BAPOLIICAL SCIENCE

`mjm-imkv{Xw(Linguistics)

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Fw.-F. ae-bmfw`mjbpw kmln-X-yhpw

2006

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o{i)o.of). OeICDcgo - Gcog/@}o O\Dc"O'l<O5Or3o

ecoscc(/ocCniLo)o(Linguistics)

rl.lomdolcilgle,aE

olgcocaolqDcil

caDc.oar.c gcqxi c"-tcUa

cr-r-lqo)o€;sd, oerQocg .'rom cDcororu5rn G&(Bo, arlcmoolocn ooetaE, cnccoiaelcncoE,

or5rggd - r

cnrl.or"l.ru;cu"ld

rsromtl. oL.'rc"nmrd

oogacg$ ca,ccgd (acc5cemomi), p<olaroocer€oJs, <or5<4gd elg.

c6, ctnlc€o c 5 mld qa, et cro c el

aoD]srrrld 1

ecogrc(rocfltiLcoo

Gcol, - 6rCO) oCmlotc'l@rmflCD'l

ecoMao)Jos crocmiL<o'r"loo.r.,rorooceni rscnsjccoccnilroo (Linguistics is the scientific study of Language).

ofJo(o)c(ol rec"sic@caniL(DL(,mnoJ]o p.l,B5(oocqo mildoJrrmo6fler;osoorceni 1"rmio'rJtor oL'losiaooolo) "J

ol"rcorogsJrotoccDcooG'lao;cmroi. recngJaoc6ny recnsJcrocanigroroilo5c<do,olaolos GndloLomomio'r].o.r'l<rocerocoo; <sro6<o'ro<orol'l<o8 recnsi rarg<oooroilcrilooorrororlmggg g"-rcruloo.rceni. o5cn6oBg;o cDUoaD

oLlcriloaoo msroro'rgcrn'1c€doo)cm; cruocroqold'ocoegc. on<or;oa,ceni o5<recBuE6olo ecoeaorloerrgcrd "loaoccoc? ocn3ou5o6<ooon Grgooaoculcrrlocorroro'flcd <orocnour'l oc<Oulssnoa Gnoreroorulaol(m;6recgc. olccDoc.LlcelJo <orqcocooLlcnloaom)coJocorsggrorceni. .,61cmco8, recnsic@ccnyL(o)oJoocao a,cd,.rgcsloS rec

nsi ng)cm oloo rtrl'le,g;o o-ro'141<ooccor tsodtonroroflercem;o-rcoorccrjlael;cmail. mrtcrEcoL'leieccIu (Natural

Language) o{1oD oJBo "-tletcgcovflco ccosjoooreer;crlaeicoE recnsrccrocmigroro porcaocurods;oroJcmJ.

mrcrecol'la,Gcc{uaolos "io1cD1qo1o8

olco-fla,coroo;oeanuaoa,ceni om;"u5oE r;oogs;o1ao3cm @6r}J5Bn

uE oclrorco gcdogs;cm;ggl. oA<n5uBglos cr9@aooL'lcriloooro"lo'r'l rec"sjc"ro'lurcoio8 oo;crn'lg. olcnccouog)ffD tolcao)coocolceJlo <oo1cOrg. OJ(,5sBgJos orgCOocloLlcriloco;o"l<ol

"OCml ojoaol(rn(o)c6m](oooo.

<or1a4;o ocm;ou'la,acoor m:'lao'laoceni recns/ "gcmcerrrl<ofloofl

rorodoroo. <orcnlooocdcm mrco;"rr')

oeldloro recnsjbcrDkolooier3osaocani om;nsr5o8 oagilgslorod. p<ooe"loL'1a,g;o GrOUoco)oL'lcnlocoro m

soro;cm;o6Trse,lago <uroooqryaocfiDlo ffu;6rxeDocao mrco3"rr1a,m"loL'l<olo oe,5ilgs;eoccncooi5ilg. mrooro cn'lercn'lro86ol&,, orouoo cnlercrrlo;<oror3e, o6cm1 roroslcmncm coicacoe,u8€oHcotitr o5oooBoA oogc<oJ

eLe,v5rooflmJo c@uoa>oflcnloooro porcaocurogs;rool;crrr1g. ouoero, 6)celo (Space & Time) ogcrrrloeer

m;auo1{ p<oroe1oLle,ua ecnsjcor5<o1oolcmo cnsoro'r;crrr1g. cDlgc6rBlaruEao;o;mj a,3oL1co.ro'r1oEcrr1cm3o

or5<o'r5mio'rocooi <orgoScn'la,cacp'l a,3o3crrilg. er6'rrsoa, olooo6Dr, oceilor1"j "OCm1

mmeror5<oflaoccDooc

crDJo carcela,glos e,;oro8oc<nolo.)1o8 ocgocuolorolcrrn€d.oncgc<rE om]osiJmlocgrooccorl5]gg "6J(o)l

cru

oL'lc co osr <o qo)c eni re c nsj c curco uo"l 6r o em oro'flcd Gro or o m Luc ni ro cncaer; cm ail t<oros'lmroccn ggco6m@6TlJeoBoa (Basic vocal signals) go-rcoorccdlaoco0 a,eloor;rmo'rlerJgg ooor

oLlo5ocooio'l€oco taoorcDro'r'lcd g"rc"jto'r'lmro8e,'lqcD<oi. rr-eo ooo rsos'lmrncm g4co6yDcoenleun<6 om;osJJmJ6rr3coocoE e,e'loor]o. oocrncoS 11 ggc@6TDoooo.r1co5<oroicd cconsjlaolgg om]oelJc(Dcgo ecosic

crurcoro"loroemcuo"eil 36-37 co5rlJ6oBcd peneceo](rn al(o5BB(r)lo 6,]oJdomlo pfl! roocgcoa <ooo)lmg;ooroi oroorcrilo8 crr'ler"lmac@ o€]e<oc cu'lcuo.rsirlo@<o'lcor;os 1.o:ol6oTDcDo goenecm<dco'rno. cDoJ€oCIrocD

oilccoouorL;aol o6cm3 otlgileoco. p<oom"lorle,oEad edcoloocff)corcolo ot'legerorcm<o5.domoor3o (ruccB

oScrslcrrlcor<oorlo am;osiJom o5<o5mi<olmcoo;fiD;. ccouaolo <snrol1ro3crilcml erclg gncrdee,eeor;ooa,cerrd

m)JeLBoco) mco]"rile,e1oL'l<oro oa,5ilgs3ao;oco6 ocD]osiJmJ6,vlercn;. rec.,sj (D16(olo')Jo accD]osJ'16,ffu'l

aolooce,;cm(od'oBocDaoceni. omiafl.tiaoromfloofl LrLtc(o)JoJoelsmcorcenY oro<or'lmoocn au"occoflgnil.

orgcnoorotlcnlocolc<d<ono ocn;ou5oO go:eooc<nlaolcm n6flc uo6rH5BBgJo ecosic@6TlJ6uBgca,3crrflg. ggc<a

6IncoJaooJ5BB<rE po-rcco;caigJ .,JJoods;oL'leer;cm coeqoonoa ocL<oco ccogjcuo6nJ6uBgc. cngcorooloeo)GDCDler@6IDUOer11eunoE, Lolca,Soco6rlJecnod "gocmSco mcoa,(o5TDo oelgco. GrOoOJo, 1.,JrD16,o, ololGcoo og;crrrloaolo Gr9@eooL'lcrr'loqo)ffucco5<oa,<rE pgqto.tcoc,DnleLSo GlaoraoJo recosjcorooloolcercliad' pco;

dooogs;crrilg. roroslmmcff)cercoo&)og aDl"jlgflaolcm a,o4i1o8, "-t1o1

ro;seonlcor oL1a,cog"-r6rscnd6B

glo rscducuo6rlJ6oBgH. <uDs1cru-occDclJcB(D6,p3os (Basic instinct) "-ro1u-tlaogJoo

ojgoc(oro 6-JoJ LoJGaoc

(r) oJJ o G c oec m: e, elcLr cn<oo1 c a ad' Lo-r c o co',leo] crra H "9 cm c em <o'fl cn <6 <on o.

ecot, - m'ldol"imeolrUa

or5rol5miro) e,c$"-rgcs;e,giler;os Gcduo() ccncaolaoerreojocerl)'o-Lermtl<oor5cno. ccosiaoroS cDl

etcrrloSao;cm roroo;dorololcoceolo'l€o6rDo cnldor"rcn6cBgJos oo96rro;orJrololcn; o.t'l"erco'ro oroSoror'lcorcil.

gormial occor o-fl et crr'16 o"rcnam<rE o)cov cnoE a;cm;.<oroo1cc6gc5ilo8

Speech is the representation of the experience of the mind. (ocmmrla,cmgrsor6aBgJos Co-rro'rlcnl<l"l

a,oamoceni ecog6lDo)

"6car-l.rd n-ri m;"l"ki

Language is purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas emotions and desires

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by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. (cmrgco.roocooi goi".rcolgileeiog3 cr9uoao6un

g;o, oila,codsBglo, <oDLooo66Bg;o oflcrilocoro orlgcm;gg ocm;.,vlarculo olcfiDmcloJco.tcolologcoror(o]oc() 0olc(l)'lo)c6n; rec.,v)

enicgcaei & LscodA language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols,by means of which a social group co-operates. (m,r

0looo fiDooo:droro'r1<or<oro'flmS"reoorccrjl6olcm cm)l*cccloocoor oco-fle,1o.t<or"le,eBBgJos oJJoJounqoc6ny

recnv)

eilccorccncuA ori og3o"n1o8 oriThe totality of the utterances that can be made in a speech community is the language of that

community. (ao; mo;oo<orofloofl ecosjoaocrDoi oO mro;oo<orofer]6rece,]cD ccosi6rrrdoBg;os rorga,oro;

a,corceni)

oe. oc$cocrr)Language is human .....A verbal systamatic symbolism........ a means of transmitting informations.......

a form of social behaviour......(with a) high degree of convention. (recosr occn;ou1a,oceni...... oc"-fla,o;o ga,

o6IUADoJIOCAOT Lo.t<O"laCnOJOtCUnAOCeni..... OleperOlCff)GUoL&OGemCo-tC<D'lqO)CAni..... m)CO]oO1A pSOoJs

er]ar gJ os o5 oJmmc "-fl

too]"l oceni)

o6,mn. oiloauenE

Language is a system of conventional signals used for communication by a whole community. (mro

mirormlo;ocao)o GrdGoJccrrJo ror9uoaooL'lcn'locororo>'lm;"-tccorcanloolcm mrcgmroccor'lor m)lder5'cBglos orJ

orcmnqcDc6'nY recnu.)

o ar. o0) o, Lor c c 6 (o orc o5 6, cro ccro c oo <ncp;1oE

sJoJ LoJGoJa, scnoL'Iecoo (0rQ(oaoroflcrilocorcd<or,oo QoJco)ccrlldoJo'D(oJo cD(,oo)orJCIccoi oooJo<oc<o)'a,cefla, 6ucru)o ocLroolggroloco) g4co6m@crg6oBg;os m)JoloJo€rsff)eaocsga,3s1oo.r ronre5mi<o'r

or5roro'rloorceni recnu.

coein-.roeioor cnoccDa,o crildo"rme,Clo8mnd or5ocgologs]€ocoJ]Cm oo-rc<o;m)olcuoosi(o)eJ

og La,o"le,o'leoScmrccrd ocD3osiJecogialiaer; ocgoocaolgg LoJc<oJaroeop <ocopdoc>JfiD o1o'r1qo1o8

od <n"le,o1aoco. crucoJoola,s"loL'ko<oo>'lci om;.,u5ocn L"rcoj<omceeflcor ecogiao;os p.tD Lolc<oJa,<otarogo;cdcnldoo>1qoc6rd recnucoiao; cncn'I, ocn;ou5o0 om;nsz5mcoor'loro1dcm;

"OCmJ ooaocdooro tn-rmi<ocol'l

4roi.ecoe/ - mroilcco"srcDa,ua (Characteristic of Language)

og a an ail nfl a c an c "L

c ut'l - @O @D LaJ a' c a c cn c oL c a'l(Language is a means of communication and self expression)

ccr{u cgrocoqooilcriloao)oro'ilcD]o crooDL"ra,ccocnoro'lcD}o egg grtrcculcocem'. Gcogi o-iloooor]os

o.rc.,ocnocerd. ocDJogJJmJ ocL(')co "-iloora,og rscnuooler]os g"-re,s1,3i16ococor]. om;nu5oLdororofms oc

Lroro;gg<o.l;o (Species specific) ocn;ou5o116ooroflm; o]elormca>Jggo,rJo (Species Uniform) <orgaor ocmcenirecosJccru'lo.r. "-floo crdcnJcccia,gi(Dependency) gggrorcoeme,loE Gcdu curQoooDoDeDo (Voluntary) org

6ni.

