the worship of Durga under quite

another aspect. In the dreadful war with the demons,

Durga, or Kali, or Tara, as she is called at this time, gained

a great victory over Eakta Vija, the commander-in-chief of

the enemy's forces, and was so elated by her feats of

prowess that she began to dance so vehemently that she

shook the world, and the gods were afraid that it would fall

to pieces. In their distress they cried to her husband, Siva,

for help. As he saw no other means of pacifying her, he fell

down prostrate amongst the slain. Directing her gaze to the

ground, she observed that she was dancing upon the body of

her husband, and became at once calm with shame, and

232 WORSHIP.

thrust out her large tongue. In the images which represent

her at this festival, she is black, as her name, Kali, im-

plies, and her husband is lying down under her feet. Her

tongue protrudes from her mouth, her fourarms are extended

—one hand grasping a sword, another the head of a giant, and

the other two signalling to her hosts. As ear-rings, she has

two dead bodies of her foes ; her neck is adorned with a

necklace of skulls, and her only garment, a zone, is made with

the hands of her vanquished foes, whilst her hair falls down

in long tresses to her waist. Intoxicated with the blood of

her foes, her eyes flash with rage, her eyebrows are dyed with

crimson, and blood flows down her breast. Her worship is in

keeping with her character. It takes place on the night of the

new moon, at midnight, when numbers of animals are sacri-

ficed to her. The darkness of the night, the bleating of the

victims, the flashing of the sacrificial knife, the shrieks of the

ministering priests as they cry, " Jai, jai, Tara," the flicker

of the torches, the gestures of the intoxicated worshippers,

make this one of the most terrible of all the festivals in

India.

Two days after the Shyama, or Kali Puja, it is customary

for Hindu sisters to feed their brothers. In this festival they

put a little paint on their foreheads, and as they are engagedin this work, they seek this blessing :

" While I put this

paint on your forehead, may the path to Yama's kingdom be

planted with thorns." Yama (the God of the spirit world") is

then worshipped with appropriate rites. After the religious

part of the festival is over, the brothers are feasted with all

kinds of delicacies. In the beginning of this month a special

service is performed in honour of Yama by the unmarriedgirls of the family, the object of which is to secure from hima husband and sons, and exemption from punishment in the

next world. This ceremony is performed in the foUowingmanner :—A small pit having been dug in front of the house,

the four corners of it are sown with wheat or barley,

and planted with branches of the plantain-tree. The young

EELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. 233

ladies then put on new clothes, sprinkle Ganges water ontheir heads, and, going to the pit, present garlands of

flowers to Yama. A kourie shell is put into a vessel kept

there on thirty successive mornings, and on the thirtieth day

these shells are given to the person who dug the pit.

Jagaddhatri. In this month, too, Jagaddhatri (the motherof the world), another of Durga's many forms, is worshipped.

This festival is almost identical with that of Durga, but with

fewer ceremonies, and extending over one day only. Onthe day following, as in the case of the other festivals, the

images are thrown into the river.

Kartikeya. Towards the close of the month Kartikeya,

the god of war, is worshipped. He is the son of Siva and

Parvati. His worship is performed one evening only, and

as he is unmarried, but keeps a concubine, this worship

is peculiarly attractive to the immoral women of the cities.

Perhaps next to the festivals in honour of Krishna, there is

more of licentiousness and revelry connected with Kartikeya's

festival than with any other.

Rasa Jatra. This festival is held to commemorate the sports

of Krishna with the milkmaids of Vrindavana. It continues

for three nights. A high platform is erected near the temples

of Krishna, to which the image is brought, and it remalins

there during the bright moonlight night whilst the amuse-

ments are continued. The deity is first worshipped with due

solemnity, and then the fun begins. Singing of love-songs,

jatras, dancing, alternate throughout the night, and at early

dawn the idol is taken back to its temple, where it remains

until the next evening. This is a most popular festival, and

immense crowds of people come to this annual fair with all

the attendant festivities and excesses.

8. Agrahayana.

The festival of this month is what may appropriately be

termed the feast of first-fruits. It is held at the season when

the new rice is ripe. An offering of rice, milk, and fruits, is

first made to the gods, then to the great progenitors of man-

284 woBSHip.

tind, then to the cattle, then to the scavengers, i.e., crows

and jackals, and then the people partake of some themselves.

And when it is remembered that Bengal is pre-eminently an

agricultural country, there is something very beautiful in an

offering of the first-fruits to the Deity in acknowledgment of

the fact that it is He who is the giver of all their good.

Often fireworks and gifts to the Brahmans and spiritual guides

close the ceremony.

9. Polish.

In the country districts a festival more social than religious

is held, which is called Poushali. During the day a numberof men go round with baskets from house to house for offer-

ings. When their work is completed the gifts are taken to the

village green, where Brahman cooks prepare the food so that

all may freely partake of it. All who have given towards

the feast are welcomed, and in friendly chat a few hours

are spent together, after which the feasters return to their

homes.

The other festival of this month is the Feast of Cakes.

This festival continues for three days, during which Lakshmiand Manasa are worshipped, and in many places Sasthi is

also included in the ceremony. Cakes made with rice,

treacle, and milk are prepared, and men, women, and chil-

dren partake of them. On the first day of the feast thefurniture of the house is bandaged with straw, the idea beingthat by thus tying it, it will never be removed from thehouse.

10. Miigh.

Sarasvati Puja. This is the worship of Brahma's wife, thegoddess of learning, who is worshipped alike by the followers

of Siva and of Vishnu. All who have the slightest smatteringof learning feel bound to reverence her ; and not her imageonly, but pens, ink, paper, books, &c., by which knowledgecan be acquired and taught. The women have no share in

this worship, though it is certainly strange that the patron oflearning should be a woman.

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. 235

11. Phalgun.

In this month the Dol Jatra or Holi festival, in honour of

Krishna, is held. In speaking of the Jagannatha worship at

Puri, we shall have to describe this. It is a festival commonthroughout North India, and where there are no temples of

Krishna, the people go about in excited crowds throwing

red powder upon passers-by, and singing indecent songs. It

is almost impossible for a woman to walk through the streets

without being insulted. It commemorates Krishna's volup-

tuous amusements. In this month Ghentu, the god of itch,

is also worshipped, for whom a dunghill is regarded as the

representative, or an old broken earthen pot daubed with lime

and turmeric. The mistress of the house acts as priestess:

when a few doggerel verses about the god have been recited

the vessel is broken into bits. At this time Shitala, the

goddess of smallpox, and Ola Bibi, the goddess of cholera,

are also worshipped.

12. Chaitra.

In this month the Charak Puja takes place. It is said that

an ancient king, by reason of his great austerities, obtained

an interview with Siva, in commemoration of which this

festival is held. The peculiarity of the worship consists in

the fact that the devotees of Biva belonging to the lower

castes assume the profession and dress of Sanyasis for a week or

ten days, and march about the streets soliciting alms from

people. On the first day of the festival the pro. tern. Sanyasis

throw themselves down from a bamboo platform about eight

or ten feet high upon knives that are so arranged that they

fall down under the weight of the body, though occasionally

an accident happens. Processions of these men parade the

streets to the great temple of Kali, some with spears in

their tongues, others with pans of burning incense, where

they make their offerings and return. At this season, too,

there is a sort of carnival. Processions are formed and

tableaux vivanls arranged on platforms, representing different

trades and professions, are carried through the streets. In

236 WOESHTP.

former years the gestures as well as the scenes represented

were of the most obscene character, but of late years these

objectionable features have been largely curtailed. On the

second day of the Puja the swinging which has given its

name to this festival takes place. In former years, a hook

was inserted in the flesh of the men, to which a rope was

fixed; this rope was tied to a bamboo, which was made to rise

or fall from the ground, being attached to another bamboo

that was fixed in the ground, lifting the victim a great height.

At the present time either a bundle of clothes is swung as

the representative of the men, or a rope is tied round the body

in which the hook is hung. Trevelyan, in the Competition

Wallah, gives the following most graphic description of this

festival as it occurred in Calcutta, in a letter dated April 17,

1863:" One morning, at the beginning of this month, as I

lay between sleeping and waking near the open window, I

began to be aware of a hideous din in an adjacent street. At

first the sound of discordant music, and a confused multitude

of voices impressed me with the vague idea that a battaUon

of volunteers were passing by in marching order headed bytheir band. This notion was, however, soon dispelled by mybearer, who informed me that this was the festival of Kali

(the bearer was wrong ; it was Kali's husband), the goddess

of destruction, and that all the Hindu people had turned out

to make holiday. I immediately sallied forth in the direction

of the noise, and soon found myself amidst a dense crowd in

the principal thoroughfare leading to the shrine of the deity.

During a few minutes I could not believe my eyes, for I

seemed to have been transported in a moment over morethan twenty centuries to the Athens of Cratinus andAristophanes. If it had not been for the colour of the faces

around, I should have believed myself to be on the main roadto Eleusis in the full tide of one of the Dionsyiac festivals.

The spirit of the scene was the same, and at each step somewell-known feature reminded one irresistibly that the Bacchic

KELIGIOTJS FESTIVALS. 237

orgies spring from the mysterious fanaticism of the Far East.

It was no unfounded tradition that pictured Dionysus return-

ing from conquered India, leopards and tigers chained to his

triumphal oar, escorted from the Hyphasis to the Asopus bybands of votaries dancing in fantastic measure to the clang

of cymbals. It was no chance resemblance this, between a

Hindu rite of the middle of the nineteenth century and those

wild revels that stream along many a Grecian basrelief and

wind round many an ancient Italian vase ; for every detail

portrayed in these marvellous works of art was faithfully

represented here. If one of the lifelike black figures in the

Etruscan chamber of the British Museum could have walked

down off the background of red pottery into the midst of

the road leading to Kali Ghat, he would not have attracted

the notice of the closest observer. Every half-minute

poured by a troop of worshippers. First came boys stark

naked and painted from head to foot in imitation of leopards

and tigers, whilst others guided them with reins of thin cord.

Then followed three or four strange classic figures, wearing

the head-dress which is familiar to us from the existing

representations of bacchanalian processions, dancing in an

attitude which recalled, spontaneously and instantly, the

associations of Smith's 'Dictionary of Antiquities.' The

only circumstance which was not in common between ' Tolly

Nullah ' and the Cephisus was the censer of live charcoal

which these men carried before them, supported by wires

passed through the flesh under their armpits. Into this

from time to time they threw a powder, which produced a

sudden flash, and a most infernal smell. Behind them, his

brows crowned profusely with foliage, was led in mimic bonds

the chief personage of the company, who was supposed to be

under the direct influence of the god. All around him,

musicians Were beating tomtoms and clashing tambourines,

like the satellites of Evius on the. day when he leapt from

his car into the arms of the forsaken Ariadne ; as he still

leaps on the glowing canvas of Titian. All was headlong

238 -woHSHip.

license and drunken frenzy. After struggling through the

throng for a mile and a half of dusty street, I came to a

narrow slum which descended. to the Ghat, or landing-place

of Kali, which lies on the nullah [stream] of the mythical

hero Tolly [Col. Tolly was a gentleman who owned a large

house and grounds on the banks of the stream, a historical

person who resided there in the last century, and not a mythical

personage] , who perhaps was the Atys of this Oriental Cybele.

From this lane, a passage of a yard or two in breadth opened

on to a dirty court, in which stood the sanctuary whence

Calcutta derives its name, which was an object of awe and

reverence to the surrounding population for ages before the

first ship, laden with Feringhi wares, was warped up the

neighbouring river. It seemed impossible to pierce the mobof devotees, and penetrate to the holy place; but not even

religious madness, not even the inspiration of bhang and

toddy, could overcome the habitual respect paid to a white

face and a pith helmet. A couple of policemen cleared a

passage before me to within a few feet of the sacred image.

It appeared to be a rude block ornamented with huge glass

beads (it is really the head only of the goddess that is visible),

but I dare say the Palladium which fell from heaven was not

a very elaborate device, and yet it saved the reputation of a

young Eoman lady, and gave a synonym to an English jury.

Before I reached home, what with the jostling and hubbuband stench, I was very glad to get back to the society of

clean, fragrant Christians. As I grew every moment moretired and hot the exhibition seemed to savour less of the

classical and more of the diabolical. At last I came to the

ill-natured conclusion that Satan was at the bottom of the

whole business, and not the golden-haired Dionysus."

This completes the list of the chief religious festivals as

they are held throughout the year. It is a long list, andcoming as they do at short intervals the interest of the people

is kept up in religious matters. No special day 6f the weekis sacred to the Hindus, as Friday with the Mussulmans or

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. 239

Sunday with ourselves ; in the native shops and fields work

goes on steadily from Monday to Monday. These festivals,

however, give some relief. On these days little or no work is

done ; the religious part of the community and those seeking

pleasure merely, when set free from work, find their satisfac-

tion in these various festivals.

CHAPTER IV.

PILGRIMAGES.

BENARES.

The next form of Hindu worship, and scarcely less important

than the preceding, is the visiting of particular shrines—the

undertaking of journeys to see the temples, bow down before

the images, and pay their offerings to the deities to whomthese places are peculiarly sacred. Pilgrimage is the peculiar

work of those who have given themselves up to a hfe

of religion. One of the virtues of the highest class of

Brahmans, which gave them the privilege of Kulinism, wastheir pre-eminent devotion in wandering from shrine to

shrine ; in fact, in the ideal life of the Brahman one quarter of

his manhood should be spent in this work. And this is the

life-work of millions who by virtue of it are regarded as the

most holy of men, the saints of Hinduism. But the visiting

of shrines is by no means peculiar to those classes who have

adopted the religious life. It is the ambition, the earnest

desire of many of the ordinary people, at least once in a life-

time, to visit one, if not more, of these sacred places. Andcertainly if one can judge of the earnestness of the people,

and of their implicit faith in the teachings of their leaders,

by their joy as they come in sight of these places, their in-

tense sufferings on the way to them, which are borne with

exemplary patience, or by the look of satisfaction with whichthey speak of having accomplished these journeys, they are

very earnest, and their faith most marvellous. I have seen

the people throw themselves on the ground and kiss the very

PILGRIMAGES. 241

dust as soon as they have caught sight of the holy city of

Benares; I have seen them take the dust from the wheelsof Jagannatha's car, and place it on their head with signs of

the intensest pleasure. I have heard them shout with joy

as they have come in sight of the meeting of the waters of

the Ganges with the sea at Saugor Island; and there canbe no doubt whatever that in the minds of many there is

the most impUcit faith that a visit to these places will en-

sure them invaluable blessings in this world and the next.

A few years ago as one of these pilgrims was returning fromBenares by train an accident happened, and he was asked

to give evidence against the railway official who caused it

;

but the man refused to do this, and was apparently dis-

appointed that through the attentions of the surgeon he wasrestored to health ; for he would have preferred to die under

such circumstances rather than return to his ordinary avo-

cations, and by a sinful life lessen the amount of merit that

had been obtained by a visit to the holy city. Many by the

exercise of the greatest self-denial save a little year by year

for twenty or twenty-five years from their scant earnings,

and are able in this manner to provide for the expenses

of the journey and for the offerings they have to make at

the shrines. Multitudes of poor women, when their husbands

are sick, vow to go to some of these places, and though for

years they cannot obtain the necessary funds, as soon as

they can they start on these journeys. And when it is re-

membered that it is taught, e.g., that once bathing in the sea

at Saugor Island will wash away all past, present, and future

sins, it cannot afford much surprise that they should wish

to go.

Formerly the journey to these places was far more difficult

and tedious than at present. Eailways and steamers carry

their hundreds of thousands of visitors with comparative

safety and comfort. But all will not avail themselves of

these " aids to devotion." Some persistently walk as far as

it is possible, and then crowd into unseawortby boats, so that

17

242 WORSHIP.

scarcely a year passes without some of these capsizing in the

wide creek which has to be crossed in order to reach the

scene of the festival at Saugor. The road to Jagannatha's

festival at Puri is literally strewed yearly by the corpses of

those who die by the road-side on their journeys to and

fro, and by over-crowding when they arrive there. Others

again, in fulfilment of vows or in their desire to please

the deity by their sufferings, travel for miles by measuring

their length upon the ground. They lie down with their

faces to the ground, and stretch their hands beyond their

\ heads ; and having marked the ground with their fingers,

place their toes there and again stretch themselves upon

the ground. In this manner they continue for days together^

until they become completely exhausted. When a poor

pilgrim starts for some of these places at a great distance

from his home, it is with the expectation that he will

never return. Often the death of these poor people

is accelerated by the extortions of the priests extract-

ing all their money from them for offerings, and leaving

them little or nothing for the expenses of the homewardjourney.

And what is the life they lead at these places ? Benares,

though called holy and sacred, is one of the most wicked

cities in India. At Ganga Saugar quite a colony of prostitutes

go there to ply their infamous traffic. In direct connec-

tion with the temples in some places, or living in close

proximity to them in others, are prostitutes who regularly

pay a portion of their earnings to the shrines which attract

the worshippers. The pilgrims who go for religious pur-

poses merely bathe, make offerings at the shrines, walk roundthe temples, suffer many inconveniences for want of properaccommodation and wholesome food; but worship in the

true sense of the word there is none. Many of them knowlittle more than the names of the many deities whose shrines

they visit ; nor would the contemplation of the lives of mostof these deities, were the people famihar with them, conduce

PILGRIMAGES. 243

to make them holier in heart or purer in life. It is abso-

lutely true that in the majority of cases the more closely a

man follows the example of his gods, the more impure in

heart and life will he become.

I shall now mention some of the more celebrated places of

pilgrimage, and give a brief account of the particular shrines

the pilgrims visit. One means of attracting visitors to these

shrines is for touters to go from town to town singing^

their praises and extolling their virtues. I once had the

opportunity of seeing the origin of one of these that

may in the course of years become famous. One of the ,

keepers of the shrine, a little less astute than the others,

let me into the secrets of the place. It appears that someone professed to have seen a spirit hovering over a

small and dirty tank, who declared that the tank hadhealing virtues. A company of some thirty men soon sought

to take advantage of this. A mud temple was erected, andone half of the company travelled from town to town telling

the people the benefits that would accrue from a visit, whilst

the others remained to attend to the temple. The day I

visited the place, some three hundred or more were gathered

there ; some blind, some dumb, some crippled, had madetheir way to this place of healing; and most wonderful

stories were told of some who had been healed. So in-

complete were the arrangements that an image had not been

placed there ; a dirty piece of rag covered a heap of bricks,

the pilgrims imagining that an idol was there, though they

could not see it. Another place, Tarkeswar, a Siva temple

in Bengal, is visited twice a year, on festival days, by

60,000 to 70,000 people. In villages I have heard most

wonderful stories of the blind receiving sight and the sick

being healed by simply visiting this place. It i? by means

of the travelling members of the company that the ex-

citement is kept up and the attention of the Hindus directed

towards these shrines. When I ventured to express a doubt

as to the efficacy of a visit to such places as a means of

244 WORSHIP.

cui-ing bodily diseases, the narrators simply stared at mein blank astonishment that I should for a moment question

the power of the idol to heal. Faith-healing is not by any

means confined to the people of England.

It is not, however, as a means of getting relief from sick-

ness that the pilgrims chiefly visit the shrines. Sometimes

it is in fulfilment of vows, because they beheve that the

deity has blessed them in some hour of trouble, and whowill, therefore, be pleased with this act of homage ; often it

is to obtain the greatest of all boons, a son ; but in the great

majority of cases it is to obtain merit, an entry to be written

on the credit side of their account with the gods as a set-off

against the sins (debts) they have committed. As a pilgrimage

is a work of supererogation, it is beUeved that it will counter-

balance many sins. Many of these shrines have little stones

or other things hung on trees near, which have been placed

there as witnesses of vows ; these will be redeemed by moresubstantial gifts when the boon asked for is granted.

Benares.*

Of all the shrines of India, Benares is the most sacred.

It is peculiarly the city of Siva, the great god of the Hindus.Being a place peculiarly dear to him, it is the eai-nest wishof his worshippers if possible to die within its sacred pre-

cincts ; but if that be impracticable, at least once in a lifetime

to visit it. Hindus who can afford it, and especially Brah-mans when growing old, give up their position in their

family and move there to end their days, in the assurancethat by this means they will gain easy entrance into heaven.The legend t by which this excessive sanctity of Benares is

taught is as follows. On one occasion BraJima and Sivaquarrelled respecting their respective positions. As Brahmadeclared that he was supreme, Siva cut off Brahma's fifth

head, and thus was guilty of the most heinous crime of• See CaUnttta Review, vol. xl. p. 253.

t " Hinda Mythology," p. 228.

PILGRIMAGES. 245

injuring a Brahman, Brahma being the progenitor of theBrahmans. After giving vent to his anger, Siva foundhimself in a most miserable plight ; the dissevered head of

his rival adhered to his hand as the blood of his; slaughtered

guest adhered to the hand of Macbeth. " In order to get

free from this dreadful sign of his revengeful spirit, Sivawandered from shrine to shrine, and practised the mostarduous penances ; but all was vain until he reached the

sacred city of Benares. There he lost his burden ; andfollowing his example, his worshippers, weighed down withthe burden of sin, go from shrine to shrine ; but in Benares,of all other places, find peace of conscience and the assurance

of salvation. As Siva found relief in this city that no other

place could give, it is natural tha|; his followers should wishto dwell in the place that was so beneficial to their deity, andwhich they believe is especially dear to him.

The sanctity of this holy shrine is not bounded by the city

proper, but extends from the holy river Ganges to a road

called the Fanch-Kosi road, i.e., a road that is not more than

ten miles distant from the banks of the river. This road

starts from the river ba,nk at the south part of the city, and

winds through the country until it rejoins the river. It is

about fifty miles long, and contains hundreds of temples of

different deities, who are sapposed to act as a police force

under orders of Bisheshwar, the divine king, in keeping the

peace of the city. The whole of the land enclosed between

this road and the stream is most sacred ; and it is one of the

meritorious acts of the thousands of pilgrims to Benares to

traverse this sacred path. The regular inhabitants of the

city are taught that at least once a year they ought to walk

along it, to obtain deliverance from the sins they may have

committed even in the holy city. The entire area thus en-

closed is regarded as Benares, and whoever dies within it,

whether Hindu, Mussulman, or Christian, whether pure in

heart and life or outcast and guilty even of murder, is sure of

obtaining the blessedness of heaven. In order to secure the

246 WORSHIP.

benefits promised to those making this journey, the pilgrims

must bathe before starting and at the close of each day's

journey; must walk barefooted, only very young children

and sick people are allowed to be carried by others. Theymust not give food or water to their friends, nor take these

tilings from others, but each must make provision for his

own wants; nor must they indulge in bad language or

quarrel with others, or the merit of the journey is lost.

There are six regular longer or shorter stages where the

pilgrim stays for the rest of the day; and on reaching

the Mankarnika Ghat whence he started, he must bathe, give

his gifts to the attendant priests, and pay a visit to Sakhi-

binaik, the witness Ganesa, where his act of penance is re-

corded, otherwise his labour will be lost. This fifty-mile

walk is generally the final act of a successful pilgrimage to

Benares.

There is no doubt that Benares is one of the most ancient

cities of India ; but when it was founded cannot now be ascer-

tained with anything like certainty. " By some subtle, mys-terious charm this city has linked itself with the religious

sympathies of the Hindus through every century of its exis-

tence. For the sanctity of its inhabitants, of its temples andtombs, of its wells and streams, of the very soil that is

trodden, of the air that is breathed, and of everything in andaround it, Benares has been famed for thousands of years.

The poor deluded sensualist, whose life has been passed in

abominable practices, or the covetous usurer who has madehimself rich by a long course of hard-fisted extortion, or thefanatical devotee, fool, and murderer,more simple than a babe,yet guilty of the foulest crimes, still comes, as of old, from theremotest corners of India as the sands of time are slowlyebbing away ; and fearful lest the golden thread should besnapped before his long journey is ended, he makes desperateefforts to hold on his course, until, arriving at the sacred city

and touching its hallowed soil, his anxious spirit becomessuddenly calm, a strange sense of relief comes over him, and

PILGRIMAGES. 247

he is at once cheered and comforted with the treacherous lie,

that his sins are forgiven him and his soul is saved."

The form of religion in Benares is Puranic, which mostprobably began to exert its influence over the people as

Buddhism lost its authority. There is no doubt that

Vedantism more or less colours the philosophical creed of

the more thoughtful and better educated, but the worship of

the masses is pure and simple idolatry in its lowest andgrossest forms—the worship of ugly idols, monsters, the

lingam and other indecent figures. There is no city in India

where the reverence paid to idols is more absolute and

complete than in Benares; and though better things might

be expected of the pundits and thinking men, they join

in this as well as the more ignorant and superstitious.

It is interesting to know that there have been more temples

built and more money spent in idolatrous worship since

the country came under British rule than during the

same number of years when the Mussulmans were masters.

Owing to the cruel oppression of their masters the people

were poor ; now, as their life and property are secure,

many have, under the belief that it will add to their bliss

in heaven, built temples in the holy city, or lavished gifts upon

those who minister to those already existing. There is one

noticeable fact that there is no solidarity in Hinduism. Atemple of costly material and of beautiful workmanship will be

allowed to go to ruin whilst a new one is being erected by its

side. The building of the one now passing away has done

its work, secured the blessings of the donor ; the building of

the new one will in its turn benefit its builder. No one would

think of giving money to restore the structure that another

hand raised. To an onlooker it appears as if Hinduism were

as vigorous as ever, i.e., judging by the number of temples that

are being built in the strongholds of that religion. But, as

hinted above, these people having more money in the present

day, the more superstitious are better able to gratify their

religious cravings.

248 WORSHIP.

Some years ago the temples of Benares were counted by

order of one of the magistrates, and it was found that in the

city proper exclusive of the suburbs there were one thousand

Hindu temples : this number has since been increased, and did

not include the niches in the walls of the houses and ghats, in

which images of some of the many deities are to be found.

Although most of the temples are of modern date, yet the

sites of many shrines remain, where for many ages there has

been a constant stream of worshippers. The pundits in

Benares say that Ganesa is worshipped in 56 places, Yogani

in 64, Durga in 9, Bhairava in 8, Siva in 11, Vishnu in 1,

the Sun in 12, all of which shrines date from the mythical

period when Devodas, the famous Eaja of Benares, was pre-

vailed upon to allow the gods to return to their ancient homefrom which he had expelled them. There are vastly more

temples than this now where the people present their offerings

to the gods. Owing to the fact that they profess to believe that

all these deities differing in character and appearance, are

but varied representatives of the One, they have a strange

fancy for accumulating many idols in one spot. Not content

with placing one deity in a temple, they make niches in the

walls in which images of others are placed, or arrange themin rows in the temple enclosure. In some places there are

twenty, fifty, or even a hundred of these gods congregated

together; and sometimes it happens that these subordinate

deities, so far as size and position indicate their importance,

are equal to their chief, and they receive as much attention

from the worshippers as the one in whose special honour the

temple was erected.

The temple that is considered the most important in the

whole city, and that to which the pilgrims hasten on their

arrival there is that of Bisheshwar, i.e., God of the world, a

name of Siva. He is regarded as the king of all the gods in

Benares itself and in the whole of the sacred territory

enclosed by the Panch-kosi road mentioned before. HisKotwal or magistrate is Bhaironath, and the gods along the

PILGRIMAGES. 249

sacred path are his watchmen. The image of Bisheshwar is

the Linga, similar to that which is found in all Saiva temples.

All day long crowds of people of all classes pass in front of

this image with their offerings of sugar, rice, ghi, grain,

flowers, money, &c., which are taken by the ministering

priests as their own. Over the narrow gateway leading to

the shrine is an image of Ganesa on which the pilgrims

sprinkle a few drops of water they have brought from the

river as they pass. A bell is hung in front of the image,

which is kept sounding all day long, by which the attention

of the deity is supposed to be called to a worshipper as he

goes to pay his respects. Sometimes the appearance of the

worshipper as he approaches the image is distressing and

solemn. His soul seems to be overawed, but with what

sentiments cannot well be affirmed. Pear certainly seems to

be the prevailing emotion ; nor is this to be wondered at

when the stories about this dreadful god are remem-

bered, and the worshipper believes him to be really present

in that stone which he is approaching. As soon as the image

is passed and the temple precincts are left, the fear at once

passes away. It seems they have a dread lest by some inad-

vertence they should excite the anger of this most irascible

deity. Outside of the enclosure on the north side, in what is

called the " Court of Mahadeva," are a number of the stone

emblems of Siva and his consort : possibly these are the

images that were left when some of the old temples were

destroyed by the Mussulmans.

Near the temple just described is the Gyan Kup or well of

knowledge. Tradition says that once the rains were with-

held for twelve years from Benares. The people being in

great distress, a Eishi pierced the earth with Siva's trident,

when there issued a copious stream of water. Siva hearing

of this promised to reside in that well for ever after. The

worshippers throw in water, flowers, &o. , as sacrifice to the god

inhabiting it. The stench arising from this is one peculiar

to this sacred city, and one that is not readily forgotten.

250 TVOESHIP.

The next chief attraction is a temple to Annapurna, a form

of Durga. Under the orders from Bisheshwar it is her duty

to feed the inhabitants of the city. The story is that whenBenares was first inhabited Annapurna found the work of

feeding so many people rather difficult. Ganga came to her

relief and promised that if she would give a handful of

grain to every person, she would supply them with a (lotah)

vessel of water. In honour of this goddess hundreds, perhaps

thousands, of poor people are daily fed by grain, a handful

being given to as many beggars as the donor can afford to

supply. Near this temple there is always an ample supply of

beggars waiting to receive the gifts of the pious.

Near the temple of Annapurna is the temple of Sakhi-

binaik, the witness-bearing Binaik ; a deity who keeps a

record of the pilgrims' names who visit the holy city andmarch along the road which encircles it. It is generally

visited by the pilgrims as they are about to return to their

own homes.

About a mile to the north of the temple of Bisheshwaris that of Bhaironath, the magistrate (Kotwal) of Benares. It

is his work to keep the peace of the city, and to prevent the

entrance of evil spirits. It is through his help that the

Hindus who go to Benares to end their days there obtain

salvation. He is represented in this temple by a stone^ staff

or cudgel. His vahan or vehicle was a dog, a representative

of which is placed near the image. It will be rememberedthat whilst many pilgrims visit Benares with the expectation

of returning to their homes, many go there to die. Hindusof means whose homes are in other parts of India have ahouse in Benares, and whenever attacked by sickness, or oldage comes on, they go there in the hope that death thereis only an entrance into a higher and better life than thepresent.

The Mankarnika well is one of the greatest attractions ofBenares, and is amongst the first places visited by the pilgrims.

Its filthy water is regarded as a healing balm that will wash

PILGKIMAGES. 251

away all sins and make the liuman soul pure. Murder and

all great crimes are said to be washed away by simply bathing

in its foul water. The story which gives it this great at-

traction is as follows. Vishnu who dug this well with his

discus, filled it with perspiration from his body, and called it

the Chakrapushkarani, or discus-produced tank. On the north

side of the tank this deity was engaged in his religious

exercises when Siva arriving saw in the water of the well

the glory of a hundred million suns, and was so delighted

that he promised to give Vishnu any boon he might like to

ask. Vishnu asked that Siva would always remain with him :

on hearing such a request Mahadeva was delighted, and in

the excess of pleasure his body shook so that an ear-ring

called mankarnik fell from his ear into the well. From this

circumstance Siva gave the well the name of Mankarnik, and

endowed it with two properties—viz., the power of giving

mukti or salvation to his worshippers ; and secondly, the

power of granting success in every good work: and com-

manded that it should be the chief and most efficacious of

pilgrimages. A flight of stone steps leads down to the water,

and an image of Vishnu is on the north side of the stairs

;

there are also sixteen small altars where offerings to ances-

tors are made. The water is only two or three feet deep and

abominably foul, yet the people bathe in it in the hope of

gaining the advantages promised to those who visit it.

Amongst the other many temples is one to Vridhakali, the

lengthener of time, and who, pleased with the devotion of an

old man who went to Benares to die, not only restored him

to health, but renewed his youth, in gratitude for which

one of the grandest old temples of the city was built, in

whibh is a representation of the sun and the planets ; Kali

and Hanuman are represented too. Daksheswar temple

seems to have been erected to keep in memory the story

of Siva's anger at the slight his father-in-law Daksha showed

by not inviting him to the great sacrifice that he made.

Siva in his anger is said to have sent his awful emissaries,

252 WORSHIP.

who cut off Daksha's head, which was replaced by that of a

goat, because his own could not be found. Daks'ha wandered

to Benares as a penance for his sin; Mahadeva meeting

him there forgave him, \there Daksha as a mark of his

gratitude is said to have erected this temple.

CHAPTEE V.

PILGRIMAGES {continued).

KALI GHAT GANGA sIgaB GAYA.

Kali Ohat.

Kali Ghat is the name of a temple situated near Calcutta,

a corrupted or anglicised form of which is seen in the nameCalcutta. The temple is said to have a supernatural origin.

When, owing to her anger at the slight shown to her husbandby her father neglecting to invite him to his great sacrifice,

Parvati destroyed herself, Siva was inconsolable at her loss,

and throwing her corpse over his shoulder, wandered through /

the earth causing the greatest consternation and trouble.

Vishnu appealed to by mankind in their distress, let his

wonder-working discus fly through the air, by which Parvati's

body was cut into fifty parts, and wherever any part touched

the ground a temple rose. It is said that at Kali Ghat the

second toe of her left foot is preserved. It is interesting to

note that excepting in the case of Krishna's bones being pre- 1

served in the image of Jagannatha at Puri, and the parts

of Parvati being preserved in these temples, there is no

regard for relics shown by the Hindus.

To this temple at Kali Ghat pilgrims come every day in

the year, but on the days of any festival connected with the

worship of Siva, e.g., the Charak Puja, and on the days when

Durga in any of his forms is worshipped, immense crowds

gather there. The great purpose of pilgrims in visiting

Kali's temple is not simply to walk round the building, and

254 WORSHIP.

try to catch a glimpse of her black face as they pass in

front of the image, but to sacrifice a kid, sheep, or buffalo.

Parents desirous of sons, families in any great sorrow vow

to Kali that if a son be given, or the trouble that oppresses

be removed, a kid will be sacrificed to her, and it is in a

large number of cases in the fulfilment of these vows that

they come. There is no promise of relief from sin, or of

entrance into heaven, such as attract to the shrines at

Benares ; it is rather as the giver of good in this present

life, and as the deliverer from pressing evils, that Kali's

\ temple is sought.

The image of Kali is most hideous. She is black, as her

name (The Black One) implies, and came, as did Durga, to

destroy the demons who were afflicting mankind. Whenher work was over as she was dancing with joy, there

was fear of the earth falling to pieced, her husband threw

himself down on the ground amongst the corpses. Seeing

him under her feet she thrust out her tongue to express her

shame, and in this postm'e her image is formed. At Kali

Ghat her large golden tongue is almost the only part that

is clearly visible, as the offerings that are thrown over the

image make it dirty, whUst the place is exceedingly dark.J jj

This temple is a source of considerable profit to the pro-

prietors, as not only do the pilgrims make their offerings,

but a fee of about sixpence is taken for every kid that is

\\ sacrificed there ; and on some days the victims are numberedby hundreds, if not by thousands. The Haldar family [is

now divided into a number of branches, each of whichreceives the offerings for a week or ten days ; but oa the

great festival days all the branches have their representa-

tives present, and the receipts are divided amongst them.

The temple or shrine is not much larger, though it is con-

siderably more lofty than the ordinary Hindu temple. Infront of it is a sort of covered platform upon which the

Brahmans sit to read the Sastras, and on which thj spec-

tators stand to witness the sacrifices. The sight of the

PILGRIMAGES. 255

courtyard around the place of sacrifice is most repulsive,

whilst the smell is most sickening. I certainly was sur-

prised when first I saw this place at the time of sacrifice.

I looked in vain for any, the slightest, sign of reverence

as the people were offering their victims to the deity. Onbusy days there is a noisy, bustling crowd, each one trying to

get his gift first attended to. The people bring their victims,

pay the fee, and the priest then puts a little vermihon on

its head. When their turn comes the executioner takes

the animal, fixes its head in the frame, and then beheads

it. A little of the blood is placed in front of the idol, and

the pilgrim takes away the headless body. Throughout

the whole ceremony, there seems to me nothing expres-

sive of sin or the desire for purity; nor is there in the

ceremony itself anything at all calculated to impress the

people with the idea of devotion ; nothing calculated to

make or keep them pure. The whole ceremony from begin-

ning to end seems utterly unfitted, as far as one can see,

in any way to benefit the worshippers.

Ganga Silgar.

This is one of the great bathing festivals, and though

it is considered a good thing to bathe in any part of the

Ganges, the most sacred part is at the mouth of the river

where its waters mingle with those of the sea. It is held

on the southern shore of Saugor Island. Ganga Sagar

simply means the Eiver-Ocean ; and as the island of Saugor

faces the sea and the waters of the river flows on either side

of it, the water there is really partly sea and partly river

water. The people believing that by bathing here salvation

from sin is certain, they come from places hundreds of miles

distant to attend the great festival which is held annually

in the month of January.

In the Eamayana '= a story is found which explains why

the waters of the Ganges is so efficacious here that people

* " Hindu Mythology," p. 383.

256 woESHiP.

•

come from all parts of India once in a lifetime at least to

wash away their sins. There is a fulness in the promise to

those who bathe in its flowing waters; it is that all sin—past,

present, and future—is by that act at once removed. Andas in the early days of the Christian Church the converts

delayed their baptism until late in life lest after receiving

the rite they should fall into mortal sin and have no resource

by which they could be freed; so in many cases it is the

aged that attend the festival at GrangaSagar, that there maybe the less fear of their falling into sin. For few a second

visit would be practicable, the trouble and expense connected

with a visit being so great.

The story from the Eamayana is as follows :—A king

named Sagar (it is from him that the island takes its name),

being childless, prayed repeatedly to the gods for a son. Atlast Siva, pleased with his devotion, gave him 60,000. After

a time this king wished to obtain the position of Indra, or

king over the gods. This could only be obtained by the per-

formance of the Asvamedh, or sacrifice of a hundred horses.

All preparation was made for this important ceremony, andhad proceeded satisfactorily until ninety-nine had beenoffered. The hundredth horse, as was customary, the night

before it was to be sacrificed was set, at liberty to wanderwhere it wished. On the following morning search was madefor it in vain. The reigning Indra had stolen it in fear

that if Sagar's sacrifice were properly offered he would have.to resign his throne. Great Consternation was manifest as

the missing horse could not be found. The sons of the kingsearched everywhere, but their efforts were for a long timefruitless. At last they commenced digging, and working awayuntil they came to the middle of the earth, they foundthe horse tied to a tree beside a saint named Kapila, who is

said to have been an incarnation of Vishnu. Angry at whatthey considered an act of theft, they abused this saint; and hein his turn becoming angry, cursed them, and they became aheap of ashes. Only one son who had remained with his

PILGRIMAGES. 257

father was spared. The king, in great sorrow at his loss, is

told that only by one means could his sons be restored to

him, and that was by inducing Ganga (the Eiver Ganges)

to come down from her abode in heaven, which was in the

Himalayah mountains. Sagar was thinking for 30,000 years

how he could manage this ; but seeing no way, he resigned

his kingdom to his son, and went to heaven. But it was not

until his great-grandson, Bhagiratha, had by a life of most

severe penance obtained a boon from the gods that she could

be persuaded to come. When at last she came, she wasin a great rage at being disturbed ; but her husband Siva,

catching her in his hair, quieted her, and at length she

reached this heap of ashes, and no sooner touched them than

the princes aU sprang up to Ufe again, and were imme-diately carried in golden chariots to Indra's heaven. Andbecause it is said that it was at this place she manifested

this great power the people visit it to bathe. As here she

brought to life Sagar's sons, and gained admission for them

to heaven, the people say, here, more than elsewhere, is she

able to wash away sin.

At the festival held ia January it is estimated that not less

than 100,000 are present. During the greater part of the

year the place where it is held is quite uninhabited, ia fact, it

is under water, as the waters of the Bay of Bengal are carried

over it by the south-west winds. But a week or two before

the bathiag day shopkeepers and others come, and then the

pilgrims crowd in with every tide. On reaching the island

they generally make temporary dwelling-places for themselves

on shore, as they have had a good deal of discomfort to

endure on board the boats by which they have come. As

a rule, they simply make enclosures with strips of calico,

having no covering overhead.

Of course the great object in coming is to bathe, and it is

a most interesting sight to see thousands of people rushing

into the sea in the assurance that this will wash away their

Bins. That this is the firm conviction of multitudes there

18

258 WORSHIP.

can be no doubt. For this journey many have been saving

:a little out of their scanty earnings for twenty years or more.

For this they have been travelling for days and weeks, exposed

io all kinds of danger and discomfort ; and from the lips of

many I have heard the assurance that they could now die in

peace, because they had washed in holy Ganga's stream. Assoon as it is light these crowds of pilgrims plunge into the

flood with shouts of exultation ; they are gratifying the

desire of many long years, and doing what by many of themis regarded as the most holy act of religion.

,Another important work for the pilgrim is the worship of

the many deities that are there represented by their idols, andwhose praises are extolled by their priests. Along the sid-es

•of the main thoroughfares images are set up with their priests

sitting by to receive the gifts of the pious. And I have watchedhundreds of the pilgrims going up one side and down the

other, giving something to the guardians of every idol, evi-

dently fearful lest inadvertently omitting one this neglected

deity, being angry, should bring down all kinds of evil uponthem. It is the extortion of these priests that greatly addsto the expense of a visit to such a place, because they eachdeclare that the neglect of the particular deity in whomthey are personally interested will bring down his curse.

In addition to the deities there are hundreds of Sanyasis(saints), whom it is accounted an honour and a work ofmerit to feed ; and these idle parasites are fed by the poorpeople, who in this way lavish their hard-earned moneyupon those who are able, but not willing, to work for theirliving.

The most important object of worship at this festival is animage of Kapila, the saint near whom Sagar's horse was found,and who in his anger burnt up the sons of the king. This is

a shapeless piece of stone daubed over every year with a freshcoat of red paint. During the year the image is kept care-fully packed away in Calcutta, but a week or two before thefestival it is entrusted to a number of priests, who agree to

PILGKIMAGES. 259

take charge of it during the festival on condition that theyreceive a percentage on the gifts of the pilgrims. This imageis set up in a temporary temple, as by the encroachments of

the sea the old brick temple has been destroyed. A plat-

form of sand about four feet high is first raieed ; a hut is

then erected on the platform, and in this the image is set

up for worship. A bamboo raihng is placed in front of

it, and a crowd of people from daylight until dark, on the

three days of the festival, is constantly hurrying past it. All

give something. And when asked why they do so, the

answer is : " If Kapila Muni could destroy Sagar's sons, howmighty he must be ! And if we please him with our gifts he

will pray to the gods for us, and we shall be blessed through

iis intercession." Of course where the belief prevails that

he was an incarnation of Vishnu,it is easy enough to see

why the people should be ready to make their offerings to

him. I have watched the poor people as they have been

hurried past this block of stone giving of their poverty, aye,

often all they had, and felt that these were amongst the most

religious people I had ever seen. Their faith in the power of

the gods to curse and to bless is almost unlimited ; and it

appeared to me that after bathing in the sea and, as they

beheved, washing away their guilt by that act, they nowcame with glad hearts to make a thank-offering for the great

boon they had received. • •

Stories such as the following taken from the Eamayanatend to excite and sustain the faith of the people in this

method of purification from sin, and to lead them to makepilgrimages to the banks of this sacred stream. A pre-

eminently wicked Brahman, who from youth had been

associated with a harlot, was walking in a wood when a tigojf

seized him, ate his flesh and drank his blood. A crow

snatching up a bone was flying with it over the Ganges,

when a vulture attacked •him, and in the fight the bone fell

into the water. Immediately the bone touched the stream

the emissaries of Vishnu seized the soul of the departed as it

260 WOKSHIP.

was being carried off to Yama. In their rage and despair these

men go into the presence of their king and narrate the

story of their loss. Yama in his turn, being greatly excited,

immediately rushed off to Vishnu with the story of his sup-

posed wrongs. Vishnu listens attentively to all he has to

say, and then declared that Ganga had gone down to earth

with the express purpose of taking away the sin of man

;

that her power was such that even he, the Lord of aU, could

not properly estimate it, and further declared that as far

as the waves of the Ganges should roll Vishnu would extend

his protecting arm to those whose bones should fall into her

stream, and that as soon as the bones touched the water the

soul of the man should immediately ascend to heaven ; andthat the drinking of a draught of water from this river will

fully atone for all the sins hi a lifetime.

The following invocation to Ganga is found in a child's-

reading book, and has doubtless influenced many in their

religious practices

:

" Oh ancient Purifier of the fallen, the drinking vessel

of Brahma was thine abode. At his side didst thou,

dwell, and sanctify the city of the gods. Seeing the sad

state of mortals, to deliver them from fear of the future,

thou, goddess of the gods, camest upon earth. , . . The most,

wicked sinner upon touching thy waters goes to heaven in

his body. . . . The low Sudra or Sanyasi on dying goes-

to heaven if he has bathed there when the sun enters Cap-ricorn. By pronouncing thy name he obtains admittance tO'

the house of Vishnu ; he is spared the sight of Yama's city.

When life has fled from the corpse, the father and motherwill drag it to the place of cremation, and whilst they

forsake it, thou foldest it in thy bosom. The corpse fed

upon by crows and jackals floats till it reaches thy bankswhere hundreds of heavenly courtezans with fans in their-

hands come to attend upon it. . . . The most wicked sinner

if he but touch thy waters enjoys thy favour in the last

extremity."

PILGBIMAGES. 261

Carrying Water from the Ganges.—Another very commonform of pilgrimage to the Ganges—if possible to Hurdwarwhere its waters rush from the hills, but if that be too far

distant then to some nearer spot—is to bring a vessel of

water thence to bathe the image of some particular deity

whose aid has been sought in time of sickness or trouble,

and to whom this offering of sacred water was promisedif a favourable issue resulted. During the cold weathermonths it is a most common thing to see numbers of people

travelling with an earthen vessel of this water most care-

fully preserved. In some cases a vow is made that the

person interested will himself fetch this water and carry it

to the temple of the god to whom it has been promised, andthis may necessitate a journey of a thousand miles.

Sometimes a servant will be sent on this errand, or it maybe purchased from men who earn their living by carrying

it to places remote from the river. In times of trouble

large sums of money are often paid for it by those whohelieve that this ig the most acceptable offering they can

jnake. The water taken from Hurdwar is put in bottles

which bear the seal of the officiating priests of the temple

there. When this sacred water is poured over or before an

image of Vishnu, or.any of his incarnations, it is carefully

caught and drunk by his worshippers, as it is supposed

to have healing and purifying virtues ; but owing to a curse

of his wife's, that which is poured over Siva's image is not

allowed to touch human lips. In most of these forms of

worship the idea of David when King Araunah wished to

give him cattle for a sacrifice and wood to burn is seen. Hesays, " Nay, but I will surely buy them from thee at a price.

Shall I give to Jehovah that which costs me nothing." It

is generally when some loved member of the family has re-

covered from sickness, or a law-suit has been decided in

favour of the offerer that, in gratitude for what he believes

the particular deity to whom the offering is made has done

for him, these lengthy and wearisome journeys are made

;

262 woESHip.

though the offering is intrinsically of little value, it is be-

lieved to be most acceptable to many of the deities.

GayU.'*

This well-known place of pilgrimage is resorted to for

the benefit not so much of the living as of the dead

;

for the Sradha, or funeral ceremonies for the departed, is

considered to be of far greater benefit if performed here

than elsewhere. Originally Gaya was the headquarters of

the Buddhists, as it was there that Buddha lived during hia

hermit-life and attained to the highest state of purity. Here

for centuries Buddhists flocked from all parts of India and

the farther East, though now as a Buddhist shrine it is

almost deserted. In fact, the shrine that the Buddhist?-

regarded as perhaps, the most sacred spot on the face of

the earth has been under the charge of a Saiva Mahant and.

disciples, who enjoy the benefit of the gifts of the people

who visit the sacred tree near the temple. His income from

lands and offerings is reckoned at eighty thousand rupees per

year; out of which he was to feed on an average about

one hundred pilgrims and ascetics daily. The town in

which this shrine is found is called Buddha Gaya, to dis-

tinguish it from Brahma Gaya, or simply Gaya, which is five

miles distant, where the Hindus now resort. The town of

Gaya has existed for 2,400 years ; it was there that Buddha-

made his home, and it was there that he first conceived theidea of devoting himself to a life of meditation which wasto secure to mankind the highest blessing. The people here

were the first to believe in him and receive his doctrines,

and it became for a time the headquarters of his faith. But.

at the beginning of the fifth century it had lost its Buddhistcharacter and had relapsed into Hinduism. In the Gaya.

Mahatmya of the Vayu Purana is a legend to account for

this change, and for the sacred character it possesses in the

* " Buddha Gaya," by Dr. Eagendra Lall Mittra.

PILGHIMAGES. 26S

minds of the Hindus of the present day. I give this in anabbreviated form :

—

Brahma created all things by the order of Vishnu, who from

his fierce nature produced the Asuras, and from his humanenature the noble-minded Devas. Among the Asuras was one

Gaya, who was endowed with great strength and vigour.

This great giant measured 576 miles in height, and was 268miles in girth, and was a most devout worshipper of Vishnu.

With his breath suppressed he practised great austerities for

many thousands of years until the gods became afraid, andin their distress repaired to Brahma for aid. Brahma,hearing their request, led them to Siva, and he in his turn

led them to Hari (Vishnu), who was sleeping on the milky

:Oceaii, saying, " He will devise some means of relief." Arriving

in his presence they adored him in a hymn, and being

gratified, he revealed himself to them, and asking what wastheir need, told them to proceed to the Asura Gaya, and that

he himself would accompany them.

Arriving in his presence the three deities asked him whyhe persevered in his austerities and assured him that they

were prepared to grant him any boon he might ask. The

request was this :" Make my body purer than that of

Brahma, Vishnu, Siva ;purer than the Devas or Brahmans,

purer than all sacrifices, and sacred pools and high mountains,

purer even than the purest of the gods." "Be it so," said the

gods, and repaired to heaven. The result of which blessing

was that mortals who believed or touched the demon at

once ascended to the heaven of Brahma ; the world became

empty, and Hades, Yama's dominion, was deprived of in-

habitants.

When Yama, Indra, and the other deities thus became

deprived of their subjects, they repaired to Brahma and re-

solved to resign their positions, as, having no subjects to

govern, there was nothing for them to do. Led by Brahma,

they again repaired to Vishnu, and complained that "by

the sight of the demon whom you have blessed all mortals

264 WORSHIP.

are being translated to heaven, and the three regions (earth,

sky, and hell) have become empty." Under the advice of

Vishnu, the gods then repaired to Gaya, to ask him to give

Tip his body to them that they might offer a sacrifice upon it,

by which means he assured, them they would escape from

their present difficulties. The demon was delighted at the

honour which was paid to him, and, addressing Brahma and

.the gods, said: "Blesssed is my life this day, blessed is mypenance ; verily I have attained all my objects since Brahmalias become my guest. Say why you have come, and I will

at once execute the task for you." Brahma then told the

Asura that of all holy pools that he had seen, there was none

to compare with the demon's body as a place of sacrifice, andasked him to grant it for this purpose. Gaya replied :

*' Blessed am I since you have asked for my body; mypaternal ancestors will be sanctified shouldest thou perform asacrifice on my body. By you it was created, and it is well

that it should be of use to you: it will then be of use

to all."

Having thus spoken, the demon fell prostrate on the ground,

leaning towards the south-west. Brahma produced fromhis mind the officiating priests (Eitvijas), and collected the

necessary articles, and offered the sacrifice. The priests

having been fed and the bathing over, he and his companions-were greatly surprised to find that the demon's body wasmoving on the ground. He therefore ran to Yama, and askedhim to bring the stone of religion (Dharmasila) and place

it upon the demon's head ; but though this was done, Gayastill moved. The gods then sat upon the stone to press downGaya's head; but all their efforts were useless, the demoncontinued to move. In his distress Brahma repaired to

Vishnu, and told him of the power of Gaya in moving, thoughall the gods were trying to keep him quiet. Vishnu thensent a fierce fiend who issued from his person ; but even this

was powerless too. At last Vishnu himself came, bearinghis mace, called Gadadhara, and striking the demon with it,

PILGRIMAGES. 265

and sitting with the other gods and goddesses upon thestone, was able to keep the demon quiet. Upon this Gaya,addressing the gods, said : " Why should you treat me thus,

•when I have given my sinless body to Brahma ? Would I

not have become motionless if Hari (Vishnu) had asked me ?

Why then should he torture me with his mace ? And whyshould you all join in this torture ? Now show mercy to

me?" The gods, delighted, promised to grant him his

desire. Gaya prayed :" As long as the earth and moun-

tains, seas and stars shall last, may you, Brahma, Vishnu,and Mahadeva, rest on this stone. May you, the Devas, rest

on it too, and call this place after me. The Kshetra (field) of

Gaya, extending over ten miles, of which two miles are

covered with my head. Therein, for the good of mankind,let all the sacred tanks on earth abide, where persons bybathing and offering of oblations of water, or funeral cakes,

may attain high merit for themselves, and translate their

ancestors blessed with all that is desirable, and salvation, to

the region of Brahma. As long, as Vishnu in his triple form

shall be adored by the learned, so long let this be renownedon earth as the sacred place of Gayasura, and may resort to

it cleanse men of even the sin of killing Brahmans." Hear-

,ing this prayer, the gods, headed by Vishnu, said : " What-ever you ask shall be accomplished. By offering the Pinda

^funeral cakes) and performing Shradhas here, persons will

translate their ancestors for a hundred generations, as also

themselves, to Brahmalok (heaven), where exists no disease.

By worshipping our feet they will attain to the highest re-

ward in after life."

It is the influence of this legend which leads numbers to

visit Gaya annually to perform the Shradha of their deceased

relatives. And monstrous as the story at first sight seems.

Dr. Mittra suggests a very plausible, and at the same time

reasonable, explanation of it. The Asuras (literally non-gods)

are generally described as the enemies of the gods ; but this

Gaya was a devout worshipper of Vishnu, and through this

266 WORSHIP.

worship gained such immense power. Gaya then represented

Buddhism, which at one time threatened the extinction of

Hinduism, and by its simple rites and the abolition of sacri-

fice, did away largely with the necessity of the priests, and so

cut off their resources that were derived from the offerings of

the people. He was regarded as a heretic, and at that

time the Buddhist religion extended over as large a portion

of India as is represented by the immense body of this

Asura. The headquarters of Buddhism were then at Gaya ;

the attempt of the gods to hold down the head of the giant

represents the attempt of the Brahtaans to attack the here-

tical system at its great stronghold ; and Vishnu's mac©

represents the appeal to force where reasoning and the milder

measures had proved of no avail. Then the gods blessed

the means employed, and made what was once the head of a

heretical creed the most beneficial place of pilgrimage for the

faithful.

The Hindus have appropriated to themselves the chief

places of this district, as well as in Orissa and elsewhere,

that once were sacred to the Buddhists. The footmarks of

Vishnu in the chief Buddhist temple at Buddha Gaya are

most religiously worshipped by the Hindus, and the same

Purana which praises Gaya as a place of pilgrimage for

Hindus teaches that, before offering the cakes for their an-

cestors, they must first visit and worship the sacred pipul-

tree near the Buddhist temple, under which Buddha is said to

have meditated, as the dwelling-place of Vishnu. And though

this tree is about five miles from the Hindu Gaya, in that

book the whole district, fifteen miles in length, is regarded as

sacred ; though some parts of it are said to be more sacred

than others, especially a small well called Gayasiras, the

Head of Gaya. It is here that the town called by the people

Purana Gaya stands, which is almost exclusively occupied bythe Gawal priests, who are called into requisition for the

funeral ceremonies of people in all parts of India. As manyas six hundred families live there, but as they only intermarry

PILGEIMAGES. 267

amongst themselves, the race appears to be dying out. Other

parts have special names—Eama Gaya, Vishnu Gaya, andBuddha Gaya, which was mentioned before, which are spe-

cially sacred to the deities named here, though the whole

district is holy ground.

CHAPTEE VI.

PILGRIMAGES (continued).

THE TEMPLE OP JAGANNATHA * AT PTIKI.

Amongst the most popular tj/i'thas, or places of pUgrimage, is

Puri, the town in which theTemple of Jagannatha stands.

The whole province of Orissa is regarded as peculiarly holy

;

the many temples, and particularly the one at Puri, give it

this peculiar sanctity. " Its whole extent is one uninter-

rupted tirtha. Its happy inhabitants live secure of a recep-

tion into the world of spirits, and those who even visit it

and bathe in its sacred rivers, obtain remission of their

sins, though they weigh like mountains. Who shall ade-

quately describe its sacred streams, its temples, its khetras,

its &agrant flowers, and all the merits and advantages of a

sojourn in such a land ? What necessity, indeed, can there

be for enlarging on the praise of a region which the Devatas

themselves dehght to inhabit ? t However popular some of

the other temples may have been in past times, e.g., those in

Bhuvaveswara, when Saivism was more common than it is

at present, it is to Jagannatha-Khetra that the bulk of the

pilgrims wend their way, and with " seeing " the deity there

they generally remain content.

The name Puri signifies the city, it being regarded by manyof the Hindus as the most holy place on the face of the earth.

* Dr. Eagendra Lall Mittra's work on Orissa.

t " Kapila Sanhita," quoted in As. Ser. Journal, vol. xv. p. 166.

PILGKIMAGES. 269

It is a town built on the sandy shore of the Bay of Bengal,and the hill on which the great temple is built is only about,twenty feet higher than the surrounding plain. One of the^

strangest facts about the temple and its great inhabitantJagannatha is this, that whilst he is regarded as the incarna-tion of Yishnu, the mildest and most genial of all the deities-

of the Hindu Pantheon, in European writings he is regardedas the Moloch of India. It is true that many have perishedby throwing themselves under the wheels of his car whilst it.

was being drawn through the streets ; but this has been notbecause the people imagined that blood was a pleasiag offering-

to him : but either because those who thus sacrificed their

lives felt so secure of heaven if they died within the hmits ofthe sacred khetra or holy place, that they did not wish to.

return to the wicked world to incur fresh sins ; or possibly

some who were familiar with the cruel rites supposed to beacceptable to some of the forms of Devi, in their ignorance of

Jagannatha's real character, imagined that their voluntary

immolation would be acceptable to him. This is very pro-

bable, when it is remembered that many pilgrims start ona protracted course of wandering, going from shrine to

shrine ; and though brought up in one particular sect, andknowing what, according to its tenets, is pleasiag to the

deity they usually worship, they do not stop to learn what is

pleasing to others. It is also possible that in a few cases it

was owing to the excitement of the moment, not as a pre-

meditated act of devotion, that they cast themselves under

the wheels of the car, in the hope that such comjflete self-

saerifice could not fail to receive its reward. Whatever the

motive, it is certain that from what is generally taught as the

character of Jagannatha, and the rites that are performed in

his worship, there is nothing to lead men to regard him as a

cruel deity delighting in death, but the very opposite.

The town of Puri has nothing to attract save its temples

and maths, or monasteries ; it is composed mostly of ruined,

huts, with a fixed population, mostly Hindus, of about 23,000.

"270 WORSHIP.

At the great festivals there are from 60,000 to 100,000 pilgrims

present there. Its history naturally divides itself into three

periods

:

1. The Early Hindu Period. The authority for this are

chapters in the three Puranas—the Skanda, Kurma, and

J^arad. The legends are evidently written with the object of

casting a halo of glory round the place, which, at the time

they were written, was growing in popularity. The informa-

iion is given in answer to an inquiry why Vishnu assumed

-the form of a log of wood, by which he is represented at the

temple at Puri.

Brahma, feeling distressed that he had not provided suffi-

cient means for human salvation, repaired to Vishnu with

the request that he would provide a simple method. This

Tvas not immediately granted, but Brahma was reminded

that those who were really in earnest in their search for

salvation could easily obtain it by living in the secret abode of

ihe divinity by the sea-shore. In praise of this place Vishnu"then said : "On the north shore of the sea to the south of

Mahanadi Eiver is my favourite abode, which alone canconfer all the blessings to be derived from aU the other

sacred places on the earth put together. Those wise sons of

Manu who reside there enjoy the fruits of all the good deeds

performed by them in previous births. . , . None who has little

anerit or is weak in faith, can live there. . . . The Blue Hill (the

site of the temple) is the most secret place on earth ; mostdifficult of access even to you (Brahma). I dwell there in atodily form, and that holy spot, rising above all mutability,

is unassailable by creation and destruction. As you see meJiere, so you will see me there. ' On that Blue Hill to the west

of the Kalpa fig-tree, there is a fountain named Eohina

;

dwelling near it men may see me with their mortal eyes, andwashing off their sins with its water, attain equaHty with

me." This does not merely refer to moral, but also bodily,

likeness ; for on Brahma's visiting the place, it is said that hesaw a crow first dip, then plunge into the water of this

PILGRIMAGES. 271

fountain—the result was that the crow came forth out of thewater the exact counterpart of Vishnu, and at once went to

his heavenly abode. On seeing this, Brahma was convincedof the glory of the place, and determined to extend andenhance it. Other stories are given, one of which is to showthat Yama has no control over those who die there, the souls

of the departed obtaining at once complete salvation.

Another teaches that this place is not subject to decay anddissolution as are others, but will continue in its glory whenall other places have been swept away.

This same authority gives the following account of thebuilding of the temple, and the establishment of the worshipof a wooden image there. In the earliest stage of its exist-

ence, Puri was a forest, having the Blue Hill in the centre,

the Kalpa tree on its brow, the sacred fountain of Eohina onthe west, and on its side an image of Vishnu in sapphire.

This stone gave its name to the image, viz., Nila mani(the blue jewel). Indradyumna, Zing of Malava (Malwa),

(hearing of the glories of the place, and the benefits to be

derived from worshipping there, from an ascetic, determined

to visit it in person. Before setting out, however, it wasthought advisable to send an officer from his court to see if

-this account were true. The priest's brother went, and onarriving at the spot, saw a number of Brahmans who hadbeen changed into Vishnu's form, having each four arms.

The chief of the community at first was unwilling to allow

ibis officer to see the sacred bower, but afterwards consented,

and gave him a heavenly wreath of flowers, which was taken

from the neck of the god.

On his return the king was most anxious to start on his

journey, and his earnestness was increased by a visit of the

sage Narad, who told him that aU other holy places, and all

religious ceremonies would not yield him a thousandth part

of the benefit that would come through faith in Vishnu.

When the king reached the borders of Orissa, he was niet

by its king, and they together worshipped Siva undet the

272 woBSHip.

usual form of a Linga in a mango forest ; the place to which

Vishnu had exiled him when he drove him from Benares. He

then proceeded to the secret temple, but great was his disap-

pointment to find that the sapphire image had sunk through

the sand ; and the deity had left his favourite earthly abode

and gone to Patala, the nether regions. At first the king was

almost inconsolable, but at length Narad was able to comfort

him ; he told him that he could form a wooden image of

the departed deity, the sight of which would obtain as great

comforts for mankind as though they saw the god himself,

and led hirp. to set about a great sacrifice of 1,000 horses,

which would prove of the greatest benefit to himself and

others. The sacrifice was commenced with great pomp and

magnificence, and on the seventh night of the ceremony the

king had a dream, which rewarded him for all his trouble.

He saw a noble tree, within which was Vishnu, accompanied

by his wife Lakshmi, and Ananta. In his hands were the

usual emblems—^the conch, discus, macev and lotus ; and byhis side the celestial wonder-working wheel, Sudarsana. Afew days after this, an immense log of wood was washed uponthe shore, in which were the marks of Vishnu, and its arrival

was regarded as the fulfilment of the dream. From this log

were formed images of Jagannatha (Vishnu), Balarama,

Subhadra, and the Sudarsana. And when these were ready,

at Indradyumna's request, Brahma and the gods came downfrom heaven to assist at their consecration and the inaugura-

tion of the worship of Vishnu vmder the form of Jagannatha.

at Puri.

2. The Buddhist Period. The temple records quietly ignore

the very existence of Buddhism, and invent stories of the

district being overcome by Mussulmans and others ; but the

truth seems to be that at one time Puri was really one of the

important centres of Buddhistic teaching. "When the Gaya.

Asura fell down in worship, whilst his head was said to be

at Gaya, his navel in the same legend is said to have been at

Puri, clearly indicating that Puri was one of the important-

PILGEIMAGES. 273

centres of that worship. There is much to be said in favour

of the idea that the relic which is supposed to be enshrined in

the image of Jagannatha, which is most carefully transferred

from the old to a new image, and which the Hindus believe

to be the bones of Krishna, or according to others the soul

of the deity, is nothing else than the tooth of Buddha, which

it is known was most carefully preserved, and over which a

magnificent temple or Dagoba was erected at a place called

Dantapura. "Where Dantapura was situated is uncertain;

but it is highly probable that it was at Puri, and that the

building erected as a shrine for the tooth of Buddha has

given place to the temple in which the image of Jagannatha

is worshipped. This relic was taken to Patna, where

some miracles are said to have been wrought through its

power, on seeing which the Brahmans of the place exclaimed

:

" There are many incarnations of Janardana (Vishnu);

this bone is part of him. If not, whence such influence as

this." And a careful examination of the Vaishnavism of the

present day will show how the main lessons of Buddhism

have been incorporated in it, and its emblems modified or

explained to be identical with those of the Vaishnava sects.

3. The Vaishnava Period. As far as can be distinctly

known, it was about the close of the fifth century of the present

era that a king, named Yayati Kesari, came from Magadha

and established, or, as the Hindus say, re-established Hindu-

Brahmanical worship at Puri, where Buddhism had for cen-

turies held sway. This same king is said also to have made

preparations for the erection of the great tower at Bhuva-

neshwara, where Siva-worship has its great stronghold. This

may be true, for instances are known of men who show their

impartiality by erecting temples or supporting the worship of

the temples of several deities ; or it may be that he changed

the object of his worship—he who at one time was an earnest

worshipper of Vishnu possibly became as earnest a follower

of Siva.

This is a probable account of the king's action. Finding a

19

274 •woBSHip.

Buddhist temple with three mystic monograms, together with

the wheel of the law set on high at one end, before which the

worshippers bowed and then went on their way, these three

emblems Yayati called by Hindu names, and taught that

they were representations of Vishnu and his brother and

sister, and the Buddhistic wheel an image of Vishnu's won-

derful discus. Placing Hindu priests there, the mantras

were changed, and some slight changes in the ritual intro-

duced also. He probably repaired the temple, and slightly

changed the representatives of deity ; but it is unlikely that

he did more than this. There are some records which de-

scribe this king as building a new temple and setting up newimages, which so delighted the people that they called himIndradyumna II. ; but this, as Dr. Mittra says, is most

imlikely. At first the changes introduced were as few as

possible, in order that it might appear that the really newsystem was only a development of the one with which the

people had been familiar.

The present building was completed in 1196, the account

of its erection being found in the temple annals. A king of

Orissa, named Kamadeva, determining to erect a new temple

in place of the one which had partly fallen into ruins, pulled

down the old one, and coUeoted materials for a new building

;

but after workiug at it for five years he died. His son, MadanMahadeva, was at first engaged in the erection of a temple at aplace eight miles from Puri ; and when this was finished, heturned his attention to the work commenced by his father.

But he died after reigning four years only, and his brother,

Ananga Bhima, succeeded to the throne, and also took upwith great energy the work of the re-building of the great

temple. He took as his model the great tower of Bhuvanesh-wara, but surpassed his model in beauty and grandeur.This man having been guilty of the almost unpardonablesin of killing a Brahman, tried to make expiation by erecting

temples, crossing rivers with bridges, making good roads,

digging tanks, &o. To him Jagannatha appeared in a dream

PILGRIMAGES. 275

and told him td go to Puri and there call upon his name.And it was to the effort of the king to atone for this sin that

the temple owes its completion. His descendants are the

guardians of the holy shrine, and glory in the title of " the

Sweepers of the sacred Temple."

It was during the reign of his successor, Prataparudra,

that Puri was visited by Chaitanya, the great reformer of

Bengal ; who, finding that so many pilgrims came there from

all parts of the country, considered that it would be a good

place to promulgate his doctrines, and remaining there for

years,, by his teaching greatly changed the character of

tbe^ishnu worship. He taught that Bhakti (trust) was far

more acceptable to the deity than fastings, penance of various

kinds, and the performance of religious rites. Hitherto fear

and veneration had been the emotions that men had thought

to be most acceptable to God; he taught that the highest

type of worship was the passionate love which man cherishes

for woman ; and though in his own teaching there was little

that was objectionable, as his followers have developed it it

tends to render those who embrace it most voluptuous. TheJBuddhist character of the place served his purpose ; the name•ofthe deity (Jagannatha, i.e., the Lord of the World) was suited

to his world-wide idea of brotherhood. Caste had been almost

destroyed by Buddhism ; and Chaitanya taught that within

the temple enclosure all men were brethren, and were per-

mitted to eat together of the food that had been made sacred

by being presented to the deity. Aided by the Eaja whoibeoame one of his most devout disciples, the ritual was

•changed and the mystic songs of Jayadeva were sung at the

morning and evening worship of the god ; and the " Lord

of the World " in his worship was regarded very much as a

man with human sympathies such as were in his followers.

^'The divinity ceased; and in his place rose the being who

may be looked upon at option as the master, friend, parent,

or mistress of the worshippers; and his service was modelled

accordingly. A human being on rising from bed must first

276 WORSHIP.

wash his face and brush his teeth ; and the first service was

aooordingly made to typify washing and brushing. Bathing,

breakfast, recreations, dining, and sleeping all followed by

symboHsms, and the service of the divinity was changed to

the service of man. This anthropomorphic form of worship,

first introduced by Chaitanya, still obtains, and traits of it

will be seen in the accounts of the feasts and festivals " con-

nected with the worship at this place. " The memory of the

reformer is held in the highest veneration, and there are

upwards of eight hundred temples devoted to his worship in

Orissa."

It has been frequently stated that the worship of Jagan-

natha is associated with much that is licentious. Dr. Hunter

and Mr. Fergusson state that it is on the Vishnu temples-

that the more indecent sculptures are to be found, biit Dr.

Mittra distinctly and emphatically denies this. He says that

in the Central Provinces and Orissa, where these represen-

tations are to be found, they are at least as common on Siva

temples as on those of the many incarnations of Vishnu ; and

concludes by saying : " As a Hindu by birth, and Vaishnava

by family religion, I have had access to the innermost sanc-

tuaries, and to the most secret of Scriptures ; I have studied

the subject most extensively, and have had opportunities of

judging which no European can have, and I have no hesita-

tion in saying that, the ' mystic songs ' of Jayadeva and thfr

' Ocean of Love ' notwithstanding, there is nothing in the-

ritual of Jagannatha which can be called licentious."

During the Mussulman rule the images of this as well as

other temples were once and again destroyed, but it is believed

that before the Mussulmans attacked the temple the relic,

whatever it is, which is said to be preserved in the image,

was carefully removed, and when safer times came, newimages having been made, the relics were restored ; so that

though the perishable part of the deity has been frequently

renewed, that which gives special sanctity to it continues-

unimpaired.

PILGEIMAGES. 277

The large temple which gives such great sanctity to

the whole city stands on a mound about 20 feet high. Thecourtyard surrounding it is 665 feet by 644 feet, and is

enclosed by a thick stone wall about 22 feet high, but

which is of a much later date than the temple itself. There

are four gateways ; the principal one being to the east, in

front of which is a splendid stone pillar that was originally

in front of the Sun Temple at Konasak. The building itself

is of the pyramidal form which is common in Orissa.

Besides the chief figures for whose worship the temple was

erected, there are others occupying less conspicuous positions.

On the staircase by which the pilgrims enter are images

of Siva and Eamachandra. On the right is the Snan-

Vedi, or platform on which the god is bathed at the great

festival of the Snan Jatra; near to it is a small pavilion

in which the goddess Lakshmi is placed to witness this

ceremony; whilst on the opposite side of the courtyard

is a similar pavilion on which she sits to welcome him on his

return from his annual ride on the car. There is the cook-

room in which sacred food is cooked, and a covered way

leading from it to the temple, so that it can be carried by

the priests without fear of defilement into the presence of

the god. There is also a house called Vaikuntha (the

heaven of Vishnu), in which some priests reside, and which is

used as a place where the rich pilgrims are taken to ratify their

endowments to the temple ; and a sacred place where the old

images are buried when new ones are instituted in their place.

The inner enclosure, 400 feet by 278 feet, is secured by

double walls, with a space of 11 feet between them, which are

supposed to have been made thus in case of need, to be filled

in with earth to strengthen the defence. The centre of this

enclosure is occupied with the great temple, as well as a

number of smaller shrines and spots regarded as especially

sacred. Amongst these the most important object to the

pilgrims is the sacred tree, under which it is said the mes-

senger from Indradyumna met the keeper of the forest ; but

278 woESHip.

as the tree now growing is the Vata {Fiais Indica), and the

tree mentioned in the legend is the Asvattha {Ficus religiosa),

and as the present tree is not more than two hundred years

old, it is certain that this cannot be the identical tree though

it is probable that it stands where some noted tree that was

sacred to the Buddhists once grew. The tree is called the

Kalpa-briksha, and has the virtue of making barren womenfruitful. When visited for this purpose the woman spreads

her cloth on the ground, and if within a reasonable time a

fruit falls on it from the tree she takes it as a sign that the

god is propitious and will bestow on her the desired boon.

The Kapila Sanhita declares, "whoever stands under the

shadow of this tree, immediately clears himself from the sin

of killing Brahmans ; and whoever walks round it and then

worships it, Hari remits all his sins committed in the

course of a hundred generations. At its foot is an image of

Mangala, the giver of prosperity to the gods ; whoever be-

holds and adores her emancipates himself from all delusion."

Near this is a hall open on all sides in which Pundits read

and explain the Sastras to any who may come to listen

;

and then comes a small lake in which it is said the crow dippeJand came out in Vishnu's likeness, a representation of whichis seen on a stone close by. Near by, strange to say, is a

shrine sacred to Vimala Devi, the wife of Siva, to whom oncea year, in the middle of a moonless night, a kid is sacrificed

within the enclosure which is sacred to Vishnu, to whom all

life, that of animals as well as man, is sacred ; thus affording

another illustration of the idea so firmly insisted on by the

Hindus that the many gods axe but varied manifestations ofthe one Supreme Being. It should be stated, however, that

the Pundits usually deny that this sacrifice is made. Thereis also a temple of Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, who, thoughnot enshrined in the large temple with her spouse, takes aprominent part in his annual worship ; and a temple of theSun, but his image is so completely hidden by those ofEadha and Krishna that it can only be seen even at midday

MLGEIMAGES. 279

by those who go behind these later additions and carry a

light with them.

The temple has four chief rooms—first the Bhoga Man-dapa, or Hall of Offerings, a room 58 feet by 56 feet ; this leads

to the Dancing Hall, 69 feet by 67 feet, in which, on certain

occasions, the amusements of the temple are held. Leading

out, and as a part of this, are four smaller rooms, in one of

which Siva is represented by the Linga ; another is devoted to

Krishna ; a third is called Lakshmi's dressing-room, as it is

here that she is got ready to go to take part in the festival

;

and a fourth for the musicians of the temple, who play daily

at certain portions of the service, when they are not perform-

ing in the large hall. In these rooms there are sculptures

of a most obscene character. Then comes the porch or

audience chamber of the temple, 80 feet by 80 feet ; and finally

the temple or shrine proper, also 80 feet by 80 feet. Three

large niches in the shrine contain figures of three of Vishnu's

incarnations, viz., the Varaha (Boar), Nrisingha (Man-lion),

and the Vamana (Dwarf). In the plinth is a small niche,

in which there is a figure of a human being with his hands

and feet chained. This is to represent the eleventh day of the

lunar month, which Hindu widows have to observe as a strict

fast, and which good Hindus of both sexes regard as specially

holy. To allow one day in the month to be observed as a

fast where feasting is the rule, and where the priests makelarge profits out of the food sold, would not pay, so a story

has been written, of which this figure is an illustration, to

the effect that Ekadasi, i.e., the 11th, contended with the

genius of the temple in favour of the fast being observed

even here ; but Jagannatha explained to him that though

the rule held good elsewhere, his will was higher than the

law. As, however, Ekadasi was not satisfied, he was chained,

and remains enchained to this day, as a warning against those

who would resist the authority of the " Lord of the World,"

and as an encouragement to nervous Hindus, who might

otherwise wish to fast on this day when at Puri.

280 woKsmp.

" All the four gates of the sacred enclosure are left open

until a late hour at night, but the rule is that, except in the

case of special permits, granted by the Khurda Baja (the

custodian of the temple), pUgrims should enter by the east

gate, turn to the left in the inner enclosure, circumambulate

the great temple once, thrice, or even seven times, and then

enter the Dancing HaU by the north door. Proceeding thence

to the audience chamber (or porch), and standuig in front of a

log of sandal-wood, which cuts off further approach, they be-

hold the Lord of the universe on his sanctum in front. Persons

paying largely are allowed to cross the bar, and enter the

sanctiun. Those having special permits, which cost from

Bs. 500 to £s. 5,000, enter by the south gate, and have the

right of getting into the inner enclosure, which is cleared of

all other visitors for the time they remain inside. They, of

eom'se, have the right of entering the sanctum itself. This

sanctum is so dark, that without the aid of a lamp nothing

is visible within even at midday. Going thrice round the

temple at noon with the sun glaring on the whitewashedhouses, and devoting the greater part of the time in looking

upwards towards the cornice and the tops of the temples andother erections, to which their attention is constantly directed

by the cicerones, the eyes of the pilgrims get so dazed, that it

is impossible immediately after to see anything placed in adark comer ; and under the best of circumstances the poorpilgrims, standing before the sandal-wood bar, see very little.

Even those who get beyond the bar cannot see much at first,

until their eyes adjust themselves to the light. The priests

attribute this to the effect of sin, which renders carnal eyesimfit to behold the divinity. "When that sin is destroyed bydevotion, the divinity becomes visible." As the great object

of the pilgrims visiting Puri is to see Jagannatha, manyhave to return without being able to gratify their desire.

Dr. Mittra tells an amusing story of a certain Eaja, who,lax in morals and of thrifty habits, visited this temple, and,being unable to see the image after walking round the temple

PILGBIMAGES. 281

in the glare of midday, went to his lodgings and prayed

day and night, vowing to do a great number of good deeds,

one of which remains to this day in the metalled road that

runs from Puri to Cuttaok, a distance of fifty miles. Return-

ing to the temple the next deiy, and passing into the sanctumwithout walking round the temple, his eyes were opened, andhe was able to see the god ! Dr. Mittra's own experience is

quite as amusing. After walking round the temple andentering the sanctum, he could see but little, so asking the

attendant priest to conduct him round the throne three times,

during which his eyes became accustomed to the darkness,

he, on his return to the front of the image, could see

distinctly. He declares that a shrewd priest with whom he

afterwards conversed on the subject, declared that the priests

knew well to what cause the supposed miracle was due.

Another miracle is repeatedly spoken of to the pilgrim. It

is said that the roar of the sea so terrified Subhadra, the

sister of Jagannatha, whose image is next to his own, that

it caused her hands and arms to shrink into her body.

Whereupon her brother commanded the sea not to allow the

noise of his waves breaking upon the shore to enter the

sacred enclosure. And it is a fact, that though the sound of

the " sad sea waves," is distinctly heard outside, owing to the

very high walls which surround the temple, and the noise of

the multitudes near, the sound is scarcely audible within.

But no miracle is necessary to account for this.

According to the same authority, the images which are

sold at Puri fairly represent those within the shrine. Those

worshipped in the temple are made of iron-wood, a hard,

close-grained wood, capable of taking a high polish, and so

bitter that insects will not eat it. The images are each madeof one solid block. They are most ugly and rude imitations

of human figures, without hands or legs. They have stumps

of arms on which golden hands are fixed ; and it is said

that Subhadra's arms which cannot be seen, are lying by

her side ; those of the other two being nailed on to the body.

282 WORSHIP.

Jagannatha is painted black ; Balarama, his brother, white ;

whilst their sister is golden coloured. The figures of the

male deities are six feet high ; that of Subhadra about four

and a half feet. The Sudarsana is a mere stump about six

feet high, on which Dr. Mithra could see no mark of the

wheel, but which the priest declares has that mark on the top.

Several time& a day the dresses and ornaments of these

images are changed, but none save the priests are allowed tO'

see them in their native ugliness. The people admit that

these are not beautiful, and the following legend has been,

invented to account for this.

When King Indradyumna determined to establish th&worship of Vishnu under this form, he applied to Visvakarma,

the architect of the gods, to assist him in the erection of the

temple and the construction of the image. To this the deity

consented on the.understanding that he was to be allowed ta

work without being overlooked by the king or any of his

people. The king assenting, the work was commencedforthwith, and the temple arose under the magic touch ofVisvakarma. But the image occupied a much longer time.

When the king had restrained his impatience for about a,

fortnight, being very anxious to see how the work was pro-gressing, be ascended a ladder and was peeping over thewall, when Visvakarma, noticing him, at once left his workunfinished and returned to his heavenly home. The king,seeing the unfinished ugly images, was greatly distressed atfirst, but Brahma and the other deities consoled him with thepromise that they would be present at the installation of th&image, and that, ugly though the images were, the worshipthat he inaugurated should be most popular amongst thewhole kingdom. This prediction has certainly been fulfilled

as far as Puri is concerned, and the people generally whoworship Jagannatha at other places, too, do not appear to seeany incongruity in worshipping Vishnu as represented bythese ugly deformities.

Other stories are told to account for these strange figures

PILGBIMAGES. 283

being worshipped, e.g., it is said that as God is great nofigure can fairly represent Him, hence these ugly ones are

made to drive people through fear to propitiate Him with

gifts. The true explanation, as I believe, being that they

are modifications of the old Buddhist worship, the Sudar-

sana being nothing else than the wheel of the Law—the

only object placed in the Buddhist halls before images of

Buddha became common ; whilst the three figures are modi-

fied forms of a monogram composed of the initial letters

of the five elements—air, fire, water, earth, and ether—which

in PaU characters arrayed in a peculiar manner, placed over

the wheel, do not look unlike the representatives of Jagan-

natha and his companions. This certainly appears to be

a natural and reasonable explanation of what otherwise is

inexplicable.

The images are renewed from time to time, as the old ones

become unfit for further duty. It is said that the best time

for doing this work is when the month of Asadha becomes

an intercallary one ; but as it is believed that the king in

whose reign it is done dies soon after, there is not muchinducement for any one to renew them. When the renewal

takes place, the relic is taken from the old ones, which are

then solemnly biuried ; whilst the relic is put into the body of

the new ones. A great mystery attaches to this relic. The

priests refused to tell Dr. Mithra what it was ; and, as before

stated, there is every reason to believe that it is a Buddhist

remain. When hard pressed by rich pilgrims, the priests with

their natural kindness do not like positively to refuse to say

what it is, so give one story to one, and another to another, as

they think likely to quiet the importunity of the questioner.

Some say it is a part of the original image, the wood of

which came floating in from the sea ; others that it is a bone

of Krishna ; a Hindu clerk at Cuttack, in writing a history

of Puri, declares that " a boy from a potter's family is selected

to take out from the breast of the old idol a small box of

quicksilver, said to be the spirit, which he conveys inside the

284 WORSHIP.

new." The boy who renders this service is always removed

from the world before the end of the year.

These three images are placed on a platform, four feet

high and sixteen feet long. In front of them is a gold image

of Lakshmi, and a silver one of the earth (Bhudevi) ; and

several smaller ones. The principal images are never moved

except at the time of the great festivals. Their dresses are

changed frequently, and the transformation caused by this is

so great that they look like quite different objects at different

times of the day. Amongst these varied dresses is one

called Buddhavesa, the garb of Buddha, another incidental

proof of the rise of this worship from Buddhism. At times

the image is dressed in boys' clothes to represent incidents

in the Hfe of Krishna. At such times, a rope is tied round

his waist and fastened to a post to represent the way in

which Krishna was tied by his foster-mother to prevent himfrom stealing the curds : and again he is dressed in the dress

peculiar to Ganesa, and, to make the resemblance complete,

he has a trunk attached to his face, such as that of the

elephant-headed god of wisdom.

The daily service of the temple is very similar to that of

other deities as described fully in the account of Bhu-vaneshwara. The work of the day begins by ringing a bell

to awake the sleeping deities ; offerings and the repetition of

mantras go on until about eleven p.m., when a bedstead is

presented to them, and they are invited to retire for the night.

Small quantities of food are brought into the sanctuary itself,

which belongs to the priests alone ; but at the four principal

meals of the day, large quantities of cooked food are takeninto the refectory, and consecrated by being placed in front

of the idol. Excepting the offering of the Eaja of Khurda,those made by pilgrims are not taken into the sanctuary, butinto the dining-room ; and one class of sweetmeats are pre-

pared specially at the Raja's palace, and sent daily to the

temple, the proceeds of which are given to him ; the moneyreceived from the sale of the other sacred food being taken

PILGBIMAGES. 285'

by the priests. When it is remembered that on some daysfood for 100,000 people is prepared in the temple, andsold, it will be seen that the yearly profits must be something

enormous.

The food is cooked by low caste men, who profess to bethe descendants of the woodman who conducted Indra-

dyumna to the original shrine ; but such is supposed to be the

sanctifying effect of this holy place, that it is cheerfully eaten,

by people of all castes ; it is even carried away to their homesby the pilgrims, and regarded as the most sacred treasure.

A single grain of this consecrated food, placed upon the

cakes offered at the funeral ceremonies of the dead, is.

believed by the Vaishnavas to be more effectual in saving the

departed from misery than anything and everything else that

could be offered. It is called Mahaprasad, and the gods,

even are said to be delighted if they can obtain a portion.

The greatest sins are removed the moment a grain of this

rice touches the tongue. Legends such as the following are

given to strengthen the faith of the people. A man proud

of his high caste came to see Jagannatha, but would not

touch what he regarded as unclean food that had been cooked

by outcastes. But, after leaving the city, on his way homahis arms and legs fell off, and in that state he remained,

until a dog happened to come near who dropped a few grains

of this holy food from his mouth. The man in his distress

managed to crawl to the spot, and licking up this rice,

Jagannatha forgave his pride, and caused his limbs to grow

again, and he returned home a firm believer in the wisdom

of following the teaching of the Lord of the World.

In connection with the worship of Jagannatha, a number

of festivals are held, at which religion and amusements are

blended, and which tend largely to increase the popularity

of the idol, and to bring pilgrims in greater numbers to its

shrine. Some of these have an astronomical origin, i.e., they

are to celebrate some particular season of the year ; some

are held with the view of calling to memory events in the

•280 WORSHIP.

life of tlie deity during his temporary sojourn on earth. A(brief account of tliese will not be without interest. There

lis a calendar pecuUar to Orissa, which we shall follow ; and

:according to this,' the year begins with the month Agra-

ihayana (Nov.-Dec).

1. Qhornagi is held on the sixth of the waning moon of the

irst month of the year, and at this time the images are clad

dn shawls, and other warm and costly garments. This is

the day some women in Bengal set apart as a day of fasting

ior the benefit of their sons.

2. Abhisheka, i.e., the coronation, when the images are

.arrayed in royal robes. (This is the same as the Pusha

Jatra of Bhuvaneshwara).

8. Markara, i.e., the day Sun enters the sign of Capricornus

on his return to the north. It is a day of feasting with

cakes, &c., and one of general rejoicing.

4. The Dol Jatra or Holi. This, next to the Snan and Bath

Jatras, is the most popular festival at Purl. It is the con-

tinuation of a festival, with modern innovations, that washeld in Vedio times to celebtate the arrival of spring. In

all countries that has been a season of unusual merriment,

and the people of India to-day, with the exception that the

youths do not run about naked, follow in the same lines as

those which prevailed in Eome and Germany, and which

may be seen to-day in the Carnival, as it is observed in con-

tinental towns. Drinking, buffoonery, licentious talk andgestures prevail ; and the throwing of red powder. It is called

the Dole, or Swing Festival, because on this day the images

of Krishna, or his representatives, are placed on a swing

;

swinging being the most common form of amusement,especially for women, in the North-west Provinces of India.

It is a most common festival, celebrated with greater or less

expense in most of the Vaishnava temples, and fun andfrolic form the chief part of the ceremonies. At Puri, owingto the great weight of the idols, and to the fact that someyears ago an accident happened to Jagannatha, they are not

PILGEIMAGES. 287

swung ; but two other images, those of Madanamohana andLakshmi, are substituted for them. Another reason for

relieving Jagannatha and his companions from this swinging

was that the red powder or Holi, which was freely thrown onthem, injured the paint. It is said that this festival is to

commemorate a deed of heroisn of Krishna's when he slew

a demon called Holi. All through Upper India this is a

season of great licentiousness. The red powder is thrown,

or red water squirted on passers-by. The ceremony at Puri

lasts for one day only ; but the merriment generally con-

tinues in the streets for about four days.

5. Rama navami, i.e., the ninth of the waxing moon of

Chaitra, the day regarded as the birthday of Eama. AsJagannatha is said to be a later incarnation of the samedeity as Eama, on this day he is dressed and worshipped as

Bama.6. Dasna Chori ; on this day the proxy of Jagannatha is

worshipped ; it is a festival to celebrate the stealing of some

thyme by the great deity himself.

8. Chandana Jiltra, or Flower Festival. The proxies

Madanamohana and four Lingas are carried to a small

temple, on an island in the Norendra tank, where they

remain twenty-one days. Every evening they are taken for

a. row on the lake, flowers, sandal-wood, &o., are presented,

and the worshippers entertained with singing and dancing.

8. Rukmini harana. This is to celebrate Krishna's carrying

off his wife Eukmini, who was originally betrothed to Sisu-

pala ; but, loving Krishna, she ran away with him. At Puri,

Madanamohana, because of the difficulty in transporting the

great image, takes Jagannatha's place, and, being carried to

a neighbouring garden, is supposed to steal his bride, and

when he has brought her home, they are married at night

under a sacred tree in the enclosure of the temple.

9. Snan Jatra is held on the fifteenth of the waxing moon of

the Jaishtha. This festival is held to commemorate the day

when the first image was commenced by Indradyumna. The

288 woESHip.

images are brought out from the sanctum and bathed at mid-

day on a platform kept specially for the purpose, with water

taken from a well near the sacred tree, after which they are

dressed in beautiful robes. 'Whea. the ceremonies of the bath

are concluded, the images are taken to one of the smaller

rooms in the porch called the Sick Chamber, where they re-

main for a fortnight, it being understood that fever resulted

from their unusual exposare on the day of bathing. During

this time the outer doors of the temple are closed; there is no-

cooking of food, no regular worship. The real reason of this

is that during this time the images are being re-painted, andit would lessen the respect of the people for their deities if they

saw them in this state. When it is remembered that water,

flowers, and other offerings are thrown upon them daily, it

will easily be understood that annually a fresh coat of paint

is quite necessary.

^/ 10. The Bath Jatra. After the painting is complete, the gods

are exposed to the public gaze as they are taken for a ride

upon their raths or chariots. These immense cars are madeaccording to fixed rules as to size, &e. The height of Jagan-

natha's car is 45 feet, that of Balarama 44 feet, that of Sub-hadra, 43 feet. The first car has sixteeen wheels with sixteen

spokes each; the second, fourteen wheels with fourteen spokes;

the third, twelve wheels with twelve spokes. These cars are

most strongly and clumsily built, are of immense weight, and'

can with great difficulty be moved. When the time comesfor the ride, the lady is carried on the shoulders of men ; the

other Wo, having a silken cord round the waist, are draggedto the car, and then drawn up an inclined plane to their seat,

by people of the same caste as those who cook the food in thetemple, whose ancestors have done this work for generations,

the priests holding the idols in an upright position. Whenplaced upon their seats, the images are dressed in gorgeous

robes, and golden hands and arms attached to them.

When all is ready, the Eaja of Khurda, the " Sweeper of

the Temple," descends from his elephant about one hundred

PILGRIMAGES. 289''

yards from the cars, and sweeps the road until he reaches,

them ; he then worships each of the idols, and after makinghis offerings, just touches the ropes of each car as though hedragged them, wheni hundreds of coolies, who for this workhold their land rent free, aided by the voluntary effort of

hundreds or thousands of pilgrims, set the ponderous cars in

motion.

These cars are dragged to a suite of temples about twomiles distant. The journey occupies four days ; and on theij*

arrival the image of Lakshmi is taken from the Puri templ>

to see her lord. After remaining here four or five days, the

cars are brought back much in the same way as they went,

and on their arrival at the temple, Lakshmi, as a faithful wife,

is waiting in a pavilion to welcome home her husband.

Much speculation has arisen as to the origin of this CarFestival. There seems, however, to be little reason to doubt

that it is a continuation of a Buddhist festival to celebrate

the birth of that saint. There is evidence to show that it

was common for images of Buddha to be dragged through the

streets in this manner ; and there is nothing in the older

Hindu books, nor is there any tradition of this practice being

commonly practised by the Hindus, except in connection with

Buddhistic worship. The reasons for believing that this prac-

tice is of Buddhistic origin, are the following : There is nodoubt that Puri at one time was one of the chief centres of

Buddhism ; the images of Jagannatha and his companions

have been shown to be modifications of Buddhist emblems ;

the possession of a relic in the idol is almost peculiar to this

temple ; caste differences are obliterated at Puri ; in the

representations of the ten incarnations of Vishnu, Jagannatha

takes the place of Buddha, who, according to the Vishnu

Purana, was an incarnation of Vishnu for the purpose of de-

ceiving mankind ; and at this season of the year a car festival

was common amongst the Buddhists in honour of the birthday

of Buddha.

11. Sayana Ekadasi; this day is observed with feasting and

20

290 WORSHIP.

rejoicing, and at night the three images, represented by small

gold idols, are put to bed for four months. Some say it is to

represent Vishnu's descent to Patala ; others that it is to

commemorate his sleep upon the ocean. The probable

reason is that this being the rainy season, travelling is most

difficult, and the professional pilgrims remain in the monas-

teries instead of wandering about. The more pious Hindus

regard it as a season when they should be unusually abste-

mious, much as in some Christian homes the season of Lent is

observed. During these months weddings are not celebrated;

nor as a rule are the temples of the gods visited.

12. The next festival is the Julana Jatra, or Swinging Festi-

val. Madanamohana has again to do duty for his lord, and,

profusely adorned, is put into a swing, and every evening

regaled with music, feasting, and dancing.

13. Janmashtami, i.e., the birthday of Krishna at Mathura.This festival, common throughout the whole of North India,

is here celebrated with great ecZat, and eye-witnesses declare

that in the presence of a crowd a dancing girl plays the part of

the mother, and a priest that of the father, and the "ceremony ofhis nativity is performed to the life." The story is as follows :

Krishna's mother fell asleep as soon as he was born, and to

save him from the cruel hands of his uncle his father tookhim to the home of a cowkeeper's wife, and changed himfor her newly-born girl, whom he placed by the side of hissleeping wife. Dr. Mittra denies that there is any obscenityin the representation. Certainly it is a delicate subject forrepresentation, and as I have heard it described by Hindusit is not represented in the most delicate manner. At-tached to this temple are girls, some as dancers, and someas singers, who are said to be married to the deity, of whomthe most that Dr. Mittra can say in favour of their purity oflife is that they are not more unchaste than the actresses andballet girls of Europe. These are professional vestal virgins,and it may be, of course, that some of them remain pure

;

but certainly the common belief amongst the Hindus them-

PILGKIMAGES, 291

selves is that this is a very rare exception, and it is admitted

that the one selected for taking the part of Krishna's mother

is no better than the rest.

14. Parsva parivartana is a festival held to celebrate the

turning of the images on to their right side, they having

been laid on their backs when first they were placed in posi-

tion for their long sleep.

15. Kaliya damana ; the slaying of the serpent Kaliya in

the river Yamuna by Krishna. Jagannatha's image is

Tvrapped round with an imitation serpent, made of cloth,

whilst his proxy is carried to a tank close by, with music

and singing, where he is supposed to slay the demon.

16. Vamanjanam. On this day Jagannatha is dressed to

j-epresent Vishnu when he appeared on earth as a dwarf

:

in the Hindu calendar it is the day when Vishnu, in his

sleep before the re-creation of the world, turned over from

his right to his left side.

17. TJtihapana Edadasi is the day when Vishnu awakes

from his sleep. The metal images are aroused, bathed,

dressed, and worshipped in due form.

It should be noticed that besides these there are several

•other less important festivals.

The garden-house to which Jagannatha is taken in his car

is said to be the place where Indradyumna pitched his tent

when he first came there to worship : it was here that he

performed his great horse sacrifice; and it was near here

that the log of wood is said to have been washed ashore

which was used in making the first image.

There are a number of smaller temples of no great im-

portance, but are interesting chiefiy because they furnish an

illustration of the way in which the supremacy of one god is

asserted over others. At Bhuvaneshwara, where Siva is wor-

shipped as supreme, Vishnu and his consort are made guardians

of the city ; here, as Vishnu is the chief deity, Siva and his wife,

in eight different forms, have the duty of wardens of the

city assigned to them. There are also tanks here as in

292 woESHip.

Benares, the waters of which are declared to have the power

immediately to cleanse the soul from impurity, and to give

emancipation from future evil ; but in connection with

them there are conditions of a similar nature to that which

permits only the pure to see Jagannatha in his temple.

CHAPTEE VII.

PILGRIMAGES (continued).

BHUVANESHWABA.

This place was in former years far more attractive as a

place of pilgrimage than it is at tlie present day. It mayhave been commenced as a rival shrine to Benares; or it

may have arisen during the time that Buddhism prevailed

there before its influence was felt in Orissa.* Some pilgrims

call here on their way to or from Puri, and thus pay their '-

respects to the two great deities whose worship is carried

on at these two inaportant places; the majority, however,

pass by Bhuvaneshwara, content with the expense and labour

incurred in the journey, and the offerings made, to Jagan-

natha.

The image of Siva, the Linga, being an upright stone

pillar, and remaining fixed in its place, does not admit of

the same variety of ceremonies as are possible with movable

images such as those at Puri ; but the ceremonies, though

somewhat differing in form, are much the same in spirit.

The following account describes the daily worship in the

temple, and the special festivals that are held there.

The image is bathed daily with a great quantity of water,

milk, and bhang, and large quantities of food are placed

* The full name, Tribhuvaneshwara—meaning the Lord of the three

worlds, heaven, earth, and hell ; Jagannatha, signifying Lord of the world

only-^snggests a third cause of its origin, viz., as a rival shrine to that of.

Jagannatha at Puri.

294 WORSHIP.

before it. Flowers, sandal-wood, and clothes, too, are pre-

sented. The daily service begins at dawn with the ringing

of a bell to wake up the idol ; then a lamp is moved about

in front to light him to get up. Then comes the cleaning

of his teeth ; this is done by moving about a stick bruised at

the one end, similar to those used by the Brahmans for this

purpose ; a bowl of water and towel are next brought, to

wash his face. Then comes his bath : this consists of water,

ghi, and milk thrown over the stone, which is then washed

and dried. Next comes the dressing ; the clothes worn on

the previous day having been washed are put round the

lower part of the stone. After this a light breakfast of

sweetmeats is given, which is followed a couple of hours

later, at ten o'clock, with the regular breakfast. At eleven,

o'clock another breakfast is prepared, the difference con-

sisting in the kinds of food that are presented. Incense

is burned, the doors of the temple are closed, and the deity

enjoys his midday repose. At four o'clock the doors are

again opened, and pretty much the same ceremonies are

repeated in the evening until bed-time comes, when the

deity is invited to repose, with the phrase that "Parvati

awaits her lord." Twenty-two ceremonies are performed on

ordinary days ; on special festival days others are added, for

each of which there are the proper mantras or texts to be

employed. The festivals generally refer to some events con-

nected with the history of Siva, of which appropriate legends

are told; though it is evident that several of these have

been written to make these festival days attractive to the

people, at the time when there are special festivals held in

connection with deities worshipped in other temples.

The chief festivals of Siva are the following :

—

1. Prathamastimi, literally the first (feast) of the eighth

day of the moon of the first month of the year, according

to the sacred calendar used in Orissa. On this occasion

a small image called Ghandrasekhara is taken from its shrine

as a substitute for Bhuvaneshwara, and placed upon a car

PILGBIMAGES. 295

with much pomp and music, and is taken to a tank which,as its name, Papasini, implies, has the power to wash awaysin, and there bathed; it is then dressed in new clothes,

worshipped, and brought back amidst a crowd sometimesnumbering as many as ten thousand people.

2. Pravaranotsava is a festival held when the cold season

IS considered to have fairly set in. The flat stone forming

the base of the image has warm clothes placed upon it ; fromits shapeless form it cannot of course be properly robed.

3. Pushya Jdtra. On this occasion 108 pitchers of water

brought from the Vindu Sagara Lake are poured over the

image, after which it is dressed in new clothes, and presented

with a garland of mustard flowers, and regaled with music andsinging.

4. Markara. This is held on the day when the sun eom'-

mences his return to the north. On this occasion, too, 108

pitchers of water are thrown over the idol, and offerings of

new rice, fruits, &e., are made. This is a sort of harvest

festival.

5. Miigha Saptami, i.e. , the seventh day of the new moon in

the month of Magh. The image mentioned before as Siva's

substitute is taken to a temple of Bhaskareshwara (Lord of

the Sun) a mile distant, and then adorned with new clothes,

feasted and worshipped. The reason why a substitute is

carried about instead of the image itself is this : It is taught

that when once an image of Siva has been fixed in any

place it is a great sin to move it. Hence we find manyimages of this deity standing amid ruined temples because it

is beheved sinful to remove one that has once been set up for

worship.

6. Sivaratri is held on the fourteenth night of the wane

of the moon in Phalgum., The origin of this festival is

given in the following legend : A fowler having lost his way

in a wood took refuge in a bel-tree, and, weeping, his tears

fell on a decayed leaf and carried it to a Linga of Siva that

happened to be near. The deity was delighted with this un-

^96 WORSHIP.

intentional offering, and so the pious Saivites regard the day

as a fast, and worship Siva at the four watches of the night.

At Bhuvaneshwara 100,000 bel leaves are offered at the four

watches to an image representing half Vishnu and haK Siva.

7. Asokashtami. This day is sacred because Sita when

confined by Eavana offered some asoka leaves to Siva in order

to induce him to assist her to rejoin her lord. On this day

at Bhuvaneshwara Siva's substitute is carried to a temple of

Eama with great pomp, where it remains for a few days.

T]his is the rival ceremony to the Car Festival at Puri, and

the practices of that ceremony are most closely followed

in the worship of Siva.

8. Daman-hhangika Jatra. This festival is peculiar to

Orissa. As on this day Jagannatha is supposed to go to steal

thyme from a neighbouring garden, Siva's representative is

taken to a platform where he receives presents of ornaments

made of thyme.

9. Ohandana Jatra. On this occasion the proxy is taken

to a temple on an island in the Vindu Sagara Lake, where he

remains for twenty-two days. Each evening he is carried

about in a boat, and amused with music and dancing. During

this time Bhuvaneshwara himself receives an extra smearing

of sandal-wood paste daily.

10. Parasuramashtama. On this occasion Chandrasekhara

is carried in a sort of chair on men's shoulders to a temple of

Parasurama, where he is entertained with flowers, music, and.dancing. It wiU be noticed that all these visits of the god to

other temples are an acknowledgment of their equality with

the great deity himselt

11. Sayana Chaturdasi. This is the time when Siva andParvati, represented by small images, are put to bed for

their long sleep of four months. The day is spent in re-

joicing. In the address to these deities it is said that bytheir sleep their worshippers wiU have rest.

12. Pavitrapani Jatra is the day when a new portia or

sacred thread is presented to the god.

PILGRIMAGES. 297

13. Yamadevitrya. Yama, the Lord of Hades, on this daywas worshipped by his sister Yami, who by this act obtained

longevity. Hence it is common on this day for sisters to

feed their brothers, and present them with new clothes. AtBhuvaneshwara this festival is observed by Siva's proxy being

carried to a temple of Yama, and is supposed by this act to

obtain long life for his lord, the immortal Siva.

14. Utthan. This is the festival of awakening the deity

after the four months' sleep. The idol is bathed, dressed,

and worshipped. At all these and other festivals there

are peculiar mantras and slightly differing forms of worship

;

but the variation is very slight.

A noticeable feature of the worship of Siva at this place is

that, as at Puri, large quantities of rice and other articles of food

are cooked and presented to the deity, and then Hindus of all

castes purchase and eat it because of its supposed sanctifying

power. This custom is pecuhar to these two shrines. It

is the more remarkable that in Siva-worship, the teaching

of which is generally in favour of the caste system, this

custom should prevail ; but it is evidently copied from the

practice prevailing at the great rival establishment at Puri.

Though many pilgrims travelling to Puri pass within a few

miles of this temple on their way to see Jagannatha, they are

too excited to remain here, whilst on their return journey they

are generally too poor to pay it a visit, the gifts made at

Puri having quite exhausted their resources. There is, how-

ever, no lack of legends to prove that of all places this is the

most sacred, and its deities and tanks most beneficial to the

worshippers. As a means of extracting money and offerings

from the pilgrims before they approach the image of the great

god, they must first present themselves before a colossal figure

of a bull Nandi, which represents Siva's vehicle ; then they

must worship Bhagavati, Khartikeya, and Ganesa, who are

regarded as guardians of the shrine. In addition to this

they must on their entrance into the town worship Vishnu as

represented in a temple called Ananta ; it was by his per-

298 woKSHip.

raissiou Siva was able to make this his secret abode. Eachpilgrim must also ask from Vishnu permission to bathe in

the sacred tank and enter the holy temple. He must next

visit the temple of a goddess called Ardhapapaharini, or " the

one who removes half of a man's sins," and then he is free

to bathe in the water of the sin-destroying tank. Great evil

is threatened if any of these temples be passed by without

worship being offered.

The lake referred to, the Vindu Sagara, has this namebecause it is said that water from all the sacred tanks in

heaven, earth, and the lower regions are constantly falling

into it. It is taught, in the common language of panegyric,

that once bathing in it will give more real merit to the

bather than ten visits to the source of the Ganges, Allahabad,

Prayaga, or Ganga Sagar. It is difficult to estimate whatthis virtue can be, as a single visit to any one of these places

is said to wash away aU sins of the past, present, and future.

In the tank the crocodiles are well behaved, for though

numerous it is declared that they never seize the pilgrims.

Bathing in this tank is considered an indispensable part of

the pilgrim's duty who visits this shrine.

CHAPTEE VIII.

HINDU WORSHIP.

HOW SUSTAINED, AND OBJECTS SOUGHT THROUGH IT.

The people of India, as a rule, are uneducated. Of the total

population in Bengal, as appears from the last census, 1 in

17 of the males are able to read and write ; whilst of the.

females, 1 in 566 only possess this knowledge. When this

fact is taken into account, a reason will at once be seen for

the methods of instruction in religion that prevail in India.

1. There is Home Instruction. Knowing the inability of the

masses of the people to read, though of course one cannot

fail to be struck with their ignorance of Hinduism as a whole,

at the same time the accuracy of the knowledge of the people

of what belongs to their own particular sect is equally re-

markable. I have no hesitation at all in saying that the

illiterate Hindu knows far better what, according to the

teaching of his sect, he ought to do and leave undone, than

multitudes know of the simplest truths of Christianity in our

Christian country. In India every man is, more or less,

religious ; and even when his moral life may be bad, his obser-

vance of caste rules and religious rites and ceremonies is

generally most strict. Men who can scarcely count beyond

twenty, and know not the letters of the alphabet, would die

rather than eat food which had been prepared by men of

lower caste, unless it had been sanctified by being offered to

an idol ; and would kill their daughters rather than endure

300 woKSHip.

the disgrace of having unmarried girls at home beyond twelve

or thirteen years of age. Every year thousands perish of

disease that might recover if they would take proper nourish-

ment, and drink the medicine that science prescribes, but which

they imagine their religion forbids them to touch.

Whence is all this knowledge obtained ? Largely through

the teaching in the homes. In India, as elsewhere, the women

are by far the most rehgious and superstitious ; and here, as

elsewhere, where people cannot read, it is found that the

memoryis unusually retentive. Stories heardwhen a child,and

implicitly believed, are repeated, with embellishments often,

to their children, and thus there is a constant religious edu-

cation of the masses going on by the mothers chiefly, and

by the fathers also, to some extent. I have often been

struck with the correct notions that the children have, when

very young, of the peculiar practices of the caste to which

they belong. Just as in England there is an unconscious

teaching by example, and a conscious, direct teaching by

word ; and in very young children it is easy to tell the cha-

racter of the home in which they have lived : so it is in India,

with this difference—that in England the social customs and

life in the home are not universally regarded as under the law

of religion ; in India everything that has to be done, even to the

choice of food, mode of dress, &o., has been settled by religious

authority. As far as my observation has gone, I am 'decidedly

of opinion that the Hindus are by far the most religious

people I have met with. If a question is asked in England," Why do you do this or that ? " the answer would be, "Idon't know ; others do it, and we do as they do." In India

it would be, " It is our dharma, our religion, that ordains it."

Here and there, it is true, you find infidels, men who do not

care for the gods, but these are most rare ; and though they

may not give anything to the gods as offerings, they mustrespect the rules of their caste, or they must either give uptheir old companions and unite themselves to some sect in

which caste rules are disregarded, or live a solitary life. In

HINDU WORSHIP. 301

the temples, mothers teach their children to present their offer-

ings, and to bow down before the idols ; in the rivers they teach

them to bathe with becoming reverence ; in their journeys to

the sacred spots they tell them of the great benefits to be

derived from all this painful effort ; and in the homes they tell

them the names and doings of some of the many gods that

are commonly worshipped by the people. And as a result of

their earnestness in religion in our mission work we find that

the greatest obstacles to our progress are those that the

mothers and wives place in our way.

2. The Teaching in the Schools. The efforts of the edu-

cational department of the Government to induce the indi-

genous schools of the lowest grades to place themselves under

Government control and inspection, and the fixing oftext-books

for study, in order that the children may appear in the periodi-

cal examinations, has done a great deal towards removing this

method of religious instruction. Before the Governmental

system came into operation, and in some places now where

the Patshalas (primary schools) are not included in the.

Government schemes and the teachers are free to select

their own text-books, books are read which have had a large

influence in the education of the people in Hinduism. As

the Hindus are a religious people, it is only natural that they

would wish their children to read religious books ; and re-

ligious books for them, of course, mean books in which the

religion of the Hindus is taught. In these books there are

stories from the Puranas of some of the various deities wor-

shipped, and the time devoted to the reading of these stories

gives an opportunity for the teacher to enlarge upon the

benefits that come from the proper adoration of their idols,

very much as an earnest Christian would seek to explain and

enforce the lessons of the Christian Scriptures. But this

method of teaching is fast passing away, as the books selected

for the examinations are generally free from distinctively reli-

gious instruction.

3. Next to the teaching of the mothers, perhaps in some

302 WORSHIP.

respects even more influential than that, is the teaching of

the guru, or spiritual guide. When a child is about nine

or ten years of age, if a Brahman, Zshatriya, or Vaishya,

lie is invested with the sacred thread, and thus initiated

into the Hindu religion ; or if of the lower castes, he is

initiated by the receiving of the mantra only from his guru.

The father chooses a guru for his child, and the guru, either

from the name the child bears or from some other causes,

decides which of the many deities is to be the Ishta Deva of

the child. This term means, " chosen deity " ; and it is sup-

posed that though all the gods of the , Pantheon are his

guardians, this one will be particularly propitious to him,and it is this deity that he must worship above all others.

The initiation is performed by the guru whispering in the

candidate's ear a mantra or text, which on no pretence

whatever must be repeated to another person, or the mostdreadful results are threatened. I have heard several of these

mantras from those who, having embraced Christianity, haveno superstitious fears respecting them, but can make nomeaning out of them, nor could those who received them.It is, perha]ps, more reasonable to suppose that the wordswere formed with some skill, expressing some truth, if thekey to their interpretation were only known. But so far as Ihave been able to learn, the words only are given without anyclue to their meaning. One word in the mantra is, of course,the name of the chosen deity. This mantra it is the duty ofthe person receiving it to repeat at least once daily on risingfrom sleep, and once before retiring to rest ; but as there is

believed to be great virtue in its mere repetition, by manyit is done 108 times during the day. When the initiation is

completed, the guru receives a fee from the father varying ac-cording to his circumstances, and the one initiated is reckonedever after as a disciple of this guru, and the bond thus formedis indissoluble except by death. As is noticed in the chapteron sects, in some cases the guru is taught to be worthy ofrespect equal to that given to the god; in others he is said to be

HINDU WORSHIP. 803

•superior even to deity. Hence it is no uncommon thing whena disciple meets his guru for him to prostrate himself before

him, and take the very dust from his feet and place it on

his head.

The guru, being the spiritual guide of his disciples, visits

"them from time to time. Some visit their disciples monthly,

some quarterly, some yearly, and some at even longer in-

'

tervals. Whenever they go they expect to be paid for their

visit ; and as some of these have no home of their own they

spend their time in the homes of their disciples, moving from

one to another, and' staying a day or more with each. All

these gurus acknowledge some central authority, to whomthey are expected to pay a portion of the fees they receive.

When they go to see a disciple they generally give some in-

struction in religious matters. The most common plan is

to read a few passages from some of the many sacred writings,

and translate and expound them. As the gurus are gene-

rally illiterate, ignorant men, they often learn by rote a

few sentences of Sanskrit, which they interpret to their

disciples ; and when the time comes for them to pay another

•visit, they prepare for it by learning more. In travelling about

ithe country this fact strikes one when in conversation with

ihe people, that a good number of them appear to be familiar

Tvith one set of stories about one or other of the deities,

and employ the same religious phraseology, a few miles

•only away quite a new set of religious ideas and words pre-

vail, those of the other district being almost unknown.

'The explanation of this fact, I think, is this—that the gurus

of the one district have taught one part of the Hindu

Scriptures, the gurus of the other district being better ac-

quainted with some other parts.

For the women who receive the mantras there are female <

gurus, usually of the Vaishnava sects ; in some houses,

however, the male gurus enter freely, and it would be re-

garded as a great sin, and productive of immense evil, were

the doors closed against one of these saintly men who might

804^

woKSHiP.

wish to enter. The gurus in their periodic visits seem to

discharge the duties of the minister who visits his people in

their homes to supplement the lessons given from the pulpit,

and has even more influence over his disciples than the

confessor in the confessional. There is no doubt, therefore,

that by this means the doctrines of Hinduism are taught,

and the religious enthusiasm of the people excited. For

when it is remembered that there are shrines connected with

all the various sects of which the gurus are the main ad-

vertisers, and that the advice of the guru is taken as the voice

of God, it is his duty, as it is his interest, to recommenda pilgrimage to these holy places, in which he, as well as

others, will participate in the offerings made there. Thegreat reformers of Hinduism have shown their appreciation

of the great influence these men and women exert by the

fact that they have generally settled down for years at

Benares, Puri, and other holy places, that they might teach

their doctrines to the gurus and professed rehgious ascetics

who assemble there.

4, The next important method of instruction is the re-

ligious festivals, as we have already shown. Each monthhas some day or days that are especially sacred to some one

or other of the deities ; and though each has his own pe-

culiar guardian deity, he is also bound by fear of the evil

of neglect, or by the hope of gaining some good, to show hia

respect to each and all of the rest. Some of these deities,

whose images are enshrined in temples, have special days onwhich some event of their lives is brought into special

prominence by the ritual observances which have been al-

ready noticed ; whilst those who have no permanent imagesare brought before the people, and the events of their lives

taught by means of images that are made for the occasion,

worshipped for a longer or shorter period, and then cast,

away. In a few cases, deities whose images are to be^

seen in the temples are also worshipped in the houses. Inspeaking of the places of pilgrimage sacred to Siva and

HINDU WOESHIP. 305

Vishnu, I have already described some of their festivals, andit will be easily seen that as Good Friday and ChristmasDay bring to the remembrance of the Christian communitythe fact of Christ's birth and death, and as the Passoverpreserves amongst the Jews the memory of the deliverance ofthe first-born in Egypt; so these festivals in the temples,

and in the houses of the people, which are attended by thou-sands of people, are immensely powerful as a means of in-

struction to the ignorant, and tend to stimulate the faith anddevotion of others.