6ta'la'caaa,ot ( Language is symbolic)

rscosl go-r<o"lacooaoceni. Gr'@(oc)o,Godrono,olmiro; ogcrrflooco.r cru]Jlgilao]cm o-rl"rnocerd t"-r

cn"la,o. a,;o1<d "6cm ajl"rno ga,lmio);o(0)o(oroo)Jo o-t]og}criloo GnoJa,sooroaolo, eolorD omilo'ro o]e

orc-or@5rDoorocolo aulc.ilg[lao]Cm]. Lo-t<or"lao<onn ("-il"mooro - Sign) m)JeJeoo$D;o (Signifler), crul"-fl

arloooDJo (Signifie) cor<dan'loleoco. Gcotuaoiloer "-il"monuE oceo;e,gc6rd'. onocor'los <roen;enLloeuo

(m;"-ra,o) ocnqplersenecao;Cm Lo-rror'lenL'loeuoceni m;"jloto. auJejlarlooro eiococg rse<o1a,oLmiro;oL1

c erad dl olaoc cDc ol g. ron oi o mi<o;me, elucoo (Concept) rsO oni.

aeaL'la,o (Language is vocal)

rec.,sJ ol1Doj'le,ocerri. om}osr5oefl o]oJcoJ()orosBUa oac6TB]6rBc€oJcrn @srlJ5oBog ocL(o)oo ec

ogrC@6rlJ6BBgcocul a,emaocdolmJgg]. GcngJ , Oto.o-flA,oilomsuBgJos cuooelc(Doceni. o$ Grooraool6oBgc

o8 genecaeiodslcm aucoroco] co6nJollo ccoejqDg.

cm)J*/cdt@@) - agcacila>@to (Language is arbitrary)ecosjccoo?66BuA6d' (ordd cru3"-r'lgileolcm oLmi<o;or]0lccaoc ffuoLoJcDJacDorloccao)c (Concept) g

A

99 6ufftuo Grococojlooc6rd'; m)Jcecol'leo$. mo]oocllJolruncoJ'lo)ocao o-rocn'l6epgoororo'noi oL'lcoo'la

o6rDo co)sccncoLlg. eio) ormio;oL'locner;cil6ocoa ei<ol Bmm)o;ooo goreaoccnlaer;cm olaofl, Grdcco oJ

mi<o'r;oL'lomaerlqleercod oogc<o] B{DcIDoJooo eorao}d<ooc6o}6. 6lco olmio.r; oL1ol1<o Bcoeia,glo8 ol5roJ

miorcncoeosgi'lo8 orocflcoodslcm]. pBcoo@6rDoccofl oeroorcgorol'los eolcD o6)on o-roo oolcr:'lco.flro8 6,eJo,

poSloulro8 ooroA, roolp1o8 coroocD o6crrrleuBom r0loJG{BBo oa,cAgscmroi tuoc-t €ei16,.

oneTmiaoLSaa'l (Language is non- instinctive and coventional)

ec"si oosor'la,or5ro,o'r1corg. orore5mY<o)or5<oro'r'lcoceni - oroloo5orolqoc6rd. eB(Dolccru(r)aom]mtr(u)olcao oJocDOS GcoluccDlco<ro"la,oemo. om}ou5CnlCn] (r)S€OJAreOlo eaMaolerao)Jo oerg]cD(o)Jo, Grd

WcoA ooo6,ao)o;crDrol;o oorDJ€o;erori' mlooare5mr'laer;cmolo tola,gJo orcffucDcLolcalco'looccorceni.

ooor(Ds6)ocoo.fl o5a<oflco.)lcered'ecosJ fiDoLa,a1aerlcrnlg. 5ioJ Lore(o)J6, ecdu o5e<o1 "rologs;aerl&ao)ceni o"-rg;cmnil. gcoooa,cerrJ eedmrn'laocoff)cao eucero0 roro<o'r'1m;cclooruo eo:ropoo1o8 olgdcmcros ooood m.lomrcolao]e, oeroorcgocoor'lo1eer]o. g"loLl<o'r"-rolcruocrurctD"lcnocen) recnsjcre5mrcnrolo.)loop crndep

A0)GoOo.)J.

LaaduaD@ (Language is systematic)ecdu Lo)o6ruauoceni . Lao"la,o'laocor](m osse5oBg]os m:;cn1uo.r1o olJolauncorcetcerd'Gcogic

cnldoacemo m-lcufleo;cm<oi. "ersa,esBgJos m)rco"lcno "erscneo;o goJoersm€o;o milBcmoc6JJcmJ. corcuoesrrul c"rdcrd GnoJoooJd'gBpJo, <moo.tcoloeBBUA c"lrdcni ocn;ou5coo"l@ol]o g6TrEco,JoD(DJGoJcoel ecogic

"elsa,eBBUA c"ldcni ecogico€lsoaDJo poJo€tsm()lo g6rccaJlcm]. ecogi GroS0BocD "lomin:oclco'loo]o16, o G'il nD or

J oc ao o€r s a) 56rr g

J o s c gcn errr'1 oor c oor'l oor"l o3 cm;.

ae6ocaJ@Ecat na'ldegot ( Language is structure dependent and structurally complex)

odep<oero, (o6rHo)ero, oJc6)J(Dso ogcm"l o1o'flqD168 oJ'lreg(r)"lo)ocao cruroloj"erscnqoc5ny Gc

nueo;ggcfi. ccosjao;os 1-"-rLoooer<oofler;tsts ocL<ola,gcem'mrtcnesBsd (Phones). m.ltrnroBoa c"rdcni "-r

Bcoo5BBpJo (syllable) , oJBco(r6'6BUa c"J6cny olorolcL(0)a,gso (Morphs) , o3o-rocgo)a)gJos GuocQocsefi)

orofer;os oJB6uBgJo (Words) g6rec6rJ(m;. oJBrDoGQocecn<oro'fler;os Gnff)otDorBcruooril<oe,gso (Phrases)

<o]sdcni olcar5oplscDerplo crulcr{ldoods}cm}. "ileL crilqo)o5'sBsa€d'otlctuoorocoorceni p,lD cuocQoceBm

50BOgflCo msaer;cmd. pllD crrlooao.r'lcooo.r<oloceni ecosicaue,"l<6ep<olaococoo.

"LaloLdaococ@)aJ@ ( Language is open ended- extentable and modifiable)

recns/6d cnlrla,oemm;annD(o)ao)Jo "-rolotr6olincmcoDlor(o)(o)Jo Peni. culcn5oBglo oJB5BBpJo oJo'l

o'korooe,'letlo olcaoleuE c"ldcm36TBc6r]fiD olcorJm)coJo Gromoooceni. ecotuco€lsa,6uBglos cruo

cqocgcDm'lcoooonuA roneilcor;cmo.l6ad' mor'lmo1o'floculo8 GncnmDorca)J5BBUa oocDo6loros;aoccncorJo. orJ

<oro'roE a,l5ilcgrdeooS cL<roc<orcoilcri guEoaercqgccn;o a,eloorJo. p<ocdrd o.t'le,crucmcroJolro6oJo, oJol

emca<oro'r1m;o 6rcroflDoca,;cm<oi. mrcn'lo'la,o'reL<oo1er;o olJcarocyDtoaorol1et;o .,lo'lemcoo ouccoco6lD

oceni. "-13<rr1co "roeon<.d

aJscrDlcxoloD(olo , ol'lgJcolcar]an(o]o, acrnlcn]o-te,(oo oogcfiDJ ar5onlololfiD{o)}o ecdua,glos (ruc0coem<otaOcerri.

e c oe, q)l o o5 (, 5BB g) o s <org cro ao or1 m1 o or o.r1o

om;nu5oofl <uro(oeo)olm',locoorc.,rcur'16,91o8 5JCrDlocLoocao) Gcosj6'6)]0 D5(/)56Bg;os <o'rqcoco.roL'lcrr1

oooro"l<or1aer;o Lolo,socao oJJroJccrudBBUA g6nd. o5cneanod <orocooo;olcriloQo)o cDsoraD;cm;oenee,leJJo cro<oY

recns/eo'loScrrlcni og)lorec{oo o5o5mirooca,;cm]oorcni "-ro'lccoc(lr€oco. Gcogl "ocm miaol omloMJm

Bco<ol oogcol m"loilasl;o ffDrcroacaoccrilcm;oroo avlaolol'l5ilg. ron<oflcmororn g"rc"j<omcaer;cmrd roro

otoofloro'rocm omi<orl.rdaoroolcerc omqplcerc crrl6glcnoccoilolaer;cm ecoqicoloocool 6JoJ rsrootco.ro:oror'l

oerfl (Lan g uage O rgan ) m-lccrrrlau5 ocLo. ccDco coJco crud6l'l oJo orloDJ :

ecduoao m,:oeuml'lao;cm mcomrlaDocqo ao] torc(o,Je, e,p'loi (recoszc "ncoeroigl) Po6IECTD

o)ceni nffncooorD GncDJoccno. recngJc"r(o'leg6lo.)cmoolcn;o L"-tcoo.rcotoo)'lm;ocoofl pslootoJootg 63(0l cc

cno ocni<oflcrdao<oo'r'ko8 (omcploa) po6rrscrD crue,eirrro. cno"lororo'lonfl *.1 Lolc<oJ6, Lolodotolcnocem

oY. rEcnslc(}.t(oocQo Eoolcooro og)oDloroacDco. arcdduoa<ol'lao;gg Grdol()oloolo)cdcoel. poo)cocDJoc(r)o ocL(oocoeme,letJo ffD(oJoco6lDcmor1m] oc(0cpo oarrglor;e,g;eni. (recnuoo.r]o ronrofloofl rmorela,ei"-l

moolJo "6cm cuo1o8 rsgo mcn;oto1oor1o8 or-lo8"cilqo1o8 ms<oolao Lolccou6TDoto,1o8crncd.)

recnuoo)eoJo oa(,5BBgJos <orgoooo)or'1crr'locororofm]o]99 Lor(r)cmod5 olJo)Jcmleon<rE Co)coedoc

6mlcm <o1dnsj6,6cB g1o8 oL1etoofl o;oto.lco.