With this round of 'festivals, with the change of imagemonth by month and all the attendant ceremonies, withthe descriptive song and mythological representations, it is

not at all surprising that the people Imow a great deal aboutthe most popular deities. It would be almost impossible to

find in all India a man as grossly ignorant of the names anddoings of the chief deities of the Pantheon as some in Eng-land are ignorant of Jesus Christ and His apostles. Theprocessions meet the gaze of all, the sound of music andsinging reach every ear, and the natural inquisitiveness of

human nature prompts men to ask what it all means. Thequiet and respectable services in Christian churches are all

that could be desired for those who, by other agencies, are

taught the truths that are embodied in these services ; but

for the mass of the ignorant who cannot read, there can be

no doubt whatever that the attractive festivals of heathenism

as an instructing agency are far superior. Teaching by the

eye is more easily understood, and more easily retained in the

memory, than that which comes through the ear only. Onehas only to see how people laugh or weep as they witness

ludicrous or pathetic plays and long remember them, and

compare this with the comparative inattention to discourses

from the pulpit ; whilst it is true, as 0. W. Holmes says,

that though men listen to, say, one hundred theological

lectures in the course of the year, comparatively few can

express the doctrines taught in an intelligible manner,

21

306 WOESHIP.

5. Beading of the Eamayana or Mahabharat and the

Puranas. There is yet another method of instruction. Aman in fulfilment of a vow made in time of trouble, or

from some other motive, will engage readers to read the

Mahabharat or Eamayana to the people.

Sometimes the readers will sit in the courtyard of the

house, or if the weather be favourable, under the shade of a

tree, and hundreds, sometimes thousands, will gather round

him and sit for two or three hours in the morning and

again in the evening to listen to them, some of whomare most entertaining with their comments. These sacred

books are not lacking in promises of good to those whoread or hear them read. Almost every chapter closes with

the assurance that those who read or hear it will by that

simple act obtain freedom from all their sins. It is a meri-

torious act for a man to have them read ; it is a meritorious

act for the paid reader to read their sacred words ; and it is a

meritorious act to sit and listen to them. At the Ghats in

the North-west there are men whose work it is to read these

or other books during the greater part of the year, and a

more orderly and attentive audience one could scarcely wish

to have. The reader often stops to explain the meaning of

the more difficult passages; whilst, as a reUef from the

monotony of his voice, and to give him breathing time, at a

sign from him, the audience breaks forth into a sort of re-

sponse ; generally taking the form of praise to some one or

other of the deities. It is a most interesting sight to see

hundreds of faces directed towards the reader, intent onhearing the life-giving, saving words ; and then as he looks upor raises his hand, to hear from the multitude the cry, " Jai,

Jai, Eama " (Glory, glory to Eama). When it is remem-bered that, whilst the Vedas are not to be read to the com-mon people, the two great epics are said to contain theessence of the Vedas, it occasions no surprise that whenthese oracles are read aloud, large numbers of low-castepeople, both men and women, should gather together and

HINDU WORSHIP. 307

try to hear what they believe to be the words of God to man.At times, though not very frequently, if a man does not quite

understand what is read, he will ask for an explanation.

This is the kind of promise given to those who hear these

books ; it is the encouragement to hear the Vishnu Purana.

Listening to the first book of this Parana "expiates all

offences. The man who hears this Purana obtains the fruit

of bathing in the Pushkara lake (bathing but once in this

lake is said to remove all sin) for twelve years, in the monthof Kartik. The gods bestow upon him who hears this work

• the dignity of a divine sage, of a patriarch, or of a spirit of

heaven."

I have now described the many methods by which the

Hindus are instructed in their rehgion, and the means bywhich their faith is strengthened and their zeal is fired.

And though it is true of most of the educated Hindus that

the entrance of the light of truth, scientific, historic, as

well as religious, has revealed the errors and evils of Hindu-

ism, one cannot move about amongst the uneducated people

or the more ignorant of the Brahmans without being im-

pressed with the fact that Hinduism has a firm hold of the

minds and hearts of the people. It is said with truth, that

the gifts in the temples are not as numerous or as costly as

they were, that the numbers of pilgrims visiting the shrines

are lessening year by year, that the Brahmans are compelled

±0 seek for employment, or they would starve, who once were

richly supported by the offerings of the people. But, notwith-

standing all this, Hinduism is a mighty power in the land,

and has an immense hold upon the people, as a visit to

Jagannatha's festivals, or to any of the great shrines, will

easily demonstrate. The most absurd gtories are easily

-believed by the people ; and the miracles of the New Testa-

ment are commonplace beside those that the people hear of

as having been wrought by some of their many deities when.they were incarnate amongst men.

I shall now try to show what is the object or end of all this

808 woKSHip.

worship ; what is the main good the people expect to obtain

by this long and costly round of duties.

In studying the religions of the people of India one cannot

faU to be struck with the great variety of methods by which

it is taught that the greatest good men desire can be attained,

and, at the same time, the failure to find the rest that th&

performance of the work prescribed promised. It is stated,.

e.g., in the plainest language, that bathing in the waters of

the holy Ganges will cleanse the soul from all sins of the

past, present, and future ; nevertheless, those who live on her

banks and daily wash in her holy purifying streams, at the

proper season of the year will visit some particular part of

the river, it may be hundreds of miles away from their home,

where her waters are said to have greater purifying power.

It is declared in the Mahabharat and Eamayana that the

mere hearing of the words of a single chapter of these books

will have the like effect upon the human soul. It is declared

that an offering made at some particular shrine, or bathing

in some particular well, such as the Mankarnika well at

Benares, will bring about the successful accomplishment of

any desired work, and give to the believer the much desired

mukti (final deliverance) from future births. Then again, weread that a visit to the holy city, and walking round the sacred

enclosure will ensure entrance into heaven. Then a visit to

some shrine, such as that of Jagannatha at Puri and others,

promise similar boons. And yet when any or many of these

good works have been done, the Hindu, as a rule, fails to

find the peace he sought. I can account for this hurrying

from one means of salvation to another partly by the gross

ignorance and morbid fear of the people, excited by the fact

that, though one act of merit may have satisfied one deity,

others who have not been pacified may wreak their vengeanceupon them. At great melas I have seen how the fears of the

people are aroused. Some poor women who had bathed in the

holy stream, paid their respects to the great d^eity that wasworshipped there, were walking along with a crowd to see-

HINDU WOESHIP. 309

the sights of the place. A number of itinerant shrines having

been set up, as is commonly the case at such places, as the

people were not liberal enough with their gifts to these sub-

ordinate deities, the priests shouting loudly with angry looks

assured the people that unless they gave something to them,

the anger of these gods being excited, suffering here and

hereafter would come upon them, notwithstanding the merit

that had been attained by the visit to the festival. In fear

the poor people give out of their poverty. There are so

many creditors amongst the heathen deities that it seems tq

be more than a life's work to get out of their debt. Incited

by the declarations of the priests, shrine after shrine is visited

and work after work is done ; still in the minds of the manythere is a fear that some deity has been neglected who mayat any moment demand his rights, and punish them for

neglecting him.

Another noticeable feature of Hindu worship is the way in

which each deity, in its turn, according to the particular

faith of its worshipper, or object of the writer of the scripture

which authorizes its worship, is regarded as superior to all

the rest. Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, Krishna, Sakti, each, in

their turn, is regarded as supreme over all ; it being declared

that the others have received their being from the one who is

being adored ; and, in like manner, bathing, giving, hearing

the Scriptures, penance, pilgrimage, is regarded for the

moment as the way of salvation. The mind becomes be-

wildered. But as there are so many deities, and so great

a variety of character in these deities, and such various kinds

of work are pleasing to them, it is a fact that almost any

iabit can be indulged in, almost any vice committed, under

the impression that it is pleasing to some deity or other. Is

a man incUned to drink spirits, bhang, or use opium ? He can

do this as an act pleasing to Siva. Does he wish to eat

flesh ? This can be done as part of the worship of Kali. Is he

lustful ? He has an example in Krishna. Is he fond of travel ?

He can go on pilgrimage..

810 WOKSHIP.

^ An eminent Bengali Christian expresses himself on this

subject as follows : " So grossly have the pernicious practices,

ceremoniously observed in the country, blunted the sentiments

of piety in her people, and corrupted their notions of the very

fundamentals of divine worship, that a native [Hindu] scarcely

ever thinks of worshipping his god except by means of unin-

telligible sounds which he has been taught to articulate

without understanding their meaning, and to which he attri-

butes a more than magical efficacy in propitiating the godsj

i . . The Hindu ritual, of which the largest portion is care-

folly concealed from the vast majority of the inhabitants

\i.e., in Sanskrit] , and no portion whereof can be used by the

servile classes but in the presence and under the superinten-

dence of the twice-born, has entirely disregarded the duty of

rendering a rational and spiritual service to God. . . . It is the

voice, no less of reason than of revelation, that hymns are

uttered by means of words which the understanding does not

comprehend, and can never expect a hearing or acceptance

from Him . * . who, though a God that heareth prayer,

cannot be expected to take pleasure in the mere acoustic of a

religious ceremony." * As an illustration of the foregoing

remarks is the following story from one of the Puranas. Aman, in the hour of death being thirsty, called to his son,

named Narayana, to bring him a little water. Vishnu, hear-

ing the man repeating one of his names, though the idea of

the god was not in the mind of the dying man, was so pleased

that he sent his messengers to convey him safely to heaven, andsave him from Yama, the king of Hades and the judge of

men.

As some shrines promise special blessings

—

e.g., Jagan-natha promises pardon, Benares certain entrance into heaven,&c.—many visit them in the hope of obtaining the particular

benefit promised there ; but what is the desire and aim of

the Hindu in his ordinary acts of worship ? The following

extract from the Vishnu Purana puts in a clear and definite,

* Calcutta Review, vol. iii. p. 142.

HINDU WOESHIP. 311

form the benefits the worshipper may obtain from worshipping

him:

"He who pleases Vishnu obtains all terrestrial enjoyments,

heaven, final liberation, and, in a word, aU his wishes find

gratification with whom Vishnu is pleased. How is he to

be rendered complaisant ? The supreme Vishnu is propitiated

by a man who observes the institution of caste, order, andpurificatory practices ; no other path is the way to please

him. He who offers sacrifice, sacrifices to him ; he whomurmurs prayers, prays to him ; he who injures living crea-

tures, injures him ; for Hari is aU beings. He is propitiated

by him who foUows the duties prescribed for his caste ; whodoes good to others, never utters abuse, calumny, or untruth

;

who covets not another's wife or wealth ; who never beats or

slays any animate or inanimate thing ; and who is diligent

in the service of the gods, Brahmans, and religious precep-

tors."

1. Worldly prosperity, or deliverance from some present

or threatened evil.

With the great bulk of the people who visit the temples on

ordinary occasions, it is with the definite hope of obtaining

some desired object that the journey is undertaken. In times

of sickness or trouble of any kind, the superstitious will

make a vow that if deliverance is obtained a goat or goats

will be sacrificed to Kali, or a pilgrimage to Puri undertaken,

or sacred water will b.e brought from the holy river and

poured forth on, or in front of, some particular image. The

idea of being able to purchase the favour of a special deity

by their act of worship is a most common one. Bribery

is one of the most common vices of the people. When a trial

was pending, it used to be the common practice to bribe aU

connected with the court, from the judge to the lowest ofBcer

;

and it was pretty well understood that the possessor of the

longest purse woiild win the case. Now the European officers

are known to be above suspicion in this respect, but it is

believed by the people, and by their superior officers too, that

312 WORSHIP.

the native officials of ttie lower courts are frequently bought

in this manner. The same idea seems to prevail amongst

the people respecting their gods—a costly offering being

made, or a wearisome and dangerous journey being under-

taken, in the belief that this act of homage will render the god

propitious. That this is the case is farther evident from the

fulsome language which is addressed to these deities in turn.

Whoever the god addressed may be, as the deliverer from

threatened danger, or the giver of some desired boon, he or

she is the supreme being. It is nothing more nor less with

many of the people than an attempt to bribe the deity into

compliance with their wishes; the idea of a God of love andgoodness, who is ready without solicitation to do good to all

. His creatures, is unknown in Hinduism. God is regarded

rather as an enemy whose favour must be purchased, a judge

whose decisions can be influenced by gifts and service ; this

is by far the commonest notion that prevails throughout the

country. Of the multitudes who flock to the festivals, it is

not love that attracts, but fear that drives them there. " If

we do not go," they say, " our crops will fail, our children or

our husbands will die, our enemies will trample over us."

If there is no special boon to be asked, there is this generalevil to be averted.

2. Eeligious merit.

It is a most common and widespread notion that a man bydoing any extraordinary deed (supererogation), such as thesetting up of an image in his house, visiting the shrine ofany deity, bathing, pilgrimage, incurring bodily suffering,

can have a certain number of good deeds written down to

his credit, which wiU be an equivalent for a certain amountof sins, caused by neglects of duty or by the committalof actual offences. A balance will be struck when he leavesthe world, and his future condition depend upon the pre-

ponderance of good or evil. If good outweighs the evil,

his next birth will be higher ; if the evil preponderate, hewill sink in the scale of creation. A low-caste man may, by

HINDU WOESHIP. 313

his meritorious acts, become a Brahman in a succeeding

birth ; and, in like manner, a Brahman through sin may sink

into a lower caste. Hence the religious are ever trying to lay

up a stock of punya (merit), which will stand on the credit

side of their account in the day of judgment. And though

there are manifold ways prescribed for getting rid of sin, it

«eems to be a settled conviction, as it is explicitly declared

in their Sastras, that pardon of sin is impossible. As a

man's works so will be his reward. But if there is no pardon,

no forgiveness on God's part, there is the payment or the

giving of an equivalent on theirs. And this is what is

meant by their works of merit ; it is an attempt, by means of

jreligious acts, over and above what is absolutely necessary,

to make a sort of set-off against their sins.

As far as lean gather from observation and conversationwith

the people, by their acts of worship there is no attempt after

ireal purity of heart, the conquering of an evil nature, and a

desire to please God in return for His goodness. Men sin at

the shrines as they do in their homes, and on their return as

before their visit. Nor is it thought anything remarkable

that this should be so, excepting perhaps in the case of those

who have left their homes, and gone to some sacred place in

the hope of ending their days there. In cases of this kind I

have heard of a higher, purer life being attempted, and of the

expectation of this by those who know them. But certainly

there is neither the attempt nor expectation of this in the

minds of the large majority of the people who go on pil-

grimage. It is not that they may be made pure, but that, by

an act of penance, they may give an equivalent to the gods

for their sins. Sin and punishment are indissolubly joined

together ; the penance of a pilgrimage is believed to be the

punishment of sins committed, though in another form ; if

this were not self-inflicted, the gods would bring upon them

the natural penalty that by unalterable decrees have been

attached to the offences committed.

The Hindu Scriptures contain many stories to show how

314 -WORSHIP.

men and demons (Asuras) even have, by their religious fer-

vour and protracted penance, forced the gods to grant them

the boon desired. Sometimes to their own hurt, often to the

injury of the other deities, boons have been extracted from^

the gods by the pious acts of their worshippers ; and it will

be easily seen how the people's faith in their reUgious acts-

can be excited by the narration of such stories. Even in the

present day will be found those who in great distress approach

the gods, in the belief that they can by persistent suffering

compel them to do their bidding.

The following is a typical story of the power of penance.

A demon king of Tripura by the force of his austerities ex-

tracted a boon from Brahma, much against his will, that h&should be invuhierfible save by a son of Siva. As that deity

had no son it seemed likely that he would remain for ever

free from injury ; he therefore became so tyrannical that he-

even took by force treasures from the other gods, who in their

distress repaired to Brahma for advice and help. As a boon<

once granted could not be withdrawn, it was arranged that.

Siva should have a son, through whom the common enemy of

the gods was destroyed. In a similar manner a worshipper of

Siva, named Hiranyakasipu, obtained a boon that he should

not be slain by man or beast, by day or night, in heaven, earthy

or hell, presuming on which he made himself obnoxious to

Vishnu, who exercised great ingenuity in getting rid of his-

foe without violating the letter of the promise Siva hadgiven him. He came as a man-lion, i.e., neither man or

beast, slew his enemy at twilight, which was neither day or

night, under the eaves of a house, which is proverbialy de-

clared not to be in heaven, earth, or hell. In a chapter on,

the future life the benefits expected from worship will be-

further considered.

CHAPTER IX.

RELIGIOUS NOTIONS COMMON TO THE HINDUSGENERALLY.

1. Unity of the Godhead, This will seem strange to those-

who hear of the vast number of deities worshipped by the

Hindus ; yet it is a fact that there is scarcely any truth, as

an article of faith, on which they are more agreed than this.

" God is one without a Second," is a phrase that is on

the lips of every one who speaks about the deity. Theyfreely confess that this One God made the heavens and the

earth; that He is the Creator of all men, whatever their

race, colour, and creed ; and that it is He who has madethe distinctions between Hindus and those of other faiths.

They explain their position in this manner : God is great and

cannot be fully expressed by any one being ; all the gods,

differing as they do in form and character, represent a part,

but only a small part, of His immensity. And they have no

difficulty whatever in admitting that it is possible that Jesus

Christ is another of the many partial manifestations of this

Great Being, and Christianity another form of religion

equally good in itself as Hinduism, though not for them.

It is the claim of Christians for the supremacy of Jesus that

offends themj were the Christian teacher willing to speak

of Him as one of the Avataras, all that he advances in proof

of this claim would be freely admitted by most of the Hindus.

As an illustration of the belief in the unity of the Godhead, as

has been noticed, each deity in his turn is extolled as supreme.

316 WORSHIP.

all the others being regarded as emanations from him. The

same worshiiDper will use the same epithets in addressing

any one of the gods, and so long as a general respect is

shown to the other gods the Hindu has no objection to raise

against any one employing the most laudatory epithets to

any of the deities in turn. At times, owing to the manymanifestations of this one God, the followers of Hinduism are

j)uzzled to know which is the cause of any calamity ; and

hence it is not at all an uncommon thing for them to make

vows to one after another in the hope that they may discover

and so be able to appease the one whom they imagine has

been offended.

2. Belief in the holiness of God, and at the same time belief in

the immoral character of His incarnations. When asked the

character of God the Hindus will repeat most glibly a

string of attributes, most of which the devout Christian

would admit as being truly descriptive of God. They will say

He is without beginning or end; truthful, holy in nature,

righteous in act, pure, merciful, almighty, all-wise, every-

where present ; and yet they as firmly believe that this same

God, when incarnate amongst men, was a " man of like pas-

sions with ourselves ; " using His greater wisdom and power

for the doing of greater evil. The stories of Siva's infidelity

"towards his wife and their consequent quarrels ; Krishna's

unbounded licentiousness (he is generally represented andworshipped not with his own wife but with the wife of

another man) ; Eama's ignorance of his wife's whereabouts

when she was carried off by Eavana, and his inability then

to rescue her, and, when found, his inability to say whether

she had continued true to him during her enforced residence

in Ceylon, are as fully believed as the moral attributes of Godjust mentioned. And further, though God is declared to be

almighty, we read of demons or men by the power of their

religious fervour making even the deities to tremble withfear lest they should lose their thrones and divine honours.

Hindus have admitted to me that they should be very sorry

KELIGIOUS NOTIONS COMMON TO THE HINDUS. 317

for the gods to live near them and their families; andit has passed into a proverb, that whilst the teaching thegods have given is good and worthy to be followed, theexample they have set is bad and unfit to be copied. In the

present day there are philosophizing men who try to explain

away a good deal of the worst teaching of the Puranas in

this respect, and to give a poetical interpretation to thestories of the varied immorahties of the gods; but themass of the people believe these accounts in their mostliteral form, and merely say that acts permitted to the

gods are forbidden to men. The most disgusting stories

are to be found in the sacred writings, with which the

common people are made familiar ; stories that explain the

reason why certain emblems are worshipped as the represen-

tatives of certain gods ; and in front of the images, as soon

as the strictly religious part of the ceremonies are over, most" fleshly" voluptuous songs are sung, not merely for the de-

lectation of the people, but for the amusement of the deity

too. Generally speaking, the Hindus profess to believe in a

Supreme Deity, who is holy, pure, and good ; but the mani-

festations of that Deity in every case are opposed in character

to this ideal Being. And yet it is most difScult to enable

them to see the incongruity of this faith.

3. Belief in innumerable incarnations.

The Hindu who professes to believe in millions of incar-

nations of deity, finds no difficulty in adding to this number

at any time ; hence we see that when any great teacher or

reformer arises he is either deified during his lifetime or

by his followers after his death. Buddha, although a most

stern and successful opponent of the popular Hinduism, was

seen to be far too influential to be regarded as an ordinary

mortal, and so he is declared to have been an incarnation of

Vishnu, who appeared for the special purpose of deceiving

men and leading the devout worshippers of the gods into

heresy, that by this means their power might be diminished.

Chaitanya, who three centuries ago was an ordinary teacher

©18 WOKSHIP.

of a new sect, became exalted to divinity, and is now wor-

.shipped with as great veneration as Krishna, whose devoted

servant he professed to be. So earnest was the devotion of

some of Keshiib Chunder Sen's followers a few years ago,

that they addressed him in terms differing but little from

those employed in the worship of God; and there can be

little doubt that, but for fear of public opinion, that same

tendency would have led his followers to place him amongst

the gods. Even now, no one is allowed to sit upon the

platform in the mandir (church) where he sat to teach, as

though he were still the minister or teacher, present in

spirit though absent in body. The addition of another in-

carnation is a comparatively easy matter with the Hindu.But the clumsiest of all is certainly that of Buddha, men-tioned above, where the deity is said to have come down to

4sarth simply to lead devout men into error, because of the

immense merit they gained through their earnest devotion.

4. The belief in Maya.

This term, meaning illusion, plays a very important part

in the philosophy of the Hindus, but I wish to speak of it

here only as it influences the religious life of the people.

The common notion of the mass of the people is, that the

world and all that is are an emanation from God ; thatas the snail comes out from the shell and can withdraw itself

at will from sight, so the universe has come out from God,and He can withdraw all into Himself. And yet, though all

things are God in other forms, men think of themselves as.something different from Him ! This is all Maya, or illusion.

True wisdom consists in realizing the oneness of all thingswith God ; and when this is done the man's separate exist-

ence ends, and he gains true blessedness in reunion with theDivine Spirit. The common phrase the people use is thatcreation is the play or sport of God. He was tired of beingalone, and for His own amusement formed the world fromHimself; all the pains and miseries and vexations of life

«ome from the influence of Maya, from the individual

RELIGIOUS NOTIONS COMMON TO THE HINDUS. 819

amagining himself to be something distinct from God. Thereare several ways by which this illusion can be overcome.

Some seek to overcome it by the observance of the rites of

religion, by obtaining merit that shall greatly overbalance

the sins of life ; but when it is gained in this way, by someit is taught that it is only a partial, temporary blessedness

that is secured. The best way of all is by meditating on the

identity of the soul with God, until the mind becomes con-

scious of nothing else. In other words, as it seems to anoutsider, supreme bliss consists in having no knowledge and

no desires ; indifference to heat and cold, hunger and thirst,

day and night, self and the world. A life of inaction is the

noblest man can live ; and a life without thought is better

than an active, self-denying one. Certainly most of those

who are thus seeking bliss appear almost idiotic. Their life

is perfectly useless to themselves and to others, and their

chief virtue consists in indifference to the comforts and con-

veniences, or the pains and disappointments of life. It

always appeared to me that the ideal of human life, as illus-

trated by these men, gives the most complete condemnation

of Hinduism next to that of the character of the incarnations

of deity.

5. Pantheism.

Connected with, in a sense, as an outcome from it, is the

general belief in Pantheism : God is everything ; everything

is God. I have heard men exclaim repeatedly, " I am part

of God ; " and it is a most common reply, when it is attempted

to show the evil of sin, that sin is not sin, i.e., not violation

of God's law ; that man's acts, whether good or evil, are not

his own; he does simply what God compels him to do.

Nothing tends more to blight a man's moral sense than this

loss of the sense of freedom and moral responsibility ; and yet

it is the common belief of the large majority of the Hindus.

They will laugh at illustrations such as that of the Judge

and the Prisoner;—" I was impelled by God to strike that

man, I am therefore not responsible ; but I am also impelled

320 WORSHIP.

by God to punish you''—and yet go away quite comfortable-

in the assurance of their own immunity from punishment

for similar deeds. It is most generally believed and most

freely admitted, that God induces men to sin, as He induces

them at other times to do right ; and that the blame in the

one case and the merit in the other is God's, not man?s.

The idea is rejected that we are conscious of freedom of

choice, and that upon this alone rests the possibility of a

just judgment of mankind by God. It is argued that since

" God is everywhere, He must be in me ; and if He is in me,

He, being mightier than I, must induce me to act as Hewishes." When it is remembered that the gods themselves

were not over-scrupulous in their conduct, it need occasion

less surprise that it can be believed that He would induce

men to sin also.

6. Fate.

No doctrine is more commonly and implicitly believed

than this, that aU man's life is arranged by the deity, and

that it is useless for him to attempt to go against the Divine*" decrees ; all that man can do is to submit. During the first

few days of a child's life the deity is believed to write a

sketch of his career on the forehead, and what is written is said

to be inevitable. Hence when trouble comes it is regarded

as a sufficient explanation to say, "It is written." There is

only one way, so far as I know, of gaining an alteration

of this destiny, viz., by bathing in a tank at Benares, where

it is promised to the bathers that they can obtain a success-

ful issue for their plans, although the opposite has been

written by the gods. No doctrine seems to be more necessary

to India than this—that it is not enough to say, " God mendall," but that man must help Him to mend what needs atten-

tion; This bowing to Fate paralyzes ' effort, and multitudes

die year by year through its baneful influence. In times of

sickness remedial measures will not be tried, because if it

is written that the patient must die he will die, whatever

trouble be taken or expense incurred.

EELIGIOUS NOTIONS COMMON TO THE HINDUS. 821

From what has already been said on the subject of Hinduworship, it will be noticed that there is nothing in the

example of the gods to lead to purity of heart and life, andthe ritual observed in the public and private worship has

no tendency in this direction, whilst many of the attendant

ceremonies have just the opposite tendency, it occasions nosurprise that a man who strictly observes the rules of his

particular caste, and repeats the mantras of his guru, and is

liberal in his offerings to the temples or gurus, is accounted

a good Hindu, whatever his moral character may be. Thepractical side of religion, as seen in the renunciation of sin

and the obtaining of a pure nature, is almost forgotten

in Hinduism. That there are some truthful, pure-hearted

men there can be no doubt, but it is not the result of their

strict adherence to their religion that has made them so. TheSalgrama, the ammonite used as a representation of Vishnu

—which is accounted by the Vaishnavas as the most holy

thing on earth-^is a form into which he is said to have

changed himself when his wife metamorphosed one of his

mistresses into the Tulsi plant, in order that he might con-

tinue near to her. The associations of Hinduism have a de-^

moralizing, polluting influence. And it is freely admitted by

the more thoughtful that nowadays it does not matter what a

man believes or does so long as he attends to the restrictions

and duties of his caste, whilst caste itself is losing much of

its influence over the educated and thoughtful of the people.

Love to God and love to man are certainly not the natural

outcome of the close observance of caste regulations, and

of the most scrupulous performance of the rites of the Hindu

religion.

22

WOMAN.

CHAPTEE I.

THE POSITION OF WOMAN, AS TAUGHT IN THE SlSTRAS.*

At first sight it may appear strange in a work on the HinduEeligion to devote a book to the position of woman. In

Christian countries, where woman is regarded as the equal

and companion of man, if writing of those brought upin the Christian rehgion, where the highest privileges are

obtainable by all who seek them, of course this would not be

necessary. But as in India the position of woman is so

inferior to that of man, and as this inferiority has the sanc-

tion of the Hindu sacred writings, it is necessary to a com-plete view of the Hindu religion that this should be mostclearly stated.

It is coromonly asserted by the Hindus, when their atten-

tion is called to the prevalent custom amongst the middle

and upper classes of society of immuring their wives in the

prison-like rooms known as the Zenana Khanah, or women's

apartments, and of preventing them fromvisitingother houses,excepting their own fathers, that this custom arose either

in imitation or through fear of the Mussulman conquerors.

Under the rule of the Mahommedan princes, their wives' and

daughters' persons not being safe, the system that prevails in

the present day came into fashion. They admit that the

liberty enjoyed by ladies in England may not have been

given to the ladies of India, but at the same time they were

jiot kept in anything like the same seclusion as that which

* Calcutta Review, vol. xxxvi. p. 315.

326 WOMAN.

prevails amongst tLem to-day. This may be to a large

extent true, but it certainly cannot be accepted as a full state-

ment of the case. For, as we shall see directly, it is to the

teaching of Manu, whose work was compiled about 900 b.c,

that we must look for the origin of this system. In his work

we find teaching so evil, and laws so cruel concerning

woman, that no Mussulman invasion was necessary to account

for the want of confidence in woman's honour and virtue

that is almost universal. It may be that when the con-

querors came, some fifteen centuries after these laws had beenin force, they put the crown upon the arch which was already

waiting for them. Their unscrupulous conduct may havetightened the chains by which woman was already enslaved.

There is, however, no doubt that the lessons of this old law-

giver were quite sufScient of themselves to account for aU wesee around us in India to-day. The Mussulmans conqueredother countries besides India, but it is only in that country,where Manu's book was already in authority, that we find

women regarded as altogether unworthy of the respect andtrust of their husbands.

In some respects the women of Greece and Eome weretreated as they are at the present time in India. In a speechdelivered by an Athenian on his trial for the murder of hiswife's seducer, we gain an insight into the customs that thenprevailed in Athens. He assures the judge that whilst hetreated her kindly, he did not allow her to be master of hisfortune, nor of her own actions. After she became a mother,he says, he placed more confidence in her, and allowed herto go out of his house unattended by himself, to be presentat the funeral ceremonies of her mother-in-law. And it waswhilst away from home on that occasion that she was seenby her seducer, and by means of her servant induced to listento his evil proposals. Browne, in his work on their Civil Law,says of the Eomans that " wives were dismissed not only forwant of chastity, or for being of intolerable temper, but forthe slightest causes," and further, that "they were never con-

THE POSITION OF WOMAN, AS TAUGHT IN THE SASTBAS. 327

sidered to have attained the age of reason and experience,

but were condemned to the perpetual tutelage of parents,

husband, and guardians." This last passage is almost

identical with one of the lessons given by Manu.We shall now examine the teaching of the Hindu Law

Books on the position of woman.She must ever be in a state of dependence upon and of

obedience to others. " By a girl, or by a young woman, or

by a woman advanced in years, nothing must be done, even

in her own dweUing-place, according to her mere pleasure.

In childhood must a female be dependent on her father, in

youth on her husband, her lord being dead, on her sons. Awoman must never seek independence." * The commentators

add a few words to provide for all contingencies: "If she

have no sons she must be dependent on and subject to the

near kinsmen of her husband; if he have left no kins-

men, on those of her father ; or, if she have no paternal

kinsmen, on the sovereign."

This legislation is perfectly one-sided. Though the hus-

band be altogether bad, though he be cruel and untrue to

his wife, this does not at all free her from her obligation to

him, as the following passage clearly teaches: "Thoughunobservant of approved usages, or enamoured of another

woman, or devoid of good qualities, yet a husband must

constantly be revered as a god by a virtuous wife." t Theresult of this law is that when a husband, as frequently is

the case, is ujifaithful to his wife, and it is known that he

has other women in his keeping, there is no redress for the

injured wife. She cannot obtain a divorce from him ; and,

were such a course possible, she would be treated in her own

family as a widow ; i.e., as we shall presently show, her life

would be made as wretched as man's ingenuity could conceive.

The wife, according to the same authority, has no separate

independent existence apart from her husband. She is for-

* " Dharma Sastra," chap. v. pp. 162, 163.

t Chap. V. p. 154.

328 WOMAN.

bidden the comfort even of approaching the gods in her own

name and on her own behalf. " No sacrifice is allowed to

women apart from their husbands, no religious rite, no

fasting. As far only as a wife honours her husband, so far

she is exalted in heaven. A faithful wife who wishes to attain

in heaven the mansion of her husband must do nothing

unkind to him, be he living or dead." * This seems to be

about the most cruel of all these laws : a woman is denied

free access to the gods in her own name. Of course womenare to be found in large numbers at the shrines, at the sacred

bathing-places, &c. ; but it is only as an appendage of their

lords : only in his name can they reach the ear of heaven.

It is further declared that " women have no concern witk

the text of the Vedas. This is -lawfully settled. Having,

therefore, no evidence of law, and no knowledge of expiatory

texts, sinful women must be as foul as falsehood itself. Andthis is a fixed rule." In perfect accord with this is the

teaching of some of the sects that women cannot obtain

final emancipation, the highest bliss of heaven. They mustbe re-born into the world as men : thus, and thus only, is the

highest blessedness available for them. Of the religious acts

that may be performed by women in their own name we shall

epeak later on.

The bond uniting a woman to her husband is indissoluble

even by death. Widow-remarriage is said, on good authority,

to be not contrary to the general teaching of the HinduScriptures, and consequently a law permitting it has beenpassed by the Government of India; but Manu certainly

teaches that a widow must continue her widowhood until her

death, and the general sentiment of the community is so

strongly opposed to widow-remarriage, that those who have- availed themselves of this act have been outcasted by their

fellows. Manu's teaching is as follows: "Let her (the

widow) emaciate her body by living voluntarily on pure

flowers, roots, and fruit ; but let her not, when her lord is

* Chap. V. pp. 155, 156.

THE POSITION OF WOMAN, AS TAUGHT IN THE SASTEAS. 329

deceased, even pronounce the name of another man. Lether continue until death, forgiving all injuries, performingharsh duties, avoiding every sensual pleasure, and cheerfully

practising the incomparable rules of virtue which have beenfollowed by such women as were devoted to one only husband."" A widow who, from a wish to bear children, slights her

deceased husband by marrying again, brings disgrace onherself here below, and shall be excluded from the seat of

her lord. Issue begotten on a woman by any other than her

husband [i.e., of course, her first husband] is here declared to

be no progeny of hers, . . . nor is a second husband allowed

in any part of this code to a virtuous woman. She whoneglects her former husband, though of a lower class, andtakes another of a higher, becomes despicable in this world."

But how different is the case with man ! A few verses onwe read : "A twice-born man, versed in the sacred ordinances,

must burn with hallowed fire and fit implements of sacrifice,

his wife dying before him, if she was of his own class andlived by these rules, i.e., virtuously; having thus kindled

sacred fires and performed funeral rites for his wife who died

before him, he may marry again, and again light the nuptial

fire." * A man may marry as often as he may wish, but the

widow must remain unmarried until her death. And it is nouncommon thing for a widower, who has performed the

funeral rites for his wife, to go through the marriage ceremony

with a new wife, after an interval of only a few weeks. There

is, however, this fact to be remembered, that his new wife

being but a child, it may be necessary for him to live alone

for years ere she is old enough to join him.

During her life the position assigned to the wife by Manuis one of entire subjection to her husband, and in order to

ensure obedience he ordains that it .is quite within a

husband's rights to inflict corporal punishment upon her if

she prove disobedient. " A wife, a son, a servant, a pupil,

and a younger brother, may be corrected, when they commit* Bk. V. p. 157, ft.

330 WOMAN.

faults, with a rope or a small shoot of a cane." This seems

to be generally admitted as a perfectly right position by the

women. A servant in my employ had married a second wife,

and expected the elder woman not only to earn her own

living, but to give up her wages to him, that he might indulge

his own passion for strong drink, and be able to maintain his

new wife in comparative idleness at home. Occasionally the

womaii resented this, and was thrashed most severely for her

contumacy. On one occasion, when her husband was more

violent than usual, and threatened to murder her, she came

to me for advice, and agreed to go. the next day before a

magistrate, to obtain legal protection against her husband.

On the following day, when I suggested that we should attend

court, she affected surprise at my suggestion, and gave what

appeared to her a sufBcient reason for continuing to endure

his cruel treatment, as she said, " He is my husband, cannot

he do as he likes with me ?"

Concerning the moral nature of woman, Manu speaks in no

measured terms, and his opinion is quite endorsed by other

writers on morals, as we shall see. " It is the nature of

women in this world to cause men to sin." "A female,

indeed, is able to draw from the right path in this life, not afool only, but even a sage, and can lead him in subjection to

desire or to wrath." There can be no doubt whatever that

it is this low opinion of woman that is the ultimate cause of

the greater part of his legislation concerning her.

Although the wife must honour her husband as her god,

and must remain a widow after his death, the husband, on the

other hand, may, after seven years of marriage, if there be noson born, supersede her by another wife : nay, it is taught by

Manu that " a wife who speaks unkindly may be put aside

without delay. ... If a wife drinks, shows hatred to her

lord, is mischievous, or wastes his property, she may at all

times be superseded by another wife."

Hitherto, in giving the laws respecting woman's position,

I have quoted only from Manu's " Dharma Sastra," a work

THE POSITION Of WOMAN, AS TAUGHT IN THE SASTHAS. 331

that is regarded as of the highest authority by the Hindus.The following extracts will show the position he occupies as a

religious lawgiver amongst the Hindus of all classes.

" Of Manu's antiquity and reality there can be no doubt.

... It is clear that the code was compiled by a Brahmanwell versed in the lore of the Vedas, and to a certain extent

in the ways of the world, thus combining secular and bookknowledge at once. Nor, again, is there any doubt as to

Manu's being the main fountain whence the religious obser-

vances of a country where every custom is based on religion,

the hopes and the fears of the Hindu in this life and in the next,

the various regulations of society and intercourse, marriage

and inheritance, birthrights and funeral pyres, spring andare perpetuated. This is indeed the Sastra to which learned

and unlearned alike appeal. The well-read Pundit, when weask of him the reason for this or that custom, will base his

answer on a text from Manu. The secular Hindu, nay, the

unlettered ryot, while pleading in extenuation of some grave

folly sanctioned by the transmission of ages, unconsciously

repeats the substance of some time-honoured sloke. Butmost Hindus, if asked the age and date of their great legis-

lator, would answer in a breath that he was the son of the

' self-existent,' that he was taught his laws by Brahma in

one hundred thousand verses, and that finally he gave them

in an abridged form to his son Bhrigu, who gave them cur-

rency to the world." " It is not a system of uncompromising

ambition or unmingled priestcraft suddenly erected by some

enterprising Brahman for those whom his arms had van-

quished in the field." " It covers nearly all varieties of

human life. It gives laws to kings and councils, to pleaders

and clients, to the husbandman in 'the field and the mahajan

on the ship ; and it lays down the law which is to regulate

man in every relationship of life into which he can enter.

And in many respects its laws are as thoroughly acknow-

ledged by the mass of the Hindus to-day as when the code

was originally drawn up. And not only does the system

332 WOMAN.

deal with overt acts, but is as careful to regulate and to

dilate upon the thoughts and desires of men which could

hardly be referred to in the secrets of the confessional. It

is a strange mixture, for there, in startling relief, contrasting

as the vivid lightning on the black thunder cloud, will be

seen in perhaps one and the same page puerilities of thought

joined with masculine vigour of mind; Baconian profundity

and bold truisms ; the manners of Confucius or of Socrates

with those of the most Jesuitical dishonesty ; Draco's stern-

ness and the simplicity of patriarchal simplicity ; the polite-

ness of Chesterfield and the rampant pride of Brahmanioal

domination ; wise saws straight as a sunbeam, and casuistry

tortuous and at variance with itself; sensible views of natural

history, and vague and childish solutions of the most commonphenomena ; truth and falsehood ; darkness and light ; andmuch that is noble and admirable in morals, with all that is

vile and degraded of superstitions." Evidently he wrote at

times as though men were good ; at other times, seeing cer-

tain evils prevailing, he gives a sort of sanction to them, as

though he saw that at present there was no reasonable hopeof their being prevented; e.g., "he legalizes abduction, andmakes it one of the eight form& of marriage."

Before passing on to notice the present position of woman,I shall add a few words from a code of Hindu laws drawn upat the close of the last century by order of the Governmentof the day -for the guidance of the judicial officers. TheHindus were to be judged according to their own time-

honoured laws and customs—hence the necessity for someauthority. It will be seen from the few extracts given that

the spirit, and almost the words of Manu, reappear in this

more modern code.

" A man both day and night must keep his wife so muchin subjection that she by no means be mistress of her ownactions. If the wife have her own free will, notwithstandingshe be sprung from a superior caste, she will yet behaveamiss." This passage is followed by another almost identical

THE POSITION OF WOMAN, AS TAUGHT IN THE SASTRAS. 333

with the one quoted from Manu, declaring that her father

husband, sons, &o., must have her under their care. "A.woman is not to be relied on."

"A woman who always abuses her husband shall be treated

with good advice for a year ; if she does not amend with one

year's advice, and does not leave off abusing her husband,

he shall no longer hold any communication with her, norkeep her any longer near him, but shall provide her with

food and clothes. A woman who dissipates or spoils her ownproperty, ... or who has an intention to murder her hus-

band, and is always quarrelling with everybody, or who eats

before her husband eats, such woman shall be turned out of

the house."

"A woman shall never go out of the house without the

consent of her husband; . . . shall never hold discourse with

a strange man; . . . shall not laugh without drawing her

veil over her face ; shall pay a proper respect to the Deity,

her husband's father, her spiritual guide, and the guests, andshall not eat until she has served them with victuals. Awoman shall never go to a stranger's house, shall not stand

at the door, and must never look out of a window."

"If a man goes on a journey, his wife shall not divert

herself by play, nor see any public show, nor laugh, nor

dress herself in jewels and fine clothes, nor see dancing, nor

hear music, nor sit at the window, nor ride out, nor behold

anything choice and rare ; but shall fasten well the house

door, and remain private. She shall not eat any dainty

victuals, blacken her eyes with eye-powder, or view her face

in a mirror. She shall never exercise herself in any such

agreeable employment during the absence of her husband."

"It is proper for a woman, after her husband's death, to

burn herself in the fire with his corpse ; every woman who

thus burns herself shall remain in Paradise with her hus-

band 35,000,000 years by destiny." The text does not say

how it will be if the husband is unworthy of attaining all

these years of blessedness. If his deeds demand the punish-

334 WOMAN.

ment of hell, is it the duty of a faithful wife, as a reward for

her self-immolation, to go there with him ? "If she cannot

burn, she must in that case preserve an inviolable chastity ;

if she remains chaste, she goes to Paradise ; and if she does

not, she goes to hell." *

" Confidence must not be placed in woman." " If one

trust a woman, without doubt he must wander about the

streets as a beggar."

Founded upon and in harmony with the spirit of these

laws are proverbs commonly known and accepted by the

people. "Blind sons support their parents, but a prince's

daughters extract money from them;" i.e., sons, however

weak and helpless naturally, will nevertheless prove helpful

to their parents, whilst daughters will simply prove a source

•of constant expense and trouble. " Unless a daughter dies,

she cannot be praised for her virtue ;" i.e„ that women are

so frail, that however good and pure their lives may have

been, there is no certainty that they will continue so.

It is true that in one passage Manu speaks a little morekindly of woman than he did in the texts quoted above. In

one place he says that "good women, eminently fortunate andworthy of reverence, irradiate the houses of their lords, andbetween them and Lakshmi, the goddess of abundance, there

is no diversity whatever." In another passage he says

:

"Where females are honoured the deities are pleased, andwhen they are dishonoured religion becomes useless." Butas this is so utterly opposed to his general teaching, a writer

in the Calcutta Review says truly, that " as Manu's ' Insti-

iutes ' were evidently a compilation, had there been new andrevised editions of his work, these gallant expressions wouldhave been eliminated."

I have gone rather fully into the legal position of woman^s taught in the Hindu writings, because it will be seen,

Tvhen we come to consider their condition at the present

* " Code of Hindu Laws," 1776, pp. 285, 286.

THE POSITION OF WOMAN, AS TAUGHT IN THE SASTEAS. 335

day, that Manu legislation of 2000 years ago is still sub-

stantially the law of the Hindu community.It must not be overlooked, however, that before Manu's day

a very different state of affairs existed. In the Vedic times

it is evident that woman was regarded more as her husband's

companion, was treated with more confidence and respect,

and was permitted to join her husband in the public religious

festivals. '' The original normal Vedic idea of religious worship

appears to have been that it should be performed by a married

couple, the husband oflSciating and his wife assisting. Thenormal household had one husband and one wife on a level

of equality at the hearth, which was the altar of sacrifice.

The wife had charge of the sacred vessels, prepared the

sacrifice, and even sometimes composed the hymn." Buteven in the Vedic hymns, whilst sons are prayed for, andblessings implored on their behalf, daughters are not asked

for, nor is intercession made for them. In one passage the

inferiority of woman is implied as " the highest praise whichthe Eishi Syavaswa could give to a queen, his greatest

benefactor, who had not only treated him with reverence, but

had given him a herd of cattle, and costly ornaments, andput him in the way of obtaining the woman on whom he hadset his heart. ' Sasiyasi, though a female, is more excellent

than a man who reverences not the gods, nor bestows wealth,'

on the principle that a living dog is better than a dead lion."*

Several of the hymns show, further, that the old Aryans hadnot the highest opinion of woman's purity and virtue.

In the Epic Poems, scenes are described which are quite

at variance with the prevailing custom of secluding women.The Mahabharata has stories of Swayambaras, i.e., festivals

held at which princesses selected their husbands from a host

of admirers, reminding one of thejousts and tournaments of the

Western world. Meetings were held at which neighbouring

princes were invited, and the prize for excellence in archery

was the hand of the fair princess, who was permitted in those

• "The Vedic Beligion," p. 165.

836 WOMAN.

days to see and be seen by others. In one of these the skill

displayed was far in excess of anything that is heard of in

the present age. The target was a fish suspended from the

top of a high pole, the competitors not being allowed to

look directly at the object, but to shoot as they saw its

reflection only in a vessel of water. Several competitors

tried and failed. At length came Arjuna, the friend of

Krishna, who was treated with the laughter and ridicule of

several as he approached the place of trial ; but hitting the

mark, he carried off the prize, much to the chagrin and envyof those who had ridiculed him.

From the various forms of marriage, as they are termed byManu, it is evident that women enjoyed far more freedomthan is permitted now, or some of these would have been,

impossible, except amongst the lowest orders of the people,

who are unable, owing to their poverty, to immure their wivesand daughters ; but, as mentioned previously, Manu evidently

wished to give a sort of sanction to the customs he foundprevailing which he was unable to suppress.

CHAPTEE II.

THE PBESENT POSITION OF WOMAN.

It should te understood that this account refers more especially

to the women of the middle and upper classes in North India.

The poorer people would, if it were possible, seclude their wivesas do those in more favoured circumstances. But when weconsider the style of house, or rather hut, in which the mass of

the people live, and the fact that it is necessary for the wife to

go to the markets, draw water, and attend to all the duties of

the house, seclusion for them is impossible. But the desire

to act in the same manner is almost universal. I have

inown household servants as scrupulous in keeping their

wives hidden from the public gaze as men of large incomes.

It is not, therefore, that the husbands of the poorer classes are

more kind and trustful than the rich; but simply that circum-

stances are against their carrying out their wishes in this

respect.

The degradation of women commences from the very hour

of their birth. Whilst the story of Hannah, as written in

the Book of Samuel, is true of every Hindu wife who has

not been blessed with a son, daughters are seldom prayed

for, nor is their advent in a family welcomed. Though other

reasons of a secular nature may be given for the universal

desire for sons, it is doubtless the religious one, that a son is

able to perform successfully the funeral rites of his parents and

ancestors, that hasthe greatest influence. Unless theserites are

properly performed, all a father's good works go for nothing; he23

338 WOMAN.

must suffer in hell until some one performs them. A story is

told in the Mahahharata which enforces this duty. A man be-

fore he had entered the marriage state determined to live an

ascetic life. In process of time he came into the spirit world,

and there saw four men in the greatest distress, hanging by

their feet from the bough of a tree overhanging a deep precipice.

Eats were gnawing at the ropes which held their feet, so that

they were in momentary expectation of being dashed to pieces.

Entering into conversation with them, he found they were his

father, grandfather, great-grandfather, and great-great-grand-

father, doomed thus to suffer because their descendant hadrefused to marry and provide one who could, by his perform-

ance of the Shradha, deliver them from their pains. Manuteaches, in the extravagant way common to Hindu writers,

the immense benefits sons can confer on their families. Ason born in a family where husband and wife, Brahmans, weremarried according to the Brahma form of marriage {i.e., wherethe wife was given and accepted without gifts on behalf of

either party), "redeems from sin, if he performs virtuous acts,

ten ancestors, ten descendants, and himself the twenty-first

person." A son born after marriage, according to the Daivyarite {i.e., where a daughter, gaily dressed and laden withornaments, is bestowed upon an officiating priest), can in like

manner " redeem seven and seven in higher and lowerdegrees. Sons of marriages, according to the Prajapatyarite, six; and those according to the Arsharite, three ancestorsand three descendants." It is interesting to see how theEoman Catholic doctrine of Purgatory, which makes therescue of the souls of the departed depend upon the offerings

of their living friends, has its counterpart, perhaps its origm,in Hinduism. I once heard a priest in a Catholic Churchexhorting his people to arrange for masses for the souls of theirfriends based upon arguments that Hindus might well haveused.

Hindu wives not blessed with sons give costly presents to

the deities, undertake journeys to particular shrines, where

THE PRESENT POSITION OF WOMAN. 339

the boon of sons is promised to visitors, endure long andsevere fasts, and incur expense and fatigue to obtain this

blessing. The trees near to the shrines are laden with stones,

rags, &c., that superstitious women have tied there in com-memoration of a vow, that if a son be given to them within

a certain time, they will again visit the shrine with an offering

of a certain value. Nor is this to be wondered at when it

is taught by Manu that "a barren wife may be superseded

by another in the eighth year (after marriage), she whosechildren are all dead in the tenth, she who brings forth only

daughters in the eleventh." In addition, then, to the negative

pain of having no son to prove a comfort and, support, there is

also the positive evil arising from the thought that she may haveto give up her position of wife to another and more fortunate

woman. And sometimes it happens that they are called uponto take a [second wife to the home, because of the dreaded

consequences of having no son in the house to perform the

funeral rites. In the names of many of the Hindus, a his-

tory is suggested as in that of Samuel—" asked of the Lord."

The names Kali Prasanna, Durga Prasanna, &c., indicate that

in the belief of the parents it was "by the favour" of the

deities after whom the child is named that they were given ;

and probably a vow had been previously made, that on the

birth of the son an offering would be given at their shrine.

But whilst there is this great desire to obtain sons, daughters

are seldom prayed for. When a son is born there is great

rejoicing in the family, and friends come with their congratu-

lations ; but on the birth of a daughter there are no sounds

indicative of gladness ;^in the house ; whilst, if friends call to

see the father, it is with the offer of consolation. " The Ben-

gali Kulin Brahman sees in a daughter a bitter well-spring of

anxiety, expense, and possible humiliation; for she mustprobably marry a man who already has many wives, most of

whom he seldom sees ; she must live as a burden in her

iather's house, and be exposed to manifold trials and temp-

tations through the absence of her husband." And what is

840 WOMAN.

true of the Kulin Brahman is true of the ordinary Hindu

family, only in a less degree. The girl must be married before

she is twelve or thirteen years of age ; and to provide a

husband will necessitate the expenditure of the savings of

years ; or, if there be no money in hand, debts will be con-

tracted which it will take years to pay off.

In the reUgious ceremonies pertaining to the births of

children there is a marked difference in the treatment of

boys and girls. In order that the boy may be protected

during the days of infancy and childhood, Sasthi, the special

protectress of mothers and children, must be invoked on

his behalf. She is propitiated with gifts that she may take

the child imder her care and save him from dangers incident

to infancy. And on the fifth night after the boy's birth the

father is most careful to place in the room, where the mother

and her helpless babe are lying, pen and ink, flowers and fruits,

so that Vidhata, who is supposed to come down from heaven

to write upon the infant's forehead all the main events of his

life, being pleased with the offerings, may write a favourable

and prosperous history. But in the case of girls all this,

religious work is omitted. Girls seem to be regarded as

unworthy of attention, and from their very advent into the

world are regarded as far inferior to men. It is this whichaccounts largely for the practice of infanticide which hasprevailed so commonly in many parts of India.

We shall now pass on to notice the girUwod of Hinduwomen. Whilst the boys are early sent to school, as a rule

the girls remain at home spending their time in play ; and,,

further, whilst the boys are initiated at the age of seven oreight into the Hindu system by the guru appointed for

them by their father bywhom they are taught the mantra, andare then free to worship the gods, the Hindu girl's wholereligious training has to do with certain ceremonies performedwith the simple object of obtaining a husband, and that hemay live long.* When it is remembered that these religious

• " The Hindus as they are," p. 35.

THE PRESENT POSITION OF WOMAN, 341

rites are first performed when the girl is but five years of age,

it will be evident that the children must be taught a great

deal that it would be far better for them not to know at so

tender an age.

The following are the religious acts permitted to girls :

—

1. Siva Puja, i.e., the worship of Siva. The object sought

by this ceremony is that she may obtain a husband as Siva.

The origin of this rite appears to be the following :—WhenSiva's wife, Parvati, was angry with her father because hefailed to invite her husband to his great sacrifice, she

•destroyed herself, and hence, among other names, is known as

Sati, or the faithful wife. When she was born again into the

world as Durga, she was most anxious to be re-united to her

liusband ; but as he had just commenced a life of severe

penance, there seemed to be little chance of obtaining

lier heart's desire. However, she commenced to worship the

ordinary image of her husband immediately in front of Siva,

who was engaged in meditation,,whilst Eamadeva (the Indian

cupid) promised to shoot an arrow at him whenever he raised

liis head. After a time, the opportunity coming, Kama let

fly his arrow ; and Siva, seeing Durga engaged in^is worship

Again became enamoured of her, and she obtained the

blessing she sought. But Kama suffered for his part in the

transaction. A fierce fire issued from the third eye of Siva,

"which consumed the god of love to ashes. Little girls are

taught to worship the image of Siva, that they, in Hke

manner, may obtain a husband such as he was. But whythey can desire one like him it is difficult to say ; he is con-

sidered a model husband in this ceremony ; but the Puranas

teach that he was anything but true to his wife, and the

quarrels of Siva and Durga are anything but edifying reading.

The ceremony is as follows :—" On the SOfch of Chaitra, the

last day of the Bengali year, the Hindu girl is required to

make two little earthen images of this god; and, placing

them on the rind of a bel-fruit (wood apple) with leaves, she

begins to perform his worship. Before doing so, she is en-

842 woMAx.

joined to wash herself and change her clothes, & requirement

which enforces upon her thus early—cleanliness, and purity in

habits and manneis, if not exactly in thonght and feehng.

The mind being fiUed with joong susceptibilities, she imbibes

almost instinctiTely an increasing predilection for the per-

fomumee of religions ceremonies. Sprinkling a few drops

of hoij water (».«., water from some of the sacred streams),

she repeats the following words : ' All homage to Siva. . . .

AU homage to Hara (another name of Siva). All homage to

Bajjara' (meaning by this two small earthen balls like peas,

which are stack on the body of the images). She is then to

become absorbed in meditation about the form and attributes

of the god, and afterwards she says her prayers three times

in connection with Siva's several names. Offerings of flowers

and bel leaves are then presented to the god with an incan-

tation (mantra). Being pleased, Siva is supposed to ask

from heaven what Brata or religious ceremony Grauri (Dniga)

is performing. Gauri replies that she is worshipping Siva

that she may get him for a husband, because Siva is a modelhusband." *

2. Krishna Puja, or the worship of Krishna. This is per-

formed with the object of obtaining a good husband and sons.

" The two feet of the god being painted in white sandal-woodpaste on a brass plate, the girl worships him with flowers andsandal-wood paste. The god, seeing this, is supposed to askwhat girl worships his feet, and what boon she wants. Sherephes, 'May the prince of the kingdom be my husband;may I be beautiful and virtuous, and be the mother of seven

wise and virtuous sons and two handsome daughters.' Shealso asks that her daughters-in-law may be industrious andobedient; that her sons-in-law may shine in the world bytheir good quahties ; that her granary and feffm-yard may bealways full ; . . . that when she dies, all those who are nearand dear to her may enjoy long life and prosperity ; and thatshe may eventually, through the blessing of Krishna, die

* " The Hindus as thty are," p. 36.

THE PKESENT POSITION OF WOMAN. 348

on the banks of the sacred Ganges, and thereby procure

entrance into heaven.

" It is worthy of remark here that even young Hindu girls <

in the exercise of their immature discretion, make a dis-

tinction between the gods in the choice of a husband. Inthe Siva Puja a tender girl of five years of age is taughty

almost unconsciously, as it were, to prefer that god to Krishnafor her husband, because the latter, according to the HinduSastras, is reputed to have borne a questionable character.

I once asked a girl why she would not have Krishna for her

husband. She promptly answered that that god disported

himself with thousands of gopinis (milkmaids), and wastherefore not a good god, whilst Siva was devotedly attached

to his one wife Durga." It will be noticed that in the Siva

Puja the girl asks that Siva may be her husband, whilst in

the Krishna Puja she asks the deity to provide her with one.

It is not easy to see why both these gods should be wor-

shipped with the same object ; and certainly it is not easy

to see how women can desire for a husband any one at all

like Siva.

3. The worship of heroes. " This requires that the girl

should paint on the floor ten pictures of deified men, as well

as of gods, with rice paste (pitali). Offering them flowers

and sandal-wood paste, she asks that she may have a father-

in-law like Dasaratha, the father of Bamachandra (one of

the ten chief incarnations of Vishnu, the second person of

the Hindu Triad), a mother-in-law like Kausalya, his mother,

a husband like Eama himself, a husband's brother like

Lakshmana, Eama's younger brother ; that she be a mother

like Sasthi, whose children are all living ; like Kunti, whose

sons were renowned for their justice, piety, courage, and

heroism ; like the Ganges, which allays the thirst of all

;

like Mother Earth, whose patience is inexhaustible. And, to

crown the whole, she prays that she may, like Durga, be

blessed with an affectionate and devoted husband ; that, like

Draupadi (the wife of the . five Pandavas), she may be re-

344 WOMAN.

markable for her industry, devotion, and skill in the culinary

art; and that she may be, like Sita (Bama's wife), whose

chastity and attachment to her husband were worthy of all

praise." It will be noticed that all these prayers and worship

are expressive of the desire for a husband and for the

obtaining of those virtues which will enable them to retain

Ms affections. The second and third of these ceremonies

are performed in the month Vaisakh (April and May), which

is considered by the Hindus as the holiest of the twelve.

There are two. other forms of worship which Hindu girls

are taught to offer. The first is called the Sanjuti Vrata,

and " is intended to ward off the thousand evils of polygamy.

... To get rid of the consequences of this monstrous evil, a

girl of five years is taught to offer her invocation to God, and

in the outburst of her juvenile feeling is almost involuntarily

led to indulge in all manner of curses and imprecations

against the possible rival of her lord. Nor can we find fault

with her conduct because ' an overmastering and brooding

sense ' of some great future calamity thus early haunts her

mind. In performing this ceremony the girl paints on the

floor witkrice flour a variety of objects, such as the boughof a flower tree, a palanquin containing a man and a woman,with the sun and moon over it, the Ganges and Jumna with

boats on them, a temple of Siva, &c. Having done this, she

invokes Siva and asks for his blessing. An elderly lady,

more experienced in domestic matters, then begins to dictate,

and the girl repeats after her a volley of abuse and curses

against her satin, or rival wife. The following are a specimenof the curses :

"' May my satin become a slave ; may she be exposed to

infamy; may I devour her head; may she have spleen; mayflhe die, and may I see her from the top of my house ; may Inever have a satin.' " *

The other rite is the worship of Yama, the god of theepirit world, who is supposed to be always wandering on the

* " The Hindus as they are," p. 38.

THE PRESENT POSITION Or WOMAN. 845

earth with a noose to seize his victims, and a club to slay

them, that his kingdom may not lack subjects. The object

of this worship is that a husband in due time being given to

her, his life may be long spared, and she be saved from the

miseries of widowhood.

This, so far as I know, is the whole of religious worship

that is taught and permitted to Hindu girls. When they

marry they can make offerings to and approach the gods in

the name of and through their husbands. Whilst girls at

home, they see the worship of the various deities as it is per-

formed by priests in their own homes or in their neighbours'

houses, And. learn from their mothers the stories connected

with the various deities ; but they have no personal share-in

this worship; they are taught that the one object before themis to obtain a husband, and towards the realization of this

their devotion to the gods is directed. And further, at this

early age their attention is directed, by the worship they are

taught to offer, to the two great evils that may be in store for

them: the possibility of having a rival wife to supersede

them'; and secondly, the loss of the husband whom they have

been taught to regard as the one blessing of their existence.

But not only are the girls at this tender age taught to think

about marriage, and some of the possible evils connected with

it, but a year or two later they are actually married. Weehall now pass on to notice the laws and customs connected

with this event.

Marriage and the attendant ceremonies.

The authority for the early marriage of Hindu girls is to

he found in the writings of Manu, and the spirit of his legis-

lation is seen in all its force at the present time. The pre-

vailing idea of the Hindus to-day is this :" The marriage of

a girl is to be celebrated after she is seven years old, other-

wise it becomes contrary to the dictates of religion. At the

age of eight she becomes a Gauri {i.e., Siva's consort, who

in many respects is regarded as the ideal Hindu wife). At

the age of nine a Eohini (the wife of Chandra, the moon),

846 WOMAN.

at the age of ten a mere ordinary girl." In other wordn, the

sooner a girl is married the better, after she is seven years of

age. Manu says :" Eeprehensible is the father who gives

not his daughter in marriage at the proper time," and declares

that if before she is eleven her father has not provided her

with a husband, she is justified in seeking one for herself.

In teaching the duties of the two lowest of the four great

castes, speaking on the question of marriage, he declares that

" a man aged thirty may marry a girl of twelve, if he find

one dear to his heart; or a man of twenty-four years a

,damsel of eight." In his regulations respecting Brahmanahe is most particular in his description of those whom he

regards as suitable for their wives. Amongst other things,

a Brahman must avoid marrying a girl whose family " has

omitted the prescribed forms of religion, that has produced no.

sons, that which has thick hair on the body, or is afflicted with

hereditary diseases. Let him not marry a girl with reddish-

hair, one with too much or too little hair. Let him choose

for his wife a girl whose form has no defect, who has anagreeable manner, who walks gracefully like a phenicopteros

or like a young elephant, and whose body has exquisite

softness."

When a widower seeks another wife, as widow remarriage

is repugnant to Hindu custom, and as all the girls aremarried before or at the age of twelve, it follows that he,

however old, must take one of these children to wife. Andwhen, owing to his poverty, a father has failed to obtain abridegroom somewhat near the same age as his daughter, heis only too glad to allow any one, though he be an old man,to relieve him of the disgrace attaching to a family in

which there is an unmarried girl of twelve living in it.

It will be remembered that these children do not forsake

their fathers' house immediately after their marriage. Whenthe first marriage ceremony is performed an iron bracelet is

put upon her wrist and a little red paint on her forehead at

the parting of her hair, to show that she is married ; after

THE PEESENT POSITION OF WOMAN. 347

which she remains as a child at home until she is abouttwelve or thirteen, when she goes away for good to herfather-in-law's house, and becomes ever after a member of

her husband's family. In the interval she may see herhusband at her father's house, or go on a visit to her father-

in-law's, and thus become, to some extent, familiar with himand his family before she goes to his homo for good. It

sometimes happens that, owing to distance and the exposure

of travelling, she never sees her husband's home until she

goes permanently to reside there.

The worst feature of the marriage system of the Hindus,resulting from the necessity of having their daughters married

whilst they are children, is seen in the case of the KulinBrahmans, the highest caste of all. As these girls must not

marry beneath them, ie., Brahmans other than Kulins, andas the supply of these is limited, fathers, who are not in a

position to induce by costly presents a young man to take

their daughters, and to remain content with her as his one

wife, are compelled to give their daughters to those whomake a Jiving by being husbands. A child of twelve, under

these circumstances, being given as, perhaps, the fortieth or

fiftieth wife of some old man ; sometimes two or more sisters

being given to the same man; and sometimes to one whoevidently has not long to live. Though it is certain that the

girl must soon be a widow—even this is considered preferable

to allowing her to remain unmarried. It can therefore

occasion no surprise that from this class many forsake their

homes to live in immorality.

As the ordinary bridegroom is about twelve or fourteen,

"

and the bride from seven to ten, it follows that on their side

there can be no choice ; in fact, it often happens that they

meet for the £rst time on the wedding-day. The choice of a

partner for life is made not by the parties most intimately

concerned in it, but by their parents on their behalf. There

are men and women called Ghataks, whose work in life is to

arrange for marriages ; they are virtually marriage-brokers.

848 WOMAN.

who, having received a commission from a father who has a

daughter or daughters to settle in life, go from family to

family to find a suitable match, and when they have found

one or more who wish to have their sons married, they bring

the two parents together, who then enter upon negotiations

respecting dowry, wedding expenses, &o. Sometimes, of course,

the assistance of these middlemen is unnecessary ; the fathers

of the bride and bridegroom being old friends may arrange

for the marriage of their children as a means of cementing

their friendship ; but generally marriages are arranged for

through the assistance of the professional Ghataks.

As the Ghataks play so important a part in Hindu society,

it may be well to say a little more about them. The Eev.

L. B. Day thus describes them.* The Ghatak •' is the pro-

fessional match-maker, and therefore an under-servant of

E!amadeva, the Indian Cupid. As in India, young men andwomen do not themselves choose their partners in life, they

iave to depend on the good offices of this happy functionary,

-who, however, bears his commission not from the parties

themselves, but from their parents and guardians. . . . Thisworthy functionary's character is as amiable as his occupa-

tion is pleasant. He possesses the highest Christian virtue

in perfection, as he possesses an unlimited measure of that

charity which covers a multitude of sins. He has neverbeen known to find fault with any young man or youngwoman of marriageable age. The spinster may be as ugly

as one of Shakespeare's witches, and the young man may beas deformed as deformity itself, the Ghatak sees no defect in

either. The one in his eye, or at any rate in his mouth, is

as beautiful and gentle as Lakshmi (the wife of Vishnu, the

Venus of India), and the other as handsome and accom-plished as Kartikeya (the Indian Mars). ... A Ghatak,properly speaking, is a Brahman of a very high order, andconfines his services only to the priestly class. A BrahmanGhatak is often a man of learning, and invariably a man of

' * " Bengal Peasant Life," p. 81.

THE PRESENT POSITION OF WOMAN. 34&

persuasive eloquence, and he has the whole • of the Indian' Burke's Peerage ' and ' Baronetage ' at his fingers' ends. Butevery caste has its own Ghataks," who are acquainted with

the family history for generations of the families in their

neighbourhood.

Another Bengali gentleman writes much in the samestrain.* " When an unmarried boy attains his seventeenth

or eighteenth year, numbers of professional men, called

Ghataks, or match-makers, come to the parents with over-

tures of marriage. These men are destitute of principle, but

know how to pander to the frailties of human nature ; mostof them are great flatterers, and endeavour to impose on the

parents in the most barefaced manner. When the qualities

of a girl are to be commended, they indulge in a strain of

exaggeration, and unblushingly declare that ' she is beautiful

as a full moon, the symmetry of her person is exact, her

teeth are like the seeds of a pomegranate, her voice is sweet

as that of the cuckoo, her gait is graceful, she speaks like

Lakshmi, and will bring fortune to any family she may ba

connected with.' ... If the qualities of a youth are to be

appraised, they describe him thus :' He is beautiful as

Kartikeya, his deportment is that of a nobleman, he is free

from all vices, he studies day and night—in short, he is a

precious gem and an ornament of the neighbourhood.' " This

same writer goes on to state that, as in these matrimonial

alliances the leaders of the household have a great deal to

say, of late years women have largely supplanted the men in

this work of marriage brokerage, because they can gain access

to the women's apartments, and by their influence lead to

the rejection of overtures made by the men, and recom-

mend others in their place. As payment goes to the suc-

cessful Ghatak, it is not to be wondered at that when womenundertake this work they should drive men out of the field.

They are generally widows or low-caste women who engage

in this work.

• " The Hindus as they are," p. 40.

350 WOMAN.

I shall now try to give, as briefly as possible, the formalities

connected with a Hindu majrriage. The first thing to be

done when the overtures of the Ghatak have been favourably

entertained, and the amount of presents fixed that will be given

by both families to the bride and bridegroom, is for a represen-

tative of the boy's family, generally his father or guardian, to

call to see the intended bride. The little girl, gaily dressed

and elaborately adorned with jewels, is introduced to this

gentleman, who, after a little talk, if satisfied, puts a gold

mohur {£1 12s.) into her hand, the mother remaining in the

inner apartments, anxious to know the result. If the visit

take place in the morning, no feast is made ; but if in the

evening, the guests partake of a grand dinner before they

return. A similar visit of inspection is next paid by the girl's

father to the boy's house, and in like manner, if he be thought

suitable, a gold mohur is placed in his hand as the ex-

pression of the bride's father's approval. When both parties

are satisfied, an agreement is drawn up by which the boy's

father promises to marry his son to the girl, her father also

agreeing to give his daughter ; this document is then signed by

the respective fathers and a number of witnesses. Whenthis is done the contracting parties consult an almanac, and

by the aid of the priests select a favourable day for the pre-

liminary rite called the Gatraharidra, or anointing with

turmeric.

This ceremony takes place a few days before the wedding-

day. " After bathing and putting on a red-bordered cloth,

the bridegroom is made to stand on a grindstone surrounded

by four plantain trees, while four women (one of whom mustbe a Brahmani), whose husbands are living, go round himfive or seven times, anoint his body with turmeric, and touch

his forehead at one and the same time with sacred water, betel

leaf, &c. From this time until his marriage the boy mustcarry about with him a pair of silver nutcrackers, and the

girl a case containing the black dye used in beautifying

the eyelids, until the solemnization of the nuptials, for

THE PRESENT POSITION OF WOMAN. 351

the purpose of repelling evil spirits. A little of the turmeric

paste with which the body of the bridegroom has been anointed

is sent by the family barber to the bride in a silver cup, withwhich she anoints her body, together with other presents."

Two or three days after this ceremony a great feast is madeby the father of the bridegroom to his male relatives ; on the

same day the father of the girl feasts his own female relatives.

After these preliminary arrangements comes the marriage

ceremony proper, in which there are many unimportant parts

which it is unnecessary to narrate. On the wedding-day the

bride and bridegroom must only partake of a little milk andfruit before the wedding takes place ; the bride's father andofficiating priests must also be equally abstemious. Duringthe day presents are sent to the bridegroom's family, and the

fathers perform a ceremony for the benefit of their respective

ancestors. The mother of the bridegroom, however, eats at

least seven times during the day, the reason assigned for this

being the fact that when Durga's son, Kartikeya, went back

home for a moment after he had started for his bride's house,

he found her eating, using all her ten hands. When asked

why she was thus engaged, she declared that she was making

a good meal, because she was afraid that when her daughter-

in-law came she might not have foqd enough.

Before the bridegroom leaves the house he is superbly

dressed in coloured embroidered clothes, with necklace, arm-

lets, &c. ; he then worships Durga, and as he is about to start

his mother asks where he is going, to which he replies

that he is going to bring home her maidservant. She then

counsels him Mow to conduct himself in the house of his

father-in-law ; and just as he starts a plate of rice and a pot

of vermiUon are thrown over his head by his father and caught

by his mother in her clothes.

The procession now starts, headed by a band of music, with

torch-bearers, &e. ; the youth riding either in a gaily painted

palanquin or a carriage. As soon as he arrives he is conducted

to his seat of red satin in the courtyard of the house under

352 WOMAN.

an awning which has been placed there for the occasion.

When the guests are all seated, the genealogies of the twofamilies are loudly proclaimed. After this the bridegroom

lays aside his gay dress, and, having put on a simple robe of

red silk, is conducted into the place of worship where the

religious ceremony takes place. As soon as he is seated there,

the bride, with her face still closely veiled, is carried on a sort

of stool and placed on his left side. The priest then gives the

bridegroom a few blades of Kusa grass which he winds roundhis fingers; he next pours a little Ganges water into his

hand, which he holds there whilst his father-in-law repeats amantra. Eice, flowers, &c., are next given to him, which heplaces near the vessel containing the holy water. The bride-

groom having placed his hand in the vessel, and the bride

hers upon it, the priest ties them together with a garland of.

flowers. As soon as this is done the father of the girl says :

" I, — -, give to thee, ." The bride-

groom replying :" I have received her." The father-in-law

having united their hands, pours a little holy water on their

heads and blesses them. Before the water is given, a formsomething like the following is generally used. The bride's

priest, addressing the bridegroom, says : " The bride says to

you, ' If you live happy, keep me happy also ; if you be introuble, I will be in trouble also : you must support me, andmust not leave me when I suffer ; you must always keep withme, and pardon all my faults, and your pujas, pilgrimages,fastings, incense, and all other religious duties you must notperform without me ; you must not defraud me regardingconjugal love; you must have nothing to do with anotherwoman, while I live

; you must consult me in aU that you do,

and you must always tell me the truth. Vishnu, fire, andthe Brahmans are witnesses between you and me.' Thebridegroom replies : ' I will all my life-time do just as thebride requires of me, but she must also make me some pro-mises : she must go with me through suffering and trouble,and must always be obedient to me ; she must never go to

THE PRESENT POSITION OF WOMAN. 358

her father's house unless she is asked by him ; and when she

sees another man in better circumstances, or more beautiful

than I am, she must not despise or slight me." To this the

bride replies : "I will all my life do just as you require of me

;

Vishnu, fire, and the Brahmans are witnesses between us."

After this the bridegroom takes a little water in his handand sprinkles it on the bride's head as the Pundit repeats

some texts. Bride and bridegroom then bow before the sun

in worship. After this the bridegroom raises his handover the right shoulder of the bride, touches her heart,

places a little vermilion on the parting of her hair, puts his

shoes on her feet, and then quickly removes them. This

being completed, a piece of silk cloth is thrown over the

heads of the newly-married couple, the bridegroom draws

her veil aside, and in many cases sees the face of the bride

for the first time. As soon as this is done the boy and girl

are conducted into the women's apartments, where the

greatest merriment commences. And here, again, he goes

through the ceremony of tying garments, and' takes another

peep at his wife's face. When this is overjjhe returns fto

the place of worship, when the religious rites are concluded

by the Hom, i.e., the burning a little ghi to the deities. Nosooner is this concluded than presents are made to priests,

servants, friends, &e. '

Next oomes the feasting : the bridegroom dining with the

gentlemen, the bride, of course, remaining with the women in

the inner apartments of the house. As soon as the feast is

concluded the bridegroom repairs to the Basaghar, or

dwelling-house, where he and his new wife remain in companywith a crowd of female relatives, who are playing, laughing,

and joking during nearly the whole of the night. As soon as

day dawns the little girl goes away. After breakfast the

happy pair, with a grand procession, go to the house of the

bridegroom's father, where a similar scene awaits them.

Here, amidst other ceremonies, the mother-in-law puts on

the iron wire bracelet, and the vermilion on the forehead'at

24

354 WOMAN.

the parting of the hair, which are the signs of mar-

riage.

After feasting, the newly married folk again retire to

their room, and have to pass the night surrounded by their

friends, who, not having shared in the games of the previous

night, are quite able to continue their good-natured fun

until near the dawn. During the greater part of the day

the bride remains at her new home, and then returns to

her father's, heartily glad, as a rule, that the long and weari-

some ceremony is at an end, and that she is once again a

child at home. Here she remains for a year or two, with an

occasional sight of her husband, either at his or her father's

house, until the time comes for her to go permanently to

reside with him.

The ceremonies that precede the final departure of a girl

to her husband's home are much simpler than at the first

wedding. The priests are again in requisition. They recite

the mantras, the bridegroom repeating them ; the hands

of the two are joined by him, and several deities are wor-

shipped with the object of obtaining a blessing upon the happy

pair. The parting from the home is often very sad, as meet-

ings afterwards are not very common ; whilst frequently the

condition of a young wife in her husband's family is anything

but enviable. Being but a child, sheds under the authority

of the older ladies ; where they are kind, aU is well ; but

where the opposite, it is easy to see that they frequently wish

themselves back again at their old home. And having gone

to reside with her husband, his home is afterwards her per-

manent dwelUng-place ; for should he die, the widow remains

an inmate of his family ; they, and not her own father, being

hereafter responsible for her support.

We now pass on to n,otice the position of the Hindumarried woman. As soon as the hour arrives for the wife to

join her husband she enter§ the women's apartments of his

family house and becomes one of his family. At once her

freedom of movement is at an end. As a girl, though

THE PRESENT POSITION OF WOMAN. 355

married, she could move about the house, go freely into the

outer or more public apartments, was allowed, under the care

of a servant, to attend school, and was as unfettered in her

movements as an English girl of the same age. But whenher husband conducts her to his home the scene changes

entirely. She is at once subjected to all the restrictions

of the Hindu home. She must live in the women's apart-

ments, keep her face veiled when her brothers-in-law are

present, and never be seen speaking even to her husband in

the day-time. It would be esteemed wrong even to pronounce

her husband's name, or to touch bis elder. brothers. Andseldom can she cross the threshold of her new home except

it be to pay a visit to her own father's. Manu has taught

that she is " unworthy of confidence, and the slave of

passion," and the lesson has been learned only too well.

If the family into which she is brought be large and wealthy^

there wUl not be much for her to do, as all the housework

will be done either by the older ladies, widows of the family,

or by servants. She will never, of course, take her meals with

her husband; he will eat with the other gentlemen of the

family, whilst she will join the ladies at their meals. Whenthe employment of the husband permits him to continue to

live at home, she has the prospect of his company in the

evening; but when, as very frequently happens, his work

is at a distance, she may not see him for months at a time.

Under these circumstances it is only natural that she should

find her new mode of life wearisome and monotonous. In

the normal condition of society she would be unable to read,

sew, or engage in the many forms of employment that so well

engage the minds and fingers of the fair in England, her

time being occupied in gossip, personal decoration, &c.

In the case of the poorer people there is an entirely

different state of affairs. There the girls, as soon as they

are married, having been taught to be useful, find work in

their new home, and generally, the companionship of a mother-

in-law, widowed sister-in-law, or some older person, who acts

356 WOMAN.

as guardian of the young wife in the absence of her husband.

Hard though in some respects the lot of the poor in India maybe, to an outsider, the condition of the women in the poorer

ranks, considering the greater freedom they enjoy, and the

employment they are free to engage in, seems far to be pre-

ferred to that of their richer sisters, who are immured in

their prison-Hke homes. In order, however, that the actual

condition of women may be known, and not merely the

suppositions of one who has never seen the interior of a

Hindu house, I shall avail myself rather fully of an account

of them given by a Bengali gentleman, who, though now a

Christian, was once, as a Hindu, familiar with the home life

of Hindu families. Mr. Bose writes as foUows :*

^ " The system of early marriage that prevails here has been

, justly condemned by all civilized nations, and it is really a

marvel that parties so capriciously afiSanced in early age can

live happily together afterwards to the end of their lives.

The young bride, between ten and eleven years, of age, gene-

rally simple, artless, and unlettered, even in the case of arespectable family, is brought up almost from her cradle to

look upon her future lord with feelings of extreme submissive-

ness." I once met with rather an amusing case corroborative

of this. A Christian convert of about thirty years of agewishing to get married, and coming to me for counsel, I

advised him to marry a lady somewhere near his own age j

but this idea was quite repugnant to his notions, as he said

that if he took any one as old as that she would not be broughtinto subjection so easily as a young girl ! " She is a perfect

stranger to freedom of action, if not actually to freedom of

thought. When her reasoning faculties are somewhat deve-

loped, and she grows tired of a monotonous slavish existence,

she naturally struggles to be free ; but fate has otherwiseordained. The apartment in which she lives, the atmosphereshe breathes, the mode of life she is enjoined to follow, the

society she moves in, and the surroundings by which she is

* " The Hindus as they are," 287.

THE PRESENT POSITION OP WOMAN. 357

fenced—all attest the very abnormal restraints to which she

is, at all hours of her life, subjected after her marriage. Butshe cannot altogether suppress human nature. With the

development of her passions and desires the fetters of ser-

vitude gradually relax, she pants for a little freedom, because

absolute freedom is denied her by the peculiar conventional

rules by which she is governed, and, as a necessary conse-

quence of this, she is permitted to move about half unveiled

within the precincts of her secluded domicile. And whenshe becomes the mother of two or three children, through the

blessing of the goddess Sasthi, the conventional restraints

by degrees give way, until through her age she becomes the

c/rihini, or mistress of the house—a position which gives a

great extension to her privileges. She then in her turn

assumes the duties and discipline of the house, and seeks to

correct any Httle impropriety she sees in its inmates.

" An Englishman, who is but superficially acquainted with

the inner life of Hindu society, is apt to conclude from what

is stated above that a native woman, hampered by so manyrestrictions, can seldom be happy in the proper sense of the

word ; but however paradoxical this may appear, the reverse

is true. She feels quite happy and contented when Pro-

vidence gives her what she values over every other worldly

consideration—a good husband and dutiful sons and daugh-

ters. Brought up in a state of perfect isolation, and prac-

tically confined to restricted thought and action, her happi-

ness is necessarily identified with that of a few beings who

are near and dear to her. Although married when she is

scarcely capable of thinking and judging for herself, yet,

through the kind dispensation of an overruling Providence,

she is destined in most cases to enjoy the blessings of a

married life. The rites and ceremonies by which she is early

tmited in the bonds of wedlock exert little or no influence on

her in her maturer years. She becomes happy in spite of

the domestic and social restrictions imposed on her by what

Shakespeare calls the ' Monster Custom.' The gravity of the

358 WOMAN.

marriage compact is due to the religious incantations used

on the occasion. Though their precise meaning is scarcely

understood by the boy-husband or the girl-wife, the influence

of conventionalism is so powerful that a few words pro-

nounced by the officiating priest prove absolutely binding

on both to the end of their days. Nor can it be other-

wise. As they advance in years, their mutual love and

affection cement the bond of union that was so casually and

capriciously formed. And even where the individual tempers,

dispositions, habits, and ideas are irreconcilable, as is some-

times the case, open rupture between the parties is very rare,

if not altogether impossible. In respectable families, in

which a husband' is educated, and a wife not educated, and

moreover ill-tempered, a sense of honour and propriety,

which is shocked at the slightest whisper of scandal, restrains

the former from having recourse to a separation from the

latter, even if he were so disposed. Thus we see the very

difference in their characters and dispositions gradually over-

come. The law of divorce was not known in the country

before the English came into it. The fear of scandal, even

where there is sufficient justification for it, suppresses every-

thing at its incipient stage."

The following extract from a book written by a Hindu lady

on the duty of wives to their husbands is quite in accordance

with the teaching of the Hindu Scriptures, and may be taken

as a fair representation of the position of the typical Hinduwife : " The husband is the wife's religion, the wife's sole

business, the wife's all-in-all. The wife should meditate onher husband as Brahma. For her, all pilgrimages should beconcentrated on her husband's foot. The command of ahusband is as obligatory as a precept of the Vedas. To achaste wife her husband is her god. When the husband is

pleased Brahma is pleased. The merit of waiting on thefeet of the husband is equivalent to the merit of performingall the pilgrimages in the world. To obey the husband is to

obey the Vedas. To worship the husband is to worship the

THE PRESENT POSITIOK OF WOMAN. 359

gods. The husband is the wife's spiritual guide (guru), herhonour, the giver of her happiness, the bestower of fortune,

righteousness, and heaven, her deliverer from sorrow andfrom sin."*

In perfect harmony with this is the following extract fromthe Vishnu Purana, where a very curious question is underdiscussion, viz., at what season in the world's history the

least amount of merit gained by good works obtained the

highest heavenly reward. The learned men, unable to settle

this question themselves, repaired to Veda Vyasa, whom,when they visited, they found bathing. As his head rose

above the water the first time he said, " Excellent is the

Kali Yuga ;

" the second time, " Well done, Sudra ; thou

art happy ;" and the third time, " Well done, women ; they

are happy. Who are more fortunate than they ? " On being

asked for an explanation of these utterances, the sage solved

the problem they brought for solution. It was as follows : Hedeclared the Kali Yuga (the fourth and worst of the four ages

of the world) excellent, because a single day and night's devo-

tion in that age obtained, as a reward, as much blessedness

as the devotion of a month in the Dwapara, or a year in the

Treta, or' as ten years in the Krita. And, further, the same

blessedness that in the other ages is gained by abstract medi-

tation, sacrifice, or adoration, is in the Kali Yuga gained by

the mere repetition of the name of Keshava (Vishnu). In a

similar manner he explained that whilst the Brahmans had

most laborious duties assigned to them, the Sudra had simply

to wait upon them, and had far fewer restrictions laid upon

his actions and food. And woman for a similar reason he

declared to be happy, because by simply loviijg and honour-

ing her husband she is able to attain the position, however

exalted that may be, which he has attained as the result of

immense exertion.

It is difficult for Europeans to realize what the position of

the well-to-do women in India really is. Accustomed as they

* Calcutta Eevieio, vol. xlix. p. 39.

360 wosiAx.

are to go out from their homes to transact basiness or see

Mends, and to receive guests in their houses, to enjov the

companionship of their husbands as their equals in intelli-

gence and education, and to feel that the love of their hus-

bands is based upon confidence in their love and trustworthi-

ness, it seems almost impossible to imagine a state of society

where all this is reversed. A Hindu lady sees in the character

of the apartments she occupies, and the fact that she cannot

go outside her home without the consent of her husband, and

elaborate arrangements being made to secure her privacy

on a journey, that her husband has been taught to regard

her as one who will easily be led into sin. Shut out by her

ignorance from the world of literature and from the pleasure

of profitably employing hermind and hands in work, she can

only waste her days in Mvolous occupations. Prohibited bycustom from conversation with her husband except in her ownchamber, and by her want of education from sharing in his

thoughts and from being his companion in the true sense of

the word, she feels that she is little more to him than a

ministrant of his pleasures. As the gentlemen of the family

sit and talk and amuse themselves in vsurious ways, they are

independent to a lai^e extent of the pleasure that the com-

pany and conversation of a wife would afiford. Hindugentlemen are simply astonished as they see Englishmenentrust their wives to the protection of a friend on a rail-

way journey or on board a steamer. To no one except herown father would they consider it prudent to leave their

wives under ^milar circumstances. And it seems to an out-

sider that it must be degrading after marriage to lose their

own name, and when their first son is born to be known andaddressed by their relatives as " the mother of Priya." or bywhatever name he may be called.

Of course it would be unwise to say that under such cir-

cumstances there can be no happiness : but that the educatedhusbands feel the great disparity between themselves and their

wives, there can be no doubt. A graduate of the University,

THE PBESENT POSITION OF WOMAX. 361

•whose mind for years has been strained -with the highest

subjects of Western thought, cannot possibly have much in

common -with a girl who cannot read. A Hindu gentleman,

speaking to me on the subject, put it rather strangely, though

forcibly, as he said, " Educated Hindu gentlemen are doomedto perpetual widowhood," i.e., to a life of solitude, so far as

true companionship in their wives is concerned. And there

is no doubt whatever that the great progress that has been

made of late in female education, which was so vehemently

opposed at first by the leaders of Hindu society, is largely

owing to the fact that the educated Hindu desires some sort

of companionship in his wife; and this has led many to devote

their leisure time to their instruction. Happiness in the

women there may be, as, if all one hears be true, there washappiness enjoyed by the slaves before their emancipation.

Few human beings are so placed that they cannot smile

sometimes. But happiness cannot be the habitual condition

of women under such circumstances, nor can the highest of

all happiness which comes from the perfect companionship

of man and wife be known by those who are little better than

the slaves of their husbands.

Further ; it would be foolish to deny that women, ignorant

and enslaved though they may be, exert great influence on

their husbands and children. Some of the rich and highly

respected members of Hindu society have confessed that they

owed their success in life to the sympathy, encouragement,

and carefulness of their wives. And as the women are most

religious, their influence over their sons and husbands in

religious matters is very great indeed. Many of the educated

Hindus who have themselves lost all faith in the religion of

their fathers maintain an outward conformity to its practices,

largely owing to their desire not to give offence to the ladies

of their household. But where there is equality in natural

intelligence and culture, of course that influence is vastly

increased.

In his account of Bengal village life, Eev. B. L. Day gives

362 WOMAN.

a picture of the young wife's persecution at the hands of her

mother-in-law, which, if all one hears on this subject be true, is

far from uncommon. The wife came to her husband's house,

which was small, and in these cases she would be left almost

entirely to the tender mercies of the husband's mother ; there

was only her sister-in-law as a companion besides this old lady.

" This nectar-mouthed lady was a source of great trial to

poor Malati. For some time she seemed to be very kind to

her, but the infirmities of temper soon discovered themselves

and made Malati quite wretched. Whatever she did seemed

to displease her mother-in-law. She did not sweep the floor

well ; her cowdung cakes (for fuel) are badly made ; the curries

which she cooks are execrable ; she is very ill-bred ; she

walks more like a boy than a girl ; her voice is scarcely

audible—it is like the hissing of a serpent ; she has a nasty,

sneering, sarcastic smile on her lips whenever anything is

said to her. Such were the criticisms pronounced by Sudha-

mukhi on Malati." This goes on from bad to worse after the

father-in-law's death, until in her anger Malati receives a

slap on the face. This was more than she could stand. It

is astonishing how much verbal abuse a Bengali will stand ;

but a blow is never forgotten or forgiven. So, on her hus-

band's return from his work, the wife, with sobs and groans,

tells him what has happened, and entreats him tp send his

mother away and maintain her. The husband listens to his

wife's story ; but when he spoke of it to his mother he is

received with a shower of abuse that drives him from the

house for a time, whilst the anger of the mother-in-law is

allowed to cool down of itself. Scenes like this we might

naturally expect to take place, and they are generally borne

as patiently as possible, as it is accounted disgraceful for

a son to ask his mother to leave the family house, however

painful she may make his and his wife's existence. In India

the people know by experience, though they have not as yet

foixnd out a remedy, that " relations are best separated," andwhen unpleasantness arises a woman cannot leave the house

THE PEESENT POSITION OF WOMAN. obO

for a time ; her only resource is go into a room axid hide awayfrom the family until the storm passes over.

In harmony with the spirit of the preceding paragraph ai-e

the following proverbs : " If a mother-in-law breaks a pan, it

is earthen ; if the daughter-in-law, it is golden." And again

:

" Tears come into the eyes of a daughter-in-law si.v months

after the death of a mother-in-law."

Eeshub Chnndra Sen, in one of his addresses in England,

teaches in a humorous way that women have immenseinfluence in the homes of India as in other countries. Hesays, " Woman has been defined as an adjective, agreeing with

the noun man. I should rather say that man is a noun in

the objective case, governed by the verb woman."

CHAPTER III.

HINDU WIDOWS.

The last part of this subject is the most painful, viz., the con-

dition of the Hindu widow; and any more distressing sub-

ject than this it is scarcely possible to conceive. It seems as

if the old legislators had studied to make the widow's life as

miserable as possible. As was indicated before, Manu teaches

that it is unlawful for a widow to mention the name of another

man ; and that only by living as a virtuous widow can she

rejoin her husband after death ; whilst he fm-ther teaches

that by re-marriage " she brings disgrace on herself here

below, and shall be excluded from the seat of her lord.''

These penalties being pronounced on the widow who may re-

marry is as real a prohibition as if he had in so many wordsforbidden it. And further, though Manu did not order the

Hindus to render her life miserable, he declared that it washer own duty to do so.

Custom now teaches the following duties for a widow, andin the majority of cases it is strictly followed in the hopethat by this means she may rejoin her husband. She musttake but one meal a day, and twice in a month fast for a day,

i.e., go without food or water for forty-eight hours. At a

meeting of the highest religious court, the Sanatan DharmaEakshini Sabha, in Calcutta, a few years ago, it was decreed

that if, acting on medical advice, a widow on these fast daysdrank a little water, the offence should be condoned. Shemust wear white clothes only, not even a coloured border

being allowed. She must give up all jewels, take off the iron

wire bracelet, and remove the spot of red paint from her fore-

HINDU WIDOWS. 365

liead, and generally deny herself of the comforts of life.

Frequently she is made the drudge of the family. But lest

it should be thought that an European would give an exag-

gerated account, I here give a statement by a Hindu widow,and anything stronger than this I have never seen written

nor heard from the lips of a European. "When the position

of the widow is seen as it is here depicted, it need occasion

no surprise that many of them, seeing no possible hope of

improvement in this life, forsake their homes, and go to sweUthe ranks of the immoral women in the cities.

" There are four principal castes amongst Hindus, and of

them all, I think the third caste, the Eaj^asthas, to which I

belong, make their widows suffer most." All are treated badly enough, but our customs are much

worse than those of some others. In the Punjab they are not

always strict in enforcing their customs with widows; but

though we live in the Punjab, our family comes from the

North-West, and as we are rich and well-to-do, our customs

are kept up scrupulously.

" ^Yhen a husband dies, his wife suffers as much as if the

death-angel had come for her also. She must not be

approached by any of her relations, but several women, from

three to six (wives of barbers, a class who are kept up for

this object), are in waiting, and as soon as the husband's last

breath is drawn, they rush at the new-made widow, and tear

off her ornaments. Ear and nose rings are dragged off, often

tearing the cartilage, ornaments plaited in with the hair arfr

torn awaj-, and if the arms are covered with gold and silver

bracelets, they do not take the time to draw them off" one by

one, but holding her arm on the ground, they hammer with a

stone, until the metal, often sohd and heavy, breaks in two ;

it matters not to them how many wounds they inflict, they

have no pity, not even if the widow is but a child of six or

seven, who does not know what a husband means.'''

* In Bengal a widow may continue to wear some of her ornaments

until she is twelve years of age.

3G6 WOMAN.

" At that time two sorrows come upon every widow—one

from God and one from her own people, who should cherish

and support her, but who desert and execrate her. If the

husband dies away from home, then, on the arrival of the

fatal news, all this is done. At the frineral, the relatives,

men as well as women, have to accompany the corpse to the

burning ghat. If they are rich and have carriages, they

must not use them, but all go on foot. The men follow the

corpse, the women (all the ladies well covered from sight)

come after, and last the widow, led along by the barbers' wives.

They take care that at least 200 feet intervene between her

and any other woman, for it is supposed that if her shadow

fell on any (her tormentors excepted) she also would become

a widow ; therefore no relative, however much sympathy she

may feel in secret, dare look on her face. One of the rough

women goes in front, and shouts aloud to any passer-by to

get out of the way of the accursed thing, as if the poor widowwere a wild beast ; the others drag her along.

" Arrived at the river, tank, or well, where the body is to be

burned, they push her into the water, and as she falls, so she

"

must lie, with her clothes on, until the body has been burned,

all the company have bathed, washed their clothes, and dried

them. When they are all ready to start for home, but notbefore, they drag her out, and in her wet things she musttrudge home. It matters not what the weather is, in a burn-

ing .sun, or with icy wind blowing from the Himalayas.

They care not if she dies. Oh, I would rather choose the

Suttee

!

" Many are happy enough to die in consequence of these

sorrows, for however ill they may become, no care is taken of

them, or medicine given.

" I once went to a funeral (before I was myself a widow),where the burning ghat was three ghos (about six miles) fromthe city. It was the hottest month of the year, and thoughwe started at sunrise, we did not reach the house again till

3 p.m. I shall never forget how much we women suffered

HINDU WIDOWS. 367

from the hot blasting wind that blew on us like fire, and the

blazing sun. We were almost worn out with Heat and thirst,

though we had stopped often to rest and drink. The poor

widow dared not ask for a drink, or she would have lost her

character ; the women with her might have given her waterif they, had liked, hut they would not.

" At last she fell, but they pulled her up again and dragged

her on, told her not to give way, she was not the only widow,

and taunted her, when she wept, with wanting a husband.

When she had no strength left even to crawl, they dragged

her along like a bundle of clothes.

" On arrival at the house she was flung on to the floor in a

little room ; still, though they knew she was almost dead

with thirst, they did not give her a drop of water, and she

dared not ask for any. She was a relative of mine, but none

of us dared go near her, for it would have brought downmaledictions on the head of any one who tried it. At last

one young woman, after watching a long while, saw her

opportunity, and slipped in with a vessel of water. Thewidow ran at her like a wild creature. I cannot describe

how she behaved ; at first she did not recognize her Mend

—

she drank, and drank, till life and sense came back to her.

Then she fell down at the feet of her who had brought the

•water, and embracing them, said :' Oh, sister ! I will never

forget what you have done for me ! You are my God—mysecond creator ! But go away quickly, I pray, that no one

may ever find out what you have done, or we shall both suffer.

I promise I will never tell of you.'

" For fifteen days after a funeral the relatives must eat and

drink only once in the day (twenty-four hours) ; but the

widow must keep up this for a year, with frequent fasts.

When she returns from the funeral she must sit or lie in a

corner on the ground in the same clothes she had on whenher husband died, whether still wet or by this time dry.

Now and then one of the barbers' wives comes and looks

after her, or if she is poor and not able to pay for their

368 WOMAN.

farther kind attentioiis, she must sit alone. Oh, cruel place I

Each widow knows you well, and remembers you with bitter-

ness ! Separated from her husband, though she lives she is

not alive! Not only is she deprived of comforts, but her

friends add to her misery. Though she is in her corner

alone, and must not speak to any one, they are near and talk

at her in this way : her mother says, ' Unhappy creature

!

I can't bear the thought of any one so vile—I wish she had

never been born.' Her mother-in-law says, ' The horrid

viper ! she has bitten my son and killed him ; now he is dead,

and she, useless creature, is left behind.' And this, even

though the speakers may themselves be widows. Every

indignity that the tongue can speak is heaped upon her, lest

the standers-by, or perchance the gods, should think they

had sympathy with her.

" God ! I pray Thee, let no more women be born in this-

land!

" The sister-in-law says, ' I will not look at her or speak to

such a thing !' They comfort the dead man's mother, and

say, ' It is your daughter-in-law, vile thing ! who has de-

stroyed your house ; curse her ! For her sake you have to

mourn for the rest of your life.' 'mhois '"'--"r-su'"'""^ r^imu" To the widow they say, ' What good are you ? Why are

you still living in the world?' If she cry, and shows hergrief, they all say, |,'How immodest, how abandoned—see,

she is crying for a husband!' They , have no pity. Only

those who have been through this know what it is. Youmust feel this grief to prove it. Whose foot has the chilblain

feels the pain. For thirteen days the widow must sit andbear this.

" On the eleventh day comes a Brahman, like a policeman

who comes for a culprit, orders money, and oil, and other

things to be given. However poor the widow may be, money,or the promise of it, must be given ; from the very poorest at

least Es. 13. Other Brahmans|make other demands, and if

the family is rich their demands are very high. A poor

HINDU WIDOWS. 369

widow has often to labour hard for months at grinding,

or some other work, to earn money to satisfy their claims.

" Lord ! why hast Thou created us to make us suffer

thus ? From birth to death sorrow is our portion. Whileour husbands live we are their slaves ; when they die we are

still worse off. But they have all they wish here, and pro-

mises for the life to come." The thirteenth day is a bad day, though then the widow

may take off the clothes she has worn ever since her husband

died, and may bathe. The relatives all gather and lay rupees

before the widow, which are supposed to be a provision for

her for life. They do not spare their reproaches. If the

rupees given amount to any large sum, it is taken charge of

by some relative, who doles it out.

"Now again the Brahmans come for more money. Thewidow's head is shaved, and there is another Brahmanical

tax. Then the barbers' wives have to be paid. Six weeks

after the husband's death the widow must once again put on

the hated clothes she wore for those thirteen days—abhorred

garments ! If a widow by chance catches sight of them she

shudders as if a fresh widowhood were hers, and then, if

possible, she must go on a pUgrimage to the Ganges, and,

after bathing there, the clothes may be thrown away in the

river.

" After a year has passed away, a widow who is living with

her father and mother may wear ornaments again.* But

why is this ? If you ask the parents, they say, ' Poor girl

!

she has not seen much of life ; if she cannot wear jewels now

while we are with her, she can never wear them, and how

can she pass a long life without jewels ? "We can't bear to

see her naked ; how could we wear jewels and she sit before

us bare ?

'

" But I say, if they cannot bear to see her pass her life

without jewels, how can they bear to see her pass her life

without a husband or any of the pleasures of life ? A veil of

* This custom does not prevail in Bengal.

25

370 WOMAN.

ignofance has fallen upon them, so that they cannot see

things in their right light. If they cannot bear to see her

sorrow, they should let her marry again. What medicine

for a wounded spirit will she find in jewels ? Let them first

take some care for her heart. As our homes are managed,

how can they expect that a widow will remain pure ? She

has never been taught, any more than her brothers or cousins,

to restrain her passions. Let those who can marry wear

jewels, but not those who have no hope of marrying ; and let

not little children take the name and place of widows. Jewels

are, for widows, a great help on the downward road. I write

of what I know and have seen. All men and women love to

adorn themselves, but especially women love to do so, that

they may be seen and look fine. If widows wear jewels they

will be sought after. I do not say that all widows who wear

jewels are bad, but I do say they have taken one step on the

bad road. Alas ! that it is the parents who open the wayfor beloved daughters to go wrong. Then when consequences

follow they are ready to kill them." The widows who have no parents are still more to be

pitied ; they have to serve as servants to their brothers' or

sons' wives. Every one knows that if there are widows in a

house servants need not be hired. A sister-in-law rules over

a widow, and they quarrel night and day. If a widow re-

mains in her husband's house, it is the same ; she is hated

by mother and sister-in-law, and beaten from place to place.

If, for the sake of peace, she would like to live alone, she

loses her character. If she has children she works for themwhile they are young ; when her sons marry she becomestheir wives' servant. If a widow is childless and rich (by the

money given her after her husband's death), her relatives

choose some boy to be her heir, and to be provided for byher. She may bring him up with love and care, but whenhe gets big he takes her property, and only allows her food

and clothes while she waits on his wife. A widow has nopower over property supposed to be her own. It is happier

HINDU WIDOWS. 371

for a widow to be poor, and earn her living by grinding

corn

!

" Amongst ns, women can inherit no cowrie of their father's

wealth, it all goes to their brothers. Neither do they inherit

what their husbands leave. They have only what may begiven them, and if it is a lump sum, perhaps they are silly,

and spend it foolishly ; they are not taught to take care of it

properly. If a wife die she is burned in her best clothes andjewels, but a widow's corpse is wrapped in white cloth. It

is supposed that if she' came to her husband in the next

life without the show of mourning, he would not receive

her.

" Why do the widows of India suffer so ? Not for religion or

piety. It is not written in our ancient books. In none of

the Shastras or in the Mahabharat is there any sign of this

suffering. What Pandit has brought it on us ? Alas ! that

all hope is taken from us. We have not sinned, then whyare thorns instead of flowers given us ?

" Thousands of us die, but more live. I saw a widow die,

one of my cousins. She had been ill before her husband's

•death. When he died she was too weak to be dragged to the

liver. She was in a burning fever ; her mother-in-law called

a water-carrier, and had four large skins of water poured over

her as she lay on the ground, where she had been thrown

irom her bed when her husband died. The chill of death

came upon her, and after lying alone and untended for eight

hours, her breath ceased. Every one praised her, and said

she had died for love of her husband." I knew another woman who did not love her husband, for

all their friends knew that they quarrelled so much that they

could not live together. The husband died suddenly away

from home, and when the widow heard the news she threw

herself off the roof and was taken up dead. She could not

bear the thought of the degradation before her. She was

praised by all. A book full of such instances might be

-written. The only difference for us since Suttee was

872 WOMAN.

abolished is, that we then died quickly, if cruelly, but now

we die all our lives in lingering pain.

" We are aghast at the great number of widows ; how is it

there are so many? The answer is, that if an article is

constantly supplied and never used up, it must accumulate.

So it is with widows ; nearly every man or boy who dies

leave one, often more ; so though thousands die, more live on.

" The English have abolished Suttee ; but, alas! neither the

English nor the angels know what goes on in our homes.

And Hindus not only don't care, but think it good ! What

!

do not Hindus fear what such oppression may lead to ? If

the widow's shadow is to be dreaded, why do they darken

and overshadow the whole land with it ?

"I am told that in England they comfort widows'

hearts ; but there is no comfort for us."

Anything more pathetic and heart-rending than the fore-

going statement of the condition of myriads of widows in

India it would be hard to imagine. But lest it should seemi

to possess too black a colouring, I add a passage from Mr.

Dey's book on Hindu village life, which to some extent cor-

roborates, and to some extent modifies it ; probably both are

equally true, though not of the same families. "English

people have somehow or other got the idea that a Hinduwidow receives harsh and cruel treatment from the relations-

of her husband. This is not true. There are, no doubt,

exceptional cases, but, as a general rule, Hindu widows are

not only not ill-treated, but they meet with a vast deal of

sympathy. Old widows, in a Bengali Hindu family, are often

the guides and counsellors of those who style themselves the

lords of creation. . . Old widows, provided they have intelli-

gence and good character, assert, on account of their ex-

perience in life, their superiority over men younger than they.

As to the privations of life, a little too much is made of them.

Besides the one supreme privation of having the fountain of

their affections sealed up, the others, of which foreign writers

make so much, are not worth speaking about. The most con-

HINDU WIDOWS. 373

siderable of these minor privations is that only one meal is

permitted them in twenty-four hours. But this restraint will

cease to be regarded as a privation when it is considered that

a widow's meal is usually larger in quantity and heavier in

weight than that of a married woman ; that the meal is taken

in the afternoon, not many hours before sleep ; that mostwidows are sleek and stout, and that many of the strong andable-bodied peasants of the North-Western Provinces, and the

Hindu sepoys of the Bengal army, take only one meal in

twenty-four hours." This certainly is rather a strong wayof putting it ; but it overlooks the fact that those who par-

take of one meal a day only can eat if they feel hungry, anddrink when thirsty ; but with the widow none of these re-

sources are available. Moreover, it is quite a different thing

to continue in habits that have been formed from infancy

;

and quite another thing suddenly to give up habits that have

become parts of one's nature. And again, in the case of

the widow, she has this additional cause of anguish : she is

taught that it is owing to some sin in a previous birth that

she is now called to suffer all the pains incident to her posi-

tion as a widow. From what I have heard of the sadness

and sorrow of the Hindu window, and from the great bless-

ings that are promised to the Sati, or faithful wife, whoascended the funeral pile with her husband, I certainly amnot at all surprised that as long as the law permitted it, manypreferred the few moments of physical agony, with the hope

of gaining a heavenly mansion with their lord, rather than

continue in the misery which is the normal condition of the

widows of Hindus to this day.

Before passing on to notice the institution and practice of

Sati, it will not be out of place here to indicate briefly the

improvements that are visible in the position of women in

India.

First, education is rapidly spreading amongst the middle

classes. "When missionaries first attempted to commencework amongst the girls, it was with the greatest difficulty

374 WOMAN.

that they could induce parents to allow them to learn. Before

this time, girls who were intended for a life of prostitution

had received some instruction in order that they might prove

more attractive to their visitors ; hence education in women

was associated with immorality. In order to overcome their

prejudice, parents had to be paid to allow their daughters to

attend school. Then the conservatism of the older members

of the family most strongly opposed it, on the ground that

the gods would be angry and show their displeasure by re-

moving the husbands of girls who had been taught. Werethe history of the progress of female education in India

written, it would contain many stories of schools almost de-

prived of scholars owing to one of them becoming a widow,

and the old women pointing to her case as a certain instance

of the displeasure of the gods falling upon her and her family

for departing from their time-honoured customs. But gradu-

ally this prejudice was destroyed by the quiet and persistent,

efforts of the ladies of various missionary societies, until

nowadays in a very great number of the houses of the

middle and upper classes are to be found those who have

been regularly sent to school, and are able to read and write

fairly well.

The Zenana work in India, which of late has so greatly

excited the interest of ladies in Europe and America, grewout of the school work. When her pupils had grown too old

to attend school, they asked Mrs. Mullens, in Calcutta, if she

could not continue her work with them in their homes. She did

so ; and from this small beginning the great work that is nowgoing on in India has grown. As education spread amongst the

boys and young men they naturally wished to have educated

wives ; and within the last few years some Hindu girls haveobtained the B.A. degree in the Calcutta University. Withina little more than a single generation the education of girls

and women in India has so rapidly developed: the mindsof the women forty years ago were regarded as unfit for cul-

tivation ; now some of the brightest productions of culture

HINDU -WIDOWS. 375

are to be found. Pew nations can point to greater changes

in so short a time.

In some classes of the community, especially the progres-

sive Brahmos, decided improvements have been seen in the

position of women. In their mandir, or church, seats are

appropriated for ladies, and week after week are to be seen

at public worship, ladies who in the normal state of Hindusociety would have remained immured in the dark recesses of

the Hindu home. And in the houses of Europeans I have

myself had the pleasure of meeting Brahmo gentlemen andtheir wives. By friendly intercourse of this kind the way is

being prepared for the ladies to be led from slavery to free-

dom.

During the Calcutta Exhibition a great mark of progress

was to be seen in the thousands of Hindu ladies who were

permitted to come forth from their homes to witness the great

show. Ladies in bands of four to twenty were to be seen

under the guidance of their young brothers-in-law, or the

Zenana teachers of the various missions, most busily engaged

in examining aU the wonders that were there collected to-

gether. The prospect and retrospect of this visit to the out-

side world must have given immense delight to multitudes

who for years had not been permitted to see or be seen by the

outside world. Some Hindu gentlemen went so far as to say

that in their opinion, had the Exhibition continued open for a

year, the doors of the Zenana Khanahs would not have been

again closed ; that the ladies, having once tasted the sweets

of liberty, would not have been content to remain immured.

A great deal of talk is indulged in against the Zenana

system by the educated Hindus; and in time the present

state of affairs, so far as woman is concerned, will pass away.

Ignorance and slavery can co-exist ; education and slavery

never. To educate is to enfranchise ; and such must even-

tually be its result in India.

Having noticed the position of woman from birth to death,

it is necessary, in giving an account of the Hindu religion,

876 WOMAN.

to show to what it led when English law and power did

not interfere. In the case of widows, it taught that it wasa proper thing for them to burn with the body of their

husbands, and the name Sati, the faithful, is given to those

who were brave and devoted enough to pass through this

ordeal. In British territory this religious act has been for-

bidden, and those assisting, or permitting it even, are liable

to an action for murder; but within the last few years it

has been practised in some of the independent native States,

BO that it is not absolutely a thing of the past.

CHAPTER IV.

SATI, OB THE BURNING OF A HINDU WIDOW WITHTHE BODY OF HEB HUSBAND.

It is impossible to say when this rite first came into favour.

'The name Sati is given to Parvati, when, angry with her

father for omitting to invite her husband to his feast, she

•destroyed herself by fire ; but in this case, though she provedJierself " a faithful wife," she did not burn herself with her

husband's body. Still, as she manifested faithfulness, even

to death, in the interests of her husband, the name has been

given to those widows who, by their self-immolation, havemanifested a similar devotion.

In Vedic times it seems certain that this rite was not

practised, nor is there a single text authorizing it. There

is a text, however, which, by a wilful mis-translation, has

been taught by the priests to be an authority for the practice,

concerning which Max Miiller says :" This is perhaps the

most fiagrant instance of what can be done by an unscrupu-

lous priesthood." This text, which is the one that is repeated

by the officiating priest as the widow walks round the pyre

on which her husband's corpse is placed, before ascending

it herself, is as follows :" Om ! Let those women, not to be

widowed, good wives adorned with collyrium, holding clarified

butter, consign themselves to the fire. Immortal, not child-

less, not husbandless, well adorned with gems, let them pass

into the fire, whose original element was water.'' The correct

translation is the following: "May these women, who are

878 WOMAN.

not widows, draw near with oil and butter. Let those who

are mothers go first to the altar, without sorrow, but decked

with fine jewels." * The passage evidently refers to ordinary

sacrifices, and not to the immolation of widows.

The plan to be adopted at this ceremony, carefully taught

in more modern works, is as follows : " Having first bathed,

the widow, dressed in her clean garments, and holding some

cusa grass, sips water from the palm of her hand. Bearing

cusa and tila on her head, she looks towards the east or north,,

whilst the Brahman utters the mystic word Om. Bowing to-

Narayana, she next declares : ' On this month, on this day, I

'

[naming herself and her family] , ' that I may meet Arund-

hati (the wife of Vasistha, the guru of the gods), and reside-

in Swarga, that the years of my stay may be numerous

as the hairs of the human body, that I may enjoy witk

my husband the felicity of heaven, and sanctify my paternal

and maternal progenitors, and the ancestry of my husband's

father; that, lauded by the Apsarases (celestial nymphs), I

may be happy with my lord through the reign of fourteen

Indras (kings of the gods) ; that expiation be made for myhusband's offences, whether he has killed a Brahman, broken

the ties of gratitude, or murdered his friend—thus I ascend

my husband's burning pile. I call on you, ye guardians-

of the eight regions of the world—Sun and Moon, Air, Fire,

Ether, Earth and Water, my own soul, Yama (the god of

the spirit world). Day, Night and Twilight, and thou Con-

science—^bear witness I follow my husband's corpse on the-

funeral pile.' " t

It is the duty of the son, or nearest relative, to apply

the first torch when the widow has repeated this mantra.

The texts on which it is founded are the following :

—

" The wife who commits herself to the flames with her

husband's corpse shall equal Arundhati, and reside in

Swarga."

* " Vedio Eeligion," p. 32.

j- Colebrooke's " Essays," p. 71.

THE BURNING OF A HINDU WIDOW WITH HEB HUSBAND. 87&

" Accompanying her husband, she shall reside so longin Swarga as are the 35,000,000 of hairs on the humanbody."

"As the snake-catcher forcibly drags the serpent fromhis earth, so bearing her husband [from hell] with him shall

she enjoy heavenly bliss."

" Dying with her husband, she sanctifies her maternal andpaternal ancestors, and the ancestors of him to whom shegave her virginity."

" Such a wife, adoring her husband, in celestial felicity

with him, greatest and most admired, shall enjoy the

delights of heaven while fourteen Indras reign."

" Though a husband had killed a Brahman, broken the

ties of gratitude, or murdered a friend, she expiates thecrime."

It should be noticed that whilst promising these blessings

to the widow who performs the rites of Sati, the BrahmaPurana, which teaches the mantras employed at the cere-

mony, also teaches that it is optional with a widow thus

to burn, or to adopt a life of austerity such as has already

been described ; but having once decided to be burned, she

must proceed with the ceremony, or incur defilement. It

is further taught that though the widow of a Brahman whodied at a distance ought not to perform Sati, the widowsof other castes might do so under these circumstances.

" The bystanders throw on butter and wood : for this they

are taught that they acquire merit exceeding ten million-

fold the merit of an Asvamedh (or horse sacrifice), or other

great sacrifice. Even those who join the procession from

the house of the deceased to the funeral pile, for every step

are rewarded as for an asvamedh. Such indulgences are

promised by grave authors."

In the code of Hindu laws drawn up towards the close of

the last century, for the guidance of the judges, it is said:

" It is proper for a woman, after her husband's death, to

burn herself in the fire with his corpse. Every woman who

V

880 WOMAN.

thus burns herself shall remain in Paradise with her husband

860,000,000 of years by destiny."

The first authentic account of a Sati from the Hindu

writings, so far as I can discover, is that of one which

occurred about the year 1176. The lady's name was Ban-

jogata, daughter of Jadchand, the last Hindu king of Kanouj,

and wife of Prithiviraja, the last Hindu king of Dehli. At

that time princesses at least were allowed to select their own

husbands at Swayambaras, or tournaments, held for this

purpose. When her father inaugurated the festival, owing

to an old and bitter feud between the parties, Frithivirfija

was not invited; but an effigy of him being placed as a

doorkeeper, the princess, passing by all the princes present,

placed the garland upon the neck of the effigy, as she had

heard so much of the martial exploits of him whom it repre-

sented. Soon after this the prince, hearing of the favour

that had been shown him by the princess, came with an

armed band and carried her away by force. She completely

captivated her capturer by the force of her love and beauty.

About a year after this, as the Mussulman conquerors wore

at their gates, urged by his wife, Prithiviraja went out to

fight them. During his absence she lived most simply,

having a presentiment that she should never see bis face

again. This proved only too true. The ouomy prevailed,

her beloved husband was slain; and as soon as the news

reached her, she ordered a funeral pyre to be prepared, and

of her own accord entered it.

From the reports of eye-witnesses of the performance of the

Sati rite, it is evident that some widows went, in the spirit

of true devotion to their husbands, and with the hope of

obtaining the blessedness promised, to perform this dreadful

rite ; whilst others, owing to the disgrace which attached to

one who vowed, but had not courage to perform her vow,

were drugged, so as to be unconscious of what was before

them ; whilst the precaution was usually taken of tying downthe wood upon the victim, so that escape was impossible. I

THE BURNING OF A HINDU WIDOW WITH HER HUSBAND. 381

shall now give an account of the performance of this ceremonyfrom eye-witnesses.