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cDt@)oJdetsa ( Duality of pafterning / structure)recn9i66i m:o'kdepacao oersff)aolend. odepoejo, (o6TlJo)ero, oJB(oero, oJco,Jo)ero o4;crD1e6B

om Gros]dos]€oco)]gg rue,"1<dspg"eLscnaei L6,ol5runDocao orJorounaol6ng. recosloo.r'loel otc@,Jocyo oJB

6BBpcQ)lo, olB5sBog ro6rlJocL(o)orgcao]o, @6T+JOcLoe,og odeggsBBgcaoJo pg(-Lflo'l6oco. rsnslcruncmor

oocoor'l CI66m6BBgcoE o;o-rogs;<oroflooors;aer;cm<ocerd' rEcnsiao'loeJ orca5eoBUE.ao; o.lce,5oro'r1oofl ololG(OCOm pO OCOrOl(IrlOofl mCCl;a,O6rDOo6Jlo.

orcerJo : m:"lorOO.r;OS m]olJ(o6aB<r0 o-toS'l

oJBo : mr"lanoo.rgos / m]o:SoeonuE / "-rcs1uotrlJo : au"l<o + Cos / cn]o-t;oo + a,ud / n-rcd+ pordepgo, mipnc<dtmo + ed"O / dglcojgd(roo + d<urouA / ojorg5 + p

recngjeo'loel oJB66Bog PcrtccDJm(o6rDo [&o1a,o1gj rorod<ooot5roloorccno oo}oro'rcoa m;o<6<oncncoo.r ol5aroflad cril"dL"iqoccruo cruco'laerJo. p(olooo rue,1<6epg<o p<oo ee"loflorg;os orgcroooro.rlcrr'looor<ro

eqleunoEeri PH - <mo<6<o'rn"-r3d6moco a,o4i1age,ogcv14co8 (meaningfull cries) Grooloao aroeoBgcao'loJ ojcorD (o o d s3 <oro'r c of e, elaor'l g. <oro o1 ccp c $oE or o oor} cm].

Animal noises cannot be combined to form syllablesoila,acrnc@JaJ@ - msfla,oanoD(mril@) (Creativity / productivity or Recursiveness)

tscnsioo'loel oJBsSBOg OOOIOLIIU5COrDCOS g6,414,(014;0, OCetcolcoe-: ca,cdrooJo GrocDcrootcaa)

olca,5e6BUa crildm'laelco. ao'laei<oScoJcelJo olo()odscoro otca,5o6Boa doeoccD]o , ao'lao<oScolceJJooJoooloJea,S'lS1gc<otol oce,5eoBq6 go"olaocmJo omlosjJm; a,v'loorgcmali e,tc tn;6mooa,cerrec6ni. rec.,gJqolcelad'

"-r]o1co.r "loeun<ra aoctoogo mrt1e,o'leocmJo, GracDcol@Jocqooloao oJloooBBccDlo omJogJcri

os1co.t1g.

ost/)6sBglos rorgcooooLlcrr'1ocqo)coJcu, Closed ended <uqeni. GnolaoJos crccoc a,o4i1e.t'lcn;o m3

gcene]a,gcoor'1, e"loLcrocmigoro-tooccol oilgogs;<oro;od5 crn@IolcrdtooeoBgseni. roraarr'lcmg;ocooooJtsts o)cororco] m;oilc<nnu <orgcrocorotlcrrlacoro;o msor<ncoO <otooJoaooaocenscoilg.

"-r;ol1co; oJB5uBpJo ro

5nJeaBgJ" <srdol'los ouoccno rrilslaeilcrrrlg. <oroslruocmeelcocDer<daocn3m5<o'roco uo6TlJ@Bggcotot oogccrDJo cnol orJoodsloilao}cmlo'lg.mlroto4 rotlatccno ( lnterchangability)

ao], oL5a<orlaei ocomlaaoo G(ocolco.tcc>Jo Groc<r)(ruoe)o ol@(DcolccoJo orrdorol€occncoJlo.clcocroco.floop mll<otlo;o oJaorcojloofl m;rolroJo G3eo aceLoorgolo8 oo; ot5a<o'r1oor1o8 cruocol'ldoJcm;oocmdcnno. o5cl)6oBglos rargcrooorotlcrilooo.ro5omrncoflo8 pnc m)c<t.lJo.t <olooooilg. ,jler go-tc<o5e@drl1

o3.n<.rE go-tcoorcuflgj pemocor rargednulaoco0 <arOenEorasl1a,uA€d avlcor;oaalel;o p,tc mrrrt;l oolond.rtaMa,glo8 <o1ooco.flg. rscnu groo.tlaeiJaroo.rlo rscoucoia;os L"-r<o'r'le,o'.|66lJe,ootlo oo-tglco8 evloor;cm ocooaocol eloil om;ou;o0 ocLrooceni.croel@a,yna ( Displacement)

a,celcBuo66B<rEaer<o"l<oroccoi o6otoccrrrlomao;olgl cruocrucoloocm;o amJogJJmJ e,v1cor3o. mscm]a,vlooxlco)c, o)saoccnlolao3cmc(Dc, (rurcroo ccorcDaor'lo8 odcolgcrolc Grgao) cuoeolororotaer;crl*j ocn;nu5cri oDonucro'leoco. pcltDJco.flo8 crrlcm;oa,ceni om;oslSoE rmglooleerod m:eptcooorotggfl oL'loon"la,o'leer;o. mlcooo-to5oro'r1o8 crr'lcms6<oro'fl ocgi)cotceJ]o Bcosjed' orodoncnlcorocncco.uloorJend. (contextfree). <orooecnlo8 ronre'lcmrocoi rorore'lmaoo cnsoroloDrui a,5grofloocao crucoo-oloJcruJql cnsoofloaercerrgc6moflc.

m)cooej(oJcm]m)Joac@ on<a<ooco CIJ(,6BBgJos ro'gcncorculcr/loqoo1(o'l6olggJ. ocDJouJoE t"-rco)J6,r0roo rea,sjsmolo'ilm}coenel crr'lsE-il<o"-roo poJcaorc{i1eo;cm:c<6 o5@eBBsA aoqileiler;os oflcogj1"la,s1gilaerJa, ocLoo o4JgJcmJ. crorod a,oerreorDJoD cogcoflo8 acltolco corm"lqed (ruc(Buooeoaocm]gg a,v1oi a,ornrooceni . o;odoo.tco; r$omlo eroo8 a,oerre<oro'rlcorlo;cm;ooloD o.rlc<roosio mtccncoorllellos cLoJ osi6T'oo oel gcoE C<o)ml4eocoil g.c m)tilc aJ @ @ / ag coc"L'lro aoto (Arbitra rin ess)

recnsJ{a)lo8 olcoo]o <oad<onot;o <om'ler;gg GTUou)o em)r#coJ(oocerd' - oo3 m.lco;orrla,aerocoloafl rooslmmcmorr'lo8 <olo;occrilaoogs;cmoi .'6;cm6<ooo. oco o.lmi<orSoilomaer;crlaocod ot5or5miro'rBCDm)o;oosoBod po-tcooccrt'loo3cm orcaolarglos ooororlco5o gcoanlgco8 p,tc o.lmi<o;<o G6rucoJoca,Jo.po gloulo et Dog oglcm olotorrrlcri ppp oootoLl<lr5o e6coo @6TD oc6oco.

,^

a

?

5

orrlcr3.l - ar}Groc

roo'ld - cncqrY

olelQ)Cgo - m)Cq)

sdmo0 - "oenio<oer;d - 6,]6oco.v5oE - ocruc6Ilt6s)

mi"-rccrrl.d - ooJcocotctoeroi -or5odogcmcoS <orooLlseuBgfloersco plc eeloiloor;os erJo eico o'kolcor'lerceni. caJcornarglos LorerscDromler;om)ocm(o)aoleni. cacocreBo oa(,60Bglos Gro@aoo.t'lcriloooro"loflocor m-)rcco"lcrneerlcrrrlg.

LaJ c @)c 0 oooL oL'17o4 m.t c usS a ( Redu n da n cy)ncooloJo (olca,5o) o)ooD o5ro5mioroco (moroao)ffuocor(3cDo ms<olo;cm<oi recnsiaoloS Gncruc

(I)oO5IDOH. crjcBJoc()Jo Loj(niocormoocaoJo neo orcarJo(oroo(Do(n peemot5ro'ilQocm)o Oa,cend oc

g1o cor s; eer co. oJ cndsB g; o s olcril o oor o1 <oila, gil o8 po em (To n e ) m; c u.l5 <o a, uA p €J.

eoc: He is stillthere (C"lmio'rcom)He is stillthere? (co.lca5o)

(p/l9emocgo Gooro#S]ol(Dcmcotlg. recnsJc.,r(o'lrraoooarc6nd p/lD m)coJ<o'r g<rEoeercppcrDcoJlo)

oil ca "v

oL aiao a mto ( Specialisa tion )or'lcrrloaorcoraool6BBgJos (Communicating organs)

"-r;<depuocgilorolo recnsacor'l<ooemoo'lo8 <mo

mcoco5ocerd'. ee'se1eo3a,ccuc, ms€ole,ceoc o-oJql;eoucpJo omJouJcli ropclooootlcnloao<olo'r'lo8 "0jdodsco. o6)fiDco8 o5u>euBoacaoc p<ooe"lo.l'la,uEc6oc p<o'ro'rooo1o8 ordotofleercmcoLlg. goccrooemocool,

crocn"l4 m)ccBsooaDoo]Cm a,cerocgruroo.flo8 rooro'floofl o{DHc GrdojooroJeEBp}o (610 6-JoJ a,dmroro'r1m] coL

enel ocg<ooceni g"-rccorccrlods;orole@)ocD aetso) (Open ended system - modifiable)

recnsjeo'lcerdd "-r;<ofloo "loeon<ra

a,scm;orola,cor;o cnlaoileLlolao;cm "roeon<rE

GDLoJ(u)J6JUocorJ

6AO)Jo OOBCOJ oJBo 6'JffD'lmlora,Oo a,SCm;OOlaaOrJo OoJQIO: CruCOC@6IDOCeni. O5<neUngSOS Orlcrr'lOoOr

m.lcu.r5rola,gil<o8 Lo-rcl"lma,ce]roro'r'lo8crr1,ml o5<oilola<ooccoil aoocg orooeorcerJo cDogoHSJ6,cQo)c, Gro

or<oro'lao3a,eaoc ffuoeoflq'lrg. coo.rcro;ta,1mior;oL'loofl "r"lar.lcm;reocogoo.flo8

a,;oL1oo cacv'lcor;os mc

6ctr;0 Gqtll;cn'le,a,caoroo cLoruceyeJd ca,celco;os cDcBor;o <oleolro8 oolco<ocol crrleLa,glet;o oJJoJc

cruogsScrnlH. oA<n6il3glos cOUoaoorlcriloccro5orcrun cuoorloo€rsm (closed ended system)gggrolceni.