The first description is from Colonel Sleeman's " Eamblesand Eecollections." The Colonel, some years after the

occurrence, was passing a temple that had been erected onthe banks of the Nerbudda river, on the spot where, in 1829,

the Sati rite was performed in his presence. He goes on to

say that as Sati was prohibited at the time of this visit, hewould record what he saw in 1829, and declares that the

description being copied from his note-book written at the

time, the reader may rely upon the truthfulness of the account.

Colonel Sleeman forbade the erection of a temple on the site

of a Sati, lest the desire for posthumous fame might lead

some widows to immolate themselves.

" On November 29, 1829, this old woman, then about

sixty-five years of age, here mixed her ashes with those of her

husband, who had been burned alone four days before. Onreceiving civil charge of the district, I issued a proclamation

prohibiting any one from aiding or abetting in Sati ; and

distinctly stating, that to bring one ounce of wood for the

purpose would be considered as so doing. If the womanburned herself with the body of her husband; any one whobrought wood for the purpose of burning him would become

liable to punishment ; consequently the body of the husband

must be first consumed, and the widow must bring a fresh

supply for herself.

"On Tuesday, November 24, 1829, 1 had an application from' the heads of the most respectable and most extensive family

of Brahmans in the district, to suffer this old widow to bumherself with the remains of her husband, Omed Sing Opuddea,

who had that morning died on the banks of the Nerbudda.

I threatened to enforce my order, and punish severely any

man who assisted, and placed a police-guard for the purpose

of seeing that no one did so. She remained sitting by the

edge of the water without eating or drinking. The next day

the body of her husband was burned to ashes in a small pit

382 . WOMAN.

•of about eight feet square, and three or four deep, before

several thousand spectators, who had assembled to see the

Sati. All strangers dispersed before evening, as there seemed

to be no prospect of my yielding to the urgent solicitations

of her family, who dared not touch food till she had burned

lerself, or declared herself willing to return to them. Her

.sons, grandsons, and some other relations remained with her,

while the rest surrounded my house, the one urging me to

«,llow her to burn, and the other urging her to desist. She

remained sitting on a bare rock in the bed of the Nerbudda,

refusing every kind of sustenance, and exposed to the intense

heat of the sun by day, and the severe cold of the night, with

only a thin sheet thrown over her shoulders. On Thursday,

-to cut off all hope of her being moved from her purpose, she

put on the Dhujja, or coarse red turban, and broke her

bracelets in pieces, by which she became dead in law, and for

ever excluded from caste. Should she choose to live after

this, she could never return to her family. She had resolved

to die. ' I have,' said she, ' tasted largely of the bounty of

the Government, having been maintained by it with all mylarge family in ease and comfort upon our rent-free lands

;

and I feel assured my children will not be suffered to want

;

but with them I have nothing more to do ; our intercourse and

communion end here. My soul is with Omed Sing Opuddea,

and my ashes must here mix with his.' Again looking to

the sun—'I see them together,' said she, with a tone andcountenance that affected me a great deal, ' under the bridal

canopy,' alluding to the ceremonies of marriage ; and I amsatisfied that she at that moment really believed that she sawher own spirit and that of her husband under the bridal

canopy in Paradise.

" I tried to work upon her pride and fears. I told her that

it was probable that the rent-free lands by which her family

had been so long supported might be resumed by Governmentas a mark of its displeasure against the children for not dis-

suading her from the sacrifice ; that the temples over her

THE BUENING OF A HINDU WIDOW WITH HER HUSBAND. 383

ancestors might be levelled with the ground, in order to

prevent their operating to induce others to make similar

sacrifices ; and lastly, that not one brick or stone should ever

mark the place where she died, if she persisted in her resolu-

tion. But if she consented to live, a splendid habitation

should be built for her amongst these temples—a handsomeprovision assigned for her support out of these rent-free

lands—her children should come daily to visit her, and

I should frequently do the same. She smiled, but held

out her arm and said, ' My pulse has long ceased to beat,

my spirit has departed, and I have nothing left but a little

earth that I wish to mix with the ashes of my husband. I

shall suffer nothing in burning, and if you wish proof, order

some fire, and you shall see this arm consumed without giving

me any pain.' I did not attempt to feel her pulse, but some

of my people did, and declared that it had ceased to be per-

ceptible. At this time every native present believed that she

was incapable of suffering pain ; and her end confirmed

them in that opinion.

" Satisfied myself that it would be unavailing to attempt

to save her life, I sent for all the principal members of her

family, and consented that she should be suffered to burn

ierself if they would enter into engagements that no other

member of their family should ever do the same. This they

all agreed to, and the papers having been drawn out in due

form about midday, I sent down notice to the old lady, who

seemed extremely pleased and thankful. The ceremonies of

bathing were gone through before three, while the wood and

other combustible materials for a strong fire were collected,

and put into the pit. After bathing, she called for a pan

(betel-leaf), and ate it, then rose up, and with one arm on

the shoulder of her eldest son, and the other on that of her

nephew, approached the fire. I had sentries placed all round,

and no other person was allowed to approach within five

paces. As she rose up, fire was set to the pile, and it was

instantly in a blaze. The distance was about 150 yards

:

884 WOMAN.

she came on with a calm and cheerful countenance, stopped

once, and casting her eyes upward, said, ' Why have they

kept me five days from thee, my husband ?' On coming to

the sentries her supporters stopped : she walked once round

the pit, paused a moment, and, whilst muttering a prayer,

threw some flowers into the fire. She then walked updeliberately and calmly to the brink, stepped into the centre

of the flame, sat down, and leaning back in the midst as if

reposing upon a couch, was consumed without uttering

a shriek or betraying one sign of agony. A few instruments

of music had been provided, and they played as usual as she

^ approached the fire ; not, as is commonly supposed, in order

to drown screams, but to prevent the last words of the victim

''from being heard, as these are supposed to be prophetic, andmight become sources of pain or strife to the living. It wasnot expected that I should yield, and but few people hadassembled to witness the sacrifice, so that there was little or

nothing to stimulate her to any extraordinary exertions ; andI am persuaded that it was the desire of again being united

to her husband in the next world, and the entire confidence

that she would be so if she now burned herself, that alone

sustained her. From the morning of the day he died, Tues-

day, till Wednesday evening, she ate pan, or betel-leaves, but

nothing else ; and from Wednesday evening she ceased eating

them. She drank no water from Tuesday. She went into

the fire with the same cloth about her that she had worn in

the bed of the river ; but it was made wet, from a persuasion

that even the shadow of any impure thing falling upon her

when going to the pile contaminates the woman, unless

counteracted by the sheet moistened in the holy stream. Imust do the family the justice to say, that they all exerted

themselves to dissuade the widow from her purpose ; and hadshe lived, she would assuredly have been cherished andhonoured as the first female member of the whole house."

It appears that thirteen years before this woman had firmly

resolved, if left a widow, to die the death of a Sati.

THE BURNING OF A HINDU WIDOW WITH HEB HUSBAND. 885

Colonel Sleeman in the same book gives an account of

another Sati of which he was not an eye-witness, but of the

truthfulness of which there can be no doubt. In this case it

was not the wife of the deceased man who voluntarily burned

herself, but the wife of a man then living, she believing

that in three previous births she had been his wife, and that

in her present birth she was separated from him as a punish-

ment for a sin committed in her last previous birth. It is of

course easy for us to laugh at such superstitions, and dif&cult

to understand how people can be enslaved by them ; but there

is no doubt they have had, and still have, a firm grasp of the

minds of millions. " All that a man hath wUl he give for

his life," and when we see a woman choosing a painful death

in the fall assurance that she is doing an act that is pleas-

ing to the gods, it shows the force of her faith in the

religious teaching she has received. The story given by a

relative of the deceased man to Colonel Sleeman is as

follows

:

" When my eldest brother, who was so long a native col-

lector under you in this district, died about twenty years ago

at Sehora, a Lodhee woman, who resided two miles distant, in

the village of Khittolee, which has been held by our family

for several generations, declared that she would burn herself

with him on the funeral pile ; that she had been his wife in

three previous births, had already burnt herself with himthree times, and had to burn with him four times more. She

was then sixty years of age, and had a husband living about

the same age. We were all astounded when she came for-

ward with this story, and told her it must be a mistake, as we

were Brahmans, while she was a Lodhee. She said there

was no mistake in the matter ; that she in her last birth

residing with my brother in the sacred city of Benares, one

day gave a holy man, who asked for charity, salt by mistake

for sugar with his food; that, in consequence, he told her

she should, in her next birth, be separated from her husband,

and be of inferior caste ; but that, if sh6 did her duty weU in

26

S86 WOMAN.

that state, she should be reunited to him in the following

hirth. We told her that all this must be a dream ; and the

widow of my brother insisted that if she were not allowed to

burn herself, the other should not be allowed to take her

place. We prevented the widow from ascending the pile, and

ehe died at a good old age, only two years ago, at Sehora. Mybrother's body was burnt at Sehora, and the poor Lodhee

woman came and stole a handful of the ashes which she

placed in her bosom, and took back with her to Eiiittolee.

There she prevailed upon her husband and brother to assist

her in her return to her former husband and caste as a

Brahman, No soul else would assist them, as we got the

native chief to prevent it ; and these three persons brought

on their own heads the pile on which she seated herself with

the ashes in her bosom. The husband and his brother set

fire to the pUe and she was burned." After this the membersof the family firmly believed the woman's story ; the father of

the man whose wife she declared she had been in previous

births bore all her funeral expenses, i.e., for funeral cere-

monies after death ; and a tomb is still in existence whichhad been erected on the site where the Sati took place.

There is quite another side to this question. That all

•widows who have gone through this ceremony were not anxiousto suffer in this manner, the following narrative of an eye-

witness will clearly prove. A rich Bania died near her house,

and there was great excitement in the bazaar as it was madeknown that his widow, a woman about twenty-six years of

age, intended to perform Sati. The magistrate tried in vainto dissuade her from the course she had chosen, but in replyshe simply beat her head upon the ground, declaring thatif she was not allowed to burn with her husband she wouldhang herself in court, for the Sastras declare "that theprayers and imprecations of a Sati are never uttered in vain

:

the great gods cannot hsten to them unmoved."If a widow touch food or water after her husband's death,

according to Hindu law she cannot be burned with his body.

THE BURNING OF A HINDU WIDOW WITH HER HUSBAND. 387

In the hope that this woman might be forced by hungerto give up her design, the magistrate ordered the corpse to

be kept for forty-eight hours unburned ; but during all this

time she never touched anything. At length, when consent

was reluctantly given, the woman went to the banks of the

Ganges, where about 5,000 people were assembled to witness

the ceremony. The pile was raised, the dead body of the

husband laid upon it, when the widow, after bathing in the

sacred stream, lighted a brand, walked round the pile, set it

on fire, and then mounted cheerfully. The flames blazed upinstantly. She sat down, placing the head of the corpse

upon her lap, and repeated several times, " Earn, Earn, Sati

;

Eam, Earn, Sati " (" God, God, I am chaste").

As the wind drove the fierce flames towards her, she shook

her arms and limbs as if in agony. At length she started upand approached the side to escape. A Hindu policeman, whohad been placed there with the express object of seeing

that she had fair play, and was not burned by force, raised

his sword to strike her. Upon his being seized by the magis-

trate, the woman again approached the side, sprang out of

the fire, and rushed into the Ganges. When the crowd,

amongst whom were standing the brothers of the dead man,saw this, they cried out, " Cut her down ; knock her downwith a bamboo ; tie her hands and feet, and throw her in

again ! " and they would have done this had not the police

interfered to prevent it.

The woman drank some water, and, having extinguished

the fire in her dress, expressed her willingness to enter the

fire again; but this the magistrate forbade, on the ground that,

according to Hindu law, a Sati who once forsook the pile

could not re-enter it. He then placed her in a palanquin

and sent her to the hospital for treatment, at the same time

assuring her that though she was now an outcaste from

Hindu society, the Government would provide for her and see

ihat she never came to want. The woman declared that in

ah. previous births she had performed Sati, and so was most

388 -WOMAN.

anxious to perform it for the seventh time, though when the

time came human nature protested against the pain. It

would have been far better for her not to have expressed

her determination to perform Sati. Not having fulfilled

her vow, she was not allowed to re-enter her home, and

became a stranger to her family.

The Eev. G. Pearce, in an address given in Calcutta in

1869, on " Eeminiscences of Life in India," gives the follow-

ing description of a Sati in that city. It occurred about

1826, " One of the first intimations which I received, shortly

after my arrival, of the cruel and debasing character of

Hinduism, was a Sati scene that I witnessed in the northern

suburbs of Calcutta. It took place on the bank of the

river a little beyond Bagh Bazaar Bridge. I can never forget

it. It was about 5 p.m. when I arrived. The crowd was

very great—about 1,000 in number. In the centre was a pile-

of wood. The corpse of the husband lay upon it. On tha

north side of it was a palanquin, containing the young

widow to be immolated. Brahmans stood round. I got

permission to speak to her, but in attempting to do so I found

her BO under the influence of drugs as to render the effort

useless. .The Brahmans made short work of it. On myleaving the palanquin, they took her out of it, and endea-

voured to lead her round the pile ; but she was unable to-

stand. She was then taken up into their arms and carried,

round once only (they ought to have gone round seven times),,

when they laid the poor woman on her wooden bed beside th&

corpse of her husband. At this moment she seemed con-

scious of what was before her, for she immediately drew her

arms round its neck, and embraced the corpse with great

affection. The Brahmans, however, lost no time in finishing:

their dreadful work. Immediately they began to heap upon

the bodies the remainder of the pile, imtil they covered them,

at least two feet—a weight of wood sufficient to crush the^

very bones themselves ; and to make all the more sure, they

bound down the whole pile with bamboos crossed over, lest

THE BURNING OP A HINDU WIDOW WITH HER HUSBAND. 389

the poor victim, in her struggles in feeling the fire, shouldtoss it off and escape. All being duly secured, a boy of

about twelve years of age came forth with a lighted torchand set fire to the pile close to the head of the victim. Atthis moment gongs and drums struck up their deafening

sounds, whilst the vast multitude of spectators joined in

shouts of ' Hari Bol ! Hari Bol !

' thus effectually drowningthe shrieks of the poor dying creature."

According to Mr. Pearce, at this time the annual numberof Satis in Bengal was about 1,200; and when LordWilliam Bentinck passed an Act forbidding it, a petition waseent in to the Privy Council signed by 18,000 people, manyof whom represented the best families of Calcutta, asking

that this practice might be allowed to continue.

Prior to this Act forbidding Sati, magistrates occasionally

interfered on their own authority to prevent children of

twelve years of age from performing the rite ; but in the case

of older women they had no power to prevent them fromdestroying themselves. At first the Government's efforts

were in the direction of regulating, not suppressing, the

custom. In 1812 the following instructions were issued to

the magistrates : " The Government, after considering the

replies of the Pundits, premised that the practice, generally

speaking, being recognized and encouraged by the Hindureligion, it appears evident that the course which the British

Government should foUow, according to the principle of

religious toleration already noticed, is to allow the practice

in those cases in which it is countenanced by their religion,

and to prevent it in others in which it is by the sameauthority prohibited." Accordingly the magistrates were

ordered to confine their interposition to the following cases :

(1) To preclude, as far as possible, the employment of all com-

pulsory means on the part of their relatives, of Brahmans,

and of others, in order to cause them to burn themselves;

(2) to prevent the criminal use of intoxicating drugs or

liquors for the accomplishment of that object ; (3) to ascer-

890 WOMAN.

tain whether the women have attained the age as fixed by the

Hindu law at which they are permitted to burn themselves;

(4) to inquire whether they are pregnant; and (5) to

prevent the ceremony from proceeding in cases in which,

on any of the above grounds, it may be repugnant to the

principles of Hindu law. In harmony with these rules the

police were instructed to obtain as early information as

possible of an intended Sati, to inquire as to the age of the

woman, and to see if she was acting of her own free will

;

and they were empowered to prevent the ceremony if the

widow were pregnant, or unwilling to burn.

In 1817 these orders were further modified. A woman not

in good health was to be prevented from burning, also one

who had an infant, at the breast under four years of age ; and

also a woman who had a child or children under seven for

whom she was unable to provide a suitable guardian. Brah-

man widows were permitted to burn only with their husband's

corpse ; not, as had formerly been the case, days or weeks

afterwards with some relic of his body. And further, that it

was the duty of the family to whom the intending Sati be-

longed to inform the police of her intention, and not leave

the police to make the discovery.

During the years following the enactment of 1812, the

following number of Satis were burnt in Bengal:—1815, 378;

1816, 442 ; 1817, 707 ; 1819, 839. The ages of these womenvaried from twenty to seventy. It will be noticed that the

interference of the Government appeared rather to increase

than to lessen the practice. It is possible that this increase

is apparent rather than real ; that the cases were more care-

fully reported, and not that more actually occurred.

It was reserved for Lord WiUiam Bentinck to put a stop to>

this cruel practice. Some of his advisers in India, fearing

that an interference with Hindu custom might imperil the

empire, advised delay, and urged that in time the Hinducommunity would themselves give it up ; but the majority

of his counsellors being of opinion that it ought not under

THE BUENING OF A HINDU WIDOW WITH HEB HUSBAND. 391

any circumstances to be sanctioned, an Act was passed

rendering Sati a case of culpable homicide, and threatening

with severe penalties all who encouraged or in any wayassisted at the ceremony. The result was that this abomin-

able and cruel custom was put an end to in 1830 in the

territories directly under British rule ; but since that time,

in some of the native States, Sati has been performed. Thelast case I heard of in India was about 1880.

MOBALS,

CHAPTEK I.

MORALS—THE HINDUS GENERALLY.

Of all questions connected with the Hindus, the question of

morality is perhaps the most difficult to -write about with

anything approaching confidence, because of the opposing

opinions that are held by different people, for which more or

less plausible reasons can be given.

Arrian, in his "History of India," written in the second

century of the Christian era, gives a most glowing account of

the morals of the Hindus. Either his knowledge of them musthave been of the most superficial character, or certainly as a

whole they have greatly deteriorated since his day. It is

certain that his words could only now be employed as the

purest sarcasm. It is just possible that he wrote only of

some tribes, and not of the community at large.; the ex-

cellences that he ascribes to them being those in which the

people as a whole are lamentably deficient. His words are

as follows : " They are remarkably brave ; superior in war

to all Asiatics. They are remarkable for simplicity and in-

tegrity; so reasonable as never to have recourse to a law-

suit, and so honest as neither to require looks to their doors,

nor writings to bind their agreements. No Indian was ever

known to tell an untruth." We may say truly, if this be a

trustworthy account, " How are the mighty fallen, and the

bright gold become duU !"

Writing in Madras at the close of last century, the Abbe

Dubois, after a lengthened experience and careful observa-

896 MORALS.

tion, gives perhaps a picture as excessively dark as Arrian's

is bright. His words are :

"In my opinion the Hindus will remain after another

thousand years as they were a thousand years ago. Their

reserved and distant intercourse with Europeans will always

continue the same, and their abhorrence of the religion,

education, and manners of the latter, as well as their other

leading prejudices, will continue undiminished. . . . Let

Bibles, as many as you please, in every shape and in every

style, be translated and circulated among the Hindus ; let

them, if you wish, be spread in every village, in every cottage,

and every family ; let the Christian religion be presented to

these people under every possible light—I repeat it, with

deep sorrow, in my humble opinion (an opinion grounded ontwenty-five years of experience) the time of conversion has

passed away, and under existing circumstances there remains

no human possibility to bring it back. . . . Are we not

warranted, on beholding the minatural and odious worship

which prevails all over India, in thinking that these unhappypeople are lying under an everlasting anathema; that byobstinately refusing to listen to the voice of the heavenswhich declare the glory of God, they have for ever rendered

themselves unworthy of the Divine favour; that by obsti-

nately rejecting the word of God, which has been in vainannounced to them during these last three or four centuries,

they have ' filled up the measure of their fathers,' have beenentirely forsaken of God, and (what is the worst of Divinevengeance) given over for ever to a reprobate mind on accountof the peculiar wickedness of their worship, which supposesin those amongst whom it prevails a degree of perversity far

beyond that of old pagan nations ? "

In trying to describe the general moral condition of theHindus, I shall certainly strive earnestly to give a fair andimpartial description. I have lived for many years in close

intimacy with the people, many of whom I love ; have con-versed with all classes of the community ; have spent many

MOBALS THE HINDUS GENERALLY. 897

liappy years in working, as I believe, for their benefit, and,intentionally, at any rate, shall not write down aught inmalice. My wonder is, considering their religious faiths,

and the character of the deities they worship, that they arenot far worse than they are. "When I consider the state of

Europe, with the example and teaching of Jesus more orless generally known, it does not surprise me at all to find

the Hindus morally what they are, as I remember that whilst

their books contain some of the highest and noblest moralprecepts, their deities, when incarnate, are described asignoring these beautiful lessons ; and still further, when I

see that religion and morality are quite separate in their

view; for a man maybe a most exemplary Hindu, and at

the same time guilty of the grossest immorality. I shall

strive to give a fair statement of their general character as

far as an outsider is able to estimate it. Of course it will be

understood that all Hindus have not all the vices, neither

have all Hindus all the virtues, that I shall mention as be-

longing to the community. I shall first give the darker, andthen the brighter side of the picture.

Ingratitude.

When one of the missionaries was engaged in the

translation of the Scriptures into Bengali, he wanted a wordto express the idea of gratitude. After several attempts

to explain the idea for which an expression was required,

after a few moments' pause, his pundit said, " How can you

expect to find a word to express an idea that does not exist

in a country ? " And as it proved to be true that there was

no common Bengali word suitable, a term had to be intro-

duced from the Sanskrit—a standing proof of the absence up

to that time of the need of an expression for this virtue. In

like manner an Englishman, on going to India, is astonished

to find that there is no term expressive of " Thank you " for

any little acts of attention that may be shown to him by ser-

vants and others. It is an instance of the way in which

"when in Eome we act as the Eomans do," that up to this

398 MORALS.

hour the foreigners, who are most careful to recognize kind-

nesses shown to them by those of their own nation, have

not forced an expression into general use equivalent to those

found in their own languages. Of course there are expressions

which can be, and are, employed to signify pleasure received

from the attentions shown ; but as a rule those who in their

own country would be most particular in showing their ap-

preciation of kindness, fall into the way, common in India, of

taking these courtesies as a matter of course.

That gratitude, or at any rate the expression of it, cannot

be universal, the following statement of a gentleman, who for

many years was the principal of a large missionary college,

will show. This gentleman had laboured most devotedly for

the good of the young men in India, had given hours daily

to the private instruction of many who were wishful to obtain

further teaching than they could obtain in the college classes,

for which extra work he, of course, did not receive a single

penny. After twenty-five years of such work, he said that

the only expression of gratitude he ever received was from oneof his old students, who at the time of the occurrence was a

station-master on the East India Eailway. Stopping at the

station, and being anxious to obtain a time-table, the station-

master offered to get one, and when he offered payment it

was politely refused, as the young man said he had received

many acts of kindness from his professor, and would nottake the money.

The truthfulness of this story I do not for a moment doubt

;

but I think the experience of this gentleman was exceptional.

I have met on many occasions with old students of our col-

leges who have expressed their thankfulness for the assist-

ance they have received from our missionaries engaged in•educational work, and also for the kindness of the Christianpublic in England in sending out Christian ladies to teachtheir wives and daughters. Then the faithfuhiess of thesoldiers to their salt, as it is termed, i.e., their gratitude to

.those from whom through, many years they obtained their

MORALS THE HINDUS GENEBALLY. 399

support, has kept, in troublous times, those faithful to British

rule who otherwise would have taken part with comrades in

rebellion. Still I fear it is a fact that as a rule gratitude is

not a common virtue in India. Look, e.g., at the class of

iZemindars, who, by the prodigality of the British Govern-

ment, were raised at once from the mere collectors of the

revenue into practically the landholders of BengaL Whenany attempt is made to raise the revenue, however necessary

the cause, if their income be affected, how they cry out as

if an injustice were being done to them ! Look at the edu-

cated classes, who, through the unfair assistance that is

given to them as compared with the mere trifle that is spent

in mass-education, write and speak against the same Govern-

ment, because, having provided most costly establishments

for their instruction, it does not also provide ample employ-

ment with proportionate incomes also. Brahma, the creator,

is scarcely worshipped by the masses of India in the present

day, because, his work of creation being finished, the people

say, " We .can obtain nothing more from him if we worship

him." Gratitude, in the sense of thankfulness for past

favours, is not commonly expressed by the people ; though

in the sense of thankfulness for favours to come it is not so

uncommon.Untruthfulness.

That this is a very general vice of the mass of the

Hindus in Bengal, there can be no doubt whatever in the

minds of those who come into personal contact with the

people. Among the village people in other parts of India,

where there is a stronger physique and greater personal

bravery, and also amongst the aborigines who inhabit

the hills, this general statement would not apply ; but of

the Bengali it is absolutely true. A gentleman who has

been brought into the closest intimacy with all classes, and

knows their language and habits as well, perhaps, as almost

any one I have met, declares that when a question is asked,

the full bearing of which on themselves or those connected

400 MOEALS.

with them they cannot see, you may rely upon it that the

first answer you receive is false ; but that when they see

that the truth cannot injure themselves or any one they care

for, they will speak the truth. One of the best educated of

our native Christians once said to me, " You who have been

born in Christian families and have been trained from infancy

to speak the truth and to hate lying can have no idea of the

difficulty we Bengalis have in overcoming the natural ten-

dency in us to lying and deceit. You are taught that it is

dishonourable and evil to lie ; we are taught that the

dishonour is not in lying, but in being discovered." And so

far as my experience and observation goes, when an order is

disregarded in house or office, or any theft committed, it is

almost impossible for the culprit to be discovered. Those

who know the truth of the affair will not inculpate others,

but rather deny " with oaths and cursing " all knowledge

of the affair.' When a tale of wrong-doing of any employe

is brought to us by other natives it may be taken as certain

that this information is given not from the simple wish to

boldly speak out the truth, but as simply the outcome of petty

spite—a mean manner of revenge for injury done. In busi-

ness transactions their word is never taken; the simplest

contracts that are made must be written, for if any profit

will arise to the promiser by repudiating the transaction it is

certain advantage will be taken of the fact that there is no

written evidence. I am thankful to be able to say that I

have met with some exceptions to this rule, men whose

word I could rely on as on that of an honest Englishman

;

but these exceptions are not numerous. The real secret of

this untruthfulness I take to be the natural cowardice of the

people, and the fact that when it served their purpose the

gods themselves— notably Brahma respecting Siva, andKrishna respecting Eadha—are represented as resorting to

'this practice. If lying was lawful for a deity, where can be

the harm of a poor weak mortal resorting to the samepractice ?

MORALS THE HINDUS GENEEALLY. 401

A notable instance of strict truthfulness is seen in the life

of the late Babu Earn Gopal Ghose. This gentleman hadlived in open violation of caste regulation for some time,but afterwards, for family reasons, wished to be recognizedagain as a Hindu. His father suggested that he should denythat he had eaten beef, &c. ; but he replied, " I would doanything for you, yea, give up my life, but cannot he."

In corroboration of the opinion expressed above as to thegeneral untruthfulness of the Hindus, we might quote thestatements of many "who have written on the subject : one will

suffice. In the " Competition Wallah " Mr. G. 0. Trevelyanwrites : " The want of truthfulness leavens the whole being

of the Bengali ;" and again, " It is not too much to assert

that the mass of Bengalis have no notion of truth andfalsehood."

Dishonesty.

Akin to lying is theft. Here, again, what is said of the massof the people of course is not true of every individual.

Amongst the lower orders, which form the servant class in

the cities and stations, pilfering is almost universal, and,

strange to say, those who, so far as was known, have been

honest for many years, when a favourable opportunity occurs

cannot resist the temptation. It is certain that prices are

usually asked from their employers for goods of daily con-

sumption higher than were paid, and when discovery is madethere is but little sense of shame, as it is considered a right

thing for the servant to obtain a percentage on all the moneyof his master that passes through his hands. So clever and

so persistent are the people in their efforts to rob that it is

simply impossible to prevent it unless one's whole time is

given to watch. A lady may sit in the. verandah of her house,

to see her horse fed ; whilst she turns her head for a

moment only, a handful of corn is stolen and secreted in

the servant's clothes. A man will quietly steal into the

cow-shed before others are stirring in the morning and

extract a good supply of milk Irom your cow. A servant will

27

402 MORALS.

accompany you to the bazaar and note the money spent with

different shopkeepers, and force them, after your back is

turned, to give them a percentage. " Every agent employed

to make a purchase, great or small, pockets a commission

xmknown to his principals ; this commission is called ' dus-

toori,' or ' the customary sum,' the amount being regulated

by the impudence of the buyer and the anxiety of the seller

to dispose of his goods." Trevelyan tells a story of a servant,

ignorant of the fact that stamps belong to the Government,

being sent to a stamp vendor to purchase stamps, knocking

down the functionary of the Government with his ruler and

carrying off his ledger to the Treasury in triumph because

the man refused to give him his dustoori. Contractors will

tender for goods to Government at a lower rate than the

Europeans who manufacture them, and from whom the con-

tractor must purchase them, their profit being made by

giving short weight or measure ; and to enable them to do

this their profits must be shared with the ofScer who has to

receive and pass their goods. A man will contract to pur-

chase salt at a certain price as it is being discharged from the

ship ; the price falls ; the Bengali will go into hiding until

the shipping agents find that the least inconvenience and

loss is to cancel the sale and seek other purchasers. It is

seldom we hear of pickpockets and thieves who by their dex-

terity rob others ; the common forms of theft are those where

children are decoyed into secret places and there robbed of

their ornaments, or where a number of men (dacoits) makea combined attack^upon a house or a village, and either bysetting fire to the house or by their shouts driving out the

people from their homes, and then make off with all they

can lay their hands on.

The use of abusive language.

The people, though cowardly, and for the most part peace-

ably disposed, are nevertheless easily provoked to quarrel,

tut not easily moved to fight. Where an excited Englishmanwould freely use his fists, and try by physical force to subdue

MORALS THE HINDUS GENERALLY. 403

, an opponent, the Bengali is content to use his tongue. Andcertainly passion, anger, hatred, contempt, were never

exhibited on any stage with greater force than may be seen

almost daily in the middle of a village, or a public street in a

city, when two women are engaged in a dispute. The tone

of voice and action of the whole body is at times quite tragic.

At such times the language, attitudes, and grimaces are of

the vilest. A man or woman when quarreUing seems to lose

all self-respect, and, in order to annoy the person with whomthey are disputing, have no hesitation in boasting of crimes

they have never committed. A man of pure morals will not

scruple to say that he has committed the grossest immorality

with the wife or mother of his opponent ; and a woman will

make a similar boast respecting her conduct with the husband

•of the woman with whom she is quarrelling. The commonestabuse when the people quarrel is that in which the female

relatives of his enemy are declared to be all that is bad. In

ihe police courts it is almost a daily occurrence for this to be

adduced as an excuse for blows which have caused the injury

or the death of their antagonists.

Perjury.

The Hindus generally, and more especially the Bengalis,

are a very litigious race. Certainly either Arrian did not

know the people, or they have sadly changed since his day.

Often it seems as if they could scarcely be happy without

iaving a lawsuit pending. To many Bengali gentlemen a

lawsuit is an amusement, as hunting and shooting are the

recreations of the British. " The natives regard a court of

Jaw not as the bulwark of the innocent and the refuge of the

wronged, but as a prize-ring which affords a fair field and

jio favour ; a stock exchange where fortunes are to be made

by cleverness and industry, and lost by carelessness and

.stupidity ; 'where all men have an equal chance, and no one

must rely on the justness of his cause, or the blamelessnesa

of his hfe, or any such natural advantage which he may

possess over his fellows. The wealthiest and most respected

404 MORALS.

man of a district will often be one who dates his prosperity

from a suit which, as every one is well aware, was brought

to a successful termination by unlimited perjury, and a

document discovered at the bottom of a chest in the zenana

just in time to be produced in court. His neighbours speak

of him as the society of an English provincial town speak of

a man who began life behind a counter, and ends it in the

parlour of a county bank, whither he had pushed his way bydint of prudence and frugality." *

To lose a suit in court is not only annoying and expensive,

it is also regarded as disgraceful ; hence we find that all meansof damaging an opponent are freely resorted to. "A planter

confessed to a friend of mine that he had been reduced to the-

verge of ruin by a Eaja, who trumped up three actions in

succession, and gained them all. The Englishman, however,

won back the ground which he had lost in a suit, the facts of

which had been invented and arranged by his agent andZemindar.'' f

A friend of my own told me that, when living in Cachar,

a man came and complained to him that a Sirdar on the

estate had burned some of his charcoal. On asking how heknew this, the reply was, "Bholonatha saw him do it."

Going directly to Bholonatha, and asking if he had seen this

transaction, he denied all knowledge of it; but when the

aggrieved party came upon the scene, the witness said,

" Why did you not tell me that you wished me to give

evidence ?"

The most common way in which a suit is commencedis for a charge to be brought against a man altogether out of

proportion to the offence given. If a blow is struck, it is

magnified into an attempt at murder ; if a debt is incurred,

the amount is made double or treble what is legally owing

;

whilst the defendant will, in his turn, not be content withgiving a fair statement of the case, but will try to prove that

he is not indebted, or that he never struck the complainant ;.

* " The Competition Waliah," p. 227. t Ibid. p. 227.

MORALS THE HINDUS GENERALLY. 405

it is also certain that often where no legal offence has beencommitted—but revenge impels a man to injure another—

a

charge, for which there is not the slightest foundation in

fact, will be made. Men have been known to inflict severe

wounds upon themselves, in order that they could lay acharge of assault against an enemy ; and corpses have beenhacked, in order that a charge of murder might be laid

against one they wished to injure ; people have been killed,

and their dead bodies placed in such a position as to lead the

police authorities to believe that the person against whomthe conspiracy was formed had been guilty of their death.

The police reports state plainly that there is reason to fear

that a very large majority of witnesses in our courts perjure

themselves. Magistrates declare that they scarcely ever

think of deciding cases according to the evidence as it is

given in court, because they know that both sides have their

trained witnesses ; they simply judge according to probabi-

lity. Judges of the highest courts of India have declared

that they did not believe a single case had come before

them, in which the natives of India were concerned, which

was not supported by perjury. Barristers, at times, seeing

the way in which the evidence of the different witnesses is

so beautifully dovetailed, to make the story of their client

appear absolutely true, have sometimes to throw discredit on

some of their own witnesses, lest the art of their solicitors in

training the witnesses should be too apparent. The litigant

goes into court expecting the judge largely to discount the

charges made, and therefore makes them sufficiently large

to allow, when the discount is taken off, to secure all he

really ought to get ; whilst the defendant, not content with

simply disproving the charges, secures witnesses to prove a

great deal more than the truth. It is a notorious fact that

there are many in the neighbourhood of our law courts whoare ready to give evidence on any subject, and on either side,

for a mere trifle. Certainly the task of hearing the false

evidence in our courts, and of judging which side is the more

406 MORALS.

likely to be in the right, must be one of the most painful and

irksome tasks that can be undertaken. Added to this is the

belief that judges are open to bribery. Men who have any

excuse for going into the presence of a magistrate or judge

privately will not scruple to take money from litigants whoare foolish enough to believe that they are aiding their cause

by this waste of money.

As illustrations of what has been said, the following maybe given. " A shopkeeper complained in court that as hewas walking across the street, one of his neighbours knocked

him down with a cudgel, and, as he lay insensible, robbed

him of thirteen rupees. He produced seven witnesses whoconfirmed substantially the whole statement. It eventually

turned out that the prisoner struck the prosecutor on the

back with a slight switch, and that the 'rupees and the in-

sensibility were an episode which had no foundation in

fact." *

"A young man bought a village from a Zemindar, whosold it cheap because the inhabitants had for some time

refused to pay a pice of rent. As the new' proprietor waswell aware that his tenants were likely to prove unruly, hewent with a strong force to compel them. At that timecholera was rife in the village, and during the night the

headman came, with several of his companions, and de-

clared that if the landlord did not clear off, he would bring

a corpse, cut its throat, throw it in the Englishman'scamp, and lay a charge of murder against him before themagistrate."

On another occasion this same planter happened to bevisiting a brother planter. After dinner a jackal began toscream, when the host and another friend took up their rifles

and went to shoot it. Not finding the jackal, one of themfired at a sheep at a little distance, and when he fired he sawa man suddenly jump up from behind the sheep, and thenfall down. On going to the spot it was discovered that the-

' "The Competition Wallah," p. 229.

MORALS THE HINDUS GENEEALLY. 407

man -was shot through the heart, and was quite dead. Therelations of the deceased prosecuted the planter for murder,

and swore that he had tied the deceased to a tree, heaten himcruelly, outraged him in a most foul manner, and finally put

him out of his misery by deliberately firing at him from the

distance of a few yards." *

In Agra a Thakur, having a quarrel with a shopkeeper, a

servant of the great man suggested that his master, should

kill him, and then charge the shopkeeper with the murder.

The wife of the willing victim hearing of this, prevented her

husband from sacrificing himself, so an idiot boy was

mm'dered, and his body deposited in the premises of the

shopkeeper. But unfortunately this ingenuity was not

successful ; the trick was discovered, and the penalty fell on

the guilty parties.

Forgery.

Between perjm-y and forgery there is often but a single

step. In order to make valid a claim or to resist oppression,

in order to substantiate or disprove a charge, documentary

evidence is sometimes necessary. And where this has never

existed, or been destroyed, or lost, it is necessary to supply

its place. As a result, it is no uncommon thing for revenue

officers and judges, before whom these documents are placed,

to reject them as palpable forgeries. Though forgery is not

so common as perjury, because of the greater chances of

detection, yet it is the opinion of those whose experience of

our courts is greatest, that it is very frequently resorted

to. In cases where leases are required to prove the claim of

the landlord for rent it is an easy thing to manufacture

them when, in the great majority of cases, the tenant is too

ignorant to read or write, and so detect the fraud. And it

sometimes happens with forged documents as with the trained

witnesses, that the manufacture is too palpable, and thus a

doubt is raised in the judge's, mind which leads him to reject

it. It is said that were all those prosecuted for perjury and

* " The Competition Wallah," p. 231.

408 MORALS.

forgery -who are certainly guilty of these crimes, our judges

would have little else to do than to try them.

Want of confidence in tlieir fellow-men.

As a result of the natural tendency to lying—which in

special cases leads to perjury and forgery—is the want of

confidence that the Hindus repose in each other, and in

Englishmen with whom business may bring them into

contact. If a workman agrees to execute any work, he will

not commence it until he has received money in advance

—^professedly to purchase material, really as a safeguard

against his employer, who, if he did not require the article

he had ordered when it was completed, might refuse to take

it, and the workman would have it thrown upon his hands.

In almost all business transactions of the smallest kind a

written agreement must be made on both sides, and this mustbe stamped and registered, because it is believed that a man's

word is not binding. In connection with this may be men-

tioned the almost universal practice of bargaining. A manwho has anything to sell, or a workman who may be called

to undertake any work, never dreams of asking the proper

price for his work ; nor does any one who has had any ex-

perience think of giving what is asked. As in Solomon's

time—" It is nought, nought," says the buyer, as goods are

offered him for sale ; whilst the seller in his turn will not

scruple to speak falsely about the value of his articles, andthe prices for the same goods that others have given him.

It is my firm conviction, speaking generally of the lower

orders of the people, if not the middle and upper classes,

that a man goes away better pleased if he has by dint of a

long chaffering obtained a mere trifle over the proper price of

his work or goods, than if he had taken a much higher price

at first without the excitement of bargaining. In the onecase he imagines that his eloquence has prevailed to inducehis customer to give more than he intended ; but in the other

he imagines that the man has paid exorbitantly simply owingto his ignorance. There is always this feeling on the part of

MOKALS THE HINDUS GENEEALLY. 409

the purchaser—that he might have driven a better bargain;

whilst the seller imagines that had he asked more, he mighthave got a proportionately higher price. Occasionally one

meets with a man who asks a fair price, and sticks to it

whether he sells or not, but such are most rare exceptions.

Oppression,

It would be difficult to find a country where the people are

eubjected to greater oppression from those above them than

prevails amongst the Hindus. The poor are passionately

attached to the soil which has been cultivated by their fore-

fathers ; are unable, owing to their great poverty, to lay aside

any money to enable them to make a fresh start in another

part of the country ; and are naturally conservative in their

habits, and would with very great difficulty be able to adapt

themselves to the kind of food and the new methods of cultiva-

.tion that would be necessary in other parts of the country.

The poor of Bengal being in a damp rice-producing country,

would be scarcely able to exist in the dryer regions where

wheat is grown ; nor would they know how to turn the soil

to the best advantage : hence we find them submitting in

jnany cases to oppression that we should imagine sufficient

.to drive them away. Bad as was the condition of the slave in

the Southern States of America, there can be no doubt that

the condition of multitudes of the poor in Bengal is in some

xespeots worse. The slave was sure of food, and of a decent

house in which to live, because it was the interest of his

owner to feed and house him well, that he might be in a con-

dition to work ; but it is far otherwise with the poor of India.

He has to pay as heavy a rent as his land will stand in

Auitful seasons, when the rains fall in plenty, and his crops

Are good; but when the rainfall is low, or sickness mayinterrupt his labours, he has to accept loans at exorbitant

interest from his landlord ; and when once he becomes in-

debted it is almost impossible for him ever to free himself

from the chains. The interest often absorbs more than the

excess of the profits of the year over what is absolutely

410 MORALS.

necessary to support the life of himself and family. In

addition to the normal fixed rent which his lease gives his-

landlord a legal right to demand, other exactions are made

which reduce the poor tenants to abject poverty. It is a

known fact that the rich, well-educated landlords of India,

when an income tax was levied, did not scruple to force this,

that should have come out of their own pockets, from their

miserable tenants ; and even in many cases, after that tax

was abolished, the tenants had to continue to pay it to their

landlords. A marriage in his family, or a death, or any-

extraordinary expense that he may have to incur, is con-

sidered a sufficient reason for demanding an extra sum from,

his tenant. The result of this is, that the tenant is boundto continue to live and work hard on his land without the

possibility of removal, as much as if a serf law were in force ;

and if he speak of his grievances to a sympathizing ear, anda word is spoken in his defence, his cattle, his ploughs, his all

may be seized; for he has literally nothing but what is

pawned to his landlord, or to some money-lending go-

between. There is a widespread oppression throughout the

whole country of Bengal ; and the grinding poverty of the

people makes one very sad as it is brought to notice in

travelling through the country. Bengal, one of the richest

soils on the face of the earth, which is able in many parts to-

support a larger population than it has, is in such a con-

dition, that if a single season's rains are withheld, unless the

Government at immense cost steps in to prevent it, it wouldbe decimated 'by famine. The country produces sufficient,

in the years of plenty to provide for the wants of its people

in the years of scarcity ; . but owing to the fact that they live

from hand to mouth, and cannot, possibly save anything for

such contingencies, they are entirely dependent upon the

care and generosity of the Government.

Eevenge.

Hindus as a rule are unforgiving. They do not quarrel,

fight, shake hands, and become good friends again. Con-

MOKALS—THE HINDUS GENERALLY. 411

cerning what they term their honour they are very sensitive,

and will wait long for an opportunity to avenge themselveson those who have tarnished it. And as they are naturallycowardly, their methods of revenge are suhtle and secret.

To strike a blow in the dark is far more in the way of a-

Hindu than boldly to accuse a man of wrong-doing and try

to punish him for it. And where the offender himself i»

beyond the reach of direct attack, it is not beneath a

Bengali's view to try to wound him through his children orother members of his family. Even though the offence maybe apparently forgotten, if months or even years after the

quarrel a favourable opportunity occurs, it is seized as ameans of wreaking vengeance. I have known charges to beunspoken for sixteen or eighteen years, and then brought upagainst one whom at last time has brought into their power

;

and I have known many cases where, because of somewretched family squabble, means have been used with the

object of robbing the offender of his means of livelihood.

When a Hindu's anger is excited, truth, honour, trust—all

are forgotten, and no means are left unemployed that caninjure an enemy in character, purse, and position. Theterm " mild Hindu " certainly is the purest sarcasm ; they

submit to oppression and cruelty because they are physically

incapable of resistance, and not from any inherent mildness

and readiness to forgive. Only give them the opportunity to

avenge themselves, and to oppress others, and certainly they

are as vindictive in their way as any race of men on earth.

They do not use the knife or the dagger, it is true, but they

resort to poison, and, what is sometimes even worse, the

poison of their own untruthful tongues. A single day's

journey in the country or in the street? of Calcutta, with

one's eyes open, as the cartmen are seen cruelly illtreating

their bullocks, or a schoolmaster punishing his pupils, will

quite dispel the notion of the Hindu's natural mildness. Heis mild where he cannot help it; he can cruelly oppress where

he has the power.

412 MORALS.

Immorality.

There are tliose who say that there is no such thing as

real morality amongst the Hindus; this I believe to be a

most exaggerated statement. That there is a great amountof immorality, there can be no doubt ; but that many are

pure amongst the millions in India, is certain. A Brahmangentleman, writing in the Calcutta Review, says, " Sexual im-

purity is, it is true, scarcely considered a sin in the males." *

As far as my observation has gone, and as far as I can gather

from conversation with those who know village life, I should

say that in the villages of India purity of morals generally

prevails. Men and women have to work hard in the fields or

in the home ; returning at dusk, they seldom go out again

until the following day. There are no idlers to lead others

astray, nor are there many opportunities of evil. Occa-

sionally cases of infidelity even here come to light, andwhen discovered they often lead to the murder of one or

both the guilty parties ; but speaking generally, I should say

that the morals of the poor and ignorant villagers of Bengalwould compare favourably with the same class elsewhere.

Of course in the villages there are many left as widows

:

these, if unchaste, generally migrate into the towns, becausethey would not be allowed to live near the families they havedisgraced; but if they do not openly commit themselvesthey may continue in their homes. As a matter of fact

abortion and infanticide are not by any means confined to

the larger towns, but are as rife in the villages as elsewhere.

Still I should say, speaking generally, the life of the villagers

is pure.

But of the morality of the towns little can be said. Londonis spoken of as an immoral city ; but Calcutta, with a popula-tion of one-sixth of that of London, has nearly double thenumber of prostitutes. The Zenana system has very muchto do with the immorality of the Hindus. A man marries,and is called by his employment to live at a distance from

* Vol. ii. p. 23.

MORALS THE HINDUS GENERALLY. 41S

his family home. He deems it unsafe to take his wife ; she

is, therefore, left at his father's house, whilst he is absent for

months or years at a time. In the majority of cases menthus separated from their families form other ties. Nearly

the whole of the servants in Calcutta are away from their

families for two or three years at a time. These and other

causes account for the dreadful immorality of the towns andcities. The custom of compelling widows to remain un-

married drives many of them to a life of immorality.

Made a drudge in the house of her father-in-law, andhaving no prospect of improvement, it can occasion little

surprise that they should swell the number of kept womenand public prostitutes. Concubinage is so common in Bengal

that no one seems surprised at it. And yet those who do not

see it to be a crime to be guilty of immorality themselves,,

are most careful to prevent, if possible, the same looseness of

morals in their wives. It is often boastfully said by Bengali

gentlemen that they do not have recourse to the Divorce-

Court as the English do. It is not because of the purer

lives of the gentlemen, certainly ; nor is it because of the-

purer morals of many of the widows, though it may be-

because of the seclusion in which their wives are kept ;

in which case their non-sinning is not the result of a purer-

morality, but because of the want of opportunity. It maybe that means are employed to keep secret any misconduct,

lest dishonour should come to the family. Certainly, little

can be said of the morality of a community in which con-

cubinage is openly practised, prostitution eornmon everywhere,,

and where abortion is carried on as a distinct profession,.

The reason of this I see in the fact that continence is not

taught. As soon as it is possible for boys and girls to marry

they are brought together. Nor must the influence of character

of the gods, as taught in the later religious books of the-

Hindus, be overlooked. On the cars in which Jagannatha

is drawn, and on the temples, are pictures and sculptures,

so disgusting and filthy that they cannot be described. At,

414 MORALS.

-the religious festivals jatras are performed, in which the

sayings and doings of these deities are represented by the

actors ; and as interludes, there is dancing of a most lasci-

vious character, and songs of a most amorous description.

Here young and old see and hear things which are calcu-

lated to inflame the passions in the very presence of the

images of the gods.

Now let us turn to the brighter side of the Hindu

.character. And first of all virtues should be noticed their

Indicstry.

I am aware that residents in the cities who have to do only

"with the lower orders, and perhaps the worst class of these,

regard the Hindus as an idle, lazy race ; but there can be

little doubt that this is a wrong estimate of their general

character. In the country districts the men start out as

soon as it is light enough to see, and continue in the fields

ploughing, sowing, weeding, transplanting, reaping, according

to the season, until about eleven o'clock, when they return,

feed their cattle, bathe, take their first meal, and lie down to

rest. About two o'clock they return to their work, at whichthey continue until dusk. On one or two days a week they

trudge to the nearest village, where a h^t, or market, is held,

carrying their produce for sale, and returning with a load of

necessaries for the week, which they have purchased in

exchange. And this hard life continues the whole yearround, with little to vary its monotony. Perhaps three orfour times in the year there may be some religious festival

held near, to which they go to listen to the music, to see theperformances, and to purchase commodities, which are broughtthere from the cities, as the English peasantry used to fre-

quent the fairs of the neighbourhood. When, therefore, it

is remembered that the people have no regular day of restas the labourers in Christian lands have Sunday, it is certainthat of the mass of the common people idleness certainlycannot be said to be a characteristic. Look, again, at theworkmen in towns, where the men are paid by piece work,

MORALS THE HINDUS GENERALLY. 415

Prom early dawn until near midnight they will be found

at work—the blacksmiths before their blazing fires, the tin-

men, the braziers, the carpenters, and all the varied trades

are in full swing. There are idlers to be found here and

there, but, taken as a whole, when it is to their interest to do

it, they work as hard and for longer hours than the British

workman would care to labour. Indoors the women are

not less industrious. They have their children to care for, the

house to keep clean, fuel to collect, food to cook, and all the

ordinary duties of the home. The middle and upper classes

have the household duties attended to by servants as in

England, but a great deal is done by the ladies of the house.

Those who have had to do with schools and colleges seldom

need to complain of the idleness of the students. Whenat is remembered that in these colleges the students have to

oreceive nearly the whole of their instruction in English,

which is to them a foreign language, the high position taken

'by natives in University lists show conclusively that they

must work far harder than their English competitors. Avisit to a Hindu home or lodging-house for young students,

late at night, or in the early morning, would at once dispel

;all notions of the idleness of the young Bengali.

Patience.

Though passionately fond of children, a man will see his

•child die and perform the funeral ceremonies with a calm

and stolid countenance. He will suffer intense agony of body,

«s is evident from the muscular contractions, or submit with-

•out shrinking to most painful operations, and never a sound

will escape his lips. He will make long, wearisome, and

dangerous journeys, suffering immense discomforts from

want of food and proper accommodation, &c., and never

murmur. The patience of the Hindu is most praiseworthy.

The secret of it lies, perhaps, in the firm conviction that his

life is but the working out of a Divine plan that was formed

at or soon after his birth, and that it is useless, as it is

wrong, for him to resist the inevitable. Still, whatever be

416 MOBALS.

the cause, the fact remains that for patient endurance of

physical pain, of mental distress, and of the ordinary sorrows

of life, there are few if any race of people on the face of the

earth to equal, none to surpass them. It is not that they do

not feel, hut they helieve that whatever comes is their fate,

and must be patiently endured by them.

A characteristic story is told of two brothers who were

caught stealing horses from a regiment on the march. Before

sentence was passed one of the men suggested that his

brother should be sent to bring back the missing horses, and

he would answer for his return with his life. As the horses

were urgently needed, the plan was adopted ; but as neither

man nor horses returned within the appointed time, the

brother who remained as a hostage was rather surprised

that any one expected to see them. For saving his brother

from punishment, and for enriching his friends with the

money for which the horses were sold, he was quite prepared

to suffer death.

Filial respect.

The word of the father or elder brother, who at • the

father's death becomes the head of the family, the wish of

the mother or grandmother, is law. There are many of the

educated young men in Bengal at this moment who wouldhave embraced Christianity if it were not for the profound

respect they have for father and mother, and the intense grief

such a step as the open avowal of their faith in Christ would,

cause them. Long after a man is of age, and when, accord-

ing to Western notions, he might be allowed to think and act

for himself, the force of his filial ties is such as to hold himback from a course that may appear to him right and desir-

able. The fact that the son does not have a separate home,but continues to dwell in the family house after his marriage,

fosters this filial respect ; but even where he forms a home-

for himself it is seen to be almost as great as in other cases.

Charity.

The charity of the Hindus is great ; by this word I meai*

MORALS THE HINDUS GENERALLY. 417

bestowal of gifts on the poor, whether relatives or strangers.

There is no poor law in India, no guardians of the poor, noworkhouses, excepting for the Europeans in the Presidencytowns. The poor of a family, the halt, the lame, the blind,

the weak, the insane, are provided for by their family, if it

is at all able to do it ; in cases where there are few or norelatives, then the burden is taken up by others. It is a*' work of merit ;

" just as making a tank, planting trees by the

road-side, or constructing a bathing-place on the banks of asacred stream. It is no uncommon thing for a man who is

at all wealthy to have a number of poor pensioners almostif not entirely dependent upon him for their support. Andin a large family there are some less clever, less fortunate,

and less industrious than others ; the more clever, fortunate,

and industrious work the harder, and putting their earnings

in a common purse, all share in the results of the industry of

the more successful members. Occasionally it will happenthat an idle, spendthrift son will wear out the patience andstrain the generosity of a brother until he is told to leave the

home or work ; but as a rule, with exemplary kindness, the

poor and the helpless are provided for by the other membersof the family. There are millions of professional beggars

in India ; there are many shrines whose offerings support

thousands in comparative idleness. This course could not

continue imless the hearts of the people were charitably dis-

posed. At great festivals, where the people assemble in

crowds, beggars abound. It has often astonished me to

see poor women and men going from one to another, giving

a pice here and a handful of rice there. Of course

it may be said that this is a form of barter ; the people

give to these saints in order to gain credit for their gifts

in heaven. Were the same tests applied to the gifts of

Christians, would all the apparent charity be- found real

—

i.e.,

gifts bestowed simply because of love to the Saviour and to

those for whom He has taught His people to care ?

Parental love.

28

418 MOEALS.

Another most pleasing trait is the love of parents to

their children, and the long-continued and immense self-

sacrifice they make to further their advancement in life.

The Bengalis have a proverb referring to the way in which

a man should dispose of his income. He should divide it

into four parts : one part goes to pay off old debts ; one

part to God ; one part for present expenses ; one part is put

into the bank. The interpretation of this is as follows : one

part should be given to parents in return for all their kind-

ness and self-denial in the past ; one part should be given

to God for the support of religion and for the help of the

needy and suffering ; a third part should be devoted to the

ordinary expenses of the family ; whilst a fourth part should

be spent on the education of the children, which will yield

interest in old age in the form of assistance from them. This

certainly is a more pleasing and natural proverb than the

Lancashire one, which teaches that the " old hen may scratch

for her chickens ; but the chickens never scratch for the old

ben ;" and, so far as my observation has gone, I think the

spirit of this proverb is seen in the ordinary life of the Ben-

galis. Parents are not suffered to want as long as sons can

aid them. It would certainly be regarded as a most dis-

graceful thing were a man who could do anything for the

support of an aged father or mother to allow the burden of

their maintenance to fall on strangers. I have heard of

the parents of people in England who could well provide

for them being allowed to derive assistance from the parish.

In gifts to the poor and needy, certainly the Hindu is not

lacking ; and the people of Bengal do not come behind those

of any country in toiling and denying themselves the com-forts of life in order that their sons may obtain a good educa-

tion and rise to a higher position than that attained by their

fathers. Many of the educated young men of Bengal wouldnot occupy then: present position were it not for the self-

denial of their fathers and mothers. Taken as a whole,whilst the Hindu has many evil traits in his character, hehas many good ones too.

CHAPTEK II.

THE CRIMINAL CLASSES.

Having considered the question of the morals of the ordi-r

nary people, we naturally pass on to consider the peculiarities

of the crimes of those who sink below the level of the com-munity and make themselves obnoxious to its penal laws. It

must be distinctly borne in mind that the description of this

class is no more true of the Hindus generally than would anaccount of the English people drawn exclusively from the

Newgate Calendar and Police News. But it is most painful

tto see how in many cases those who up to a certain momentihave been respectable members of society, in a fit of passion

aroused by abuse, or of jealousy caused by the infidelity of a

wife, or from the fear of a rival usurping their place in the

affections of a husband, resort to measures which at once

force them into the criminal class, and bring upon them the

penalties of the law. Most of the facts here recorded are

taken from a most painfully interesting work on Medical

Jurisprudence, by Dr. Norman Chevers.

At the commencement of that work Dr. Chevers says : " It

would probably be impossible to point to any races of menwhose great crimes more distinctly emanate from their

national character than is the case with those various classes

of nations who inhabit the British possessions in India." In

support of this statement the following quotations are madefrom two writers well qualified to speak concerning two

-classes most opposed in national characteristics : Mackintosh,

420 MOBALS.

describing the warlike Eajputs of the North-West Provinces

;

and Macaulay writing of the Bengalis. Mackintosh says

:

" The Rajputs are the representatives of India. In them

are seen all the qualities of the Hindu race unmitigated by

foreign mixture, exerted with their original energy, and dis-

played in the strongest light. They exhibit the genuine form

of a Hindu community formed of the most discordant

materials, and combining the most extraordinary contrasts

of moral nature ; unconquerable adherence to native opinions

and usages with servile submission to a foreign yoke ; an un-

believing priesthood, ready to suffer martyrdom for the most

petty observance of their professed faith ; a superstition

which inspires the resolution to inflict or to suffer the most

atrocious barbarities without cultivating any natural senti-

ment or enforcing any social duty ; . . . attachment to kindred

and to home, with no friendship and no love of country;

good temper and gentle disposition, little active cruelty except

when stimulated by superstition ; but little sensibility, little

compassion, and scarcely any disposition to relieve suffering

or relieve wrong done to themselves or others ; timidity,

with its natural attendants, falsehood and meanness, in the

ordinary relations of human life, joined with a capability of be^

coming excited, to courage in the field, to military enthusiasm,

to heroic self-devotion ; abstemiousness in some respects-

more rigorous than that of a "Western hermit, in others a life

of intoxication ; austerities and self-tortures almost in-

credible, practised by those who otherwise wallow in gross

sensuality, childish levity, barefaced falsehood, no faith, noconstancy, no shame, no belief in the existence of justice."

Of the Bengalis, Macaulay, in his Essayon WarrenHastings,writes :

" The physical organization of the Bengali is feeble

even to effeminacy. . . . His pursuits are sedentary, his

limbs delicate, his movements languid. During manyages he has been trampled on by men of bolder and morehardy breeds. Courage, independence, veracity, are qualities

to which his constitution and his situation are equally un-

THE CRIMINAL CLASSES. 421

favourable. ... All those arts which are the natural defence

of the weak are more familiar to this subtle race than to the

Eoman of the time of Juvenal, or to the Jew of the dark ages.

What the horns are to the buffalo, what the paw is to the

tiger, what the sting is to the bee, what beauty, according to

the old Greek song, is to woman, deceit is to the Bengali.

Large promises, smooth excuses, elaborate tissues of circum-

stantial falsehood, chicanery, perjury, forgery, are the weapons,

offensive and defensive, of the people of the Lower Ganges. All

these millions do not furnish one Sepoy to the armies of the

Company. But as usurers, money-changers, as sharp legal

practitioners, no class of human beings can besir a comparison

with them. With all his softness, the Bengali is by no means

placable in his enmities, or prone to pity. The pertinacity

with which he adheres to his purposes yields only to the

immediate pressure of fear. Nor does he lack a certain kind

of courage which is often wanting in his masters. To in-

evitable evils he is sometimes found to oppose a passive forti-

tude such as the Stoics attributed to their ideal sage. AnEuropean warrior, who rushes on a battery of cannon with a

loud hurrah, will sometimes shriek under the surgeon's knife,

and faU into an agony of despair at the sentence of death.

But the Bengali, who would see his country overrun, his

house laid in ashes, his children murdered or dishonoured,

without having the spirit to strike one blow, has yet been

known to endure torture with the firmness of Mucius, and

to mount the scaffold with the steady step and even pulse of

Algernon Sidney."

From these extracts describing two distinct races of

Hindus, it will be seen how marked are the national charac-

teristics ; and as their natures differ, so do their crimes. Askilful detective, when a murder or any other great crime has

been committed, is generally able, from the manner of its

committal, to form a correct opinion concerning the nationality

of the criminal. We shall first treat of

—

Murder.

422 MOBALS.

Of the trials in our Courts of Justice, those for murder

bulk largely ; and of all the means resorted to by which ob-

noxious persons can be got rid of, perhaps poison is the com-

monest

—

i.e., where the act is premeditated, and not the

result of a sudden outburst of rage. There is far less likeli-

hood of detection in the use of poison than of any other

method. In India many poisonous plants grow wild, and the

people are acquainted with their nature ; whilst other drugs,

such as arsenic, which produce symptoms very similar to

those of cholera—a disease endemic in Bengal—are easily

procurable in the bazaars, as there are no strict regulations in

force prohibiting their sale as in England. Preparations of

opium and hemp, too, are in common use amongst the people,

and are employed as means of committing suicide, or are

given to those whom they wish, from covetousness or revenge,

to put out of their way. The burning of the bodies of de-

ceased persons almost as soon as life is extinct, which pre-

vents the examination that would follow a sudden or suspicious

death in other countries, rather encourages this form of crime.

A common incentive to the use of poisonous drugs, where

the object is the very opposite to that of murder, but which

often causes it, is found in the superstitious character of the

people, which leads them to believe that by administering

certain potions they can gain or retain the affections of ahusband or lover. In years not far back parents who feared

their sons were favourably inclined towards Christianity,

rather than suffer the disgrace of having one of their family

an apostate from the religion of their fathers, have admini-

stered poisons which have permanently destroyed their sons'

mental powers.

It is said that the custom of burning Indian widows wasintroduced as a check to the women's practice of poisoning

their husbands. Captain Hamilton, who traded in India

between 1688 and 1723, reports this legend, apparently fromoral tradition :

" In Canara there are several customs peculiarto itself, and many of them are spread abroad to remote

THE CEIMINAL CLASSES. 423

countries. Here it was that the custom of wives burning onthe same pile with their deceased husbands had its beginning.It is reported that before the Brahmans invented this lawpoison was so well known and practised that the least

quarrel that happened between a married couple cost thehusband his life, and this law put a great stop to it ; andnowcustom so far prevails that if any faint-hearted lady has notcourage enough to accompany her spouse to the other world,

she is forthwith shaved and degraded, and obliged to serve all

her husband's family in all kinds of drudgery^"- It is highlyprobable, to say the least, that some such causes may haveled to the custom of Sati, or of the alternative life of drudgeryand degradation. Dr. Chevers also quotes from an article onWitchcraft in the Central Provinces, in which the writer

speaks of poisoning for the purpose of winning the affections

of man or woman, as commonly practised there as late as

1866 :" It is most practised here, as everywhere else, by

jealous women, or desperate lovers of either sex, for the pur-

pose of captivating affection, of infatuating and enthralling

the object of desire. But it is also used for baneful pur-

poses—to cause disease, death, or some strange aberration."

And he cites a case .where a husband had died from the

effects of poison administered to him by his wife as a love-

potion, in which this was set up as the defence by the manwho had sold the drug.

The most common use of poison was made by the Thugs,

the professional murderers of India—men who regarded

themselves as most religious in their deadly trade, inasmuch

as they presented themselves before an image of Eali before

setting out on an expedition, and paid a certain proportion of

their ill-gotten gains to her temple on their return, and whofarther imagined that, as human sacrifices were once commonin India in the worship of this deity, they were doing what

must be pleasing to her in taking away the lives of their

victims. These men generally went out in gangs of not less

* " MedicalJurisprudence," p. 104.

424 MOHALS.

than three. They destroyed their victims by means of a

cloth drawn tightly round the neck, and pressed with the

hands at the back of the neck, not unlike the practice of

garotting which was common in England a few years back.

The bodies were often cut into pieces and buried in loose

sand near the roadside, cast into wells, or, with stones

tied round their necks, thrown into the rivers. These mencarried on their dreadful work on the roadside on the way-

faring people, or very commonly in the boats and ferries by

which the rivers were crossed or traversed. To this day in

the Sunderbans, near Calcutta, which is a network of rivers

by which a large part of the produce of the countries to the

East reach that city, there are legends of murders being com-

mitted by these men, who there used long boats which were

exceedingly fleet. This was a kind of piracy of which we do

not hear in history. Thousands of quiet, inoffensive people

have thus been murdered and robbed on the highways and

streams of India.

The following characteristic case of Thuggee, told by Colonel

Sleeman * (though in this case strangling, not poison, was re-

sorted to) may be of interest to show how these professional

murderers carried on their vile trade. Happily the race is

now extinct, owing to the Colonel's persistent efforts. " Astout Mogul officer of noble] bearing, on his way from the

Punjab to Oude, crossed the Ganges, at Gurmuktesa Ghat.

He was mounted on a fine Turkee horse, and attended byhis khitmutgar (butler) and groom. Soon after crossing the

river he fell in with a small party of well-dressed and modest-

looking men going the same road. They accosted him in a

respectful manner, and attempted to enter into conversation

with him. He had heard of Thugs, and told them to be off.

They smiled at his idle suspicions, and tried to remove them

;

but all in vain. The Mogul was determined ; they saw his

nostrils swelling with indignation, took their leave, and fol-

lowed slowly. The next morning he overtook the same* " EamWes and Recollections," voL i. p. 106.

THE CRIMINAL CLASSES. 425

number of men, but of different appearance, apparently all

being Mussulmans. They accosted him in the same respect-

ful manner, talked of the danger of the road, and the neces-

sity of their keeping together, and taking advantage of the pro-

tection of any mounted gentleman that happened to be going

the same way. The Mogul officer said not a word in reply,

as he was resolved to have no companions on the road. Theypersisted ; his nostrils again began to swell, and, putting his

hand to his sword, he bid them all be off, or he would have

their heads from their shoulders. He had a bow and a

quiver-full of arrows over his shoulders, a brace of loaded

pistols at his waist, a sword by his side, and was altogether a

formidable-looking cavalier. In the evening another party

that lodged in the same serai became very intimate with the

butler and groom. They were going the same road, and as

the Mogul overtook them in the morning, they made their

bows respectfully, and began to enter into conversation with

their two friends, the butler and groom, who were coming up

behind. The Mogul's nostrils again began to swell, and he

bid the strangers be off. The groom and butler interceded,

for their master was a grave and sedate man, and they wanted

companions. All would not do, and the strangers fell in

the rear. The next day, when they had got to the middle of

an extensive and uninhabited plain, the Mogul in advance,

and his servants a few hundred yards behind, he came up to

a party of six poor Mussulmans sitting weeping by the side of

a dead companion. They were soldiers from Lahore, worn

down by fatigue in their anxiety to see their wives and chil-

dren once more, after a long and painful service. Their com-

panion, the hope and prop of his family, had sunk under

the fatigue, and they had made a grave for him ; but they

were poor, unlettered men, and unable to repeat the funeral

service from the holy Koran ; would his highness but per-

form this last office for them, he would no doubt find his

reward in this world and the next. The Mogul dismounted

—the body had been placed in its proper position, with its

426 MOBALS.

head towards Mecca. A carpet was spread : the Mogul took

off his bow and quiver, then his pistols and sword, and

placed them on the ground near the body, called for water

and washed his feet, hands, and face, that he might not pro-

nounce the holy words in an unclean state. He then knelt

down and began to repeat the funeral service in a clear, loud

voice. Two of the poor soldiers knelt by him, one on each

side, in silence. The other four went off a few paces to beg

the butler and groom would not come so near as to interrupt

the good Samaritan at his devotions. All being ready, one

of the four, in a low undertone, gave the signal, the handker-

chiefs were thrown over their necks, and in a few minutes all

three—the Mogul and his servants—were dead, and lying in

the grave in the usual manner—the head of one at the feet of

the one below him. All the parties they had met with on

the road who accosted them belonged to a gang of Jumaldehee

Thugs of the kingdom of Oude. In despair of being able to

win the Mogul's confidence in the usual way, and determined

to have the money and jewels which they knew he carried

with him, they had adopted this mode of disarming him—dug

a grave by the side of the road in the open plain, and madeone represent a dead soldier."

Colonel Sleeman in the same work gives a story, a single

instance out of many of a similar nature that reached his ears,

which shows how difficult it was to trace these murderers,

owing to the very great reluctance of the people to appear in

court to give evidence against them. The narrative, which

was taken down verbatim by a clerk, is as follows ; the

father of the poisoned boy is the narrator : " I reside in

my hut by the side of the road, a mile and a haU from the

town, and live upon the bounty of travellers, and people of

the surrounding villages. About six weeks ago I was sitting

by the side of my shrine, after saying prayers, with my only

son, about ten years of age, when a man came up with his

wife, son, and daughter, the one a little older, the other a

little younger than my son. They baked and ate their bread-

THE CBIMINAL CLASSES. 427

near my shrine, and gave me flour enough to make twocakes. This I prepared and baked. My boy was hungry andate a cake and a half ; I ate only half a one, as I was nothungry. I had a few days before purchased a new blanketfor my boy, and it was hanging on a branch of a tree that

shaded the shrine when these people came. My son and Isoon became stupefied ; I saw him fall asleep and soonfollowed. When I awoke, in the evening, I found myself in apool of water. I had sense enough to crawl towards myboy; I found him still breathing; I sat by him with his

head in my lap, where he soon died. I was not yet quite

sensible. During the night the wolves ate my poor boy—

I

heard this from travellers. I did not quite recover till thethird day, when I found that some washerwomen had putme into the tank and left me there with my head out of the

water, in the hope that this would revive me ; but they hadno hopes of my son. I was then taken to the police of the

town ; but the landlord had begged me to say nothing about

the poisoners, lest it might get them and their village

community into trouble." The reason the man gave whenquestioned as to why he had hidden the fact of the poison

being given to his son, was this :" The landholders told me

that the poUce could never bring back my boy to life, andthe whole village would be worried to death by them if I

made any mention of the poison ; " and so, rather than

excite the anger of the villagers and be driven from the spot,

he simply informed the police that his son had been devoiu:ed

by wolves.

Here is another case illustrating the method by which

these men tried to secure their victims :

—

At Midnapore, in 1853, a man meeting three travellers on

the way from Calcutta to Cuttack, accosted them, and stating

that he was of the same caste, offered to share expenses with

them on the road. Arriving at a shop where they were to

rest, this man offered to cook for the party. When they

began to eat, some of the party found some seeds in the rice.

428 MOBALS.

whicli they said were dhatura : tlie man denied this, but

excused himself from eating any on the ground that warmrice did not agree with him. One of the others refrained from

eating too, and when he saw his friends grpwing insensible

he gave the alarm, and the culprit was seized, and on his

person a number of the dhatura seeds were found. He was

proved to be an old offender. It is by means of this dhatura

poison that we often read of the immoral women being

drugged and robbed by their visitors. Nor is the use of

poisonous drugs confined to human victims. It is an ascer-

tained fact that in certain districts the Ghumars poison the

cattle in order that they may purchase the skins. And it

was a very common practice in the time when the troops

marched from station to station, for their valuable horses to

be poisoned so that these classes might obtain the skins,

which would only be worth about one rupee each.

Though nowadays there is not a regular organization of

Thug poisoners as in former times, when they were able at once

to distinguish and by secret signs and language to converse

with those from other parts of India, yet it seems certain

that there are numbers of people known more or less to each

other, and acting under orders from some central authority,

who earn their living by robbery ; and poison is one of their

chief auxiliaries. A man was detected and sentenced to be

hung, and when the rope was round his neck obstinately

refused to betray his accomplices, and rather hurried the

operation, lest the temptation should prove too strong.

And another man confessed to having poisoned no less thanseventeen persons within a space of eighteen months, and,

rather than express regret, he spoke of his victims as game,just as a sportsman might boast of the results of his prowess.

The victims in these cases are not by any means confined to

the rich ; often poor cartmen and pilgrims are the prey of

these professional murderers.*

In cases of murder by non-professional murderers there is

,* " Confessions of a Thug."

THE CRIMINAL CLASSES. 429

generally evidence to show, in the way the yictim is hackedto pieces, that the murder resulted from some sudden provo-

cation. Verbal abuse of the most gross and offensive kind

is most common, and this often leads to blows ; and whenthe naturally timid and cowardly nature is aroused, the

murderer, for the time being, is simply a maniac. It may be

the discovery of a wife's infidelity, or abuse of the mostirritating nature, that is the cause of the fatal blows being

struck. In such cases it is clear that it was not a cool, pre-

meditated act, but the result of a temporary excitement.

Often, when he finds that the blows have proved fatal, the

offender will either attempt to take his own life or volun-

tarily surrender himself to the police. Amongst the massof the people murder is rare.

Hanging is a common method resorted to by those whawish to commit suicide; and it is surprising in some

cases how determined the person was to complete the deed.

Sometimes their heels rest on the ground, and the body is.

bent to allow their weight to fall on the neck. Sometimes

their heads are not more than six inches from the ground,

as when they tie the rope to the leg of a bedstead. Andbecause it is so common a mode of committing suicide,

hanging is often resorted to as a method of committing

murder ; or after the person has been otherwise kUled, the

corpse is suspended by the neck, to lead to the impression-

that the victim died by his own hands.

Abortion.

The crime of procuring abortion is one of the commonest

in India. On this delicate subject Dr. Chevers says : " In a

country like India, where true morality is almost unknown,

but where the laws of society exercise the most rigorous and

vigilant control imaginable over the conduct of females, and

where six-sevenths of the widows, whatever their age or position

in life may be, are absolutely debarred from re-marriage, and

are compelled to rely upon the uncertain support of relatives,,

it is scarcely surprising that great crimes should frequently

430 MORALS.

he practised to conceal the results of immorality, and that the

procuring of criminal abortion should be an act of almost

daily commission, and should have become a trade amongcertain of the lower midwives.

" Ward described the crime of destroying illegitimate

children in the womb as prevalent to a shocking degree in

Bengal. In .the family of a single Kulin Brahman, whose

•daughters never lived with their husbands, it was commonfor each daughter to destroy a child in the womb annually

;

-this crime he found to be very prevalent among widows.

The Pundit who gave him this information supposed that

10,000 children were thus murdered in the province of

Bengal every month. When Mr. Ward expressed his doubts

•of this extraordinary and shocking circumstance, the Pundit

appealed to the fact of the many females being tried for this

offence in the Courts of Justice in every zillah of Bengal.

He said the fact was so notorious that every child in the

•country knew of it, and that the crime had acquired an appro-

priate name. It was a fact too, he was assured, that manywomen died after taking drugs intended to destroy the child.

A Kuhn Brahman assured him that he had heard more thanfifty women, daughters of Kulins, confess these murders. . . .

On making further inquiry into this subject, a friend, uponwhose authority he could implicitly rely, assured him that avery respectable and learned Brahman, who certainly was not

willing to charge his countrymen with more vices than theypossessed, told him it was supposed that a thousand of these

abortions took place in Calcutta every month. . . . Mr. Wardwas a very careful inquirer, and if, as is most probable, muchof the depravity described above existed in Bengal forty yearsago, there can scarcely be a doubt that it prevails withoutany abatement at the present moment."

In the Police Eeports are found numerous cases wheredeath has resulted to the mother from the use of drugs andother means for effecting this purpose, so that there can beno doubt whatever about the crime being a most common

THE CRIMINAL CLASSES. 431

one. It is also certain that in many cases it would be con-

sidered a far less evil for the mother to die than for it to be

known that she had been guilty of immorality. The guilty

persons in the large majority of cases are widows, though it

is believed—and that not without some authority—that in

districts where infanticide was common, as in Eajpootana,

and strenuous efforts were made to put a stop to it, astrolo-

gers are sought who profess to be able to say whether the

child in utero is a male or female ; if a female, measures are

resorted to to procure abortion.

Infanticide.

" The murder of female children, whether by the direct

employment of homicidal means, or by the more inhuman andnot less certain measures of exposure to privation and neglect,

has for ages been the chief and most characteristic crime of

six-sevenths of the inhabitants of British India. Throughout

Central India, and especially in Eajpootana, in Cutch Bhooj,

in the province of Agra, and in Khurdisthan, the destruction

of female children has prevailed in historic times. Bengal

Proper, or the Delta of the Ganges, appears now to be com-

paratively free from this scourge, but the Bengalis were only

prevented by a stringent law from thinning their surplus

population by throwing their children to the alligators at the

mouths of the Ganges. It has lately been suggested in a

native paper, that in Kulin families female children are

systematically neglected, and that few grow up. Polyandry

.still obtains among the Kasias—^hill people near Sylbet.

Wherever this custom prevails, as among the Khurds and in

the Neilgherry HUls, it points demonstratively to the practice

of female infanticide. Beyond all this, the wilful neglect of

female children operates destructively in every town and

village throughout the length and breadth of India. By the

Hindu, the advent of a female child is superstitiously regarded

as a curse, and is practically regarded as a misfortune. The

daughter—so welcome in the English peasant's homestead, so

fondly greeted as the crowning honour and presiding grace of

432 MORALS.

every European family of gentle blood—is viewed by, the

Hindusthani Eayat and the Eajpoot Thakur as a certain

presage either of poverty or of shame hereafter. The daughter

of a Hindu must always be dependent upon others for her

support. She must be suitably married, and a crime wiU be

involved in the postponement of her nuptials beyond the age'

of childhood. At her husband's death she must trust wholly

to the support of others, and her conduct must be watched

with unceasing vigilance, lest shame, with all its direst

accompaniments—feud, revenge, and murder—should be

entailed upon her house." * Manu's law on this subject is

this :" He who takes to wife a damsel of full age shall not

give a nuptial present to her father, since the father lost his

dominion over her by detaining her at a time when she

might have been a parent." Numerous cases might be cited

where fathers have murdered their daughters, and brothers

have destroyed their sisters who have yielded to temptation,

when it has happened that, owing to poverty and other causes,

a husband could not be found for them, or they have been

left widows.

To what extent the practice of female infanticide is

practised may be inferred from the following facts : " It is

clearly established that in every country in Europe there is

an excess of females. The census of 1851 showed that

throughout Great Britain and Ireland the number of males

then amounted to only 48*2 of the inhabitants. The first

census of the North-West Provinces of India, in 1863, gave

53*4 as the percentage of males in a population of 30,271,885

;

whilst the official census of Mysore, for 1852, showed that in

a population of 8,410,382, the number of adult males ex-

ceeded that of females by nearly 10 per cent, while the

excess of female infants was 16 per cent !

" f From the Eeport

on the above census it appears that "in the Thakur caste,

52,763 strong, there was a total of 10,695 male, and of only

5,865 female children. . , . Out of every thousand of the

* "Medical Jurisprudence," p. 750. t Ibid. p. 752.

THE CBIMINAL CLASSES. 433

Thakoor population, there are at least forty-two girls below

the age of twelve missing." *

In 1856 an officer was appointed to investigate the facts of

this wicked custom in Northern India. He personally visited

the district, and states that of the villages visited by him, in

26 out of 308 not a single girl under six years of age existed.

In another batch of 38 villages he did not find a single girl

;

marriages were very rare there, and in some places were not

known to have taken place within the recollection of the pre-

sent generation. In another instan'ce there was not a girl over

six, and no marriage had taken place there for over eighty

years. In many parts of the Benares division he also found

that marriages had not taken place within the memory of the

present generation. Other officers in other districts had a

similar experience.

" Among the Eajputs it appears to be customary to destroy

the infant immediately upon its birth ; the mothers of the

Bajkumar infants simply starved them to death." In other

cases they are poisoned with the juice of the mudar plant,

tobacco, or dhatura ; or the child was strangled immediately

it was born. In Benares it was a common practice to

drown them in milk after a prayer had been offered that

they might come again in the form of sons ; whilst in other

places, again, the newly-born infant was buried alive, or left

exposed in the jungle.

Strong measures have been resorted to by Government

with some measure of success ; but there is every reason to

beUeve that in many places the practice still prevails. The

plan relied on to check the evil was to reduce the expenditure

at weddings, and thus save the unfortunate father of a girl

from being compelled to spend immense sums of money in

feasting and making presents at the marriage. That these

people do not differ much from those of other lands in the

proportion of the sexes, may be shown from the following

fact : " The village of Eaipoor, in the Umritsur district, had* " Medical Jurisprudence," p. 752.

29

434,

MORALS.

become so notorious for the commission of this crime, that

in September, 1867, there were only eight girls to one

hundred bcjys. A police force was quartered upon them for

two years, and in the next year thirteen girls, of whom ten

are alive, were born to nine boys." *

In addition to the above-mentioned crime may be added

the custom which at one time prevailed, if it does not

now, viz., the unnatural exposure of children who are sup-

posed to be possessed by a demon ; and in other cases, where

an illegitimate child is placed at the door of its reputed father

in order that he may be induced to provide for it and its

mother. If a child refused the breast, it was supposed to be

possessed by a devil, and exposed in a basket tied to the

branches of a tree for three days. At the expiration of this

time it was taken down ; if it survived the test, which was a

most rare occurrence, it was taken back to its mother ; but

generally it was dead) and this was taken as a confirmation

of the suspicion about its possession. It is said that the great

Hindu reformer Chaitanya was thus exposed, and would

most probably have shared the fate which others have suf-

fered had not a Brahman happened to pass at the time, whoasserted that the infant was an incarnation of Vishnu, andfor this reason he was restored to his home.An account of crime in India would hardly be complete

without mentioning one that is almost peculiar to the country,

viz., the employment of professional beaters, or latials, as

they are called. Two schoolboys quarrel, call each other

the foulest names, and when we should expect to see themfight and then become friends, one of them will sneakaway and engage a number of stalwart men, who, armedwith sticks, will waylay the offender and give him a severe

thrashing, Jn the villages it is a most common practice

if a small Eayat refuse to pay his rent, or in any way offend

liis landlord; or if a quarrel arise between him and someneighbour, for a number of these ruffians to be hired,, who

* " Medical Jurisprudence," p. 759.

THE CRIMINAL CLASSES. 435

may possibly set fire to his house in order to drive him out,

and then fulfil their instructions of beating him. Thismethod of firing a house and, under cover of the excitement,

robbing its inmates, is a most common occurrence, anda name has been found for it—dacoity. As burglary is cha-

racteristic of a braver and more courageous people, dacoity

is eminently characteristic of the weaker races of India.

For centuries torture was commonly resorted to by the

representatives of Government in order to extort money from

those thought to be rich, and obtain confession from those

suspected of crime ; and though for many years this has been

strictly forbidden by our Government, there is no doubt

whatever that it is frequently resorted to by masters, parents,

landlords, an,d others, to compel those in any way dependent

upon them to do their bidding. The following forms of tor-

ture were common in native village schools ; through the efforts

of the Eev. J. Long, photographs of them were obtained.

A boy is made to bend forward with his face toward the

ground ; a heavy brick is then placed on his back, and an-

other on his neck; and should he let either of them fall

within the prescribed period of half an hour or so, he is

punished with the cane.

A boy is made to stand for half an hour on one foot, and

should he shake or quiver, or let down the uplifted leg before

the time, he is severely punished.

A boy is made to sit on the floor with one leg turned up

behind his neck.

He is made to sit with his feet resting on two bricks, and

Jiis head bent down between his legs, with his hands twisted

around each leg so as to hold his ears.

A boy is made to hang for a few moments with his head

downwards.

His hands and feet are bound with cords j to these mem-bers so bound, a rope is fastened, and the boy is then hoisted

up by means of a pulley attached to the bearers or rafters of

the school.

486 MOBALS.

Nettles dipped in water are applied to the body, which be-

comes irritated and swollen; the pain is excruciating, and

often lasts a whole day ; but however great the itching and

the pain, the sufferer is not allowed to rub or touch the skin

for relief under the dread of a flagellation in addition.

The boy is put in a sack with some nettles, or a cat, or

some noisome creature, and then rolled along the ground.

The fingers of both hands are inserted across each other

with a stick between, and two sticks without, drawn close

together and tied.*

Among the many methods oftorture that are now resorted

to, the following may be mentioned ; evidence of these being

still used is found in the reports of trials in recent years»

The burning of various parts of the body by means of a

heated chillum, in which tobacco is smoked; or by the

application of a lighted torch ; or by a hot iron. This ap-

pears to be a common method employed by some husbands

to punish a wife for disobedience. Another method of torture

is by dipping the hands or feet in boiling water or oil ; anda variation of this is made by pouring boiling water or oil ondifferent parts of the body. This means of torture has somesort of authority. Manu ordered that " should one {i.e., alow-caste man) through pride give instruction to priests con -

corning their duty, let the king order some hot oil to bedropped into his mouth and ears." And again, •' If a Sudralistens to the Vedas, then the oil, heated as before, shall bepoured into his ears ; and arzeez and wax shall be meltedtogether, and the orifice of the ears shall be stopped up there-

with." In the cold weather, cold water is thrown upon the

body of the victim ; and at other times, wretched criminals,

or those suspected of crime, have been thrust into a nest of

ants or other insects, and driven almost mad by the torture.

The police authorities, as the Eeports show, are sometimesguilty of these malpractices, which evidently at one time hadthe authority of the rulers of the country.

* " Medical Jurisprudence," p. 530.

DEATH, SHEADHA, AND THE FUTVEE LIFE.

CHAPTEE I.

DEATH AND ITS ATTENDANT CEREMONIES.

I THINK that perhaps in the treatment of Hindus in the

approach of death the cruelty of the system is more clearly

seen than in anything else ; I say the cruelty of the system-,

for nothing could be farther from the thoughts and wishes of

Hindu sons, husbands, and fathers than to behave cruelly to

those whom in life and health they had most tenderly loved

and fondly cherished. And yet this very aifection which

during life has led to the performance of most kindly acts

prompts them to try to secure happiness in heaven for the

objects of their affection by means that seem to us cruel in

the extreme. Accustomed as we are to see everything done

to try to alleviate the sufferings of our friends in their dying

moments, it seems almost incredible that any civilized people

could be such slaves to superstition as to adopt measures

which cannot fail largely tp increase those sufferings.

In the teaching of Hinduism on this subject we have

another instance of the superlative method of instruction

;

i.e., of the way in which each duty that is under considera-

tion is made to appear all-important. As each deity addressed

is regarded for the moment, and actually addressed as, the

chief of all, so each religious rite is said to be necessary to

salvation. One wonders that the people do not ask in despair,

" Who, then, can be saved ? " and determine that they will let

the future care for itself. According to the Hindu Scriptures,

whatever a man's life may have, been, if he do not die near

440 DEATH, SHRaDHA, AND THE FUTUKE LIFE.

some holy stream, if his body is not burned on its banks, or

at any rate near some water as a representative of the

stream ; or where this is impracticable, if some portion of his

body be not thrown into it—^his spirit must wander in misery,

unable to obtain the bliss for which he has done and suffered

so much in Ufe. Or as such immense benefits are promised

to those who fulfil this part of the system, it is hoped that

the omission of much that should have been done will

be fully compensated. Hence it is that the friends of

those about to die are brought to act towards them, whomthey have dearly loved, in a way that to many at least

must seem most unkind. When it is taught that incalcu-

lable good will come to the dying person who dies near a.

holy river, and that indelible disgrace will attach to their

friends who do not take means to secure this object, it is

easUy seen how some of the most kind-hearted of the Hindus

come to assist in these cruelties.

As some of the statements about to be made may seem

almost incredible to those in Christian lands, I may state

that most of them are from the writings of Hindus them-

selves. In an article on the subject of Ghat minders, as

they are termed in the Calcutta Eeview,* the writer had

before him several prize essays that were written by Hindu

students, from which he obtained the greater part of the

facts he gives : from this and other equally reliable sources

I have collected the information that follows.

The writer referred to, in speaking of the strange con-

tradiction we find in Hindu Hfe, where we see those who are

most scrupulous not to destroy even the life of an insect, and

who regard the killing of a cow as a most heinous offence,

yet taking part in the burning alive of a mother, and of the

inferences being drawn that they are both humane and in-

human at the same time, says, " Inhumanity had little or

nothing to do with the Sati rite, humanity has as little to

do with the vegetable diet of the Hindu. It was not from

r*)Vo\. X. p. 404.

DEATH AND ITS ATTENDANT CEREMONIES. 441

any natural or acquired bloodthirstiness that the Hindusslew their widows ; it is not from any natural or acquired

blood-abhorrence that they refrain from slaying their cows.

. . , The truth is that the Hindu religion overbears nature

and feeling and principle altogether. ... It takes no account

of the feelings and affections of the soul. Its demands are

fully satisfied when a certain round of external observance is

complied with. The good or bad state of the heart can addnothing to, and take nothing from, the imagined merits of

these bodily exercises. From this fact we derive the infer-

ence that from the actions required by the system, andhabitually performed by its votaries, we are not necessarily

to infer so depraved a state of the heart as would be implied

in the performance of the actions by those whose deeds were

the spontaneous effusions of their hearts." And he goes onto say that though the .practice of Sati and other cruel rites

cannot fail to have an, injurious effect upon the soul, yet it

would not be just to infer that «' none but a very depraved

man would burn his widowed mother, . . . though we should

certainly be right were we to assert that the act of burning

ier would leave the man worse than it found him.",

When this custom of exposing the dying on the banks of

the rivers first came into practice it is impossible to say; but

from the fact that the older religious books are silent re-

specting it, whilst the more modern abound with allusions

to it, and statements respecting the benefits that the dying

wUl obtain by its means, it is natural to infer that it is of

comparatively modern origin. One of the essay writers

mentioned this to prove that it commenced only about three

hundred years ago ; but it probably originated earlier than

that.

The primary reason for the practice is found in the belief

that the Ganges, or Ganga, as she is called, is a divine being,

TQfe^of Siva, the great god of Hinduism. Of her descent from

lier heavenly home in order to restore to life the sons of

Sagar we have already spoken, in giving an account of the

442 DEATH, SHRADHA, AND THE FDTUKE LIFE.

great bathing festival at Saiigor Island.* As the people,

fully believing in the efScacy of this stream to wash- awaythe sin of the living, visit her banks and bathe in her waters,

it is biit a step further to believe that at the last moments of

a man's life it must be beneficial to be near her, or some

other water as her representative. Hence we find that whilst

the older writings tell the story of her descent from heaven,

and descant upon the benefits of bathing in her, the more-

modern ones develop this teaclung, and not only dwell uponthe benefits of dying on her banks, but speak of this as an

absolute necessity for a speedy entrance into heaven. It-

should be noticed that in the older accounts of this wonderful

effect of Ganga's advent it is said that the sons of Sagarat once ascended to heaven in golden chariots. This pro-

bably is the germ thought which has been so largely ex-

panded in the more modern writings. As examples of the

popular teaching of the benefits Ganga can confer on mortals

are the following extracts; the first is a translation of a

prayer to Bhagirathi,. another name of Ganga, because it

was through his intercession that she came down fromheaven.

" Oh, Mother Ganges ! I now bow down at thy feet, havemercy on thy servant. Oh, who can describe thy virtues,,

since they are past the comprehension of the powers of man ?

The supreme divinity Brahma can alone describe some of

thy qualities. Were the greatest of sinners, the perpetrator

of endless sins, to pronounce the word Ganga, he, being de-

livered from all his sins, shall be translated to the blissful

abode of the celestials. Thou alone art properly called the• Source of Happiness ' and the ' Saviour of Men.' Infinite

sources of salvation are at thy command. In whatever state

a man may die, he is saved, as is proved in the case of the

sons of Sagar, who had been reduced to ashes by the curse of

a sage. It is only children that say that it is necessary to

be in a state of consciousness. He who performs ablutions

* See p. 256.

DEATH, AND ITS ATTENDANT CEKEMONIES. 443

on thy banks not only saves himself, but also his ancestors,

the ancestors of his mother, and the ancestors of his wife.

Thou art material, thou art immaterial ! Thou art simple,

thou art' compound ! Thou art the eternal source of all !"

In another work, written especially to teach the virtues

of Ganga, called the Ganga Bakyabali, is the following:

"He who thinks upon Ganga, though he be 800 miles

distant from the river at the time, is delivered from all sin,

and is entitled to heaven. At the hour of death, if a person

think upon Ganga, he will obtain a place in the heaven of

Siva. If a person, according to the regulations of the

Sastras, be going to bathe in Ganga, and die on the road,

he shall obtain the same benefits as though he had actually

bathed. If a person who has been guilty of killing cows,

Brahmans, his guru, or of drinking spirits,. &c., touch the

waters of Ganga, desiring in his mind the remission of these

sins, they will be forgiven." The Skanda Parana says,

" that by dying in the Ganges, a person will obtain absorption

into Brahma." The same work contains a promise from Siva,

that " whoever dies in Ganga shall obtain a place in his

heaven." The Bhavishya Purana affirms that " if a worm, an

insect, or a grasshopper, or any tree growing by the side of

Ganga, die in the river, it will obtain absorption into

Brahma." The Brahma Purana says, " that whether a

person renounce life in Ganga, praying for any particular

benefit, or die by accident, or whether he possesses his

senses or not, he will be happy. If he purposely renounce

life, he will enjoy absorption or the highest happiness ; if he

die by accident, he will still obtain heaven." The EurmaPurana says, " Those that consciously die on the banks of

the Ganges shall be absorbed into the essence of Brahma

;

whilst those who die there unconsciously shall go to the

heaven of Brahma." The Agni Purana declares that " those

who die when half their body is immersed in Ganga water,

shall be happy thousands of thousands of ages and resemble

Brahma.

"

444 DEATH, SHRaDHA, AND THE FUTURE LIFE.

With passages such as these, in what they beUeve to be

divinely inspired Scriptures, who can wonder that, in their

desire to obtain for their dying friends the unspeakable

blessedness promised, the Hindus should act in a manner that

at first sight seems to indicate the absence of all human feel-

ing ? Where these statements are beheved it is the greatest

charity to a sick friend to place him in such favourable cir-

cumstances, even though they may increase his present pain

and materially shorten his present earthly life. In addition,

however, to these authoritative texts are stories commonly

told, and as implicitly believed, all tending in the same

direction. On the banks of the Bhagirathi there grew a

stately banyan tree, in whose ample foliage a paddy-bird

had made her nest. On a certain day the tree was torn up

by the roots by the violence of a storm. The bird was

destroyed, and its bones buried in the deep channel of the

Ganges. The paddy-bird in its next transmigration was

taken up to heaven, simply because its bones had been

accidentally deposited in the river, and there became one of

Indra's queens. But her residence there was not perpetual.

Her visit was extended in proportion to the time taken in the

decomposition of her bones. The time approaching for her re-

turn to earth, Indra offered to her the choice ofassuming what-

ever shape she wished. She selected the form of an elephant,

because its bones being of such an immense size, they wouldoccupy a longer time in decomposing than those of any other

animal. She was accordingly born as an elephant, lived onthe banks of the Ganges, and when she died her body was cast

into its waters, and consequently she enjoyed the companyof Indra in his heaven for a countless number of years.

Having considered the authorities for the practice of the

Hindus in exposing the sick and dying, we shall now con-

sider the way they usually act in order that their friends

may obtain the inestimable benefits promised. The accountI give is that of a Hindu gentleman in one of the essays

referred to before.

DEATH AND ITS ATTENDANT CEEEMONIES. 445

" Whenever the disease of a native patient arrives at sucha stage as, according to the judgment of the native doctors,

renders any further attempt for his recovery fruitless, thefirst thing that is suggested to his friends and relatives, as amatter of duty, is to carry him to the banks of the river, or,

to use the homely plu'ase of the natives, 'to give him to

Ganga.' Here we must observe that in the minds of theorthodox Hindus the carrying of their sick to the river is

at all times and under all circumstances reckoned as a higherand a stronger duty than the seeking of means for their

recovery. Their reasoning on this head is very simple.' Life and death,' say they, ' are in the hands of the gods

;

but the carrying of the sick to the river lies entirely in ourhands; therefore we must first do our duty, let the doomof the sick be as the gods may determine.' Such being the

state of the minds of the natives, the scene which next follows

is highly affecting. No sooner do the practitioners pro-

nounce the case of a Hindu patient to be hopeless, than all

the members of his family, assisted by their neighbours,

begin with all haste and precaution to make preparations for

taking him to the river. These preparations consist in

bringing in that wretched imitation of a couch, called akhat,

for the dead, and, if it be night, a number of torches, in

sending for the old and experienced persons, and in giving ageneral notice throughout the neighbourhood. In the mean-time the friends of the sick watch with great diligence andanxiety over the progress of the disease ; but, alas ! not be-

cause they care so much for his death, as for his dying at

homa When the necessary preparations are made, a piece

of cloth, the worst and dirtiest on the patient's bed, is spread

over the conch on which he is to be carried, and then he him-

self is placed upon it. Now is presented the most moving part

of the scen€. All the relatives of the sick man, the females

in particular, who, of course, are not allowed to go out of

doors, gather round his couch, beat their breasts and fore-

heads ; some go to clasp their dying friend with their arms

;

446 DEATH, SHKADHA, AND THE FUTURE LIFE.

others, in the height of grief, fall flat on the ground;

whilst all raise a noise, the shrillest that can be imagined.

Erom the midst of this most distressing scene the sick manis brought out, not without much exertion, and carried to

the river, the bearers and attendants throughout the way

«:epeating loudly the names of the gods and goddesses

arranged for the purpose in a certain order.

" When they arrive at the banks of the river, they step

down the ghdt, and lay their burden close to the waters of

the Ganges ; then they ask him to cast a look at her wide

expanse, and cause him to say that he has come to see the

Mother Ganges. He is then brought upon the ghat, where

either a low, damp, and miserable hut, or, as in some places,

a decent building, but crowded with a multitude of dying

people, and filled with all kinds of dirt and nuisance, re-

ceives him. Here he is taken from the khat and laid on

a miserable bed on the floor, surrounded by beings like him-

self, whose shrieks and groanings disturb his repose at every

moment. A few minutes before his death he is again brought

down to the brink of the river, where, half immersed in water,

lie gives up the ghost."

So far as this account refers to the circumstances of the

.sick when they reach the river-side, I can bear testimony to its

absolute truthfulness. I have frequently seen men, women,and children, lying under trees, exposed to the heat of the sun

by day, and to the cold at night, waiting for their death. In

some places, as stated above, are houses built for the recep-

tion of the dying ; but they are open to all who come, and

instead of the quiet and comfort of their home, in the hour

of nature's trial, they have added to their own pains and

anxieties the sight of others similarly situated. At one

place I saw two sick people who had lain on the river banks

for over three weeks, unwilling then to return home, as

their friends would be unwilling to take them. Sometimes

it happens that a sick man or woman, weary of their pains

and weakness, thinking that death is near, and hopeful that

DEATH AND ITS ATTENDANT CEREMONIES. 447

heavenly rewards will follow their passing away in a sacredplace, accept at once the suggestion that they shall leavetheir home ; but in far greater numbers, when they see thepreparations for their removal, entreat to be allowed to re-

main in the peace and quietness of home. And as might beexpected, when once they hear that their friends consider

that the time for their removal has come, though hitherto

they have had hopes of their recovery, hope is turned to

despair, and they give themselves up to death.

Once only I saw what seemed to me nothing less thanmurder, though it was, and still is, a common occurrence.

Eeturning to my boat late at night, I heard a great shout,

and, going to inquire about the cause, found that a poor old

woman was being hurried into eternity by her friends. Shehad been brought to the banks of the river, and when I sawher was up to her waist in the cold water, whilst some ether

women were filhng her mouth with the mud. She died as

I stood there, and I confess it was hard to believe that these

people felt that they were acting kindly towards this poorsick woman. Who knows whether in her case, as in thou-

sands of others, proper care and attention might not haveprolonged her days ? It is morally certain that the treatment

she received shortened her life.

I shall now pass on to another consideration ; this treat-

ment of the sick is not only cruel, but destructive to humanlife. In one of the essays before referred to the writer dwells

on this part of the subject, and having spoken of the evil

effect on the spirits of the sick, when by the actions of their

friends in removing them to the river they are told that all

hope of their recovery is given up ; of the painful effects of

the jolting in being carried on the ill-made khat, and of the

shouting on the way ; of the great injury they receive fromexposure to the sun, rain, or cold as they are being carried

in their weak state from their home to the ghat, and of

the certain evil effect of inhaling the vitiated air from the •

proximity of these ghats to the places where the dead bodies

448 DEATH, SHKADHA, AND THE FUTURE LIFE.

are burned, parts being frequently left unconsumed, which,

during decompoeition, give off most hurtful gases ; he says,

" causes which singly would make any one sick, and comr

bined would kill him, what is there to prevent the conclusion

being drawn that several at least out of many cases of the

sick would not prove fatal, if they were not brought out of

their homes and subjectedto the above insalutary influences ?

Many a sick man, we may safely say, dies solely on account

of being exposed to the insalubrious influence of the above

destructive agents—a fate which they would not meet,

were they suffered to lie at home. May we not, then, reckon

the natives who forcibly drag the sick to the river perpe-

trators of a crime which amounts to nothing less than a

species of murder ?"

Here is an account of an actual case : " Some years ago

we had formed an acquaintance with a native youth. Amonga large class of boys, Eomonath was by far the fairest and

handsomest. On farther acquaintance we found him intelli-

gent and amiable. Our acquaintance with him continued for

several years. -One morning we were told that Eomonathwas sick—so sick that he had been taken to the ghdt. Atthe time the tidings were brought us we were conversing

with several friends, amongst whom was a medical gentleman.

We at once resolved to set off to see our young friend. Theday was one of extreme sultriness ; and after driving under

the condiict of a native guide through a perfect network of

narrow and filthy lanes, we reached the place, in a state of

^eater exhaustion from heat than we remember ever to have

felt on any other occasion during a long residence in India.

We found the poor patient in a high fever, laid on the ground

in a little hut of mats erected for the occasion. He wasunder the care of his father, who seemed almost stupefied at

the prospect of losing his darling, beautiful boy. Ourmedical friend declared that the symptoms were scarcely

more severe than might have been expected to be produced

in a healthy patient by the treatment to which he was being

DEATH AND ITS ATTENDANT CEREMONIES, 449

subjected. Although this treatment had greatly aggravated

the disease, which must originally have been very slight, else

the patient must have died long before, his opinion was that

if it were possible to have the sufferer removed to a place

where he should have sufficient shelter, and to have himunder proper medical treatment, there was very little doubt

of a favourable issue.

" We willingly offered to convey him to our own house, andto give him an apartment which he could occupy without

prejudice to his caste, and our medical friend as willingly

offered to attend him there ; but to this the father would not

consent. The next best proposal was to have him removed

to his own house, where also medical attendance was freely

proffered ; but all would not do. A consultation with eome

Brahmans who were in attendance, completely turned the

scale in the father's judgment. On the one side were the

yearnings of a father's love ; on the other was the dread of

the disgi-ace that would be incurred were the son after all to

die at a distance from the holy stream. After spending a long

time in ineffectual attempts to gain over the father, seconded,

as we thought, by the supplicating looks of the suffering son,

who, although he was unable to give more than monosyllabic

answers to the questions whether he would not like to go to

our house or his own, seemed evidently, by the earnest gaze

of his fine eyes, to be deeply anxious for the success of our

suit, we had no resource but to withdraw, having only gained

thus much, that the father consented, if we sent European

medicine, that he would permit his son to take it. This we

soon procured, and returned with it as speedily as possible

;

but on our return we found the hut demolished, and on in-

quiring what had become of the sufferer, there was pointed out

to us a funeral pile, on which the lately beautiful body of our

young friend was already reduced to little more than a small

heap of ashes. This is a single case, and one marked by no

features of singular atrocity ; but it is a fair and unexcep-

tionable example of the way in which this truly murderous

80

450 DEATH, SHEADHA, AND THE FUIOEE LIFE.

custom daily acts in killing scores of our fellow-creatures who

might otherwise survive, and in hastening the deaths of

hundreds, and in rendering miserable the last hours of

thousands."

That it is a common practice for Hindus to get rid of

parents or other persons from whose death they may receive

some pecuniary advantage, I do not for a moment believe;

but this custom of hurrying the sick from their home, and

immediately after death of burning the body, renders the

administration of poison a very easy matter ; and the legiti-

mate practices on these occasions may certainly be employed

with success by those who wish to become possessed of the

property or position of their victim. That advantage is cer-

tainly taken of the practice under consideration the following

account will show ; this is a case where it happened that

there was an unlooked-for obstacle in the way. "A rich

native, who had been attended in various illnesses by a Euro-

pean practitioner of eminence in Calcutta, was taken to the

ghat to die. Intimation of this fact having been in some waymade to the doctor, he hastened to the spot, and found himonly shghtly indisposed. Observing that he was attended

by one only of the sections into which he knew the family was

divided, he immediately suspected there was foul play in

the case. On asking if the patient had made a will, and being

answered in the affirmative, he requested permission to read

the document. This being granted, he found, as he had ex-

pected, that the testamentary disposition was entirely in favour

of that portion of the testator's family who were now in atten-

dance on him. With most praiseworthy imprudence he tore

the will into shreds, and immediately the attendants consented

that the sufferer should be removed, it being now their interest

that he should recover and make a will, similar to the former

one, as it was formerly their interest that he should die."

From what has been said it is certain that the custom " pro-

duces death in many cases, and probably hastens it in all,

while it opens up a way whereby the unnatural and murder-

DEATH AND ITS ATTENDANT CEREMONIES. 451

ously disposed may execute their foul purposes without the

possibility of detection."

In some diseases, such as cholera, there is a stage whenthe pulse is scarcely perceptible, and the patient has all the

appearance of death ; and cases are on record where, in this

condition, the sick have been revived by the heat of the fire

that was kindled under them for the purpose of burning their

body ; and eye-witnesses have declared that the response to

this sign of returning life has been a murderous blow from a

bamboo, in the hands of some of the attendants. When it is

understood that it is accounted a disgraceful thing in the case

of a person once taken to the ghat to die for him to return

home, that it is taken as a sign that Cranga has rejected him,

it is easy to see how even this additional aid to death should

be given under the superstitious belief that they were acting

kindly rather than otherwise to their friend.

In former years a patient who recovered from his sickness

after being taken to the riverside was not permitted to rejoin

his family, but being "rejected by Ganga," was also dis-

owned by his family. A large village near Calcutta is

occupied by the descendants of these outcastes, who have

intermarried with each other, unmindful of their former

easte distinctioiis, because they were now equally regarded as

outcastes. But this practice has now ceased, the few who.survive this unnatural treatment being permitted to rejoin

their families.

The following extract from another and more recent Hindu

writer* fuUy corroborates what has previously been said.

After giving a description of the ghats, where the sick are

brought to die, he says : " Can imagination conceive a more

dismal, ghastly scene ? Yet religion has crowned the practice

with the weight of national sanction, and thus deadened the

finer susceptibilities of our nature. Sad as this picture is, the

most staunch advocate of Liberalism can hardly expect to

«scape such a fate. . To a person accustomed to such scenes

* " The Hindus as they are," p. 258.

452 DEATH, SEBADHA, AND THE FUTURE LIFE.

death and its concomitant agony loses half its terrors.

Instances are not wanting to corrohorate the truth of this-

painful fact. Persons entrusted with the care and nursing

of a dying man at the burning ghat soon get tired of their

charge, and, rather than minister to his comforts, are knownto resort to artificial means, wherehy death is actually-

accelerated. They unscrupulously pour the unwholesome,,

muddy water of the river down his already choked throat,

and in some cases suffocate him. ' These are not the-

ebullient flashes from the glowing caldron of a kindled

imagination,' but undeniable facts founded on the realities of

life.

" The process of antajali, or immersion, is another namefor suffocation. Life is so tenacious in what the Hindus call

old hones, or aged persons, that I have seen some persons

brought back home after having undergone this murderous

process nine or ten times in as many days. The patient,

perhaps an uncared-for widow cast adrift in the world,

retaining"the facidty of consciousness unimpaired, is willing

to die rather than continue to drag on a loathsome existence,

but nature will not readily yield up the vital spark. . . .

In the case of an aged man, the return home after immersion

is infamously scandalous ; but in that of an aged widow the

disgrace is more poignant than death itself. I have knownof an instance in which an old widow was brought back after

fifteen immersions, but, being overpowered by a sense of shame,

she drowned herself in the river, after having lived a disgrace-

ful life for more than a year. No expression is more frequent

in the mouth of an aged widow than this :' Shall I ever die ?

'

Scarcely any effort has been made to suppress, or even to

ameliorate, this barbarous practice, simply because religion

has consecrated it with its holy sanction."

The influence of this superstition is seen in other ways. Ihave heard from most credible witnesses that they have seen

pilgrims on the way to Saugor Island, and in other parts of

the Ganges, when they have fallen into the river, or their boat

DEATH AND ITS ATTENDANT CEREMONIES. 453

ha.a capsized, being allowed to drown without the slightest

effort being made to save them by other Hindus near at

hand, under the impression that they would be doing aninjury to the drowning persons in taking them from the

sacred water. The writer of the article in the Calcutta

Review, before referred to, gives an account of his ownexperience. When walking on the deck of a small boat his foot

slipped and he fell headlong into the river. His Hindu boat-

men never attempted to rescue him ; but fortunately anotherboat being near, he was dragged out of the water. When,however, his boat reached the shore, his boatmen, who hadcarried him over the muddy banks down to the boat, refused

to carry him up to the solid ground when he was leaving the

boat. Their excuse was this: "Was it not enough that wecarried you yesterday, mlecha though you be, must we carry

you now when Ganga refused to have you ?"

Having described the treatment of the dying, I shall nowpass on to notice the ceremonies connected with the burning

of the corpse.

"The sick man dies after a stay (say) of four days at the

ghat, suffering, perhaps, the most excruciating pangs andagony frequently attendant on a deathbed. During these

days the names of the gods are repeatedly whispered in his

ears, and the consolations of religion are offered him with no

unsparing hand, in order to mitigate his sufferings, and, if

possible, to brighten his last hours. The corpse is removed

from its resting-place to the burning ghSit, a distance of a few

hundred yards, and preparations for a funeral pile are

speedily made. The body is then covered with a piece of

new cloth and laid upon the pyre, the upper and lower

parts of which are composed of firewood, faggots, and a little

sandal-wood, and ghl to neutralize the smell. The Manipora

3rahman, an outcaste, reads the formula, and the son, or

nearest of kin, changing his old garments for new white

clothes, at one end of which^is fastened an iron key to keep

4Dff evil spirits, sets fire to the pile. The body is consumed

454 DEATH, SHEADHA, AND THE FUTCEE LIFE.

to ashes, but the navel remaining unburnt is taken out and

thrown into the river. Thus ends the ceremony of cremation.

The son, after pouring a few jars of holy water on the pile,

bathes in the stream and returns home with his friends." *

On reaching home they all touch fire, and enter the house

with the cry, " Hari Bol !" on their lips. This tells the inmates

that the last rites of their sick relative have been performed,

and is the signal for renewed expressions of grief. Those

who have once heard the cry of Hindu women at the loss of

husband or child will not easily forget it.

When a Hindu dies at a distance from the river, if his

friends can arrange to do so, the corpse is carried to its

banks, and there burned. I have seen bodies carefully

wrapped in sacking that have been carried over thirty miles

for this purpose. Where the distance is too great, or the

expense too heavy for the family, after the body has been

burned nearer home, a part wiU be taken from the ashes andthrown into the river.

Until recent years, the police regulations having nowremoved the scandal, the scenes at the burning ghat, caused

by the outcaste Brahmans who have to repeat the mantras-

before the body is burned, were most disgraceful. These-

men, by reason of their office being regarded as unworthyof respect by their fellow-Brahmans, have lost their self-

respect, and act like harpies in their efforts to extract

money from the friends of the deceased. The mantras mustnecessarily be read, and the monopoly of this duty being in

their hands, disgraceful scenes of chaffering took place before

they would proceed with their work. Now, the legal price

has been fixed, and their unseemly sg[uabbling at such a

time and place is at an end.

" Prom the tinie of his father's death to the conclusion of

the funeral ceremony the son is religiously forbidden to

shave, wear shoes, shirts, or any garment other than thelong piece of white cloth ; and his food is confined to a single

* " The Hindus as they are," p. 259.

DEATH AND ITS ATTENDANT CEREMONIES. 455

meal, consisting only of rice, dhall, milk, ghi, and sugar*

which must be cooked either by his wife or mother, but it is

preferable if he can cook for himself; at night he takes alittle milk, sugar, and fruit. This regimen continues ten

days if the deceased be a Brahman, and thirty-one if a Sudra.

A married daughter, when her father or mother dies, mournsfor three days only. On the morning of the fourth day she

is enjoined to cut her nails and perform the funeral cere-

mony for her departed parent."

In a hot and densely populated country like India there

is much to be said in favour of cremation, but in the mannerin which it is usually performed there certainly is not muchto commend it to Europeans. When the friends can afford

to purchase a sufficiency of wood to consume the bodythoroughly there is much that is repulsive. The body is

washed in a public place open to the gaze of bystanders.

Only a cotton garment is used to wrap round the body, andwhen, as it frequently happens, the flames run along this,

the limbs are left exposed. But the poorer people cannot

provide wood sufficient to consume the body, and parts of it

are left for the jackals and vultures to complete the work.

The vicinity of a burning ghtit is strewed with human skulls

and other bones that have simply passed through the fire.

The whole scene is most painful and disgusting to any whohave not been brought up in Hinduism, and by familiarity

come to regard these things with indifference.

In the account of the treatment of the dying and dead I

have simply introduced accounts by Hindu gentlemen of what

actually takes place under such circumstances amongst their

own caste, I shall now add a few sentences from Colebrooke's

account of the religious ceremonies of the Hindus,* more

especially of Brahmans, as taught in the Scriptures ; the

ceremonies, though varying a little in manner, are identical

in spirit and aim.

" A dying man, when no hopes of his surviving remain,

* " Essays," p. 97 ff.

456 DEATH, SHRADHA, AND THE FUTURE LIFE.

should be laid upon a bed of cusa grass, either in the house

or out of it if he be a Sudra, but in the open air if he belong

to another tribe. When he is at the point of death dona-

tions of cattle, land, gold, silver, or other things, according

to his ability, should be made by him, or, if he be too weak,

by another person in his name. His head should be sprinkled

with water drawn from the Ganges, and smeared with clay

brought from that river. A salgrama ought to be placed

near the dying man, holy strains from the Veda or from

sacred poems should be repeated aloud in his ears, and leaves

of holy basil must be scattered over his head." Instructions

then follow respecting the washing ofthe corpse, the spreading

of a perfumed cloth over it, the carrying it to the place of

burning, and the preparation of the pile. When all is ready,

if it be the body of a priest who has kept a sacred fire per-

petually burning in his house, the fire to ignite the pile must

be brought from it ; but if not, then " it is only necessary to

avoid taking fire from another funeral pile, or from the abode

of an outcaste, of a man belonging to a tribe of executioners,

of a woman who has lately borne a child, or of any person

who is unclean."

When all its preparation is complete " a relative of the

deceased", taking up a lighted brand, must invoke by name the

holy places on the earth, and say, ' May the gods with

flaming mouths burn this corpse!' He then walks thrice

round the pile, with his right hand towards it, and (if he be

a Brahman) shifts the sacrificial cord to his right shoulder.

Then looking towards the south, and dropping his left knee

to the ground, he applies the fire to the pile near the headof the corpse, saying, ' Name ! Namah !

' whilst the attendant

priests recite the following prayer: 'Fire ! thou wert lighted

by him, may he therefore be reproduced from thee that hemay attain the region of celestial bliss. May this offering

be auspicious !'"

The burning must be so arranged that a few bones are

left unconsumed for the subsequent ceremony of gathering

DEATH AND ITS ATTENDANT CEREMONIES. 457

the ashes. The other friends also throw into the fire a few

hits of wood, as an offering to Agni, as they say, " Salutation

to thee who dost consume flesh." Instructions are given for

the burning of the body of a Hindu by proxy when he mayhave died far away from home or his body cannot be found.

In this case three hundred and sixty leaves of the butea tree,

or as many woollen threads are taken as his representative

And burnt in place of the corpse.

When the body is reduced to ashes all the friends whohave taken any part in the ceremony must walk round the

ashes, bathe in the river, and change their clothes, and going

again into the water, after taking up a little in the hollow of

their joined hands, and naming the deceased and his family,

4say, " May this be acceptable to thee !" When this is done,

as a consolation to them the following or other texts are

recited

:

" Foolish is he who seeks permanence in the human state

;

unsolid, like the stem of the plantain tree ; transient, like the

foam of the sea."

" When a body formed of five elements to receive the re-

wards of deeds done m its own former person reverts to its

five original elements, what room is there for regret ?"

" The earth is perishable ; the ocean, the gods themselves,

pass away ; how should not that bubble, mortal man, meet

•destruction ?"