2Jen)caEa,ot (Property of being dynamic)

GCogj elel(r)cooa,ocenY. ncc(oc (o)eloloaoJo Grdololcs(o)cq) cuorgccuma,uaoa,c6n; rEcnsieo'lo8 "J

o'l.docoo more'oL'lgilaeigcm;. "-r;to1oo

oJB66Bglo o"ltofle,g;o, prD6ID6BBgJo ecoluao'lcaeei oo<ng"-tcoluoo

odgllcm]. o5tn6cBglos oLlcrilaoo.ro"l<o1oor'los cnlgorercocmn (property of being static) rscnuoofleLlg. ecoru

orgo;cmrcu8 mromiaelcoo <ogao)ao;Cm;. acD;osi5oE e,;s;<oo8 cruomiaercom)fiuonmcollcmJ.

mtomiaocaffDo@&te6tDo - cDoG(aJolbltDo (Culture - preseruing & Trasmitting features)

o5uleunuEad mlco;"rflaee'loL'l<oro oe,$gs;eeiccncorc<olorrcil oOoo)]oe,c5rlEcenY? ocorE;o1co)Jos

rorooocco'lagcaD ocDlogJJCDJo osooJlo ootDoucrrr'la,ocaD mJo<oco)cos odroolaocoxlotoooJoe,cerritcacs<ofle,glo, e6otcele)eunglo , olo5ceroor66Bg;o, cD'lqoocDl6mc6'rD(oceJa,plo og6r56Bu8aolgcololoro'r

oor;oa,candt poroaogco m)rc@orooceo'lqo om;nv5o0 o5<ne6Bgno8 roroo"lcrooro mroc"-t14oor66BocD?

prlD c4Jc6J5BBd*lgg ergilrorocoor grolo)ooceni rEcnsi. ecnsjao'leJJos {TDoroaju'laooHsJa'eoJo, ffuocLoJogj

5',rDo orlgo$sJaroo)Jo o-cJgJCm cruomiaeicoo Grosrd o6J(o)J rscoMaolosaoJo "oeJroroi.

pe "gv]oro;( mo

mieocoo) <ogrdeeee'1go'ncnlc(,ooMo recoM6rD(ooilm; Luco-io)mc6JfiD o5ecnl o)cod m-ltcoororoocaefloor rgc

ovoofler;os roloerfl caca,oolo ocgi)oolaocoE a,v1oL;go:mcco; Lo-rrol'kecmrocoot'loro'r'lo;a,ooceni. <oroorlmor

ocn m.l.,ocoo'lao}cm<ti' m.l.os"lo.r'le,ogctorf raraoroa cril6eolo4s]6oJcm m:omiaerco<oronoerfl ocoocffD(o)

;"lCm:CoOceni.<o9 noccu ofl m1 o qDCUJ cu cruo

orgcoooroL'lcrrloqcDolo'ncd olloLlco oc<O<neuBoa g6ng. r) cgo<nJo z) o;otrscoto s) Lolrol"la,o a) ecov

<argcoooroLlcnloaooJolounooio8 o;cm;aco5oirncrE m)lLorocmoceni. goreoLea)L(Bo, m)c(BfoocoJoo, LrLlc

olJouncoo ogcrrilococemor. gol3orcorCcnoro)'loScnlonlo Gr@ooc1gj mrccnoooco:5ooro'flalos mero:o1gj

6

LolcolJ(ruoccnoroi oo)<oolc9,o)fiDco.)cos Grooo@oflcrr'loqoo msdolcm]. ogcmcoS ffDG(BUoo (roro<,oqoo)

roroo;<0orooccor<o'lcncoE <moolcri mretorcocroacn'l pfl. Gro<orlocn o3<6<orololmi<ogocaeil ocg;e,ccucord' m,l

etqucoccolccnJror cno8a,ccnSge oc6oo. eocoo(o6rDocoor'l rono-.t6,scruJalcDc>ccoil ercerrrlao;(m dloJm)oa,csl . GnooJar5o (TuoeolaocoE co:ca,;cmloolaD GD@eoo eJJoroD oacs',l ogcm o;r6roro'romi<o3oL1ce.l

eei ruoLa,olgl*1.-1. o3o0"-rohcoro <0rlcocoroflcrfloco;o m)coJocdo;CmJ. Grg@eooorol o;doro'roLmYro;oLc

aefl ocg;cm pl9 L.'rLa,'lqooao crue&r(o)mo (En-coding) o6cm; oroolcrD]. o;dororormS(o)J m)ecB(ooc(l)Jo

olinletSos auoorolqi LoJcoJJ$uncmoorD(oro;cmrcua olene;o <urgoooo;occoi o;oJcoooLolcojrofl ooa,ool6ol(mJ. (n?60B6)(r) ruoreofl4iloeJa,lo8 org<.ocororlcrilolQoo cnoffuc(l)Joco,]oD;. o36<oro'romio'r;oL1om or"l

sTBJo crocroaooceefl ocg]Cm i"ria,loorooor oL',lmrce,<omo (De-coding).ocml oroaolffn]. oL'lm.lce,rom<orol'l

mlc(oosico <argcocormrr1&)o5rDo msdo]. oocgc<d rop<,occuoilcrrloaoolJorouoeei rooero.rJ <oaecnu6 pend.

(r) rurgoocoorcoeoro

(z) mrce,cnmo (En-coding)

(3) mccnUOo-tloIDo - (TD6[DlcOo

(+) oLlmlce,<o'rcno (De-coding)

(s) orgcocor m-lr"la,oemo

pnD toororcuBUa BcogiaoloA Loro<0rooleer;CrDoodsBocncorcoamcni crr'lo"lasrlaerco.

( r) <orgcocoorcoeoJo - ora<ocoiloS <org<oco.ro goBoi6o;Cm].(z) m:carocDo - pglc<o5fi)coraoor5oBuE rarguooorooBog @6rgo@otlr6-6Bpcao1 ocgJCmJ.

(s ) <oerg<o oo o66BUE orccor; oLler;os mreu oleer;cm;

(+) oLlcruce,(Dff)o - cg<roc<orcoLloofl o"roLlocu'loer6ro;m) co6rg<ol(00cn6orlel9 gcootemcncolla,uA oflffDce,

or mroolm; oL'lc<l-lcor oceo;cm;.(s) coerg<o'roolrl6qa<td Gr9@ao5oBgcco)c<o)cos c1.coc<orcoi oarocoloerfl ror$@c>o go"rrlao;cml - <mgcnoor

cn:t'laoemo aDo c ol'laoJcm;.

<o"ldoro'r;o etgflrooocm] G<oconcil]cm "OHc Grg@ao oilrriloooreuBg;o coeioJo6loto olJoloune,<daei oL1

coaooco6rDcm; omcpglercaoco.

reO"SC@r(/a rlleICDOo

s"loLaSecosl - EJ@Bcas ( Living Language - Dead Language)

rorgooooroLlcnloco.rrorofloofl m:cu:5toroor'ler;crriloor3gg or'lrssmoc6ni p<oY. m:oa,celorDlo 6-Jol LoJcrolJa,scn

o.r'lrec<no orgcncooLlcrilooororo'r'loi go-rccorc<rj143ool(m Bcosjoao ee"lot<o8recoei n6;cml olgtaerco. rruoffuco

Gcduo()oD crr]etqolo8 mtg"looceni ec"lolo8cc,rgi. g6cooo6lDo. po$"lcrd, odlcrr, oelG)cgo. oo;a,celroxi

<urgcocoroLlcrrlooocdrooo go.:ccorc<ril4i1o'leocooe,'lerJo pcsc<rd mc"rr'1<o5cnlce,ccooonglo8 oclano oor;eanlcgccor ecc{Ua,ogaoceni o5<orecosia,ua

"OCm} "-tocor;cmail. 6i(ol eem(o)()}o og(occduoao ouo(TucoGc

osiaDcao'lpo-rccocrilaeilcrrned. 6,AL<o.lloocao)'l eloilgflaoco0 cnsao;cm LUooeonua oA<oecoeia,gfloS a,co5ocqor m.ltcto"lcnoocoDlo ooer;<orolccrlg. gocoo@emo. elc$flofl, ,ro"11eru3, cn:om5a,5roro.

mtcecoL'la,ecav - a,JL@'laecav (Natural Language - Artificial Language)

or5a<or1co.flo8cn1cm;o cn:rcrEco.r'laococu'l gsoasJao;cm rec.,sc. cro'l@JooJcm crrletcoio8 "-Lo'lmtoeoB

gioScrr'lcm;o m.ltcrEcoL'la,ocao ecorucm;coletcno a,p'leiorocoS Gnff)coJe-Jco'la m-lorec.,vemeuBgflelJo olc

octioca'lceoeongiletso oL5erol crurecolla,recnsiaoc6ni 6.,-rccorccrllaolcmd. aqoo.t"-tco'la,ro'rqoc5rd ecouoao)

6,5Ltoloocdo;cm<o1o8 LrrJctlccn "-re,; oocflaerlcmd.orJ6<irlocao peQ@eIoIUJcolocos cru5.,g1aoogs;rm

ooorceni a,SLro'loecoejas0. ocoqry oocElcreaeaBU8a6i oolcolorc@;gg olcrrlocorocdcooocm cnletoor'lo8

cru5.rg'laoog5 oiccnarecou (Standard Language) p<olcd gorDcocoooooemocenY. (ooom)Jm)lecol6oBgJ

gq cscet'la,gicetr0ogs;cmor<E crrl6mlo4sJaolm ca,cnd ecotuag;o 6,5Lo'loecosjaolocooco5TD5oBgc

eni. o;ocmcoSaerolgcroro'r cuoBcoru6rD5oBgloE (Casualtalk) mtrecoLlo,Bcolu o,scmloJ<olcmtcud looaoc"-t;

dqe,occo; ouoecoluorD6oBglo8 (Careful talk) a,5gro'floecogJ ololodslcml. o5a<oloor;os oormcdon ecogl

em co'l elo org o5crorol <o'fle.rceni e,A @J occo;Jo Lolo,s ocd,lcmoi.

LoJtDEBcda - ailrolaBcou (First Language -Second Language)

oc(olecc{uaoceni cetca,orocaroccDo}gg eBCD(oarg}OsAOL(oaCDJo LolmOreColU. eecnlg;o1eJ(rD m)c

o3.,rr1a,.,lo1m:o<oro'r1et].,-rcoorc<rj14; ol(o]cm recnu oolco;olcflcorco<orromooD cDlco)olo)oc€oleoolcenY. ceruc

ot<0qe,ocoot 1o-tot5rolo'floaocm cn'le.rcoflscc6lDc BcouccJrrumo rnsdoJffDo(tnoD a,co5<otofloE o5IBJolaJU

o;arri. g"-tLooecog/aoJos orore5m;cnroor'lcnlc(ooruo olgoo ceuctu<drgococlceni oil<o'r"locurec"9ico;Jo o',Aodl@cc

A

osiao;lo olJ€o.ll oro'loqsldolcmoi. 6rffrn<o8 e,lsJ<o<o8 rscosca,gcilco;;Cm olJ€<oiloao corcgflcoc$ (Polygot)

cn tooJc 6ru rrolecrlucolem.u'l<oo0 "OCml

olool cmJ.

cB uo'l @) e cav ( Nationa I Lan guage)

Gncff)oro recnMaua or5orrlocoorol'leiloleel;cm n(o] m)o]oooro'floel 6](0] Lolc(')Ja,ecduoao Go5IT)

elso coco"lcorrecnsjaDcao'l rorooo"la,o'laol(ml. agccna,o GcogjeuE or5orrroco<orofleLloleo;cm poot5co.t1o8

oolcr:lcorceni cocro"loorgcosioorcaor'l rono<n"laro'laoogS'1o1eo3cm<oi.

ts @ 6rn e c ov ( Officia I langua ge)

GCo6lDerc(oJeanoEeei]"-lcooc<n1ao;cm rEc.,saccrceni Gcd5TDecotu. oo3 co(.roroolo8 o5o.'oo'ldoodSJcm o0o<oe,lerloocol ecoluaoce6rDoocrnlg or9 coco<oo1oofl rsoemrecoej. poo)JaoJos eo6,Dccoe po$l.d <orgemcgc.