" All that is low must finally perish, all that is high must

ultimately fall, all compound bodies must end in dissolution,

and life is concluded with death."

" Unwillingly do the manes of the deceased taste the tears

shed by their kinsmen ; then do not wail, but diligently

perform the obsequies of the dead."

After a time the friends return home, the nearest relation

going first with a new earthen jar full of sacred water. At

or near the house the first part of the religious ceremony for

the deceased takes place. A suitable spot being prepared,

a ball of tila seed, boiled rice, honey, &c., is made and offered

458 DEATH, SHSADBA, AND THE FUTUKE I,IFK.

to the spirit of the departed with these words :" May this

first funeral cake, which shall restore thy head, be accept-

able to thee !" Again purifying the place and addressing th&

departed spirit with the formula, " May this apparel be

acceptable to thee,'' a woollen yarn is laid upon the cake. Thenext offers with the same formula a pot of water and tila

seeds. Some food is then laid upon a leaf for the crows.

Before entering the house the friends each bite three

leaves of nim, sip water,'and touch a branch of Sami with

their right hands as the pridst says, " May the Sami tree

atone for sins ! " Each imourner then touches fire whilst the

priest says, " May fire grant us happiness ! " In the evening

of the same day water and milk are suspended in vessels-

before the doors of the house, and the words, " Such a one,

now deceased, bathe here, drink this."

CHAPTEE II.

THE SHRaDHA, or RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES FOR THEBENEFIT OF THE DEAD.

In the previous chapter we have described the treatment of

the dying and the burning of the corpse ; we shall now con-

sider the religious ceremonies that are ordained for the benefit

of the dead to be performed by their relatives.

In the case of old persons, or those who have been ill for a

long time, one ceremony called the Vaitararni rite is performed

before their death. This is called after the name of a river

which it is supposed the dead must cross ere they enter

heaven. Before the day arrives for carrying the sick man to

the river, money is given to a number of Brahmans in lieu

of a cow, rice, &c., that they may guide and assist him in

crossing the river. When this is not performed before death,

it forms part of the ceremonies at the Shradha.

Of all the ceremonies connected with the Hindu religion

the Shradha is the most important, and in some cases quite

equal in expense to a marriage. It takes place on the

thirtieth day after the death of the person on whose behalf

it is celebrated. Its main features are the feeding of large

numbers of Brahmans and Hindus of other castes, and in

the presentation of offerings of food, sweetmeats, &e., to the

spirit of the person recently deceased, and his or her ances-

tors. I shall give the particulars of these ceremonies first,

as they are taught in the Scriptures, and then add an account

of their ordinary observance in the present day.

-160 DEATH, SHRADHA, AND THE FUTURE LIFE.

"During ten days funeral cakes, together with libations of

water and tila, inust be offered as on the first day, augmenting,

however, the number each time, so that ten cakes and as

many libations of water and tila be offered on the tenth day

;

and with this further difference, that the address varies each

time." " If the mourning last three days only, ten funeral

cakes must, nevertheless, be offered— three on the first and

last, and four on the second ; if it lasts no more than one

day, the ten oblations must be made at once. The difference

in the address consists in the mention of the part of the body

that is supposed to be restored by the cake. The first is

for the head ; the second is for the restoration of the ears,

eyes, and nose ; the third is for the throat, arms, and breast,

&o. During this time a pebble wrapped in a part of a sheet

that was laid over the deceased is worn by the heir, or nearest

of kin, suspended on his neck. To this pebble, as a type of

the deceased, the funeral cakes are offered. The same vessel

in which the first oblation was made must be used for all the

others ; if it be broken, or the pebble lost, the rites must all

be gone through a second time."

The relatives to the sixth degree ought to fast three days

and nights, or at least one day; the near relatives mustobserve a partial fast as long as the days of mourning con-

tinue, i.e., until the thirtieth day after the death occurred.

In some cases the funeral obsequies are hastened ; they maybe performed on the third day after the body has been buried.

The first important duty after a Shradha, i.e., the offering

of a cake for the deceased, is the collecting of the bones.

With many rites that it would be tedious to describe, a few

ashes or part of the corpse are collected and burned on the

banks of the river, whilst a bone is cast into the stream itself.

Before going to the river, however, there is the feeding of

Brahmans, who have been invited to honour the familyby their

presence. When these have eaten, the person performingthe ceremony places some cusa grass on the ground, and then

strews uncooked rice, tila, and ghi on it as the priest repeats

THE SHEADHA, OE CBKEMONIES FOB THE DEAD. 461

for him this prayer, " May those in my family who have beenburnt with fire, or who are alive, who are yet unburnt, besatisfied with this food, presented on the ground, and proceedcontented towards the supreme path [of eternal bliss]. Maythose who have no father nor mother, nor kinsman, nor food^

nor supply of nourishment, be contented with this food offered,

on the ground, and attain like it a happy abode ! " After this

he again sanctifies the place of sacrifice and offers a cake to-

his ancestors, asking them each to take a share. And againnaming the deceased person, he offers food, thread, &c., for

clothing; and then, having paid his fee to the priest, he lights

a lamp in honour of the dead person, and casts the food into

the fire, by which means it is supposed to reach those for

whom it was given. On his arrival at the burning place he

prays the gods to " convey the deceased to pleasing andeternal abodes, and grant to him long life, health, and perfect,

ease.

" On the last day of mourning the nearest relation puts on'

neat apparel, and causes his house and furniture to be cleaned

;

then, after offering the tenth funeral cake in the manner de-

scribed, he makes ten libations of water from the palms of his

hands, is shaved, his nails are cut, and the clothes worn at the

funeral, and other remuneration, are given to the barber. Heanoints his head and body with sesamum oil, . . . sips water,

touches auspicious things, as stones, nim leaves, a cow, coral,.

&c., and a bamboo staff, and returns to his home purified.

" The next day a second series of obsequies are commenced,

the interesting part of which is the setting free of a bullock

which is regarded as sacred. According to the circumstances

of the family, one, three, or more bullocks having been

branded with a trident, the mark of Siva, are turned adrift

—

a custom reminding us of the scapegoat. These bulls are

deemed sacred, and allowed to go into the fields and eat the

grain. In some places, where the people are not quite so

superstitious, these are caught and sold. In Calcutta many of

these sacred animals are put to the ignoble duty of drawing

462 DEATH, SHEaDHA, AND THE FUTUEE LIFE.

carts. The common idea is that as the bull was especially

dear to Siva, the person on whose behalf it is devoted will be

raised by its assistance to Siva's heaven. Presents are given

largely at these ceremonies to Brahmans and others ; and,

though not absolutely necessary to salvation, are believed by

the superstitious to be largely beneficial to those in whose

name or on whose behalf they are given.

" The first set of funeral ceremonies is adapted to effect,

by means of oblations, the re-embodying of the soul of the

deceased, after burning his corpse. The apparent scope of the

second set is to raise his shade fi:om this world (where it

would else, according to the notions of the Hindus, continue

io roam among demons and evil spirits) up to heaven, and

there deify him, as it were, among the manes of departed

ancestors. For this end a Shradha should be offered to the

•deceased on the day after the mourning expires ; twelve other

Shradhas singly, in twelve successive months, similar obsequies

at the end of the third fortnight, and also on the sixth and

twelfth months ; and the oblation called sapindana on the

first anniversary of his decease. At the sapindana this

prayer is offered, ' May the mansion of those progenitors whoJiave reached a common abode, and who have accordant

minds, foster him ;

' may the blessed sacrifice, sacred to the

gods, he his,"- and by their intercession may prosperity be

mine for a hundred years in this world. In most provinces

the whole of these ceremonies are completed on the second or

third day ; after which the others are performed at the proper

times, but in honour of the whole set of progenitors, instead

of the deceased singly. Afterwards a Shradha is annually

offered to him on the anniversary of his decease."

Not only in connection with funerals, but on joyous occa-

sions, especially at weddings, offerings are made to the de-

ceased. By means of these the dead are supposed to share in

the festivities of the living members of their family. Withsuch benefits promised to those whose funeral rites are pro-

perly performed, it cannot at all surprise any to hear of the

THE SHBADHA, OR CEREMONIES FOR THE DEAD. 463

great anxiety of the Hindus for sons. Who but a faithful

sou would take all the trouble and incur all the expense that

the proper performance of a Shradha involves ?

At the sapindana ceremony the worshipper generally offers

eight cakes : i.e., three for his paternal, and three for his

maternal, ancestors, and two for the Yiswadevas, i.e., the gods.

Grasping his hand with the cusa grass on which they are laid,

a share is supposed to be given to his remoter ancestors. Onspecially sacred days, when Shradhas are performed, such as

Mahalaya, cakes are also offered separately to any deceased

relation or friend in whom the offerer is specially interested.

At Shradhas, Manu and other writers distinctly enjoin the

eating of flesh ; but many of the Hindus who object to this

declare that those laws are now obsolete ; or they make a

vow to abstain and regard the obligation of a vow as

superior to a command of the Scriptures. As a rule this order

is disregarded.

It will have been noticed that the laws given above speak

of ten days' mourning, and of the ceremonial defilements of

those who have had any part in a funeral for the same time

;

in the case of Sudras this time of mourning and defilement

extends to thirty days.

The teaching of the Vishnu Parana, similar in spirit to the

above for Brahmans, and which is the rule followed by those

of other castes, is as follows :

—

When the dead body has been washed, adorned with flowers,

and burned at the river-side, his kinsmen are to bathe with

their clothes on ; and looking towards the south, to make

offerings to the deceased as they say, " May this reach thee

wherever thou mayest be !" For ten days the mourning is

continued,diu:ingwhichthefi:iends are regarded as ceremonially

unclean ; on the first day one cake of cooked rice and spices

is made and offered to the deceased, on the second day, two,

and so on, each day increasing the number of cakes until the

tenth day is reached, when Brahmans are feasted and the

impurity of the mourners is ended, a ball of rice bemg

464 DEATH, SHBADHA, AND THE PUTUKE LIFE.

placed near the food that was prepared for the Brahmans as

an offering for the benefit of the deceased. This ceremony,

with the exception of feeding the Brahmans, is repeated,

monthly for a whole year on the day of the month on which

the person died. At the end of the year the ceremony called

sapindana is performed. Here again cakes of food are prepared

for the deceased, and an interesting ceremony is performed,^

by which it is supposed that the spirit of the departed be-

comes admitted into the great company of ancestors who are

duly nourished by the offerings made by the devout who are

living on the earth. On this occasion four vessels of water

are provided, -one of which represents the person on whose

behalf the ceremony is performed. The water is poured from

this vessel into the other three, and thus the spirit of the

person recently deceased passes into the great crowd of an-

cestors, to be worshipped and nourished by the offerings madeby the living. The persons qualified to perform these cere-

monies are a son, grandson, great-grandson, nephews, or any

male relative ; but if these fail, then femalesy or whoever is

the inheritor of the property of the deceased. And it is this

qualification to perform the funeral rites of any one that

gives a title to the property of which he may die possessed.

But if these rites are neglected, the soul of the departed can-

not enter into the company, nor enjoy the blessedness of the

Pitris, or ancestors, who are made happy by the offerings of

their descendants.

In addition to the ordinary times specified above, it is

always allowable for a man to perform a Shradha, by which

the departed will be greatly benefited, and at some special

seasons a single offering of water and sesamum seeds will

content the Pitris for 1,000 years, yea, in some cases

for 10,000 years. And he who duly performs these cere-

monies, and then bathes in some sacred stream, at once ex-

piates all his own sins; whilst offerings made at a sacred

shrine are peculiarly acceptable to the progenitors. In one

place it is taught that even the uplifting of the hands by

THE SHRADHA, OB CEREMONIES FOR THE DEAD. 465

those -who are too, poor to give grain -will prove a benefit to

the friends who have passed away. " He who grudges nothis wealth, but presents us with cakes, shall be born in a

distinguished family. Prosperous and affluent shall that

man ever be who in honour of us gives to the Brahmans—if

he is wealthy, jewels, clothes, land, &c., or who with faith

and humility entertains them with food, according to his

means, at proper seasons. If he cannot afford to give themcooked food, he must give them uncooked ; or, in fact, such

gifts as he can give, however trifling they may be. Should

he be unable to do this, he can at least bow before a Brah-

man and give him a few seeds, and pour out a little water

upon the ground ; or he can gather fodder for a single day

and give it to a cow ; or even if this be impossible for him,

he can go into the forest and lift up his arms to the sun, and

say : " I have no money, or grain, nor anything fit for an

ancestral offering. Bowing, therefore, before my ancestors,

I trust they will be satisfied with these arms thrown up in

the air in devotion." In the following song, said to have been

heard sung by one ofthe Pitris (patriarchs), Gaya is mentioned

as the place where these offerings to the ancestors can he

most acceptably made :" Those of our descendants follow a

righteous path who shall reverently present us with cakes at

Gaya. May he be born in our race who shall give us on the

13th of Bhadra and Magha, milk, honey, and ghl ; or when

he marries, or liberates a black bull (shar), or performs

any domestic ceremony agreeable to rule, accompanied by

donations to the Brahmans." In giving an account of Gaya

we mentioned that cakes offered there for deceased friends

and relatives are supposed to prove more beneficial than

those offered at home.

I shall now give a brief account of the Shradha ceremonies

as they are performed in the present day amongst other than

Brahman castes, from Mr. Bose's work " The Hindus as

they are." *

* P. 262, £f.

31

466 DEATH, SHEADHA, AND THE FUTURE LIFE.

About a fortnight after his father's decease, the son goes

into a calculation of the, amount he ought to spend in

the proper performance of the funeral rites. Some of

the richer families are said to have expended as much as

JB20,000 over a funeral in gifts to Brahmans, schools, chari-

table institutions, and the poor ; but as it is stated, in the

Sastras, that Eamachandra, one of the incarnations of Vishnu,

satisfied his ancestors by offering to them balls of sand for

funeral cakes, it is taught that the poor can obtain equal

benefit to themselves and ancestors without going to any

very great expense. A poor man in these days is held

to have performed a proper Shradha by making an offer-

ing of rice, tila seed, and a little fruit, and by feeding one

Brahman only—a ceremony that costs him only about four

xupees.

When twenty days have passed, the son, accompanied by

:a Brahman, walks barefooted to invite his friends and others

whom he wishes to be present at the ceremony. On the

thirtieth day he and the near relatives who have been re-

garded as ceremonially unclean, owing to the death of the

deceased, now are shaved, have their nails cut, and put on

clean clothes. On the thirty-first day he goes to the river to

bathe, and as religious mendicants are ever on the watch for

such people, they clamour for presents, declaring that unless

their demands are satisfied, the departed cannot enter heaven.

In a well-conducted Shradha the son has to provide silver

plates and drinking vessels, also a bed and clothing to be

given away as presents to the Brahmans who may honour

him with their presence.

When the guests have assembled, amongst the Brahmanswill be a number of men who possess some knowledge of

Sanskrit. A Shradha is one of the field-days for these gentle-

men, who beguile the weary hours before the feast takes

place with argumentation on some knotty point in Sanskrit

grammar or Hindu philosophy.

" From eight o'clock in the morning to two in the after-

THE SHRADHA, OR CEREMONIES FOR THE DEAD. 467

noon, the house where a Shradha is going on is crammed to

suffocation, A large awning covers the open courtyard, pre-

•venting the free access of air; carpets are spread on the

ground for the Kayasthas and other castes, whilst the Brah-

mans, by way of precedence, take their seats on the raised

Thakurdalan, or place of worship {i.e., the place where the

images made for special religious festivals are set up). Thepresents, with a salver of silver, are arranged in front of the

audience, leaving a little space for the musicians, male andfemale, which form the necessary accompaniment of a

Shradha, for the purpose of imparting solemnity to the scene.

. . . The guests begin to come in at eight o'clock, and are

courteously asked to take their appropriate seats—Brahmanswith Brahmans, Kayasthas with Kayasthas, &c. ; the servants

supplying them with hukhas (pipe) and tobacco. . . . The cur-

i:ent topics of the day form the subject of conversation, while

the hukha goes round the assembly with great precision andjpeculiarity." For each caste a special hukha is preserved,

all of the same caste using the same. " The female relatives

are brought in covered palanquins by a separate entrance

shut out from the gaze of the males."

About ten o'clock the ceremony commences, the priest

reading the texts, the son repeating them after him. This

occupies about an hour, after which many take their leave,

whilst others remain for a share in the gifts to be distributed.

And often most unseemly disputes arise amongst these learned

men in the division of the spoil. As some of the Brahmans,

though present at the Shradha, will not eat in the house of a

Sudra, they carry home with them uncooked food and other

j)resents.

On the following day the Brahmans and others are fed. It

is this feast that is supposed to restore the son and other

relatives of the dead person to ceremonial purity. Besides

those specially invited, it is no uncommon thing for as

jnany more to come uninvited to partake of the good

things. The food that is provided for these feasts is com-

468 DEATH, SHBSDHA, AND THE FUTURE LIFE.

posed of what is regarded as sweetmeats, and not rice, th&

ordinary food of the people. To eat rice with a man is

to acknowledge equality of caste ; but these sweetmeats

may be eaten without the ordinary caste restrictions being

broken.

On the next day the Kayasthas and other castes are fed,

and, if possible, on this day there is a greater crush and con-

fusion than on the Brahmans' day. On the morning of the

next day the mourning for the deceased is considered over.

After some hours of music in the house by professional

singers, the son and nearest relatives having anointed their

bodies with oil and turmeric, remove from the house what ia

called a brisakat, and fix it on the ground near the house>

The brisakat is a painted log of wood about six feet long, on

which a figure of an ox is rudely cut. This is a sort of

monument to the memory of the deceased. After this they

bathe, return home, put on their ordinary dress, and sit downto an ordinary meal.

I shall close this description of the funeral ceremonies with

an account form the Statesman of Calcutta, of a Shradha per-

formed there September 20, 1882, as this was one of the

most celebrated of modem times, and gave rise to a mostinteresting discussion on the subject of Hinduism in the daily

papers of Calcutta.

"The Shradha ceremony or requiem service of the-

Dowager Maharani, widow of the late Maharajah Kali.

Krishna Bahadur, and grandmother of the MaharajahHarendra Krishna Bahadur, was held last Sunday morning.

"It was performed in the spacious quadrangle of the-.

Eajbari (palace), one of the largest in Calcutta. The quad-

rangle was very tastefully and elaborately decorated, . . .

and presented the unusual spectacle of a stately dansagar

(ocean of gift), consisting of sixteen sets of beds, sixteen sets

of silver plates and utensils, the plates of each separate set

bearing a thousand rupees in silver. There were, besides,,

with each set, shawls, broadcloth, tusser silk, and silk dhuties-

THE SHEaDHA, OB CEREMONIES FOR THE DPAD. 469

and chadars (clothes for men). These articles were all

arranged on the east side of the quadrangle ; on the south

were heaps of brass utensils of every description, symmetri-

cally arranged. There was also a palanquin and a horse.

"All these were dedicated to the service of the family idol,

Gopinathji (i.e., Krishna), who was brought out and placed on

a sUver throne over the musmid (or platform), to hallow the

service with his sacred presence. Nearly 4,000 Adhyapaks,

or Professors of Hindu Logic, Philosophy, &c., were invited to

the convocation from the principal toh, or educational

institutions of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa. Besides these, in-

vitations were issued among 1,600 of the Maharajah's friends

and acquaintances in different parts of Bengal, amongst whom482 were of the Kayastha caste. . . . The hour fixed for

the service was 8 a.m., and by that time the streets in the

vicinity of the Eajbari presented a scene of animation andbustle." Then follows a long list of the principal guests

invited.

" The company having been seated, Eaja Harendra

Krishna, being the oldest of the Maharani's grandchildren,

obtained leave with folded arms, according to Hindu custom,

from Maharajah Komul Krishna Bahadur, as the head of the

family, to perform the Shradha ceremony. The Maharajah,

before according permission, had himself to obtain the leave

of the convocation. During the performance of the ceremony,

which lasted about half an hour, the whole assembly remained

standing. The Vedie benediction having been pronounced

by all the Brahmans present in a body, the assembly slowly

dispersed. In the evening some ten to twelve thousand

beggars received charity in the shape of a small coin. Onthe second day over 2,000 Brahmans were fed ; on the third

day the Kayasthas had a feast ; whilst some 3,500 ladies

partook of a banquet on the fourth day. The fifth and last

day the tenants and domestics were entertained." The

Maharajah of Travancore, in writing to excuse himself from

the ceremony, said, " It is a source of satisfaction to you that

470 DEATH, SHBADHA, AND THE FUTURE LIFE.

she died attended with all the observances prescribed in

your holy Sastras." The Maharajah of Doomraon, writing

on the same occasion, refers to her as " according to our holy

Sastras, she has been able to breathe her last on the banks

of the Hoogly whilst reciting the name of her god."

CHAPTER III.

JUDGMENT—REWARDS AND PUNISHMENT.

The belief in life after death is universal amongst the Hindus

;

and the opinions as to its nature do not differ materially in

the different sects. In brief, it is as follows : When the soul

forsakes the body, according as the conduct has been good or

evil, it ascends to heaven to enjoy the rewards, or sinks into

hell to suffer the penalties attached to the deeds committed.

After a longer or shorter period it returns to the earth in alower position than in the previous life if the evil pre-

ponderated, or rises to a higher condition than formerly

if the good outweighed the evil ; and again is rewarded or

punished, until finally it attains to that condition wherein it is

fit to return to the Supreme Spirit whence it came, and

of whom, all unconsciously, it was but a part throughout the

ages of its separate existence. However low in the scale a

soul may be, by faithfully fulfilling the duties of that con-

dition it will in due time rise, though the process mayextend over millions of years. As all have come out from

God, to Him they must eventually return. In the case of

some there may be an uninterrupted rise from the lowest to

the highest ; in others there may be a much more protracted

course, owing to the evils committed in certain stages, which

have caused them to sink in the scale of being ; which failures

must be counteracted by penance and good works in succeed-

ing stages. I shall now give the teachings of Hinduism on

this subject at length.

472 DEATH, SHEADHA, AND THE FUTURE LIFE.

In the Vedas the doctrine of the immortality of the soul

is not very prominent. The great desire of men in that

age was worldly prosperity; the "powers of the world to

come" did not exert any great influence upon the community.

Agni and Soma, two of the great gods of that age, are in

some hymns spoken of as givers of immortality to mortals

;

and liberality in bestowing gifts was considered as the most

certain means of attaining it. Still, in speaking of the

departed, they are said to ascend to the Pitris, or fathers, as

though it was believed that those who had passed away from

the world were still living in other worlds.

Yama is regarded in these hymns as the king of the

spirit-world, and the rewarder of the faithful, but not as the

punisher of the guilty ; in fact " there is very little mention

of hell in the Veda." There is a reference to the dogs of

Yamawhich guard the way to his abode, and the worshippers

are exhorted to hurry past them with all speed. This Yamais at once the lord of the spirit-world, and the first of mortals

who passed through death to glory, and is consequently

addressed by men as the guide to immortality. He was the

son of the Sun, and Saranya, the daughter of Tvashtri, the

architect of the Vedic gods. When Yama and Yami, his

twin-sister, were born, their mother, in terror of the intense

brightness of her husband, left a beautiful woman—

a

counterpart of herself—with her children in her husband's

house, and, transforming herself into a mare, hoped to

remain unknown. But her husband, penetrating through

her disguise, transformed himself into a horse, and they becamethe parents of the Asvins (the Twins). She then changed her-

self into other forms, with a similar result ; they"became the

progenitors of the various classes of animals.

Eeference is made to the way in which Agni, as the god

of Fire, whilst consuming the bodies of the dead, did not

destroy them, but sent their several parts to heaven, there

to form another body, all which parts are said to go to heavenby different routes : " Do thou, Agni, burn up or consume

JUDGMENT—REWARDS AND PUNISHMENT. 473

the deceased ; do not dissolve his skin or his body. Whenthou hast matured him, send him to the Pitris. When he

shall reach that state of vitahty, he shall fulfil the pleasure

of the gods. Let his eye go to the sun, his breath to the

wind. Go to the sky, and to the earth, according to the

nature of thy several parts ; or go to the waters, if that be

suitable to thee ; enter into the plants with thy members.

As for his unborn part, do thou, Agni, kindle it with thy

heat, let thy flame and thy lustre kindle it ; with those forma

of thine which are auspicious, convey it to the world of the

righteous. Give up again, Agni, to the Pitris, him who comes

to be offered to thee with oblations. Putting on life, let himapproach his remains, let him meet with his body." *

In the following quotation from the Brahmana portion of

the Veda, it is taught that the gods, once mortal, have

become immortal ; and further, that death is the only way of

obtaining immortality left to mortals :

" The gods lived constantly in dread of Death,

The mighty Ender ; bo with toilsome lites

They worshipped and performed religious acts

Till they became immortal. Then the Ender

Said to the gods, ' As ye have made yourselves

Imperishable, so will men endeavour

To free themselves from me ; what portion, then,

Shall I possess in man ? ' The gods replied,

' Henceforth no being shall become immortal

In his own body ; this his mortal frame

Shalt thou still seize ; this shall remain thine own.

He who through knowledge or religious works

Henceforth attains to immortality,

Shall first present his body, Death, to thee.' " t

As noticed above, Yama, in olden time, was regarded as

the rewarder of those who had faithfully discharged their

duties in life ; now, in addition to this, he is worshipped as

Death, ever ou the watch for victims, by whom his kingdom

* " The Vedio Eeligion," p. 55.

t" Indian Wisdom," p. 34.

474 DEATH, SHEADHA, AND THE FUTURE LIFE.

may be filled with subjects, and as the cruel judge who con-

demns the wicked to receive the penalties of their evil doings-

in the various hells over which he reigns. The following

description of Yama on his judgment throne is from the-

Fadma Furana

:

" At the extremity of the earth southward, floating on the

waters, is Sangryamani, the residence of Yama, the judge of

the dead, and of his recorder, Chitragupta, and his mes-

sengers.

" Those who perform works of merit are led to Yama's

palace along the most excellent roads, in some parts of which

the heavenly courtezans are seen dancing and singing, and

gods and heavenly choristers are heard chanting the praises-

of other gods ; in others, showers of flowers fall from heaven.

There are houses containing cooling water and excellent

food, pools of water covered with flowers, and trees which,

afford fragrance and shade. The gods are seen riding on

horses or elephants, or carried in palanquins and chariots,,

some of whom, from the glory emanating from their bodies,

illumine the ten quarters of the world. Yama receives the

good with much affection, and feasting them with excellent-

food, thus addresses them : ' Ye are truly meritorious in.

your deeds;ye are wise ; by the power of your merits ascend

to an excellent heaven. He who, born in the world, performs-

meritorious actions is my father, brother, friend.'

" The wicked have 688,000 miles to travel to the palace of

Yama to receive judgment. In some places they pass over a.

pavement of fire ; in others, the earth in which their feet sink

is burning hot ; or they pass over burning sands, sharp

stones ; also burning hot showers of brass instruments, burn-

ing cinders, scalding water, and stones, fall upon them.

Burning winds scorch their bodies; now they fall into

hidden wells, or pass throug}i narrow passages in whichsnakes lie concealed. Sometimes they are enveloped in

darkness, their road winding through trees with thorny

leaves ; or they have to walk over broken pots, bones.

JUDGMENT—EEWAEDS AND PUNISHMENT. 475

putrefying flesh, or sharp spikes; whilst tigers, jackals,

giants, &c., beset them. They travel naked, their hair is

disordered, their throats and lips are parched, and their

bodies are covered with blood and dirt. As they walk someare wailing, some weeping; horror is depicted on every

countenance. Some are dragged along by leathern thongs

round their necks, waists, or hands ; some are dragged bytheir hair, ears, or feet ; others, again, are carried with their

heads and feet fastened together.

" On arriving at the palace they behold Yama clothed with

terror, 240 miles in height, his eyes distended like a lake of

water, with rays issuing from hia purple body. His voice is

loud as thunder, the hairs of his body are as long as palm-

trees, a flame proceeds from his mouth. The noise of his

breathing is greater than the roaring of the tempest ; his

teeth are exceedingly long, and his nails like the fan for

winnowing corn. In his right hand he holds an iron club,

his garment is formed of animals' skins, and he rides on a

terrific buffalo. Chitragupta also appears as a terrible mon-ster,*and makes a noise like that of a warrior about to rush

into battle. Sounds terrible as thunder are heard, as punish-

ments suited to offences committed are ordered on the

offenders.

"Addressing the criminals before him, Ydma says, 'Did

you not know that I am placed above all, to award happiness

to the good, and punishment to the wicked ? Have you never

given your minds to religion ? To-day with your own eyes

you shall see the punishment of the wicked. From age

(yuga) to age stay in these hills. You have pleased your-

selves with sinful practices, endure now the torments due to

these sins. What will weeping avail you?' Yama next

calls on Chitragupta, the recorder, to examine into the

offences of the criminals, who demands the names of the wit-

nesses ; let them give their evidence in our presence. Yama,

smiling, though full of rage, commands the Sun, Moon, Wind,

Fire, the Heaven, Earth, Waters, Day, Night, Morning, and

476 DEATH, SHEADHA, AND THE FUTUEE LIFE.

Evening, and Eeligion, to appear against the prisoners, who,

hearing their evidence, are struck dumb, and remain trembling

and stupefied with fear. Yama then, gnashing his teeth,

beats the prisoners with his iron club till they roar with

anguish; after which he drives them to different hells." *

There are four kinds of happiness for the faithful after

death.

1. Entrance into the heaven of one of the gods.

Most of the gods are said to have a heaven of their own to

which they raise their worshippers after death. Here they

remain to enjoy the fruit of their meritorious acts for a longer

or shorter time, according to the amount of merit they have

acquired by their good deeds. The works which raise a manto share in the glories of one of the heavens for a number of

years are the following : honouring, serving, giving gifts to

Brahmans, repeating the names of the gods, especially that of

their own special deity. Visiting or residing at holy places,

and performing the worship that prevails there. Performing

Shradhas for deceased ancestors. Bathing in the Ganges and

other sacred streams. Offering sacrifices, building teniples,

cutting roads, excavating tanks, planting trees, especially

sacred ones ; making and setting up images for worship.

Beading and hearing read the Veda if a Brahman ; reading

or hearing the Puranas, if not entitled to the privilege of read-

ing the Veda. Honouring a guru, or religious preceptor.

Hospitality to guests. Burning with a deceased husband.

Dying in a sacred place.

2, Deification.

It is taught that by the performance of certain sacrifices,

e.ij., the Asvamedh, or horse sacrifice, mortals could attain to

the position of Indra, or king over the gods : but this position

could be held only for a certain time ; they were in danger of

being compelled to yield their throne to any who by virtue of

greater austerity or costliness in sacrifice proved themselves

more worthy of the honour.

* Ward, vol. iii. p. 370.

JUDGMENT REWARDS AND PUNISHMENT. 477

3. Dwelling in the immediate presence of the gods.

Though myriads may through their good works gain en-

trance for a time into some heaven, it does not follow that all

would be equally honoured there. As there are gradations

in the quality and quantity of good works done by men on

earth, so the position of those who enter heaven is graded,

and also the duration of their stay in heaven. Those whohave performed the greatest number of the best works not

only will remain through a more lengthened period, but will

obtain nearer access to the god who has received them into his

abode.

These three forms of heavenly bliss are terminable, andwhen the years of bliss to which the recipient is entitled pass

away, he must be re-born into the world, and pass through

another trial, starting from a higher level than at the com-

mencement of the previous life, the reward of which hehas now enjoyed. None of the low-caste people have any

immediate hope of attaining the highest blessedness of

heaven. This is exclusively for the Brahmans ; at any rate,

the highest bliss of all can only be reached by them. TheSudra's hope is that by reason of his good works he mayperhaps have a little term of enjoyment in heaven, and then

reappear on earth in a higher caste, until at length, coming

here as a Brahman, he may know the Vedas, and then pass

to the summit of bliss attainable by mortals. It is, indeed,

a long vista that opens out to the view of the low-caste people,

as the Sastras speak of thousands of lives that must be

spent, even by those whose onward march is uninterrupted

by a single failure.

4. Absorption.

This is the final end, the mmmum honuni of the Hindu

religion, when the soul, losing its identity, is re-absorbed

into Divine Essence, as a drop of water falling into the

sea loses its separate existence. This comes chiefly

through knowledge. Good works may raise a man from the

lower stages of existence, and bring him into that state

478 DEATH, SHE;.DHA, AND THE FUTUEE LIFE.

where the sources of knowledge are available to him ; but

knowledge

—

i.e., knowledge of the soul's identity with God,

.and the destruction of Maya

—

i.e., the illusion that the soul

:and God are separate—is the way of obtaining this in-

•estimable boon. I have seen men who profess to have

found this knowledge, and who expect when they pass

away from this world never again to be born into it. Theend of their course has now nearly come. Generally they

are intoxicated with hemp, or their minds, through utter

neglect, have become a perfect blank. As by not using a

limb it becomes incapable of action, so, by ceasing to think,

they have become incapable of thought. Pleasure and pain,

oold and heat, hunger and thirst, they have ceased to know ;

they are just animated matter, or Httle more. These have

attained to the height of perfection, according to the system

•of Hinduism, and are now fit for absorption into deity; and

once absorbed, they have no longer to endure birth and

death, and all the pains and vicissitudes of life. Their

course is honourably ended.

That 1 have not overstated the condition of the "perfect"

being, the following quotation from the Bhagavata Gita

will show. Krishna is represented as speaking to his friend

and companion Arjuha in praise of the man " who forsaketh

every desire that entereth his heart, who is happy in him-

self, who is without affection, who rejoices neither in good nor

evil, who, like the tortoise, can restrain his members from

, their wonted purpose, to whom pleasure and pain are the

same."

The Vishnu Purana, describing the condition of those in

heaven, says : "Not in hell alone do the souls of the deceased

undergo pain ; there is no cessation even in heaven ; for its

temporary inhabitant is ever tormented with the prospect of

descending again to earth, and again must he die. What-ever is produced that is most acceptable to man becomes a

seed whence springs the tree of sorrow." And asks. Wherecould men, scorched by the sun of this world, look for felicity

JUDGMENT BEWARDS AND PUNISHMENT. 479

were it not for the shade afforded by the tree of emancipa-tion ? This is the remedy for the ills of life, for it only is

absolute and final. It goes on to teach that this blessedness

is attainable by knowledge and works. Knowledge is of twokinds—that derived from Scripture, and that which results

from meditation : knowledge obtained from Scripture or

any extraneous source being compared to the light of a'

candle, whilst that which comes from reflection is as the

light of the sun. In one place men are urged to obtain light

from both sources, as they together form a pair of eyes bywhich a man is able to see the Supreme. The superiority of

meditation, or Yoga, is explained in the following story

:

" There were two kings, one most spiritually-minded, intent

by knowledge to obtain final liberation ; and the other seek-

ing the same end by good works. These two fought, the one

possessed of divine knowledge conquering the one moregiven to good works. It happened one day that a cow of. the

conqueror was killed by a tiger in the forest, but the king

not knowing how to make expiation for the offence was mostmiserable ; and to add to his difficulty he was fold that

none but the king whom he had just conquered could

enlighten him. So to this king he went, and though his

counsellors urged him, in revenge, to slay his conqueror and

regain his kingdom, he refused to do so on the ground that

by this he would regain a mere earthly kingdom, whilst he

would lose a heavenly. He decided, therefore, to forgive his

foe, and give him the desired information. When the king

had made the penance prescribed he was still uneasy in his

mind, and found out that this arose from the fact that he had,

paid no fee to his preceptor. So he again repaired to his

former foe and offered to give a fee. The only one that

the king could consent to accept was this: that he should

give him instruction in meditation—how to effect it, and the

benefits that would arise from it. The king complies and

assures him that he who devotes himself through several suc-

cessive lives to meditation on the Divine Being will at length

480 DEATH, SHRADHA, AND THE FUTURE LIFE.

lose himself in the ocean of deity. The two kings obtained

absorption ; the one who conquered the world handed over

the whole to his son, and went to live a hermit's life in the

forest, to carry on the life of meditation he had commenced

years before ; the other, ceasing from trusting in his owngood works, lived amidst objects of sense without regarding

them, and instituted religious rites without expecting any

advantages to himself. Thus by the two different roads the

two rivals finally were admitted into the ocean of deity."

I shall now pass on to give the description of some of the

heavens wherein those who have done things worthy of

reward expect to enjoy the blessedness attached to these

works.

Swarga, the heaven of Indra, is thus described in the

Mahabharata. It is situated on Mount Meru, which the

Hindus regard as the centre of the earth. It is supposed to

be somewhere to the north of the Himalayahs. The heavens

of the other deities are situated near to it. It has beautiful

houses for its happy inhabitants to occupy, and its splendour

is unequalled in the universe. Its gardens are stocked with

trees, which afford a grateful shade, yield the most luscious-

fruits, and are adorned with beautiful and fragrant flowers.

Most beautiful nymphs (apsarasas) charm the inhabitants;,

whilst choristers and musicians, unrivalled in the universe,

discourse the sweetest music. The city, which was built by

Visvakarma, is 800 miles in circumference and 40 miles-

high. Its pillars are diamonds; its palaces, thrones, andfurniture, pure gold.

Vaikuntha, the heaven of Vishnu, is similarly described in

the same book. It is 80,000 nailes in circumference, and

has streets of gold, its buildings being formed of jewels,

the pillars and ornaments of which are precious stones.

The crystal waters of the Ganges fall from the higher

heavens on the head of Druva, from thence into the

hair of the Seven Eishis, and from there they flow as a

river through the city. There are five pools bearing blue.

JUDGMENT—BEWABD3 AND PUNISHMENT. 481

red, and white lotuses. On a seat glorious as the meridiansun, sitting on white lotuses, is Vishnu, and on his right handLakshmi, his wife, who shines like a continued blaze of

lightning, and from whose body the fragrance of the lotus

extends 800 miles.

Kuvera's * heaven is much the same, and is described by the

same writer. It is 800 miles long and 560 broad. The wind,

perfumed by ten thousand odours, blows in soft breezes ; and

the palace, adorned with gold and jewels, displays a glory like

the rays of the full moon. Here are canals of pure water

filled with fish, water fowl, lotuses, &c., with ghdts made of

gold ; and forests in which Kuvera and his courtezans divert

themselves. From his treasury the other deities supply

themselves with ornaments. Kuvera is there surrounded

with gods and goddesses, and hosts of other beings, such as

musicians, singers, and dancers. All the pleasures of the

other heavens are to be found here.

With the same Oriental extravagance employed in the

description of the various heavens, the several hells are also

painted. It is said that there are 100,000 hells, each class

of offenders being cast into one place, where the appro-

priate punishment is given. I shall briefly mention some of

the many forms of punishment threatened, with the offences

for which they are to be inflicted. This list is from the Sri

Bhagavata. Those guilty of fornication and adultery, and

those guilty of stealing children, are to be cast into Tamisra,

or the hell of darkness. The proud, who neglect the ceremonies

of religion, are to go to Eowrava, where they will be tor-

mented with animals called rurus. The glutton is to be cast

into a hell of boiling oil. He who disregards the Veda and

Brahmans is to be punished in a hell of burning metal for

3,500,000 years. He who injures a man of superior caste is

to be torn by swine. The unmerciful are to be tormented by

snakes, flies, wasps, lice, &c. The Brahmans (male and

female), the saint, Vaishya, or king, who drinks spirits will be

* The god of wealth.

32

482 DEATH, SHBADHA, AKD THE FUTURE LIFE.

thrown into pans of liquid fire. He who despises a religious

mendicant shall be punished by sticking fast in mud with his

head downwards. He who kills a man and offers him to the

gods, and he who eats an animal that has not been sacrificed

to the gods, are to be fed on flesh and blood. He who betrays

and then destroys a person is to be pierced with spears and

arrows. He who is inhospitable to guests must have his eyes

torn out by vultures. The covetous are to be fed with im-

pure food. The person who professes different religions, and

is familiar with people of other castes than his own, is to be

punished by being continually thrown down from lofty trees.

Highway robbers and poisoners are to be bitten by ravenous

dogs. False witnesses are to be cast from rocks 800 miles

high.

It must be borne in mind that these punishments are in-

flicted only on those who have not offered the atonements

provided for all these classes of sins, or have not accumulated

merit by the performance of good deeds, by which the sins

with their punishments could be wiped off. Punishmentawarded by a magistrate is a sufficient atonement for most

offences. Sins atoned for in this life will not bring punish-

ment in the next.

There is an interesting story in the Mahabharata to showthe impossibility of escape from the punishments inflicted byYama on those who come under his authority. Havana, the

demon king of Ceylon, who carried off Sita, the wife of

Eama, had gained such power by his religious acts as to have

become a universal conqueror. One day he thought of the

suffering souls in hell, and determined to go there andeffect their release. As soon as the news of his approach

reached Yama he sent offers of submission to the great con-

queror, who, seeing the condition of the lost, and his ears

being pierced with their cry, said : " I have conquered the

three worlds ; there is nothing which my power has not per-

formed. It will be a glorious thing to set all these wretches

at liberty." He spoke to the miserable souls, and hope

JUDGMENT BEWAEDS AND PUNISHMENT. 483

sprang into their breasts ; but when he called them to comeforth, and with his twenty arms tried to assist them to escape,

:as fast as he pulled them out they fell back. At length he

saw that even he could not reverse the decree by which they

were doomed to suffer.

Having considered the rewards of the righteous and the

punishment of the wicked, so far as their condition in another

world is concerned, we come now to speak of the teaching

of Hinduism concerning a further reward or punishment,

viz., the re-birth of human souls into the world for furtlier

trial, either in a better or worse position than that they occu-

pied in the life for which they have either bee;n rewarded or

punished by Yama—the transmigration of souls.

The teaching of Manu is most explicit on this subject. In

order to understand it clearly it will be necessary to give

rather fully his views of man's organism and also his classi-

fication of morals. I shall give as briefly as possible an out-

line of his scheme.

Actions are of three kinds—mental, verbal, and corporeal

;

-and they bear good or evil fruit according as they are good

or evil. " From the actions of men proceed their various

transmigrations in the highest, mean, and lowest degrees."

These three classes of actions are illustrated as follows : mental

actions are, " planning to appropriate another's wealth, resolv-

ing on some forbidden deed, and conceiving notions of atheism

or materialism ;" verbal actions are, " scurrilous language,

falsehood, backbiting, and useless tattle; " corporeal actions are,

"taking goods not given to us, hurting sentient creatures

without the sanction of law, and adultery." As the acts are

either mental, verbal, or corporeal, so are the pimishments

for those acts. For corporeal sins a man will assume after

death a vegetable or mineral form ; for verbal, the form of a

bird or a beast ; and for mental, the lowest of human con-

ditions. But a man who exerts this threefold self-command

with respect to all animated creatures, wholly subduing both

-lust and wrath, shall by these means attain beatitude.

484 DEATH, SHBADHA, AND THE FUTUEE LIFE.

Man has two souls—the one answering to the living soul,

the other to the spirit. At death the soul takes to itself

another body, like the one that is burned, by means of which

it can enjoy the rewards or suffer the penalties of the actions

of life. According as good or evil deeds preponderate will

the after condition of men be determined.

There are three qualities—viz., goodness, darkness, and

passion, one or other of which is the prevailing character of

every soul. Goodness is true knowledge; darkness, gross

ignorance ; and passion, all emotions of desire or aversion.

The soul in which goodness prevails is given to the study of

the Scriptures, devotion, corporeal purity, command over the

organs, meditation on the Divine Spirit. The soul in which

darkness prevails is given to covetousness, indolence, avarice,

detraction, atheism, a habit of soliciting favours, and in-

attention to necessary business. The soul in which

passion prevails is given to possess interested motives for

acts of religion or morality, perturbation of mind, selfish

gratification.

These qualities determine the position the possessors of

them must occupy in their following birth. " Souls en-

dued with goodness attain always the state of deities ; those

with passion the condition of men, and those immersed in

darkness the nature of beasts." Each of these classes is

again subdivided into three minor classes, and according to

the amount or force of the prevailing quality wiU their posi-

tion be higher or lower in the grade into which they are

born. The gradation of these classes is given as follows :

—

I. Darkness. Class 1. Vegetable and mineral substances,

worms, insects, and reptiles.

„ 2. Elephants, horses, men of mlecba (i.e.

non-Hindu) nations.

„ 3. Dancers and singers, birds and deceitful

men, and savages.

II. Passion. „ 1. Actors. Those addicted to gaming anddrinking.

JUDGMENT REWARDS AND PUNISHMENT. 485

Class 2. Kings, warriors, controversialists.

,, 3. Heavenly musicians and servants ofgods.

III. Goodness. „ 1. Hermits, religious mendicants, Brah-mans, and lower gods. ^

„ 2. Saorificers, sages, deities of the lowerheaven.

„ 3. Brahma, the genius of virtue.

Then follows a most minute account of sins, and the formthe soul will receive in its next birth as a punishment for

committing them. After torture for a number of years they

re-enter the world, and a new start in their almost infinite

career is given them. Thus a Brahman slayer must, accor-

ding to the circumstances of his crime, enter the body of a

dog, boar, ass, camel, bull, goat, sheep, stag, bird, or a chan-

dala (outcaste). A priest who has drunk spirits shall migrate

into the form of a worm, or insect, or of some ravenous

animal. He who steals the gold of a priest shall pass 1,000

times into the bodies of spiders, snakes, or chameleons. If

a man steal grain in the husk he shall be born a rat (there

is some sort of analogy between the crime and the punish-

ment). If a man steal water he shall be born a diving bird;

or flesh-meat, a vulture. Women who have done similar

evil deeds incur a similar taint, and shall be mated with

those male beasts in the form of their females. Failure to

discharge religious duties will be punished by migration into

sinful bodies and servitude to their foes.

After separation &om the material body the spiritual body

assumed answers all the purposes the other would serve

;

and the pains endured by the soul are the same as they

would be if it were still united to it.

According to Manu the knowledge of God is the best of

all sciences, because it insures immortality, and saves the

soul &om this almost endless succession of births and deaths,

whilst ceremonial duty secures prosperity in this life and

bliss in heaven. But even ceremonialism, properly per-

486 DEATH, SHKADHA, AND THE FUTtTKE LIFE.

formed, may, in the long run, also save a man from the

necessity of reappearing on earth. When a man performs

acts of worship with the object of obtaining some special

benefit, such as rain, or some reward in heaven, he gains

only what he seeks—some temporary blessing here, and a

temporary residence in heaven ; but when he has no special

boon to gain, and, moved only by a desire to please the gods,

frequently performs ceremonial acts of religion, he too will

be rewarded with the highest bliss, and is for ever exempt

from a body, the source of all ills to man.

Such, then, is the teaching on this subject as it was given in

a book said to contain the essence of the Yedas, and which

has been for over 2,000 years the highest religious authority

of the Hindus. On this subject, as on others, the imagina-

tion of the later writers has exerted itself, and in their books

the doctrine has developed to an astonishing length, as the

following passage from the Agni Purana will show. Here weare taught the length of time, or rather the number of births

a soul must pass through, before it can reach the highest

position. The man must be very sanguine who entertains

the hope " in far-off years " to attain to absorption into the

Supreme Brahma." A person who loses human birth passes through 8,000,000

births amongst inferior creatures before he can appear again

on earth as a human being. Of these he remains 2,100,000

among the immovable parts of creation, as stones, trees, &c.

;

900,000 amongst the watery tribes ; 1,000,000 amongst

insects, worms, &c. ; 1,000,000 amongst birds; and 3,000,000

amongst the beasts. In the ascending scale, if his works he

suitable, he lives 400,000 lives aniongst the lower castes of

men, and 100 amongst Brahmans. After this he mayobtain absorption into Brahma."*

Another work, called the Karmavipaka, enters into parti-

culars as follows:—"He who destroys a sacrifice will be

punished in hell, will be born again as a fish, in which state

* Ward, vol. iii. p. 324.

JUDGMENT BEWABDS AND PUNISHMENT. 487

he will continue for three years, or, re-assuming the humanform, he will be afflicted with disease. He who kills anenemy conquered in war will be cast into the hell Krakacha ;

he will then successively appear on earth as a bull, a deer, atiger, a bitch, a fish, a man ; in his human form he will die

of palsy. He who eats excellent food without giving any to

others will be punished in hell for 30,000 years, and then bebom as a musk-rat, a deer, and then as a man whose body emits

an offensive smell, and who prefers bad to good food. Theman who refuses to give his father and mother the food

they desire will be punished in hell, and then be born as acrow, then as a man who can relish no kind of food. Thestealer of a water-pot will be born as an alligator, and then

as a giant. The man who has lived with a woman of

superior caste will endure torment in hell through countless

ages, after which he will be cast into a second hell, where for

100,000 years he will burn like a blade of grass ; he wiU next

be bom as a worm, and then as a man afflicted with disease.

The stealer of rice will first sink into hell, hve eighteen years

as a crow, twelve years as a heron, and then regain his humanform, but always be afflicted. He who slays an animal not

intended as a sacrifice will, in the form of a turtle, suffer in

hell, then appear on earth as a buU, and then again as a manwith an incurable distemper. He who strangles an animal,

or laughs at the reading of a Furana, will, after punishment

in hell, be first bom as a snake, then as a tiger, then as a

cow, then as a white heron, then as a crow, and then as an

asthmatic man. A beautiful woman who despises her hus-

band will suffer a variety of torments in hell; she will then

be born again as a woman, and, losing her husband soon after

her marriage, will long suffer the miseries of widowhood." '^^

The belief in previous and successive births is universal

amongst the Hindus, though they fi:eely admit as a rule

that they bring with them no memory of their former lives.

When a parent is distracted with sorrow at the illness or

» Ward, vol. iii. p. 392.

488 DEATH, SHBADHA, AND THE FUIDRU LIFE.

loss of a child, or when his business does not prosper, or

tribulation of any kind falls upon him, his first thought is.

Which of the many gods have I offended ? What religious

duty have I neglected? If nothing can be remembered,

nor can any one suggest how it is that he is thus afflicted,

the common reflection comes—This sorrow is a punishment

of some sin committed in a former birth. As it seems to me,

this idea must largely tend to make them careless as to

morals. Their present condition may be a reward for good

conduct, or a punishment for evil. Who can tell ? And in

conversation with learned and ignorant, priest and people, as

I have spoken to them concerning the future, I have received

only one answer to the questioni What will be your condi-

tion in your next life ? They say, with sorrow and pain,

" God knows ; we cannot say. If our present life is good,

•we shall be happy ; if evil, we shall be miserable ; " but

whether they have reason to hope or fear, they confess

they are unable to say. No word of the gospel, as

far as my experience goes, meets the wants of the Hindumore than this : " He that believeth on the Son hath ever-

lasting life." The assurance that the Christian has of forgive-

ness of sin, and the certain hope of blessedness in heaven, is

certainly one of the most attractive words the Christian canoffer to the Hindu.

THE END.

INDEX.

A.

Abortion, Practice of, 429.

Absorption into deity, 477.

How attainable, 479.

Abusive language, Use of, 402.

Adi Soma], The, 111.

Aghoris, The, 89.

Agni, Address to, 472.

Ajiva, A Jain division of existences,

101.

Annaprasan, The festival of, 13.

Ancestors, Daily prayer for, 200.

Arya Somaj, The, 110.

Astrologers, The choice of names

by, 15.

The work of, 27.

Atkauri ceremony, The, 11,

B.

3eating, 435.

Benares as a place of pilgrimage,

240.

Benares, why holy, 244.

Bengalis, Character of the, 420,

Bhakta Mala, The, 57.

Bhaktas, The, 52.

Bhagavatas, The, 52.

Bhagiratbi, Worship of the, 218.

Bhuvaneshwara, The shrine of, 293.

Birth and its ceremonies, 3,

Bisheshwar, The temple of, 248.

Brahmo Somaj, The, 106.

of India, The, 112.

Brahman, Position of the, 127.

Privileges of the, 180.

Daily duties of the, 195.

Brahmans, Classes of the, 170.

Brahmachari, The, 131.

Buddhism, The rise of, 37.

The persecution of, 39.

Buddhistic councils, 38.

Cakes, The Feast of, 234.

Caste, General remarks on, 123.

Distinctive marks of, 126.

Teaching of Sastras concern-

ing, 126,

History of the growth of, 139.

Probable origin of, 145,

as it now exists, 158.

as seen in the Christian

Church, 165.

Methods of regaining, 167.

Bules disregarded at Puri,

285.

at Bhuvaneshwara, 297.

Births through which a soul

passes in rising from lower to

higher, 156, 486,

490 INDEX.

Castes, Struggles for supremacyamongst the, 157.

Position of people in the

mixed, 164.

Proportion of people iu the

mixed, 173.

Chaitanya, 73.

Changes of Hinduism, 37.

Chakrinas, The, 52.

Charan Dasis, The, 81.

Charak Puja, The, 235.

Childbirth, Purification after, 12.

Confidence, Want of, in man, 408.

Cooked food. Ceremony of, 8.

Covenant of Adi Somaj, 112.

The New Dispensation, 117.

The Sadharan Somaj, 118.

Creation, Yedantic account of, 49.

Cremation, 453.

Crime, 419.

D.

Daooity, 435.

Dadu Panthis, The, 67.

Dakshinas, The, 92.

Dais, or caste committees, 161.

Dandis, The, 84.

Dasahara, The festival of, 219.

Dasnami Dandis, The, 85.

Dead, Treatment of the, 439.

Deities, Change of, 44. ,

Special, lauded in the Pura-

nas, 45.

The older,not now worshipped,

54.

Devendra Nath Tagoie, 108.

Devotion of the Hindus, 240.

Dhenki, Worship of the, 218.

Digambaras, The, 104.

Dishonesty, 401,

Dol Jatra, The, 235, 286.

Durga Puja, The, 227.

Dying, Treatment of the, 445.

E.

Ekodasi, Figure of, at Puri, 279.

Family system of Hindus, The, 21.

Fate, 320.

Festivals, Beligions, 214, 304.

Filial respect, 416.

First-fruits, The feast of, 233.

Forgery, 407.

Funeral ceremonies, 439, 455.

Ganapatyas, The, 97.

Ganga Sagar, 253.

Ganges, Hymn to the, 260, 442.

Carrying water from the, 261-

Benefitof dying near the, 441.

Ganga, " Bejected of," 451,

Gaya, 262.

Ghataks, or marriage brokers, 345.

Ghat murders. The, 447.

Ghentu, the god of itch, 235.

Girls, Worship as taught to, 341.

Gods, How made immortaJ, 473.

Good works. The benefit of, 485.

Gopal, Worship of, 212.

Govinda Singhas, The, 99.

Grihastha stage. The, of Brahmans„131.

Grihini, The, 25.

Guests, The duty of feeding, 201.

Guru, The, 26.

Initiation by the, 28.

Power and influence of, 31.

Teaching given by the, 301.

H.

Hanging, common form of murder,.

429.

INDEX. 491

Heaven, 476, 480.

Hell, 481.

Impossibility of escape from,

480.

Heroes, Worship of, 343.

Hinduism, Changes in form of, 38.

Difficulty of defining, 56.

absorbing the aborigines, 176Hindus, Daily duties of the, 201.

Holiness of God admitted, 816.

Home, The Hindu, 17.

Home instruction, 299.

Horoscope, The, 15.

House, Description of a Hindu, 17.

of a Eyot's, 19.

Image worship, 215.

Immorality, 412.

Incarnations, Belief in, 317.

Indifference to other religions, 43.

Industry, 414.

Infanticide, 431.

Ingratitude, 397.

Initiation into Hinduism, 28.

Instruction in Hinduism, 299.

Jagaddhatri, Festival of, 233.

Jagannatha, Worship of, 220, 223.

Shrine of, at Puri, 268.

a form of Buddhism, 273.

Images of, 281.

Festivals of, at Puri, 284.

Jains, The, 99.

Jangamas, The, 87.

Janmasthami, Festival of, 290.

Jatras described, 224.

Jayadeva, Legend of, 58.

Jiva, a division of existenceamongstthe Jains, 101.

Jnlana Jatra, The, 224.

K.

Kabir Panthis, The, 64.

Kali Ghat, 252.

Kacha Sad, Ceremony of, 3.

Karta, The, 23.

Karta Bhojas, 80.

Kartikeya, Worship of, 233.

Karmahinas, The, 53.

Kayasthas, The, 159.

Keshub Chundra Sen, 110.

Khakis, The, 67.

Kshatriyas, The, 135.

Kil, 67.

Kiratis, The, 95.

Krishna Puja, The, 343.

Krishna treatment of women. The,

8.

Kulinism, 179.

Kuvera's heaven described, 481.

Lakshmi, Festival of, 231.

Lying-in-women, Treatment of, 8.

M.

Madhwacharis, The, 72.

Mahatsava, 79.

Maluk Dasis, 67.

Man, Yedantic account of, 49.

Manasa, Worship of, 225.

Mankamika well. The, 250.

Mantras, The, 28.

Manu, as an authority, 331.

Marriage ceremonies, 345.

Maya, 318.

Merit, Beligions, 312.

mra Bais, The, 71.

Morals, 395.

Moral Law not found in Vedantism,

51.

Murder, Characteristics of, 421.

492 INDEX.

N.

Nagas, The, 82, 99.

Name-giving, 13.

Names of the gods, Bepetition of

the, 203.

Namkirton, an act of worship, 79.

Nahusha, 151.

l^andotsaba. Festival of, 226.

New Dispensation, The, 114.

Nirmalas, The, 99.

0.

Ola Bibi, the goddess of cholera,

235.

P.

Fanchamrita Festival, The, 3.

Pantheon, Changes in the, 44.

Pantheism, 319.

Paramhansas, The, 88.

Parental love, 417.

Parasorama, 155.

Patience of Hindus, 415.

Penance, Power of, 314.

Perfection of manhood, 478.

Perjury, 403.

Pilgrimage, 240.

Benefits of, 250, 256, 265.

Fipa, Legend of, 64.

Poitra, Investiture with the, 28.

Poisons, Use of, 422.

Polygamy, 179.

Poor Law, not foimd in India, 26.

Poushali, 234.

Puranas, Sectarian character of the,

46.

Priest, The family, 26.

Puri, The shrine of, 268.

Hindu period, 270.

. Buddhistic period, 272.

Vaishnava period, 273.

Building of temple at, 274.

Puri, Licentious character of wor-

ship at, 276.

The work of pilgrims at, 277,

Miracles at, 278.

Purification of women after child-

birth, 12.

B.

Badha Yallabhis, The, 81.

Bai Dasis, The, 68.

Bajputs, Description of the, 420.

Bamanujas, The, 59.

Bamanandis, The, 61.