@n &Dcoc(('y ec"a ( I nternationa I Language)

otlot'lcuocc.E6uBglo8 or5or"oolaerogs;(m ecosio,gJos oooreBco)Jo occqeoBo8 <om1er;gg m->

crur0aorool'lcd oLleLean;<o'rslaocorJcrDl. po'rlomco; o-to'loocoo "grm crrlaco)eerceni Glooo.lcoclrqecoej

cru5.,E'leocmJgg LUoo5BBuE msrmali . o63o<oe,loJoocoJ eoco<oro'iloofl Gcduo() GrdmDcoclcqrec"sjaDceo)]

<srooo"le,old'o;cm e,co5rooflroS <orore1L"-rcooao6,Jo p6nBcar6rDoocrrng. 19-co cDlgc6rBlo8 g"oco0mt'lm;

enecooflo;cm o'losi6mcoJoolo ocLollao)oJlocacD orgut'1o:<o5o LclndauJcc(.sioao) 6Jo01Dc@cL.E ccogjqo)c66,'l

ocg1. e,vleom po;cn;cilerufl&o (uoor(oDoeangccoi ienfl51.si mrcgocen5oolm;6recao eeod4 poSloulO (r) Gn OO)C O c Lctg r3c ogi c (o, el roro'r'l c el ed g oOrta orof .

cr:cro"lqo)ol'l6,coooro o;crlogs;ornco'lo'laoco0 coenE'l o61o<oalergoocoJ LoJGo.lJa,comolotlooflreCogioao GroooCOCLrEreCoSJao)CAO'l rmooCo"le,o'leer;cmro'ilcn;":a,Oo 6-J(o] a,5Lo)'lor3cnuoao GnoococLoYm)fiu

daerroolcn;coenel nu5.,g16ocm;gg Lcrooeon<.rE msaDJ. m;Gocgo a5g<oflorecnua,ua a,sldorol m;gcene'lo8

oroocD g6rBcaorg;6n;. "gm5"roccoflc,

pcrfldeilo(,rc o)]san:looror asnorooio8 "-iler<ocer6'. "6mi"-roccoflc

orlcri agikoroco) olJcaJoemcD'lqoo6sBgl6ni. mcol5oBogflco o ao'loE rmoolmrccrflao;cm;. oLlcooosj6m6oBUa

on cofler;o. cocoed <uo<rl.dol<o fiD8',oeco9jco)cerrilcil. ceruccu"rSdqo cruA.ql€oogsJcmorao)ceni a,5troiorecnue,<6.

"-Ls'laoncooE oor]cocgilom gcqoolqceni p(o)lorooaoJgg 6,5C(o)'loecosi6,ogflco eerr3cdsfl

oo,lSlggd. ngmiotoccoflcolo8 poEcru:c-cor;coc"-r5od cc.-{uargJos cncocrsoe,la,l(ocoloJ5BBg;o <arodro'ro

<oer5uBg;ocani m-lr1aolq'lSlggd. roro<or;oe,cend oo"rm"lmi ec.ru ffuoffucolao;cmo.loE pogl.d oo1

aercod orlnuoleo;cmro.lJcorcoeroroloffn plc a,5larrlorecnuao)Jo orologs;aocoE oL'louolao;o. Basic English

o6oaDco; cruoaMoi<o pogl"ti "jlet ec.,sicoremo'l<ococd "uS€ql5;6n;.

850 o:cao;4,uO oclarrco prol1

ejlggl. get, do, be "gcrD1o6Bo(r)

18 m;ctocoora,ga,laooJeg p(oncDJgpl. poroe,ceni ofl(ocuoaool]o tora)slgilaocoE a,vloo;;oocmceni roroore,cuoorcoo.

"6cmco8 po'r1m;o orgo@ c.,-rcoceyo6,gl6rri. Gcoucooor

oLlo5eoBoa or5<o'r5miormomiaeicoeong;os crrlercn'lo8gflmcocn5ocoemcmto'r1cnco8 cmoococtoyccosj

oi oc s qo oc ao)'lor(Ir1 d cmJ.

a c o) a B c av ( S ta n da rd la n g uag e) a c o) e & @) @ e c "w ( S u b-s ta n da rd la n g u ag e)

noJ GcogicGoo-rerqoiloS m)coccDJoJoclocooo'lcn]o-tccorc<n1eer;cm rec.,vcoiaei rmoccna,o BcoMcGG

B6BBgJ6rBc&Jo. GrdoCao)oi ACOTSooSJ crUoaUCO'I6OJCmOJOIOS pScCu'lOSOrO'rOCm COCOTOOT'lmmSmrO'1{ reo

nsjcceo6cBua gsoers]aolcml. "Oflc ecosJceeBd'sBgilo8crrlcm;o m;oo;o<oofro8 oLra<orol'lao]cme(')c r)6]9

otJo <6roocD'leolaoogs;cmcoc Grgao GJ(oJ ccoucceeo o,o6Trsotol1 <srd6ocao'la,<r6 o;<oercoor o6eo0mr1a,

<rE o;corcn cril"erenel orJce<o6lDcnla,qd mndmld cn'locroro go-tcoorc<nroofler;os Bmoo5oooresBploS ocmarecogio() C"-rroil"dolao]fin]. 6-Jco rsc"uooiao;ensc&JcrD (coe(r)6,o recnsicceB6gBUa cro ecdu GDoffuc(ol

€o]oDoro]os Grouoaom)ocojB(no6r'l<o8 cru5.,glaer]cm <o)scpoolcrY (gec- o5r43o1o8 qcol- om]oeiJaoJ

5lcorceni. po(oeco6sBgil<o8 .r:cn3aerl5lao)lo) .tLo'l"ocooceni occna,recos. Gcducoloocao ruco]"o1a,ot5roro)1a,gil(oE o6lSo;o LoJcuccDoHSCil occna,"la,oemo (Standardisation) <oro6ni.

coo'lcocao go-tcoorc<n<orofloS crA<dqctlao;Cm a,tc"l"-tco'la,olJoloun6rgsos mlla,o6IDotlo c6a,cal1aro6rnol]o no] ecolucouo]oooro-r1oE crndqo-t'laoogs3cmror'locnoorcorrY occno,"laoem"

".6)<m] oJoaolan

<oi. 1<nmne6Bs0, ojleg6rooaoc<d, o.rlo5ccJcaDouncoJrnesBoa ogcrrrlorooialos G6rxcct.lo-r;6qo oo6r6rcoJoo!r9)ods]Cm<o1er;os GcducceB56BUa cL6,coJ"laolaoog5 ocff)6)Bcoruao)ceJcm]. p.l, occneecoeiaoc

6rd "-flcm15

oOHc cor6'la,g1et3o "-tso;cmoi.

5]oJ ecducrocmiL<oree6ro)ocfl r:5.rgloo.flo8 a,5Lrorlooccoi o3"-rogs;<olo'rlooors]ao]Cm occDaecoeJcao)

aocua LorcoccDJo occDc6,(c')orecngjaoi6oc6rd. "oeJc GcorucGGB5BBglo occDcor(.o)(o5BBgc6rDGflc. ocm6,

A

8

ecosi oilc@ogiolJolooco<oro'lmceni a,lsl(o)ercolo eolcaocu)odslololcmail. oc<D5oeBB<rE .'rcojolal<oflporooloetgco ocff)o,ecosc a,soD;olo;cmrco8 6IxoolBo60BgJos {rDoccoru6rDo occDcarto)oecnsieorelc

6ni.

That dialect of a language which has gained literary and cultural supremacy over the dialect and is

accepted by the speakers of other dialect as the most proper form of that language . (Dictionary of linguistics)

(ru&),oecosl (Pidgin)

ot5<o5mi<o'rrec"sja,ua cuoffuco'ldo;cmod rooo'lo8 mrmtdaooror'lca6ogs;ccrucu8 orq recosia,uA

a,]s1eoet<acni cru5.,g1aoogs;cm u]<or1q) ecogJ@cerd m.le,orecosi. cD"l"lecogJoocrnJo ogcgilrecouooo;

cmJo pnil orlgi'laoogslcm]. (o)looleueangiloS e,4os<olo.rlcncoor'l "6<oroflc4o]oD ojJcolcola,gsoscor;o <o'r

cgcoloorososc>;o Gcogja,<rE e,;slaerodcni mle,orscnu au5.Elaergsco;eni. crucoco6rDecogjao;os d'J@o

@o of;aD{rflerqo'l(o8 pro'r1om g"-tcoor'lcorecnu (Marginal language) "OCmJo

oloeorJo.

A pidgin language is one whose structure and lexican have been drastically reduced and which is not

one native language of any who use it.

oL'lcouorecngicojlog "ioeuBuA6d'

ocrotseor{uo)los orc6,Jo€lsff), oJJca)oemcD'lccDo5sBg0 po mei

a,1 go-tccorccril4cro8 crus$oecosleocoor. Cul"ladecoslaoJo ercglo0rec"vcorlo eeld<oro'r1 gerreceo'lco cruEioec

"u oonn'lgcocrr'lqo)oa L.'lco<ro<or<il crilercrrlcrn'lo;fiD;. ooercmost5o0 pidgin pcni crrlaoLleLloleo;cm <nemcn"l

aooc() oo] m)e,(oBc.,siaoc5rd. orgcmigorefloo)oor'loer m5]<rilcnloo.flerlo ffDr|DoltDmlmi o"6elcrEo;a,oaaos]

roroJo poi ot5c"laoccol'l g"-rccorc<rlleei]cm;. ag1<ooIJo Grdouo{n5a,l(')orlocao or5ca,oemcriloo;oeungceni

oo<or'lmleq(il.o*

ool &), elec oeJ (Cfeole)

6JOJ (oelolo (6taol(o]os oocrocrooloo;<olo8 aoJ cru&oGcogioco LormoGcnsieocao'lodocorrS m;ocnlc

olaer;cmtcecenY m.le,orecosj ool&,elrecnsjootcao'l oco;cm<oi. When a pidgin is learned by a child as his first

language is called creole. The, pidgin has become creolised.

ecoru, ec.ilu6rDo, cel6u(no (Language, Speech & Wfiting)

ecosioaDoD g"-t<o'ilrscm:olo1oofl o5<or5m5<oo1<o1a,gi1erlgg LoJosaseooia,oem ocd(,eoBgc5rd

ecdu6rDollo eeJdJ{no}o. om]nu5oofl <orgcncoroilcn'1acoorc"-rccu16,g1o8 noDlocLoaceni rec"sj. oocmcoS rec

duaolos rrurccr.l'lcno p<oroe"loL'lord<neung1o8 cnlcni rorooocn o5<o'r5m5<ocncaei'1. <o'r'lti<orol;o oLl5ogs;<oto)1

cor o"l<ofl cocmiLo)o Gcoej aoJos e oJ caoc oorof o8 om; ou5 od <oro cn; od <oo1:dl ol @JCmJ.

ecoei cuoeg6roagco8 crildoa'laloceni. <ororo'iloo0 ggd,o)olo-to coerlJenLlo6ru5cBogao;o eLlo-t'ltoo;

oJo B[r/oJcru]ela5uBogao;o p<rEoaocg.gJcm]. p(D m)loJereon<d (signifier) ov1 ml2"jl<oroce,;cm<d (Signified)

omi<ol;m;e,<oSolcno (Concept) raq6ni. cnerllenLloenrcoc o5co5enLlo6DlGoc m)loJe,oco'l otrdrom'rl{ o5a<ofl

omq3let;enecao]fiD g"loflo;"-rocerd' au;"-fkoo. noocg relooile,oad<o;oLlcetad 6JoJoocol;crnoBd crul

ot'l<omte,o8oJo. Gn o(Dco] ocmm:'la, ormio)3<oco)ceni. mr3"ra,-ml2,-ilo 5fuc\Do mllcrEcoLlaoH, croGoc

.'.rl<ooceni (Arbitrary). mre,o8orcnor3occofl (Concept) m:3"ra,toro'flmlgg 6Dlo\Do ao} mlco]"rrla,aooco'l

ocrfl orovo ocLo)o po8oaocgg;cm;. a,ocd o"-rcgilogvJolcrDcocos m.l3"la,<oro'lcri <mocm;otoo cru;"jlg[l

glolcm crue,o8.,lcno<oro'r cru]"-rlgilaoooE a,p1qoco(u)colce,JfiDl. prlD G(ru1*Jc.r:orococeni m)JrJa,- crul"J,l

<o eorrru<oor'loofl oroslmmccncolet.