Bama Mohun Bai, 106.

Bamayana account of caste. The,

143.

Bamrayas, The, 98.

Basa Jatra, The, 233.

Bath Jatra, The, 223, 288.

Beading of the Sastras, The, 306.

Bepetition of the names of the gods,

310.

Beligious ideas common to all Hin-

dus, 314.

Bevenge, 411.

Bewards and Punishments, 471,

477.

Bivalry amongst the deities, 45.

Budra Sampradayis, The, 69.

S.

Sati, Account of, 377, 381, 388.

Supposed origin of, 422.

Sadharan Somaj, The, 118.

Saivism, Bise of, 40.

Saivite Sects, 53, 83.

Sadhus, The, 104.

Saktas, The, 91, 203.

Sakhi Bhasas, The, 81.

Salgrama, The, 202, 321.

Sankara's excuse for teaching idola-

try, 55, 84.

INDEX. 493

Sankirton, The, 79.

Sanyasis, The, 81, 133.

Saajuti Yrata, 344.

Sasthi, 7, 221.

Sarasvati, Festival of, 234.

Satasanka, a name for childbirth, 5.

Satnamis, The, 105.

Satapada Brahmana quoted con-

cerning caste, 141.

Sanrapatas, The, 97.

Sects, Bemarks on Hindu, 41, 56.

existing in 14th century, 53.

Sectarianism of the Puranas, 45.

Bepudiation of, by Hindus,

46.

Shyama, Festival of, 231.

Shitala, The goddess of small-pox,

235.

Shrines, Conduct of pilgrims at,

242.

Shrine, Formation of a new, 243.

Schools, Hindu teaching in, 301.

Siok, Exposure of the, 440.

Shradha, The, of a Brahman, 265,

459.

of a Kayastha, 465.

Account of a recent celebrated,

468.

Sikhs, The, 97.

Siva Narayanas, 105.

Siva, Worship of, 293.

-•— Festivals of, 294.

Siva Puja for girls, 341.

Spashtha Dyaks, 80.

Snan Jatra, The, 220, 287.

Sons, Desire of Hindus for, 91,

338.

Son-in-law festival. The, 223.

Sravakas, The, 102.

Sri Sampradayis, The, 59.

Subhacluni, Worship of, 12.

Suthreh Shahis, The, 99.

Sudras, Position of the, 137.

Supremacy of one God, The, 391,

309.

Suicide, 429.

Swarga, Siva's heaven, 480.

Swetambaras, The, 103.

Thakur, a deity worshipped by preg-

nant women, 5.

Temples, Worship at, 209.

Temples, Plan of Hindu, 210.

Thugs, 428.

Torture, 435.

Transmigration of souls, 483.

Tulsi Dass, a Hindu poet, 57.

U.

tidasis. The, 98.

Ulta Bath Festival, The, 223.

Uncooked food ceremony, The, 3.

Unity of the godhead, 315.

Untmthfubiess, 399.

Vaishnavas of Bengal, The, 72.

Vaishnavas, The, 52.

Vairagis, The, 82.

Vaishyas, The, 137.

Vaikuntha, Vishnu's heaven, 480.

Valibhacharis, 69.

Vamacharis, The, 93.

Vanaprastha, the hermit, 132.

Vayu Purana on caste, Brahman,

stage of a, 142.

Vedantists, The, 49.

Vena, 151.

Vidhata, 10.

Vishnu Swami, 69.

Vedio deities forgotten, 54.

Visvamitra, 152.

494 INDEX.

Vishnu Fuiana on caste, 142.

Benefits from worshipping,

311.

Vindu Sagara lake, 298.

Vows, 339,

W.

"Widows, Cruel treatment of, 364.'- Burning of, 377.

Woman, Teaching of Law Booksrespecting, 327.

Position of, in early times,

385.

Woman in the home, 355.

duty towards husband, 858,

Uneducated, 361,

Improvements in position of,

374.

Worship, 193.

how sustained, 298.

Objects sought by, 308.

Y.

Tama, The god of Hades, 472.

Tatis, The, 102.

Yogis, 86.

TTHWZN BBOTHEBS, THE GBESHAM PBESS, CHILWOBTE AHD LONDON,

HINDU MYTHOLOGY,VEDIC AND PURlNIC.

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" HISTORIA SANCT^ CRUCIS." With Illustrations.

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Home Again

!

The Garden Party.Geraldine makes a discovery.Isolina's Flight.

Wedding Bcl.s.

Capri.

Isolina," Good-bye, Capri."The Yellow Cottage.

The School Treat.

A Children's Story-Book.

PRINCE PEERLESS: A Fairy-Folk Story-Book. Bythe Hon. Margaret Collier (Madame Galletti diCadilhac). Author of "Our Home by the Adriatic."Illustrated by the Hon. John Collier. Square Imp.i6mo., cloth 5s.

Contents.

Fairy Folk.The Great Snow Mountain.The Ill-Starred Princess.

The Sick Fairy.

Two Fairies.

The Shadow World.Prince Peerless.

Something New.

A Boy's Story-Book.

BOYS' OWN STORIES. By Ascott R. Hope, Authorof " Stories of Young Adventurers," " Stories out ofSchool Time," &c. Eight Illustrations. Crown 8vo.,

cloth Ss.

A series of glimpses into the state of Etirope during the great days of our grand-fathers, that may serve to illustrate, or perhaps to introduce closer study of, a periodrich in fa'cts as strange and moving as any fiction. The materials for the stories havebeen supplied in each case by the hero of the several narratives, which thus form so manyromances of real life. This, in some respects, new departure Jn juvenile literature will,

it is ho^ed by the author, give the youngsters an opportunity of realising the fact that" truth is stranger than Action."

6 Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Square.

Autumn-Christmas Season, 1886.

By Author of ". How to be Happy though Married.""MANNERS MAKYTH MAN." Imp. i6mo., cloth,

6s. ; fine edition, bevelled edges, in box . . 7s. 6d.Some of the Contents.—Good Manners—"God Almighty's Gen-

tlemen "—Matrimonial Manners—A Husband-and-Wife Mutual Improve-ment Society—Family Government—Keeping up Appearances—Conver-sation—Tippling—Travelling with Advants^e—Are our Manners andMorals Perfect?—Misapplied Virtues—Vital Force—Success in Life

—

Distinguished Service in Passion—What is Religion ?—The Wisdom of the

Foolish—The Wise Man's Conclusion.Extract from Preface.—" I am showing mygratitude to the public for their very

Icind reception of * How to be Happy though Married * by now presenting to them another' little book with my best ' manners 1' It is not a book of etiquette, for 1 am by no means amaster ofceremonies ; nor does the motto of Winchester College, ' Manners Makyth Man,'refer to those social rules and forms which are often only substitutes for good manners,but rather to manners in the old sense of the word which we see in the text, ' Evil com-munications corrupt good manners.'

"

A COMTIST LOVER, and Other Studies. By ElizabethRachel Chapman, Author of "The New Godiva,""ATourist Idyl," &c. Crown 8vo., cloth . . .6s.

Contents.—Part I.—A Comtist Lover : Being a Dialogue on Positivism

and the Zeitgeist—The Extension of the Law of Kindness : Being an Essayon the Rights of Animals. Part II.—The Delphine of Madame de Stael

—Some immortality-Thoughts—Some Novels of William Black.

"Lays of a Lazy Minstrel."THE LAZY MINSTREL. By J. Ashby - Sterry,

Author of " Boudoir Ballads," " Shuttlecock Papers," &c.With vignette frontispiece. Fcap. 8vo., cloth, printed onhand-made paper . 6s.

Fine Edition of 50 copies of the above, crown 4to.,

printed on Dutch hand-made paper, each copy numberedand signed by the Author . . . ;^i is. net.

Some of the Chief Contents.—Hambledon Lock—Spring's De-lights—My Country Cousin—A Common-Sense Carol—Saint May—DoctorBrighton—Symphonies in Fur—Lawn Tennis in Winter—The Music ofLeaves—In My Easy Chair—Two Naughty Girls—In Strawberry Time

—

In an Old City Church—The Pink of Perfection—A Traveller's Tarantella

—Henley in July—The Baby in the Train—Love Locks.

CHERRY-STONES. A Book of Sonnets and Miscel-

laneous Pieces, mostly of Anglo-Indian subjects. ByGreece C. Dutt. Crown 8vo. 6s.

New ami Recent Books.

Autumn-Christmas Season, 1886.

Addresses to Children.

THE BIRD'S NEST, and Other Sermons for Children

of all Ages. By Rev. Samuel Cox, D.D., Author of

" Expositions," " Salvator Mundi," &c Crown 8vo.,

doth 6s.

Extract from Preface.—" I have often been urged to print these Discourses bythose who heard them. ... I can only hope that, in them, these pages may revivemany happy memories ; and that God may deign to use the Sermons to which the^listened so attentively for the good of many who did not hear them. . , . Thisvolume advances for itself, at least, one modest pretension. It is the only volume ofexpository sermons addressed to children of which I am aware : and if it brings out themeaning and applies the lesson of words given by inspiration of God, it can hardly fail to

do some good to the children who read it.'

Christian Evidences.

THE BIBLE AND THE AGE; or, An Elucidation

of the Principles of a Consistent and Verifiable Interpre-

tation of Scripture. By Cuthbert Collingwood, M.A.,and B.M. Oxon, Author of " New Studies in Christian

Theology," " A Vision of Creation," &c. Demy 8vo.,

cloth los. 6d.

THE BERWICK HYMNAL. Edited by the Rev. A.

W. Oxford, M.A., Vicar of St. Luke's, Berwick Street,

Soho. Imp. 32mo 2S.

THE PAROUSIA. A Critical Inquiry into the NewTestament Doctrine of Our Lord's Second Coming.

By the Rev. J. S. Russell, M.A. New and cheaper

Edition. Demy 8vo., cloth . • . .7s. 6d.

ANNE GILCHRIST : Her Life and Writings. Edited

by Herbert Harlakenden Gilchrist. Containing 8

Illustrations, and an Introductory Preface by WilliamMichael Rosettl Demy 8vo., cloth . . . i6s.

[/« preparation.

8 Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Square.

THE STORY OF THE NATIONS." The series is likely to be found indispensable in every school library."

—

Pall Mall Gazetle

A Series of Short Popular Histories, printed in good readable

type, and forming handsome well-bound volumes. Crown 8vo.,

. Illustrated and furnished with Maps and Indexes, price 53. each.

ROME. By Arthur Oilman, M.A., Author of "A History

of the American People," &c. Second Edition." We heartily commend this volume."

—

Schoolmaster."A clear and complete view of the rise and progress of the Roman nation."

—

Conffregationalisi.

THE JEWS : In Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Times.

By Prof. J. K. Hosmer." The story of the Jews, when well told, as it is here, is one of thrilling satisfaction,

and fruitful in instruction."

—

Educational Titnes.

GERMANY. Rev. S. Baring-Gould, Author of "CuriousMyths of the Middle Ages," &c. [In September.

CARTHAGE. By Prof. Alfred J. Church, Author of" Stories from the Classics," &c. [/« October.

THE MOORS IN SPAIN. By Stanley Lane Poole,Author of " Studies in a Mosque," &c. [/« November.

EGYPT. By Prof. Geo. Rawlinson, Author of " The Five

Great Monarchies of the World," &c. [/« December.

ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. By Prof. J. P. Mahaffy,Author of " Social Life in Greece," &c. [In preparation.

HUNGARY. By Prof. Vamb^ry, Author of "Travels in

Central Asia," &c. [In preparation.

SPAIN. By Rev. E. E. and Susan Hale. [In preparation.

Other Volumes in preparation.

New and Recent Books.

Autumn-Christmas Season, 1886.

POLITICAL WORKS.

Ireland and Home Rule.

THE MAKING OF THE IRISH NATION : ANDTHE FIRST-FRUITS OF FEDERATION. By J. A.Partridge, Author of "Democracy: Its Factors andConditions," " From Feudal to Federal," &c. Demy 8vo.,

cloth 6s.

*'This is a complete handbook on the Irish question. . . . The whole case is stated byMr. Partridge in the clearest and most cogent fashion. As a piece of literary workman-ship, the book is for the most part of the highest class. The style is lofty^ the tone is

often passionate and extreme, but the ^gumentation is throughout sound,"

—

LancasterGuardian,

LABOUR, LAND, AND LAW: A Search for the

Missing Wealth of the Working Poor. By William A.Phillips, Member of the Committee on Public Lands,Forty-third Congress, and on Banking and Currency,

Forty-fifth Congress. Demy 8vo., cloth . . .9s." He writes in a clear, brisk American style, which leaves his readers in no doubt as to

what he means. He is evidently a man of considerable ability and a student of social

and economical problems. . . . There is a great deal of statistical information to be foundin * Labour, Land, and Law.' "

—

St. James's Gazette,

THE BALKAN PENINSULA. By M. Emile deLaveleye. Translated by Mrs. Thorpe. Edited andRevised for the English public by the Author. With a

new chapter bringing events up to date. 8vo., cloth.

\In preparatioTit

THE BRIDE OF GREENLAWNS; or, William

Woodman's Trust. A Parable of Mr.. Gladstone andIreland. Fcap. 8vo 6d.

DOTTINGS OF A DOSSER." Being Revelations ot

the Inner Life of Low London Lodging Houses. ByHoward J._Goldsmid. Fcap. 8vo. . . .is.

10 Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Square.

Autumn-Christmas Season, 1886.

NEW EDITIONS.Bridal Gift Edition of

HOW TO BE HAPPY THOUGH MARRIED.Being a Handbook to Marriage. By a Graduate in the

University of Matrimony. White vellum cloth, extra

gilt, bev. boards, gilt edges, in box . . .7s. 6d." We strongly recommend this book as one of the best of wedding presents. It is a

complete handbook to an earthly Paradise, and its author may be regarded as the Murrayof Matrimony and the Baedeker of Bliss."

—

Pall Mall Gazette."The author has successfully accomplished a difficult task in writing a clever and

practical book on the important subject of matrimony. ,'. . . This book, which is at once

entertaining and full of wise precepts, deserves to be widely read."

—

Morning' Post," An entertaining volume The new guide to matrimonial felicity."

—

Standard^ Leader,

Also, Fourth and Popular Edition.HOW TO BE HAPPY THOUGH MARRIED.

Being a Handbook to Marriage. Small square 8vo., 3s. 6d.

CHARLES DICKENS AS I KNEW HIM: TheStory of the Reading Tours in Great Britain and America(1866-1870). By George Dolby. New and cheaper

edition. Crown Svo 3s. 6d." Win certainly be read with interest by all who admire the great writer,"

—

DailyTclegrapk. ^^THEDAWNOFTHENINETEENTHCENTURY

IN ENGLAND : A Social Sketch of the Times. By JohnAsHTON, Author of " Social Life in' the R^ign of QueenAnne,"&c. Cheapered.,in i vol. Illus.La.cr. 8vo.,ios. 6d.

*' The book is one continued source of pleasure and interest, and opens up a wide field

for speculation and comment. No one can take it up in a moody moment without losing

much of his discontent, and many of us will look upon it as an important contribution tocontemporary history, not easily available to others than close students, and not madeinto its pleasing and entertaining form without a literary skill which is not by any meanscommon."

—

Antiquary, ^A New and Cheaper Edition (being the Fifth) of

THE LIVES OF ROBERT & MARY MOFFAT.By their Son, John Smith Moffat. With New Preface

and Supplementary Chapter by the Author. FourPortraits, Four Illustrations (two of which are new), andTwo Maps. Crown 8vo., cloth ... 7s. 6d.

"An inspiring record of calm, brave, wise work, and will find a place of value on the

honoured shelf of missionary biography. The biographer has done his work withreverent care, and in a straightforward, unaffected style. " Contemporary Review,

New and Recent Books. ii

Autumn-Christmas Season, 1886.

New Editions—continued.

STUDIES OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURYIN ITALY. By Vernon Lee, Author of " Ottilie," &c.Demy 8vo., cloth ...... 7s. 6d.

"These studies show a wide range of knowledge of the subject, precise investigation,

abundant power of illustration, and healthy enthusiasm. . . . The style of writing is

cultivated, neatly adjusted, and markedly clever."

—

Saturday Review." A singularly delightful and very able ^l6i^ixa&"^Westminster Review.

EUPHORION : Studies of the Antique and the Mediaeval

in the Renaissance. By Vernon Lee, Author of" Belcaro," &c. Cheap Edition in one volume. Demy8vo., cloth 7s. 6d.

"(The book is bold, extensive in sfope, and replete with well-defined and unhackneyedideas, clear impressions, and vigorous and persuasive modes of writing.

—

Aihenawn,

BELCARO : Being Essays on Sundry ^sthetical Questions.

By Vernon Lee, Author of " Euphorion," " Baldwin,"

&c. Crown 8vo., cloth 5s." This way of conveying ideas is very fascinating, and has an effect of creating activity

in the reader's mind which no other mode can equal. From first to last there is a continu.

ous and delightful stimulation of thought."

—

Academy.

POETS IN THE GARDEN. By May Crommelin,Author of " Joy," " In the West Countrie," &c. Cheapand Popular Edition, with Coloured Frontispiece. Square

pott i6mo., cloth binding 6s.

This edition is printed on a thinner paper, and more simply bound. The text, how-ever, is identical with the half-guinea edition.

_\—Times,

"Decidedly a happy idea. . . . The volume is finely printed, and gracefully designed."" Merely to describe this book is to write its commendation. It 'is an anthology in a

double sense. "

—

Academy, ^

Still on sale, a few copies of the First Edition, containing

Eight Coloured Illustrations. Square pott i6mo., cloth

elegant, fine paper, gilt edges, bev. boards . • los. 6d.

Popular Edition of the "Shah Nameh."HEROIC TALES. Retold from Firdusi the Persian. By

Helen Zimmern, Author of " Stories in Precious Stones,"

&c. With Etchings by L. Alma Tadema, and Prefatory

Poem by E. W. Gosse. Pop Ed. Cr. 8vo., cl. extra, 5s.

"Charming firom beginning to end. . . Miss Zimmern deserves all credit for her

courage in attempting the task, and for' her marvellous success in carrying it out."—Saturdav Review.

12 Mr, T. Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Square.

Autumn-Christmas Season, 1886.

New Editions—continued.

A DIARY OF GOLDEN THOUGHTS FOR THEYEAR. New edition, interleaved with ruled paper. Canbe used as a Birthday and Event Book of the Home Life.

Cloth boards, 2s. ; Parchment . . . .is. 6d."A little oblong book, very daintily and tastefully got-up, containing admirably

selected brief extracts from great writers."

—

Academy.

A ROLL OF GOLDEN THOUGHTS FOR THEYEAR ; or, Permanent Diary of Wise Sayings from the

Best Writers of all Times and Climes. Contents identical

with the above, but arranged in oblong shape. Mountedon gilt wire, and suspended by ribands . . is. 6d.

" Choicely and delicately produced."^C^m/.««.

FAIRY TALES FROM BRENTANO. Told in

English by Kate Freiligrath Kroeker. Twenty-two

Illustrations by F. Carruthers Gould. Cheap and

Popular Edition. Square Imp. i6mo. . . 3s. 6d." The extravagance of invention.displayed in his tales will render them welcome in the

nursery. The translation—not an easy task—has been very cleverly accomplished."

—

The Academy."An admirable translator in Madame Kroeker, and an inimitable illustrator in

Mr. Carruthers Gould."—7"r»M.

WHEN I WAS A CHILD ; or, Left Behind. By LindaViLLARi, Author of " On Tuscan Hills," &c. Illustrated.

Square -8vo., cloth, gilt edges .... 3s. 6d." It is fresh and bright from the first chapter to the \asX."—Morning Post.* A very clever, vivid and realistic story."

—

Truth.

SOUTHW^OOD : A Tale. By Catharine Sturge, Com-piler of " A Diurnal for the Changes and Chances of this

' Mortal Life," &c. Frontispiece. Sm. cr. 8vo., 2s. 6d." A thoroughly healthy and well-written tale. The plot is very %aoA"—Presbyterian

Messenger.

THE CHILDREN'S BOUQUET OF VERSEAND HYMN. Gathered by Aunt Sarah and Cousin

Grace. 32mo., red edges, cloth elegant, or wood : maple,

cedar, walnut, or cycamore . . . . . is.

" Love for the little ones has clearly been at work in the making of this selection

;

good taste as well, and a most catholic s^mfaClxy."—Christian Leader.

New and Recent Books. 13

NEW TWO-VOLUME NOVELS.THE TOUCHSTONE OF PERIL: A Tale of the

Indian Mutiny. By Dudley Hardress Thomas. Twovols. Crown 8vo. [Ready) .... ;£\ is.

A YEAR IN EDEN. By Harriet Waters Preston.Two vols. Crown 8vo. {In October) . . £,x is.

Recent Novels. Two Volumes. Price :£i is. each.

CAMILLA'S GIRLHOOD. By Linda Villari."Brightly written. . . . It is from first to last a favourable and pure-toned specimen

of Anglo-Italian fiction."—ATomiwg- Post.

THE BACHELOR VICAR OF NEWFORTH.By Mrs. A. Harcourt-Roe.

" Bnght and readable."

—

AtheruBUm.

ICHABOD : A Portrait. By Bertha Thomas.'* It is indubitably the work of a clever woman."

—

Athenseum,

A NOBLE KINSMAN. By Anton Giulio Barrili." a good translation of a very pretty story."

—

Guardian.

JEPHTHAH'S DAUGHTER. By Jane H. Spettigue.

THE CHANCELLOR OF THE TYROL. ByHerman Schmid.

"A clever and original sxoxy."—Daily Telegraph.

WILBOURNE HALL. By Mrs. Caumont."An agreeable novel,"

—

Spectator.,

HENRY IRVING: in England and America, 1838-1884.

By Frederic Daly. With a Vignette Portrait specially

etched by Ad. Lalauze. Second thousand. Crown 8vo.,

cloth extra ; S^-" Mr. Daly sets forth his materials with a due sense of proportion, and writes in a

pleasing vein."—Z^azTc Neius._ . „ „ •, -n 7" Conscientiously full, thoughtfully considered, and gracefully written. —Vaily lele-

THE SEVEN AGES OF MAN. From Shakespeare's

" As You Like it." Popular Edition. Illustrated with

Woodcuts. Sq. pott i6rao., cl. elega'ht, 'bev. boards,

gilt edges S^-" Strongly contrast the old and new style of engraving. . . . The various artists have

all been weH chosen."

—

Graphic.

14 Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Sqtuire.

NEW AND RECENT NOVELS AT SIX SHILLINGS/Large Crown 8vO., cloth.

MELITA : A Turkish Love-Story. By Louise M. Richte]^." Her story is interesting on its own account; but its background of Turkish life aild

character gives it an additional charm of freshness. "

—

A tketuEunu\

MERCIFUL OR MERCILESS ? By Stackpool E.

O'Dell, Author of " Old St. Margaret's."

"Animated pictures of nature. . . . Easy lightness of style.

—

Saturday Review.

THE LAST STAKE : A Tale of Monte Carlo. ByMadame R. Foli. Illustrated.

" Madame Foil's graphic narrative will do much to lift the veil from the horrors andseductions of the gaming tables of Monte Carlo."

—

Academy.

TARANTELLA: A Romance. By Mathilde Blind,Author of " Life of George Eliot." Second edition.

"Told with great spirit and effect, and shows very considerable power."

—

Pall Mall,

VALENTINO. By William Waldorf Astor." A remarkable historical romance. . . . Forcibly written."

—

MorningPost,

GLADYS FANE: The Story of Two Lives. By T.

Wemyss Reid. Fourth and popular edition.

" A good and clever book, which few readers who beg^n it are likely to put downunfinished."

—

Saturday Review^

THE AMAZON : An Art Novel. By Carl Vosmaer.Preface by Prof. Georg Ebers, and Front, drawn specially

by L. Alma Tadema, R.A." It is a work full of deep, suggastive thought."

—

The Academy,

MAJOR FRANK : A Novel. By A. L. G. Bosboom-ToussAiNT. Trans, from the Dutch by Jas. Akeroyd.

•' It is a pleasant, bright, fresh book."

—

Truth.

THE POISON TREE: A Tale of Hindu Life in

Bengal. By B.Chandra Chatterjee. Introduction byEdwin Arnold, M.A., C.S.I.

"The healthiness and purity of tone throughout the hook."—Academy.

New and Recent Books. 15

THE 4s. 6d. SERIES OF NOVELS.Crown 8vo., cloth.

STRUGGLES TO LIVE : A Study of Life, Love andCharacter in a Country Town, By A. Bower.

FRANCIS: A Socialistic Romance. Being for the most part

an Idyll of England and Summer. By M. Dal Vero,Author of "A Heroine of the Commonplace."

"A very bright, cheery and pretty story."

—

Academy,

THE LAST MEETING : A Story. By BranderMatthews, Author of **The Theatres of Paris," &c.

" Mr. Brander Matthews' new novel is one of the pleasantest and most entertainingbooks that I have read for some time. There is vigorous character-drawing ; and thecharacters are, for the most part, men and women in whose company one is pleased topass the time. There are many clever and shre;wd remarks, considerable humour, andsome wit.'*

—

Academy^

A LOST SON. By Mary Linskill, Author of '' Hagar,"

,

*' Between the Heather and the Northern Sea," &c." The book's doctrine is wholesome, and its religion free from any trace of cant."

—

Spectator.• " Miss Linskill not only shows a quick power of observation, but writes with guod taste

and without affectation,"

—

Athenaum,

THE BECKSIDE BOGGLE, and Other Lake CountryStories. By Alice Rea. Illustrated.

*' The interest of the volume lies in its evidently faithful reproduction of Lake Coimtry

speech character, and manners. , .... A pleasant one and wholesome,"—Grrt^Afc,

TWO VOLUMES OF SHORT STORIES.TALES IN THE SPEECH-HOUSE, By Charles

Grindrod, Author of " Plays from English History," &c.

Illustrated. Crown 8vo., cloth . . . . 6s.•* We can say honestly to everyone who can lay hands on them—Read them.'*

—

** Sweetly and powerfully told.'*

—

Manchester Guardian, \Scotsman^

THE QUEEN OF THE ARENA, AND OTHERSTORIES. By Stewart Harrison. Illust. Crown8vo., cloth ........ 6s.

" Major Harrison has a fresh and lively style, he is so far from being tedious that herather tends to the opposite extreme, and he shows considerable versatility of powers,with an extensive knowledge of the world."

—

Times.

16 Mr, T. Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Square,

VERNON LEE'S WORKS.BALDWIN : Being Dialogues on Views and Aspirations.

Demy 8vo., cloth . . . . . . . i2S.i

•'Worthcarefulstudy from more than one side. It has a message for all people, to

which only indolence or indifference can be deaf. . . . The subjects proposed a«discussed courageously and consciei^tiously, and often with a compressionand force whictfills part of the book with pregnant suggestion. . . . One cannot read a page of * Baldwin'without feeling the wiser for it."

—

Academy.j

EUPHORION: Studies of the Antique and the Medisevdin the Renaissance. Cheap ed. Demy 8vo., cloth, 7s. 6d,

*' The book is bold, extensive in scope, and replete with well-defined and unhackneyedt

ideaSj clear impressions, and vigorous and persuasive modes of writing."

—

Athetusufn, I

STUDIES OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY/IN ITALY. Demy 8vo., cloth . . .7s. 6d.

" These studies show a wide range ofknowledge of the subject, precise investig;ation, I

abundant power of illustration, aud healthy enthusiasm. , . . The style of writingcultivated, neatly adjusted, and markedly clever."

—

Saturday Review.\

*'A singularly delightful and very able volume."

—

Westminster Review.

BELCARO : Being Essays on Sundry -^sthetical Questions.

Crown 8vo., cloth ....... 5s." This way of conveying ideas is very fascinating, and has an effect of creating

activity in the reader's mind which no other mode can equal. From first to last there is acontinuous and delightful stimulation of thought.*'—^cix^m^.

OTTILIE : An Eighteenth Century Idyl. Square 8vo., cloth

extra ........ 3s. 6d-" A graceful little sketch. . . . Drawn with full insight into the period described."

Spectator." Pleasantly and carefully written. . . . The Author lets the reader have a glimpse

of Germany in the * Sturm und Drang • period."

—

A ihenmum." A graceful little picture. . . . Charming all through."

—

Academy,

THE PRINCE OF THE HUNDRED SOUPS:A Puppet Show in Narrative. Edited, with a Preface byVernon Lee. lUust. Cheaper edition. Square 8vo.,

cloth 3s. 6d.*' There is more humour in the volume than in half-a-dozen ordinary pantomimes."

—

^^_ Spectator.

SUMMER: From the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau..Edited by H. G. O. Blake. Index. Map. Cr. 8vo., 7s. 6d.

'* A most delightful book."

—

Times." As pleasant a book as can well be imagined."—AiAatamn.

ECHETLUS: Considerations upon Culture in England.

By George Whetenall. Crown 8vo., cloth . 4s. 6d." Very thoughtful, earnest, and exceedingly clever There is an unquestionable

streak of genius in the composition of this small work."

—

Christian World.

New and Recent Boohs. 17

THE LIFE and TIMES OF WILLIAM LLOYDGARRISON, 1805-1840 : The Story of His Life told byHis Children. In two vols., with upwards of 20 Portraits

\ and Illustrations. Demy 8vo. . . . ^i los." The prime mover in the cause of Abolition well deserved an exhaustive biography,

and English Literature can well afford to assign a permanent and honourable place to thedescription of a man who accomplished a great work, and whose right to figure amongsuch men as Wilberforce, Clarkson, Brougham, and others cannot for a moment bedisputed."

—

Times,

OLE BULL : A Memoir. By Sara C. Bull. WithOle Bull's "Violin Notes'* and Dr. A, B. Crosby's''Anatomy of the Violinist." Portraits. Second edition.

Crown 8vo. , cloth , 7s. 6d.*' Full ofgood stories. It is difficult to know where to choose.'"

—

Saturday Review.•' A_word of commendation must be oflfered to the young widow of this distinguished

musician for the tact and ability displayed in compiling and arranging the work,"

—

Morning Post.

THE LIFE & TIMES OF SAMUEL BOW^LES,Editor of The Springfield Republican. By Geo. S.

Merriam. Portrait. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. . £,\ is." Its pictures of American journalism, so closely interwoven with party struggles,

render it a contribution of some interest to the history of the Union during some ofitsmost critical times."

—

Daily News.

PILGRIM SORROW. By Carmen Sylvia (The Queenof Roumania). Translated by Helen Zimmern, Authorof "The Epic of Kings." Portrait-etching by Lalauze.Square Crown 8vo., cloth extra . . . - ss.

" For this nature of literature the Queen appears to have a special gift. . , , Andnever has she been happier than in her Liedejts Erdengang;, which lies before us to-day."—Literary World (Review of the German edition).

ON TUSCAN HILLS AND VENETIANWATERS. By Linda VillarI, Author of "Camilla's

Girlhood," &c. Illust. Square Imperial i6mo. 7s. 6d."Next to the privilege of visiting these localities, this book is the best thing, and no

expense has been spared in making the volume an artistic ^-o-Cq^s^."—Bookseller,

LONDON AND ELSEWHERE. By ThomasPuRNELL, Author of " Literature and its Professors,"

&c. Fcap. 8vo .IS."The book is admirably adapted to the season—Ii|;ht in topic and bright in manner,

readable from first to last, and, unlike most holiday literature, worth keeping after it has

been read."

—

Globe.

1 8 Mr. T, Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Square.

EXPOSITORY WORKS BY REV. S. COX.

"EXPOSITIONS." First Series. Dedicated to BaronTennyson. Third Thousand. Demy 8vo., cloth, 7s. 6d.

'*We have said enough to show our high opinion of Dr. Cox's volume. It is indeedfull of suggestion. . . . A valuable volume."

—

The Spectator.*' The Discoiurses are well worthy of their Author's reputation."

—

Inquirer.

"EXPOSITIONS." Second Series. Demy 8vo., cloth,

7s. 6d.'' The volume will take rank wjth the' noblest utterances of the day ; not merely because

they are eloquent—we have eloquence enough and to spare ; not because they arelearned—^learning is often labour and sorrow ; but because they will give fresh hope andheartj new light and faith to many for whom the world is * dark with griefs and graves.'

"

Nonconformist,

THE REALITY OF FAITH. By the Rev. NewmanSmyth, D.D., Author of /' Old Faiths in New Light."

Third and cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo., cloth, 4s. 6d.

" They are fresh and beautiful expositions of those deep things, those fotmdatioatruths, which underlie Christian faith and spiritual life in their varied manifestations."

—

Christian Age.

THE REALITY OF RELIGION. By Henry J.Van Dyke, Junr., D.D., of the Brick Church, N.Y.Second edition. Crown 8vo., cloth . . .4s. 6d.

" Mr. Van Dyke's volume is sure to bring help and strength to those who are earnestlystriving to enter into the realities of spiritual life."

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Christian Leader.

A LAYMAN'S STUDY OF THE ENGLISHBIBLE CONSIDERED IN ITS LITERARY ANDSECULAR ASPECTS. By. Francis Bowen, LL.D.Crown 8vo., cloth .4s. 6d.

" Most heartily do we recommend this little volume to the careful study, not only ofthose whose faith is not yet fixed and settled, but of those whose love for it and relianceon it grows with their growing years."

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Nonconformist. ^

THE UNKNOWN GOD, and other Sermons. By the

Rev. Alexander H. Craufurd, M.A., Author of "Seek-ing for Light." Crown 8vo., cloth . . .6s.

New and Recent Books. 19

MY STUDY, and other Essays. By Professor AustinPhelps, D.D., Author of " The Theory ofPreaching," &c.

Crown 8vo., cloth, bev. edges . . . . .6s." Marked by practical sense and genial, manly piety, and the book, as a whole, will

• scarcely be read without interest and profit."

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Muthodist Times,

THE CHRIST OF HISTORY. By John Young, LL.D.,

Author of " The Life and Light of Men," &c. Seventh

and Popular Edition. Crown 8vo. . . .3s. 6d.

GENESIS THE THIRD : History, not Fable. Being

the Merchants' Lecture for March, 1883. By EdwardWhite. Crown 8vo., cloth, is. ; sewed . . 6d.

PAYING THE PASTOR, Unscriptural and Traditional.

By James Beaty, D.C.L., Q.C., Member of the Canadian

Legislature. Crown 8vo 6s.

THE TEMPLE : Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations.

By Mr. George Herbert. New Edition, with Intro-

ductory Essay by J. Henry Shorthouse. Fourth edition.

Small crown, sheep, imitation of original binding, or in

paper boards, old style, uncut edges . . .5s.This is afacsimile reprint by typography of th& Original

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I'VE BEEN A-GIPSYING ; or. Rambles among our

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New and Revised edition. Crown 8vo., cloth . 3s. 6d." Mr. Smith's sketches of his visits to the gipsies are graphic and varied, and will, we

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whicli the author has already given yeoman's sarnce,"—Contemjiory Review.

THE ADVENTURES OF ROBINSON CRUSOE,By Daniel Defoe. Newly Edited after the Original

Editions. Twenty Coloured Illustrations by Kauffman.Fcap. 4to., cloth extra ..... 7s. 6d.

" This is irrefutably the edition of* Robinson Crusoe ' of the season. It is charmingly

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20 Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Square.

WORKS ON MISSIONS.

MEDICAL MISSIONS: Their Place and Power. ByJohn Lowe, F.R.C.S.E., Secretary of Edinburgh MedicalMissionary Society. Introduction by Sir William Muir,K.C.S.I., LL.D., D.C.L. Medallion Frontispiece. Second,edition. Crown 8vo., cloth . . . . ,i 5s.

" It would be almost impossible to speak too favourably of this book. It is beautJfullywritten, and deserves to be widely circulated."

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Presbyterian Messenger.

LIFE AND WORK IN BENARES ANDKUMAON, 1839-77. By Jas. Kennedy, M.A., Authorof " Christianity and the Religions of India." Introduction

by Sir Wm. Muir, K.C.S.I. lUust. Crown 8vo., cl(Jth, 6s." Of what he saw and did he writes agreeably, without obtruding the autobiographical

form._. . . The volume is better worth reading than others of much higher literary

pretensions."

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Academy.

MODERN MISSIONS: Their Trials and Triumphs.By B,OBERT Young, Assistant Secretary to the Missionsof the Free Church of Scotland. Map and Illustrations.

Third edition. Crown 8vo., cloth extra . . .5s.*' This book should certainly be placed upon the shelves of parish, congregational, and

Sunday-school libraries. It is brief and comprehensive."

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Christian World.

LIGHT IN LANDS OF DARKNESS: By RobertYoung, Author of ** Modem Missions." Illustrated.

Second edition. Crown 8vo., cloth extra . . 6s."To those who have read 'Modern Missions,* it will be suflScient to say that the

present work forms a worthy successor to that interesting and well-written book."

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^_^______________^^^^ Congregatiotmlisi.

THE TREASURE BOOK OF CONSOLATION :

For all in Sorrow or Suffering. Compiled and Edited byBenjamin Orme, M.A., Editor of " The Treasure Bookof Devotional Reading." Cr. 8vo., cl. extra, gilt top, 3s. 6d.

THE SHELLEY BIRTHDAY BOOK ANDCALENDAR. Compiled by J. R. Tutin. Crowni6mo., cloth, bev. boards, gilt edges . . .3s.

Large paper. Royal i6mo. (only 100 copies printed),

with proof impressions of the portrait . 7s. 6d.

New and Recent Books. 21.

CENTENARY SERIES.Fc3p. i2mo., antique paper, parchment boards, 2S. each. Mos. i and 3 may

also be had in paper covers, price is. each.

I. JOHN WICLIF, Patriot and Reformer: his Life andWritings. By Rudolf Buddensieg, Lie. Theol. Leipsic.

" Mr. Fisher Unwin has printed in delicious old text, with a frontispiece and vellumbinding worthy of an old Elzevir, Mr. Rudolf Buddeusieg's brief extracts frpm Wiclifwritings. . . . These are full of interest, and the little volume will be useful for

reference. *'—Gra/A/c.

2. THE TABLE TALK OF DR. MARTINLUTHER. By Prof. John Gibb.

"Deserves the very highest praise. Great discrimination has been shown in the choice

of extracts, and considerable skill in the grouping of them under appropriate heads."

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CongregatioTialzst.

DOCTOR JOHNSON: His Life, Wprks and Table

Talk. By Dr. Macaulay, Editor of The Leisure Hour,' An exceedingly pretty little book. . . . It gives a good taste of quality."

—

Book Lore.' It is a charmmg specimen of typograpjiy."

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Globe.

ABOUT THE THEATRE: Essays and Studies. ByWilliam Archer, Author of '* English Dramatists of

To-day," &c. Crown 8vo., cloth, bevelled edges, 7s. 6d." Theatrical subjects, from the Censorship of the Stage to the most recent phenomena

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Contemporary Review,

LITERARY LANDMARKS OF LONDON. ByLaurence Hutton. Second Edition. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

" It is a volume that everyone should possess who takes an interest in the local associa-

tions which London is so full of."

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Standard."Abounds with ii^eresting facts concerning the residence of famous men in the

apital."

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Daily News.

CHARLES WHITEHEAD : A Critical Monograp'h.

By H. T. Mackenzie Bell. Cheap and Popular edition.

Crown 8vo., cloth....... S^-" Mr. Mackenzie Bell has done a ^ood service in introducing us to a man of true genius

whose woi ks have sunk into mysteriously swift and complete oblivion."

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Contemporary

liez'iew.

22 Mr. 2\ Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Square.

NEW AND RECENT POETRY.

AN ITALIAN GARDEN: A Book ofSongs. By A. MaryF. Robinson, Author of "The Life of Emily Bronte,"

&c. Fcap. 8vo., parchment, or half-bound in Japanesepaper 3s. 6d.

"The author has a voice of her own, and Jier own vision of the world—not a loudvoice, not a brilliant vision, but sweet, tuneful, and not unsympathetic."

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Daily News,

A TIME AND TIMES : Ballads and Lyrics of East andWest. By A. Werner, Author of "The King of the

Silver City." Crown 8vo., paper board style, 3s. 6d." Deserves to be widely read, and will become a favourite with all AVho read it."

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J \

Literary World,

OLD YEAR LEAVES : A Volume of Collected Verse.

By H. T. Mackenzie Bell, Author of " Verses of Varied

Life," &c. Cheap edition. Crown 8vo. . . 5s."We have great pleasure, indeed, in commending these poems to our readers."

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Literary World.

VERSES OF VARIED LIFE. By H. T. MackenzieBell, Author of " Charles Whitehead," &c. Crown Svo.,

3s. 6d." There are some pretty lines and stanzas."

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Graphic,

MEASURED STEPS. By Ernest Radford. Crown8vo., cloth . . . . . . .4s.

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Frederick U^edmore, in The Academy.

A MINOR POET: And other Verses. By Amy Levy.Crown 8vo., paper board style, uncut edges . 3s. 6d.

" Her idea of the character of 'Xantippe* is certainly original, and several of hershorter pieces are simple, heartfelt, and harmonius."

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Whitehall Review.

HOPE'S GOSPEL, and Other Poems. By ArthurStephens. Fcap. Svo., cloth,bevelled edges . 3s. 6d-

" This bright little volume is full of the movement and viv^icity of a thought thatcomprehends the charm of progress, the hopefulness of effort."

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Literary World,

ORPHEUS, and Other Poems. By Alfred Emery.Fcap. 8vo., cloth 3s. 6d.

* Of considerable merit."

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Cambridge Revieyj,

New and Recent Books, 23

REPRESENTATIVE BRITISH ORATIONS.With Introductions, &c., by Chas. K. Adams. i6mo.Roxburgh, gilt tops, 3 vols., in clpth box . . 15s.

The Volumes may also be had without box . 13s. 6d-"These three elegantly printed volumes, enclosed in a neat box to imitate cloth binding,

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Daily News.*' At once an invaluable companion to the history of the most important centuries of

English History, and a fascinatmg course of study in some of the proudest productions ofBritish Oratory."

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Wkitekall RevieTv,

REPRESENTATIVE AMERICAN ORATIONS.With Introductions, &c., by Prof. Alexander Johnston,of New Jersey. 3 vols. i6mo., Roxburgh, gilt tops,

in cloth box . . . . . . . • i^s." By way ofconclusion, we venture once more to strongly recommend it to our readers.

It will increase their kn.wledge of mankind in general, and will help them to better

understand a great and friendly nsxion,"—Saturday Review,

DECIMAL TABLES, for Calculating the Value of

Government Stocks and Annuities, and of all Stocks of

Railway and other Companies where the Capital is con-

verted into Stock, at prices from ;^5o to ;^i5o for ;^iooStock (advancing by eighths). By T. M. P. Hughes, of

the Stock Department, Messrs. Williams, Deacon & Co.

Demy 8vo., cloth 12s. 6d.

UNITED STATES NOTES: A History of the various

Issues of Paper Money by the Government of the United

States. By John J. Knox. With Photo-Lithographic

Specimens. Demy 8vo., cloth . . . .12s.*A very minute historical sketch of the treasury and other notes issued by the Govern-

ment. . . . The book should be carefully studied by those who would understand

the subject."

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New York Herald.

THE THREE REFORMS OF PARLIAMENT:A History, 1830—1885. By William Heaton, Editor

of " Cassell's Concise Cyclopaedia." Crown 8vo. . 53." As readable as a novel, and as instructive as an important chapter of history can

well be."

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Leeds Mercury.^

*' An admirable and accurate summing-up of the great Reform movements of the last

naif-century."

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Literary World.

24 Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Square.-

ARMINJUS VAMBERY: His Life and Adventures-

Written by Himself. With Portrait and 14 Illustrations.

Fifth and Popular Edition. Square Imperial i6mo.,

cloth extra .,,.....• 6s."A most fascinating work, full of interesting and curious experiences.'*

—

Contemporary Revieiv."It is partly an autobiographic sketch of character, partljr an account of a singularly

daring and successful adventure in the exploration of a practically unknown country. Inboth aspects it deserves to be spoken of as a work of great interest and of considerablemerit.'*

—

Saturday Review. •

"We can follow M. Vambfiry's footsteps in Asia with pride and pleasure ; we welcomeevery word he has to tell us about the ethnography and the languages of the East."

—

Acade-iny." The character and temperament of the writer come out well in his quaint and vigorous

style. . . . The expressions, too, in English, of modes of thought and reflections cast in adifferent mould from our own gives additional piguancy to the composition, and indeed,almost seems to bring out unexpected capacities in the language."

—

Athen^um." Has all the fascination of a lively romance.^ It is the confession of an uncommon

man ; an intensely clever, extraordinarily energetic egotist, well-informed, persuaded thathe is in the right, and impatient of contradiction.'*

—

Daily Telegraph." The work is written in a most captivating manner, and illustrates the qualities that

should be possessed by the explorer."

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Novoe Vremya^ Moscow." We are glad to see a popular edition of a book, which, however it may be regarded,

must be pronounced unique. The writer, the adventures, and the style are all extraor-dinary—the last not the least of the three. It is flowing and natural—a far better style

than is written by the majority of English travellers."—6"/. Jameses GazetU.•** OverMighty other English am. Foreign Periodicals have reviewed this work.

Boys' Edition.

ARMINIUS VAMBERY: His Life and Adventure*;.

Written by Himself. With Introductory Chapter dedi-

cated to the Boys of England. Portrait and SeventeenIllustrations. Crown 8vo 5s.

This new edition was prepared by M. Vamb^ry at the suggestion of several of his

English friends and critics during his late visit to this country, that the story of hislife^ was one well adapted to form the subject of a book for boys. He has carefully

revised it throughout, eliminating all political and other matter that would possess butlittle interest for boys. A new Introductory Chapter is added, giving a more extensiveinsight into his boy life than the previous volume, and showing how even the humblest,poorest, and most delicate lad can, with perseverance and industry, rise to prosperity

and renown. It possesses several addition^ Illustrations and a new Portrait of theAuthor,

FRANCE AND TONGKING: A Narrative of the Cam-paign of 1884, and the Occupation of Further India. ByJ. G. Scott (Shway Yoe), Author of "The Burman."Map and Two Plans. Demy 8vo. . . . i6s.

" Very graphic and exceedingly interesting pages."

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Spectator," Will'be perused with interest both by mihtary men and by the general reader,"

—

Ctode.

THE MAHDI, PAST AND PRESENT. By Prof.

James Darmesteter. Illustrated. Sewed, is.; cloth, is. 6d."Pleasant and instructive reading."

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Atkentsujn,

New and Recent Books. 25

INTRODUCTORY STUDIES IN GREEK ART.Delivered in the British Museum by Jane E. Harrison,Author of " Myths of the Odyssey in Art and Literature,"

&c. Map and 10 lUusts. Square Imperial i6mo., 7s. 6d." Admirable work in everyway. The lady has mastered her subject ; she writes a

good, expressive, moving style ; she has a fine talent of exposition ; she understands, andher readers have no choice but to understand with her. To students, not only of Greekart, but of art in general, her book is really indispensable."

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Magazine of Art,

A SHORT HISTORY OF THE NETHER-LANDS (HOLLAND AND BELGIUM). By Alex-ander Young, Author of " The Comic and Tragic

Aspects of Life," &c. Seventy-seven Illustrations.

Demy 8vo., cloth 7s. 6d." It will be found a very valuable manual of the history of the Netherlands by all

young men who, for any reason, have to become students of it."

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Spectator.*' A careful and readable history."

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Daily News,

LETTERS FROM ITALY. By M. Emile de Laveleye.Translated by Mrs. Thorpe. Revised by the Author,

Portrait of the Author. Crown 8vo. . , . .6s."Read . . . the second series of * Letters from Italy,' lately publishedbyE.de

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ChristianWorld of August 27, 1885, in leader reviewing the original edition.

THE TRUE STORY OF THE FRENCH DIS-PUTE IN MADAGASCAR. By Capt. S. P. Oliver,

F.S.A., F.R.G.S.,late R.A., Author of "Madagascar and

the Malagasy," &c. With a Chapter by F. W. Chesson,

Hon. Sec. of the Malagasy Committee. Map. Demy8vo. . . 9s.

"A very straightforward and ungarnished account of the dispute between France andMadagascar."

—

Contemporary Review."Captain Pasfield Oliver's very interesting and informing,book."—^o«ci»>2/!>««Mi.

CENTRAL ASIAN QUESTIONS: Essays on Afghanis-

tan, China and Central Asia. By Demetrius C. Boulger,

Author of " The History of China," &c. With Portrait

and Three Maps. Demy Svo., cloth . . . iSs.

"Ought to be read by everybody interested in the Central Asian question. . . .

Mr. Boulger's essays are a magazine of information relating to the people and country

of Central Asia, Afghanistan and China."—Arminius VAMBtoy, in The Academy.

26 Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Square.

THE WRECKERS OF LAVERNOCK. By AnnieJenkyns. Crown 8v6 5s.

" In delineation of character the authoress is extremely clever."

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Schoolmaster.

THE ROMAN STUDENTS ; or, On the Wings of

the Morning. A Tale of the Renaissance. By the Authorof "The Spanish Brothers," &c. Illustrated by G. P.

Jacomb Hood. Cheaper ed. Imp. 8vo., cloth, 4s. 6d.

*' One of the best stories of the year."

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British Quarterly Review.

THE HOUSE BY THE WORKS. By EdwardGarrett, Author of "Occupations ofa Retired Life," &c.

Frontispiece. 3rd edition. Crown 8vo. . . 3s. 6d.

SETTLING DAY: A Sketch from Life. By SophieArgent. Crown Bvo., cloth .... 3s. 6d.

" a charming story of real life, and one that is as true to human nature as it is true

to {zxA&^^—Con^esationalist."A pleasant and wholesome little novelette. . . . It is agreeably written."—^onV/y.

OFF DUTY : Stories of a Parson on Leave. By CharlesWright. Crown 8vo., cloth . . . .2s. 6d.

MARGARET THE MOONBEAM : A Tale for the

Young. By Cecilia Lushington, Author of " Over the

Seas and Far Away." With Illustrations by M. E. Edwards.Second Edition. Small 8vo., cloth extra, gilt edges, 2s. 6d.

BEAUTIES AND FRIGHTS, with THE STORYOF BOBINETTE. By Sarah Tytler, Author of" Papers for Thoughtful Girts," &c. Illustrated by M. E.

Edwards. Second edition. Small 8vo. . . as. 6d.

THE STARRY BLOSSOM, & OTHER STORIES.By M. Betham-Edwards, Author of " Minna's Holiday,"

&c. Illustrated. Small 8vo., cloth extra . . is. 6d.

New and Recent Books. 27

({THE

LIVES WORTH LIVINQ" SERIESOF POPULAR BIOGRAPHIES.

Illustrated. Crown 8vo., cloth extra, 3s. 6d. per vol.

1. LEADERS OF MEN: A Book of Biographiesspecially written for Young Men. By H. A. Page,Author of " Golden Lives." Fourth edition.

" Mr. Page thoroughly brings out the disinterestedness and devotion to high aims whichcharacterise the men of whom he writes. He has done his work with care and goodtaste."

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Spectator,

2. WISE WORDS AND LOVING DEEDS : ABook of Biographies for Girls. By E. Conder Gray.Sixth edition.

"A series of brightly-written sltetches of lives ofremarlcable women. The subjects arewell chosen and well treated."

—

Saturday Review.

3. MASTER MISSIONARIES: Studies in HeroicPioneerWork. By Alex. H. Japp, LL.D., F.R.S.E. 3rded.

" An extremely interesting book. The reader need not be afraid of falling into beatentracks here."

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The Guardian."A really excellent and readable book."

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Literary Churchman.

4. LABOUR AND VICTORY. By A. H. Japp, LL.D.Memoirs of Those who Deserved Success and Won it.

Third edition." We should be glad to see this volume, in the hands of thousands of boys and young

men."

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Leeds Mercury,

5. HEROIC ADVENTURE: Chapters in RecentExplorations and Discovery. Illustrated. Third edition.

" Gives freshness to the old inexhaustible story of enterprise and discovery by selecting

some of the very latest of heroes in this field."

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Daily News,

PLANT LIFE : Popular Papers on the Phenomena of

Botany. By Edward Step. 148 Illustrations by the

Author. Third edition. Crown 8vo., cloth extra, 3s. 6d.•* More delightful reading for the country at this season of the year authors and

publishers have not provided for us."

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Pall Mall Gazette.

THE WAY TO FORTUNE : A Series of Short Essays,

with Illustrative Proverbs and Anecdotes from manysources. Third Edition. Small Svo., cloth extra, 2s. 6d.

28 Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Square.

AMERICAN DISHES, and How to Cook Them. Byan American Lady. Crown 8vo., cloth extra, zs. 6d.

"A smart little tome."—G. A. S., in Illustrated London News.

A CUP OF COFFEE. Illustrated. Fcap.Svo., boards, is.

" This pleasant, gossiping monograph.*'

—

Daily Chronicle.

THE QUICKEST GUIDE TO BREAKFAST,DINNER AND SUPPER. By Aunt Gertrude.Paper boards is.

IA capital manual for housewives."

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Literary World,

ADULTERATIONS OF FOOD (How to Detect the).

By the Author of " Ferns and Ferneries." lUust. Crown8vo., sewed ........ 9d.

" This little work before us offers many useful hints to householders as to the detection

of everyday adulteration."

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Pall Mall Gazette.

THE ILLUSTRATED POETRY BOOK for YoungReaders, Small crown 8vo., cloth, 2S. 6d.

;gilt edges, 3s,

*'It s the best book of the kind which has passed through our hands for some time/'Bookseller.

INDUSTRIAL CURIOSITIES: Glances Here andThere in the World of Labour. Written and Edited byAlex. Hay Japp, LL.D. Fourth ed. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

" Nowadays boys are so fed upon story books and books of adventure that we welcomea book which tells them something about the facts of the world they live in."

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Graphic.

FOOTPRINTS : Nature seen on its Human Side. BySarah Tytler, Author of " Papers for Thoughtful Girls,"

&c. Illust.' Third edition. Crown 8vo. . 3s. 6d.

''A book of real worth."

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Spectator.

GUDRUN, BEOWULF, and ROLAND. Withother Mediaeval Tales. By John Gibb. Illust. Secondand cheaper edition. Crown 8vo., cloth extra • 3s. 6d.

" A safer or more acceptable gift-book it would be difficult to find."

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Academy

New and Recent Books. '29

ARMY EXAMINATION SERIES.Grown 8to., cloth, 2s. 6d. each.

1. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING :. Containing

General Hints to Candidates, Former Papers set at the

Preliminary and Further Examinations, and Four HundredQuestions for Practice in Scales and General Problems.

By C. H. OcTAVius Curtis. Illustrated.

2. A MANUAL OF FRENCH GRAMMAR.By Le Compte de la Houssaye, Officier de la Legion

d'Honneur, French Examiner for Military and Civil

Appointments.

3. GEOGRAPHY QUESTIONS : Especially adapted

for Candidates preparing for the Preliminary Examination.

By R. H. Allpress, M.A., Trin. Coll., Camb.

STOPS ; or, How to Punctuate. With Instructions for

Correcting Proofs, &c. By Paul Allardyce. Fourth

and Revised edition. Demy i6mo., parchment antique, is.• "Ws have hardly any words but those of praise to give to his very thoughtful, very

dainty little book."

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Journal of Education," We can conceive no more desirable present to a literary aspirant."

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Academy.

EASY LESSONS IN BOTANY. By Edward Step,

Author of "Plant Life." 120 Illustrations by Author.

Third edition. Linen covers . . . .yd.Also in two parts, paper covers, each . . .3d.

AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR SCHOOLS.Adapted to the Requirements of the Revised Code. In

Three Parts. Price zd. each, or complete in one cover, 6d.

Adopted by the London School Board.

FIRST NATURAL HISTORY READER. For

Standard IL In accordance with the requirements of

the Revised Code. Illustrated. Crown 8vo., cloth, gd.' Written in a simple and pleasant style."

—

School Guardian.

POETICAL READER FOR THE USE OFSCHOOLS. Illust. In Two Parts, each . . is. 3d.

Or in sections separately.

30 Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, 26, Paternoster Square.

HALF-HOLIDAY HANDBOOKS^GUIDES TO RAMBLES ROUND LONDON.

With Maps, Illustrations, and Bicycle RoutesCrown 8vo., sewed, gd.; cloth, is.

I. Kingston-on-Thames anddistrict.

II. Round Reigate.

III. Dorking and district.

IV. Round Richmond.V. Geological Rambles round

London.VI. Round Tunbridge Wells.

VII. Greenwich, Blackheath anddistrict.

VIII, From Croydon to the NorthDowns.

IX. Bromley, Keston & district.

X. Round Sydenham and Nor-wood, [district.

XI. Wimbledon, Putney and'We could not do better than consult one of these cheap Handbooks . , . . They

are -well printed, contain -good maps and nice illustrations, much information for thegeologist and botanist, as well as the antiquarian, and useful direction for the increasingprocession of cyclists.**

—

Times."Will be a boon to the weary Londoner, anxious to commune with nature."

—

T&eInquirer.

*' Capital guides to walks in the districts."

—

Daily Chronicle." A pleasant and convenient series of books for the guidance of the pedestrian."

—

Literary World.

DICK'S HOLIDAYS, and What He Did with Them. ByJames Weston. Illustrated. Cheaper edition. Imperial4to., cloth extra . . . . . .3s. 6d.

" This is precisely the book that sensible parents must often have been wanting. . . .

This delightful book."

—

AcadCTny.

A Handbook to

THE FERNERY AND AQUARIUM. ContainingFull Directions how to Make, Stock & Maintain Ferneries

and Freshwater Aquaria. By J. H. Martin and JamesWeston. Illusts. Cr. 8vo., cloth, is.

; paper covers, gd.

Issued also in two parts, paper covers, 6d. each." We cordially recommend it as the best little brochure on ferns we have yet seen. Itserits far exceed those of much larger and more pretentious vtQx\sJ^—Science Gossip.

THE BATH AND BATHING. By Dr. J. Farrar,F.R.C.P.E. Crown 8vo., limp cloth . . . gd.

PRINCIPLES TO START WITH. By IsaacWatts, D.D. Introduction by Thomas Binney, D.D.Seventh Thousand. 32mo.,red edges., cloth elegant, orin the new wood binding: maple, cedar, walnut, andsycamore . . . . . . . .is.

"A gem in the way of printing and binding, while the excellence of the short practicalprecepts offered by the writers can hardly be over-estimated,"

—

Rock.

LIST OF BOOKS ARRANGED IN ORDER OF PRICE.

£1 lOS. PAGELife and Times ofWm. L.

Garrison 17

£1 Is.

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