GcoM6rDo 1.,-tcloola,olo GEJorcDo ot1<o"looror;ocao, a,oJ(o)]fiD oJcoml@5ocerd' cnlelcrr'1cm;oo;cm

<oi. nicuaJco5ocoruo5oofloofl tocoe,gl<oco)Jo pno ocdasrocenY ronoetoenrl4ilolaerlcmd. pdocoJ

oro'lo8 lcn"lao;oc6oocrila,cocd o;<o'ro8 oersmcorcoolo'ld loJGoJcB{Do cno8a,1oo.r oondoolcncnfl n n. *mt5;d ooo n6*lcrs1g"-tcooeercoceni. orooocslccoteoccrE ocoocp'loorceni mlllacoJo qDcm; m:ml5;rd e,

toJrotlcm;. crucru5;o'loerfl plco(d (Langue) - o.:cocuE (Parole) m;e,ei"lcnrorol'lo8 o.toooce'looor "loloerrrleo;cmc<oco.flg. 6JtoJ LoJcoJa,ecou@Jos "6gcoL1cr:

crilooroeuBg;osaorJo Grqo,ctolJaecDcc> olJolrn:nqoc6ny

etcai. recnsjcm)oLoo "61cni

rororolom oL'lodoroff)o orrgco. p,tc m)oL<noleolos rgcrrlocacDcsrd "icocsdGronolc ecogJclolcaoc<ro cnletcnlaieei;cmroi. rscc,vcor;os/GcduccDaL(,)cDaolos mrca,el5<oro'floScrilcni m-l

cn6recm]m;co'loorccor'l o-Lcoc<ra o]orods]Cm;. otooocel ":o'lcnemcncd.roooge)loScgca;o 6-lcc(oc olJ

eoflco.r;o poJcaoccrlogs]toro;Cm e.flo-fl<oot;o/g4o'larorSacao ouoreJ ecotucLolcaoc<n6'oBg;o "-lcocg1oerfl

"lo1<dooio8 oolslcoltrlcrrlorl6n;. Glco; ccogj g"-rccorcor'leer;aD m)6,e1 o5aofla,g;oseolo crua)el recoslem/

eilo-r1o cn"leteang;o c"l<dcmrorceni "-tcocuA "Olmi potlo8crr'lcm; olJa<olocci,Jm)J.

mtcru5lcrloofl crr1et.,-tcs;e,<6 oogco; cDletqoloS oL'lcoo1aoleer;a,corceni GOco Gclcomia,'I. elcoi

- oJcocua Bl(Bo GrooloJcojo)oco6rncmlc'-lo6"rtm; oogc(o] BrcBo - Goog/ceg5'roCmo (competence) - Bcouc

cnldoooemo (Performance) cril6cg<nlacrlcoucgJo mrm:51cr1om crilc"sitrllaocmg, .r.t;olgilaetccnceni cr-tco

mia,l Coolaergcm<oY.mm;eioScnlcmlo orJ<oJcnio)o) ooorq)aofla,<ooorSos pocmalo8ocltiDo. Gn<nctl

"etsmooflo8 (Deep Structure) crrlocor;cm Bcduceg6roccnc<0es,esm<oo'lcn] ccoouo ocLtirlco g"lol"etsmcoiet;gg (Surface Structure) rec.,yccrikdooo5rDo m)coJCIco,J o6)oneqooo oLletcoio;oro'r;cm;. o5e<o1 cmsloqo)

S](oro) eCogjCeg6roCCDOL(')AOJo LolGAOC(,aBjzrOH. m)CoO.oJ(OJ6BBgtrOS crr'lt6Or"rndOCCDCOrl(rD GCogjCLoJGAOC

cnoceni cn:c6<oma,o. ecolucLorcccuccororoloefl gcr-rc<lccn5roo'rlceraoceni pto]olcoJo o.r1oo8"l;enelcmoi.

recou6m(ooloofl Lc,-rcocmJo oJJarBl€ocSJCm (')cogaoc6rD](m oJcBaJileBBUA "J@',lcCooufao;a,.

1" GCoM6rDo gArrSCCOrtOrlCn;eCnnUOCerd reC"SjAO',lOS CeleUmOtlO5 gco]oro Oacengroi.

z. or5e<oflooiro8crilcm;o GroBJo enr"rrldoolaer;cmoi rec"sjcmoc6ni celolcDofl.s. crrl<ol5ee"loL1<ororo'flo8 cetolff)oorDaelcsd ecnsr6moc5ny g"-tcccucaroo'le-r1o'1aei3cmroi.

+. or'loLlorEcnua,gfo8 acoooeq;roro'r1oofl eqcoemo orJoJcnioeLl"-r1a,gco8 e,;crleoogs;cm;.

s. caolcnoL'la5 otcnolgcoro, ecoruem<orol1a;osocl<r)o rorgcoooroLlcriloao)oorJg;m) ocnlosiJcruo;.'oooBuA

re;o1cofler;end.

6. OOOcLAiCC.rnCend, OSetC.tnoen6, COOICCO)C, CSiOOeOCdnnrd "OCm"l

perdcLscsrn'ld octu5oea:<,r6

Bcoej6rDooroooceni <orggcloooiaeilcmcil. BAsoJoc(l)Jo5BBgJos mrcc.u5roa,gflo8e"lcet3o r3colu6lDo oroo'kor

mrtcco'lcno od erlotol;Cm;.

7. ggcro6tDoro'flo8ocLolo <sroo'iloJ'locdcuacqo)'l ars(mJoroJcm <onut'loem.umtolccronsio>a,uA (Supra

Segmentals) er.i eilojl<oo2"-rroro'flo8 rsod<onolotocooi 1"-ro6oolaercmcculg.p6ocoJ6cBg[o8 gormlcouce]o e.ilo-r'l<oo3".r<orofloofl LorcocoJo orlmiooleocoJ<oH. orc(06rDo,

"Oplo, m.l;aMaelccncol]fiD L"-tro'lreccru6cBUac6o (poc: m>corfl(oJo, ro)orol.e.tlcror) e,celotoo <oro<oflg"loL'l

6OCmCOU. o-rSOSAOOrO'flO8 eiCm; OOgCCrrilOcn oroc"-resa14} o1a,g<orco6YDoD mle,allcno<orocm roros'l

cn:nccno "o'l(')oooDJ arc6lDcor]fiD <oceni.

po omicn;oaoJos m.lcut5<ote,gilcgaeiceni oerscDcorcocmcroo oilcroe,cncoor pce,:mi ooolo

(Jacques Derrida) gcmo olaoiaolcmd. Gcosi6mo/esoJ{Do roJs6oBloor otcnecBgiloel no; "etsa,rool'ld a

ogccrn'locn roroco-reMg; cno8a,;cm Lolc<llccnJocloqoc6Td oocr'lo <mo"lcnldaoleo;cmroi. "gv;tooi, ecolu6ln

<ororlo( o;cm;"-tcuioocoemrni ooo'ln C"-Lmi<olco'laoScmtc<rE "gv;roroi, eelolff)o

"Ocm1 "ioeBBUa m<o8o,3

cm <ondarrnm-lcoJo Gnolerseroocao oolg1nocoema,g1o8 recngjccocmigoroL1a5cd<o'rn16,og oa,coeneool

eo;cm;en5. "6ys;ororo'rcni

Gncqooo gcqcolao;cm<oi ce-ro-rcnotlrrJoaoaog. om3"v5oL6oo pccmcpo tor@ri

eaeel4ilglgg ecosncoloocool (ruoieJ (ru(ruoDo)6rplo ogvJoro;1oefl "-to1ut1oo.t1<o8

goEogslcrnl. E)l9 (rurlufiD

<oroo.flo8cn'lcmced om;nu5m;omiaoco<oro'floof, a,c<oo8 go;orollolcculcmtoi. mlm;53<d cnldcquolao;oD elco

rr5, crlcomia,'l o-r;enslaercerrflaolcm carcoo.flgo8mi "6cm1 oJo6uBplo oogcol ol<oflooio8 o$e]ooloron mJ

e,eiucno rorocm.aoceni. oog]oorocm o-ro<oo'lcri mlomiaelcoo og)(m (tI)e|col(Dcgo rgrod<oncrucoJo ol

go;cm;eni. mtomiaelcooorol ola,daoco6 rsc"vaofla;oserrlgg 6rs(DcLa,ol5'IDo cDs<oToco0 6ooleo3cm

cm;tgcur1a,co1a,og cetca,rlolgroorof et;sm"lgo arc6lDcofl a,vlccl;cmolo crooJoocerrecooio'lao6rDo. Bdmcrilqolos ccncdon'ld cn"romiaocoororo goordrorolldstq "cn$ad p<orld g(oYoeocacoooemoceni.

aorLncdo:n<oo'lo8 oloicqoloS eucoj<ofloofl "-floola,g;os orgtdgcoceni oacr'locor;os ndcocno. erucoj<or'loofl

o;oJolcBcmoolo (Post- formalistic) "-rlcrora,gcerd'

oaolncor;os .'elsffcolcocmoo(o (Post - structuralislic)

odcocn<oroflcri egooco3aolcortoi. mro;r,oo;occoilg;gg L":<olLuotrdotolcnooffn cn'letaoflo8oc1oloceni rscnu

ooot anLcoiarr'la0 cmcaer'leocem;rmoi. ecoruclDo, celolmo "Ocm1 croolouna,og eucoj<or'lo0 o-toloarrr'l

doJ(rrn$. p{o1<oo (Utterance) "6cm eruoj<ollcnlcorod Lolcao;c<nrorofoE rec.ruoo.r;os p@J@)ol5BBplo auo6loi

gmr oc col1 a rolo'r; co-r o3cm3 eni.

om;osl5otdtnoro'.noofl m-lolcncur'1.,-t<o5<oofloi a,v3a,cr8 a,ep;a,uE oLlolcoflao;cm c"-rcg$ - oo,ccgo

errilqo)o8 m)cLocBJ(orol(DL(FDo, o61v3oro'r1ocn (m.lomiaercoororol) oeL1m1a,olg3oe,cenec6d oroo'r1oof, rel

a,oogLaa,<6 .,-r<o.r1gi1aocmcoors14i1o'laolmd. p,tc LUoal6BBog orlolgefleorotoloceni co)co crlcomy66n

ao;o, o'lotccqcDoS 6rxcoi<or1cn3o, gca,rmi oocflocor;o. Gn<oJoarcct'B;arlocm m)cloceeJoojrorD'locnror'loo rec

n9ic.,lOOco, oCl<oOH, ocLrE"laoloo@lo P,:D Ooocoto(EC<d m,:oro"lrororol'lelceni.

or5aoflrec'slcolo1emcoo - ooko;rec"u (Linguistic ontogeny - Child Language)

oet.ro;a,ceLleecogiccrocmiCo'r<ool1cri oene;oksccneonuE gerrd. E!{DcnooJroroS oo6rDooloo oo; Lol

c<o;5eo5e<oflaolJos ccosjem<.o"leteungi1o8 m-roreot'loo;Cm ocgootolaolcA{ L"lon"lcnlao]cm ol5a<oflrsc

10

A

oucorol5rDco@cmyLoo - (linguistic ontogeny) msgcene;a,gilerJos ccc{ue,cdeei mrorEoil€oJcm o5<oflco;c

m6TBog€oJcil{ C"-r<ofl"-tcnlaer;cm ffDo;ooccosic.,-Lo'lemco<ocmigroo - (linguistic phylogeny).

o5aoflrecouc.llo'lemco<ocmigroon'il<08 rororo"lorg"r<ocff)ocao orern-uoceni croluo;rscnucoJoff)o. oend ololloofloE colco;recrrucorocno crildcqorfleoco. oL'lnfloqouolerooBUA ooloo;olom o6)5sBocn mrcco'lcrr'l

ao]cmJ "ocmroflcetad' L@aD corLcBle,olael]cmrolceni oo3 o"kor1. orjorfiu-occa,1cn"la,5<ooceni oeneco

orolo'r o'lof. ooloo; cms'loao)sJdo;ffn oL'lcnlooorm;oorlcr.lcmorofo8 cn1co;or1cn;tsts m)Jctlllmoro>lmcerd p<or1<o8 p.lDcm<o8 moSa]cm<oY. po oene;o"lo'flag]o oJ(aadd{ao oJJo66uBgc6d. o6lr3cooolool<oflaoioE ca,gcnl a, o1 { m o; aerl oLlo s <ro1 cro; re c ou o oor

"l o cn oL1 oru Qo oc 65.) c o.

6,ODCo rl€l5o - flDoeCogr6lDtEqOtlAromleAn<d

co'lcololoofl crOBJooIo.) oeei-ila,<oeq1o otlooilaeio4flercoemcni n-roccuco. "6ycmco8

<oro<ofm; o;cuJ(Docrn <ndreccooorro'ro'letloleei;cm rDoaororDJo <.o1co;ao<6 crdoJJd(oro6nJ56BUA

"-r]oogs;oLleerco]eni.@lccm)c*Jlccuo, o6(d)ffD5tlDlcoo, ogcrrilo

"-tloot1aero4neelcos La,o"la,o]eeiodsJCmJ. oo,)Lncrd<orooo1o8

o-t1ooL1eoo4i1to8 om3"u5elot1<ororo'noofl Kick starting rsr96r6'. moreeco@'l<o1or1o8 ecrr1oa,o3"-ro,o'r1o8 o-t

a,t6cmla,1gilco e,v1or3a,gl6nd. colcogotloi <aorofloofl o-ro'lo'l<oocaol GrOorroJ6cB<r0 crilocorgco0 rscnucm;cro'l

eloo Grool(o5o1g. oLlcog], coJrJo) o](oerc() oLlacoeBBUa, a,o4ilo8, e,;<ooo8 <o;smn'loo g":rofa,oemean

g!et;osoorceni ruroooa og<o116cmooo Grocflqoraola,. Gr?<ocao<d' <,o1oo3oL1ool orOeJacetoL'lcriloqoolo"fla,<6

aolaeiet;o tscnsic@ccniL<ooloog. Grdor mJlcecolaL"-rroflaoeme6Bgc6rd'. a,;5ilcor;o cordmaoJo <o'rm'lcsconoge,1o8 roromcl)ao; .,laoocoo.r'lo.to;cm o]<oltdcm o5a<o)loolo (om'leelc rsroail cruocol'ldoJml. (,roluoJ

a;a oteilg;e,Sslao;cmai eecoorcalmqoc6rd . o6cmco8 o;oaoegi <ogiltorofocorlcmc,i <orooge,1o8 rorlo

aocm]gg ellBlolcsJ <o)loco]cmali co1coJ <argdeaea'logs]dolcm <orocilorceni. ooloo;cr-rololcermca,gcn<oo1ocrfl

otc<or'lasaor;cmoi eio; oJca,gj cnlco;oLlocn cruoeruaurlSj po6sBcm;gts tot?saocgcoc ar<oaoccnJgg crul"J

cDceoc <oOqol occflceoraoco. roo<ofloafl c<ocg!o8 eioJ LorcoJa,o"ko'loojlslgg o.lsoi <oroo'rlcri anlo'leoro;

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l2

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oceer;a,9i1o8.... "A rational Martian Scientist might reasonably conclude that there is a single human Language,

with minimal variations." (New Horizons in the study of Language and Mind - P-7)

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13

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cmroi'.

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.'dol<o "er5rorrr'lelcoorlo]cm a,35i1 a,]o4;a,cer<ororlm] e<rooluo orgoacrrl"do"etsroro'flceteer] <or1o1gloJ<oJcrD

<ocqo'l a,cdrDco..6r;s;o5ru6ruru-lmr:g1a;6TrccarJcrD CIcg6uBgsaoo GJeSoo a,coemeonsa p,tc lolge,lootael3

"-flcrn1a3en5.Btml- GOoIDGCoru5IDo "gcni .lLlcoco.,si oJ'lc@.u1g[lasrlcm oer5oort')6'o1cr1{ oilcoooloff)o ff)s

oro'ncofl5]gE .,0)0..,6)0. er3oo.flmi. e,;5i1 o6ooole,1el3o o"-lg;cmLc<6 cDSol(')JfiD ec.,sr6moc5n; Goooccdu

6rno oflcrrr clLorco)odslcm].Gncqooo peonlom oloo)JoD]. ruJQOo CDoG6DICOO O"rOO)<Or;OA,Cmelgg p/l, CCotU5Tno loJoJ$

roto'flocotoror;s<6cm3 msaolcmolg. ond qolo5<oolooJos GcoorDocmqoc6'fly . poLlos ecotucoloocao Lol

o5roofloo.r;o ecosjcol(oogcrorol go-to.r5orofeogo ocrrr'14;ms€o3cm]. a3crlco "6cm onu5o8 omr4gcmiUotezenn

prD o€J5ooto orqru3go1<or€co916TDo (Directive or planned speech) "grmcerd' o5otrroolaer;cmo<oe,1el;o

o.fl oaMoloo Hco ol'laocoogj€oJo et3cor1m1m;o oD ocff)o toocmco.rceni.

aD]6rD1d' 2

CcogcCuoCm)lo)o oflCID do(n roc6ugorcolollo otg64orlo

oJcuElcorJcncs;e,gi1oa ocgoroc<oJ crocmiLorcoc6ueo;oocrDcoJcoeJ rec"sic<loccni6otoorloerfl <ons1

coo;a,oE tul"lm:letceni 6,o6rrlorolccDcot;a,. cm;cge,g"lmim3 o;o0o.r3 eloil4ilo;cm <ooto'rto-t'loota,olet;o,

c6cgcoLle.llo, (ordo'lccf,llc5fieflet3o pn, oiloooo.r;os mioo;oemeBBUa crrloeroro;crr1o8ao3cm;. "6cmcoE cmlc

L6,g1cru'lcn; o;o8"r;gg cn'lo"lasremecBod Groor5anoocao<olloe,cend c6cgcoLlro8 crrlcml roocmooceni plcu0 c or ao) o s mt cd <on e,c G o)l otu 6tD o GrO oo ele ao ere oi.

ecduoao cruoeru<ru'laolcm "6Jgollo LoJcd(')mocao Goor c6cacoloerfl cuoolcBoJolo"lma,g!<08

(Dialouge) affDoao la,cgletmi (Cratylus) ogeni. pno L<nmnorofo8 o.lcao;o <orodo'rno;o orm'la;gg eru

mr-looro'rn-tg1 pro;ola,si6uBUd cruoolco<oroflcetr0ogs;CmJ. mrtcrecoia<olcocnle,gccor (Naturalist) o:a,v

eercd oceerlo Grod<onolJo totm'leJlgg 6DG\Do m.ltcrgcot'la,ocoeiDffn] ocnlao;cm:cua nJcocrxo5ocn'la,

o8 (Conventionalist) Gr@ 6rufi\Do 6J@l oorco;e,ocd oclooco6lDcm; oL'lercoflo;olo;Cm;. cncoo (Noun) ge,1

oor (Verb) "OCm1

oL'Ieecoolso topo5ocootl cns<otolqod Gdcgc <uq6ni.

ronolccSgc5flelceos ooofl ar;o;n1on0 ocdcno oroorn"la,o'leer;ffncocoscklo o;Cmcoororco; old

<noro,ola,3s1 m.:.l"la,o1aer;fiDJ.cDcolcortrlcsJo Le,'lcolcaocs;oocdo o€lsa,o (Conjunction), 9o-lo-loo (article)

cru<flolcncoo (Pronoun) "gcrrilooorSosduBJcm

p.o oJcrDcoo.rd<norol'l<08 g"lm;doo (Preposition) e,;s1 "lo1oernl4i1o;cm3. Lo-rco-r"lcn cc;gccoid rooorr-iloore,d mcet;<ootool1et;gg (cncoo, 16,'leo, poJoJBo, o€ls6:o)

ecosi6rDo€lsaeuBogggn (parts of speech) ocncp$aceo1co.flo;cm;ooe,'1et3o of.mr. (o6rBco mlgcenel<08

<snetdmrcodCon'lcorcor'lo8 ee1oL14[1o;cm mcorm'lnu5mi Cocdmi (Dionysius Thrax) GrdoJ oOoS6FBo;oenecni

a,oeneopl. La,laoco.l'lccrooru6rDo (Adverb), La'lqoc6TUfftr>o (Participle) m;doLmcoo (Pronoun), g"laud

14

A

oo(Preposition) ogcrrrloaolceni p(o)oo.elsaJeongcool cneqooo a,oeneoo'laooi. roncg.'otooloef, ocncd

gmi <onglmn csca,roror'loet LolnooJJcaJo6rDLoc)oocoor'l <nerrfl4lotolcml. cmdaucomlgcerre'loa gul"laer;

rororolr-ilaoa,oco cLoJcsc(,comj g<n"laer;recnsjaD'los EjloooDlGcoJoolo (Gender) o5olcgr$q}. a,c

et(Tense)o<ororgflqo,lgg .Jlcror ooo'lcrSgc jefloorE cDoGcoJff)c)ceni. g.'.t<o5ooreoBogggtlaosgp (lnflection)

oloff)o eggccorld <oororrr-flcroa,rd cns<olo'r'I. rsnordoocmcoceni, otlea<ol (Case) a,doro'ro'l (Active) a,d

mernl (passive) cnra,dma,o (Transitive)roroe,6aoa,o (lntransitive) "Olcrnl

GnoJfiu-oarogggrloor;gg ,Iooa,<daer;o oil<oro'r;orcalcor<ti'.

rorootc-t'lcrocoJ(oocao orJc6ro6rDo "OcmJ "roaorlgilao;cm

o1ro1cot1o8, Co"lmt'lo8 orgr:5a,cooroi

rccnMcuocadlroro {or{onrrrolcroao]os recooccoio;fiD}. olooocp'loorercqolo;cm; pod LroaD G6,Lftt1e,o1g

<oi. mrcno;o ejl"-floor3o omlerggg o5<olcoccno Gno66oe96m)c<oocooio;cm;. Lolo{coLomn6oBog Gro

miuooccer'l ooOocp'laor'lo8 ms<oro'r;cm GnolLtnmmaceni o;o-r5ocaoJo rDsoD;c"lccm<oi. G'nn.mr. o;crDco

cn3gceneloS mrnc.,-r'koocqo oeilcol LulmocrocetaoSos mlccrrilaDJooJero Lolo{croocoor GneliaucoEgaoloot

ooio8 otemrflroolgcBo tncororu6lDd'0Bg1celdod5]. oooccococao oO9]rolo;6rcolos Gcogi ocLtolocer6'co;ar:

olJo @olaoJoocm oL'lcrorccrDo loJ6rusocaoil. gurmnrscnucofloS crrlrm;gg o5toloorcmo oarrgccoi 6r6YDa'oc

aooflSJ.cocooEeecnror tcn"laeY roroor"-flooa,(Dcoo oc<o5a,corccofl <orocucocutlg;. ercglodrecoluoao oL'lctoo"l

a,o'leelcod gn"leer;rec.,uao]os erS€oSsceni oroo<6 g"-rccocril4roi. roroL"-l<o"le,s1'l(o)ocao n(oolo,scolocosqoc6ni lul"laei;o5ca,o6yno coco'lo8 rsno<n"la,olaerogg<oi. g<n"laei; <ororor:oflooa,cnc<ll cle,gmid (Crates)

ao; m:cn<Ecomcogcolo8 cocolo8og] auocol'lg Grdora,so GnGqoooorD olgoodocelo Goco crrloLcmrl

ootcaercaa e,coemocoor'lorolldcm;. p,lD ercel())p(Ulo)aotlo cga,gmtloofl olJcoJ(o6rDoJo'l"iqoo LoJecosi6ID66B

g!erlos cocoaoco;os oo5oao6sB giloa<oro'fl.

olccoc (varro tt6-27 BC) o"il4 etcgloEo5ca,o5rDo 6,ilo8cr'lel'lqooA, oor:cmcgmi ro;seanlootoo;

os ffuoecolmoregcoscdo LoJolorocooil a,o;<o1cHcrolcmJ. cocoloefl .'lrocnroo'lcnJc@oluo cocooa"-l

enrllord ce,cendc;ycerfllcmcgflefloS onreoorc<6<oo'l6,gcoaoroo;cm;. oooLloso4cerd g"lmr5o0 (priscian

512-60 AD) <ooofl oilo-r5co)(04lff)coccor ioocglaooS a,cgoo"lmi o.r1<drooflcorceer;cmoi. Plc Lulrnooceni o

(l)Jao](,)c(orocpo. ercslodolJceJo6rDoJocnoro'r'loofl caLcnenilcn;occofl o6oro'fl4<ti'.

ooooce'loool GrooJelo5ru'l6ogcm io-rc"-t"lmolc@(ruoJolJcaro6lTDo ocoacE'l ngocmccni crilaoLlelsoenecm

(o)lcolcelJo oto1cnerrr14i1s. ecogccLoJc@coo oo5uBomaocqo'lo'ldo6moocm cn'ldcqcnocerd' recnsic(o)cd

oooa,co'la,o ol;adorol;cm po<O oJccmc5Joo4roi. rscoorcaocsJgp cnelm)ecoJo plc o'l<olc>Jos o;ot

o;iooorceni.

o(r)J(I))(,)o

"61.ori. rz o3<oo8 1s olooao]gts cDlgc6rr;egceni o5ca,o6TDo(oro auoerucnulgilseotocgo octlJ

ao](,o oooDcrlootogs;cmoi. qocmcd(DoJooro) oil<roa,etcno oo.rgcmlgg goJa,o6TDocqo)c6ny paocel"-t1

oore,d ecogioc> ccncaolaelerreoi. recnsj oorcLoc<6<o'ro5oroo g"lroflooeL'1gi1eo;cm;ootcmotd ocnleer;cm;.co.rc

Locr6<o'ro5ooro rsro"-tLom'laocmlgg o619o;o ola,4ocdaslo ecotuoc> raroo-tg<nmlaerscoo5lDcrDolrd a,

oerre@to'I. re,oor1a,cetca,rooloofl rsnoodct.lcoq)c() aocmc6on5o ecosiao'lelJos t"-l<o'l"oeLldoJCmJooJ

oDc6rnoJo]os ecorujo. oorcLncrdoo5ooro) L"-ro)'looeilgilaercoE a,e1o]gg a,e[qcs1 ogcmd<ooo ooJcm'

speculum'oOffD oJBooro olo0crr'ldoro>looceni pdolsoo 'omi"laet;cergloi Cococilooo8mi "{DCmJ olgllJ

C.rlccmroi. roroooldcrrl"rflcncOlctoctdroroJo o6Je)oceo)(,)loa,c6Tl3] oo$cGcosia,g]o o€lsmcn-loOccoi ocmc

ocrlolao;cm;oocmo:<d t-"-r"-ro1gflg;. "O'tgc ecoruoo;os olJca,o6rDo;o 6-roDloocm - m.rcnrdrsolcocoS ol5

o'r5miro'roco6mcm] crorccmcooe,'lerJo. oJca,o5TDoJoocao rsroslffunccDoelso@los "ge,<o'rcoflo8

oooldprDgooerctstslcm]. (oroolercdo,ri (tots-tuz) ooocoioc6n; erlg6i (rz:s-rsts)

"6crrr1o6 ecosjoeo crrdaei

cocmic<olrororloofl a,epgla;os cmcae'il6o6rel. crorcomi onailcncmi ('rzzs-tzts) mttmeuBoa ocDJosiJLCruc'E

oco6TDfiD {or}@aoo o]ccmc5]ol4J. GncmJolOO cDleJmncrrnolcm Groc,oaooJoBcmlm)co'loorcqo) odcocnoc

eri' pc<ocos rore,rdeelodSd. oogo]mr'loucrd (tszs-t+t+)oor]os orooda,caSmi ogcm (srooentl cril'elerrs}

o1o8 "6gc oJB6sBglo orcoqoyoca'l oooocp'l o5<o5cmolgcoro c"-rr6<oto'fl5;en5. 1s-co m;gcenslo8 "o"l

gou;recnucdoei <crooenjlcccucs;o <arordo"lcrrlcoro8 recnsJcaocsJo eoq cruceec@J ooolstc<or5eoBuA cradepooi

doc(r)]gg (OOo (orc(0{DoJolJc6@6TD<Oto'floofl <orgo5o"ts1oolcoor',l a,o]crrco.

(nGaUCO)OC(n<O)lt/ro - G(/0o9r'O-llo

og.orn. 16-17 mJgc6rrs;a,<rd cncotc<oloccnc>Jrno "gcmciloorogs;Cml. olcocYuoJol5ce,oemooloofl

"iololola,ua cnleercmgqo lctoooceni paercerroro)'LoJocmocacDJo cDsoD<oi. or-l6glJl. c<rlco8aDd, toss-o8

15

pog6re'los coco)o8 om)coom)g'l€olcol6,B'l Co-rmlella,ol4 'Elements of speech' p,tc otvlao;Bg m)c

6<orne,orolgcnooceni. cn1<rorcrruo.rcoorloiloofl tosqlcruncmeoBUA po L<rlmnotoilroS roro"rLcnm'laoJoDJ. 17-co

m;gcensloS po$1crd oooJaoc&oemcoc<d o5co:a,ocooil ocoooiocEl"romtolo'ilo8 L<roaoca,Lcn"la,olao;cm<ocerd' e,cemcoEa,eleromoi. recnsi crrluo.lerLo-rol'kecmloco6IDGD crue,ei.,-.to ocflarseerced <ooodaercdaer;o

a, e1eoofl g "{)

cm o'r c eni Gn €oc eJ crJ o cD6aB g] o s L.tr oc m "r

o1 o'l o'1.

17-co mJ$c6rB1o8 gerrecco) c":cra$ coceoroE L<ncod (Grammaire generale et raisonne) "6cm c"-ro1

o8 C.'oco0m1o8 guoce.uoorocao n(o; Ltnmno gco<6cm;oolcml6nd. uocmiL<or"lqo"romroro'iloofl LorcocmJo plccrrrlgoeornoolod g"-ro;o-roccor cocj ooLooo.ti oilo8oooo cocend oeLenicnlmi, m.rd oLler5o cec6'n0cni

"gcrn'lord <oocmoorcerd <odEBg;os ojloora,gilerlos tolco<ooJrecosicoilee6ltrlccnroro'iloofl (comparitive philology)

ollorol; a,uE "lca,1oor<oi.

rEc os/ c ro c fi\y lo) orlo rec "c/

c ot'l e6To c m ot) o ( Lin guistics & Ph ilology)<or9cu3cn'le,cclo)oa,celoorD cru6rel

"-tlaotccnor'la,glosoo)Jo (oJc6'rDocolceo ecoucuocmigo)o pcm

oo'ro) oLla,mt'l<orololm;ooror'lcelaei auoLe,o'ldolcmorlm]oSoEorJ a,scm]ojcm otg'la,<rE .,-ro'lccocuic6o6r|iiol6nd. <mO oelagiloe.lo.t'losccorc GrOGrd' rEcosicol'legdroc(Do GroLootc Philology oolos ouncm)o - oJcoffuoJolJcaro6lnroroflm;o oilooemcoa6rolJce(ocyD<oroflm;o1scor'Io8. agooorcg recosle,glo8cnlcm; ocolcnlcm;oa,cend groi"lorolo-r@ocao 6DJfi\Jo o-r;adonn;cm ecotucm)oloo5cBog <moolgcnlolaercmJo r6nol€o1soor1a3

tsg m)cslc(o)Jooojs}c(cDJ6oBog o0slo'to)lorcerrilaercm]oceni ecosjcol']p6'ro)cmo LUorrt)lgroj. cetca,<oofloel ecos.&ogosoflco ee"loen:mororo'r1oofl <oroslmoccnorofloS re'lcmecosiccruo;ooeungccol cordoflolg;e,cern'leetcoocr6' p.tc oiocnesBUA o<ogilcoig;. orco(uoJo5ce,oemoro'floofl co-tcocoo)oa,ua olo'looolaocm]cqcolg]oarc5rBJ6Itecao o"l<o'locorcm crr'letcoflerceni rec.,sjcolpetoccDo LoJau'kuicclc<deeelg<ril.olc co ol oJ cc

"scc ol'l e6roc cn o (Comparitive Ph ilology)

recouooo.tggfl@Jgg Gro6TUaD<rlco6IDa,gJos ocgcrofla,orerooreuBUA€o'lsqo'loScrr'lcmcer6' coo8goeorololemn'ltold (D6BBglos {orgaro mlooaMgoi. o6oodcrorcg<oo1o8 ooBolo m:tladnu;o, GD6o aoccnlnslJomdgo lon6loulo ffuocruco'lg;oorcni

"ioqocoacdcerJo os'ldocern'laocolorgo ps;eanlqo couoloocdruco)oceni mr"lm'l.d rec.,sjc.,lemu'lrorncqo crOeLcB el6,o6l go-rotdcnlgi'l4oi.

mlomia,5<o)(o(')1d lul"leer]o elcglcn;ocoor]gg 5TUmDo ao0ol<o);otrdouoorcD pctoJc o:cm;<oro'lcrr'ls

ooio8 crur0 oLleL5o cgcendmi e,oanE<oor'1. GEGqooo 1786 oo-oL6Tx3oo'l oeneco <o'r'laorrofl "6nsl5cg1d omc

oomglao; o2oErL1o8 msorD'lqo LorecogJ6rDerotolcosooceni rolcrottrloJccnsicol'Ie9,6'rDcmrom'r1oofl eruoSoo;d(016)0 a,Jcr'laoogs]cmali. gtn"laeilemaoc<ra mro6<o'tooJJo, EJolrD"locnaocua oJ]<depotSo; rcroot oorrc'locDdoc<6 oiluo'lc,go;oceni m;omie,5<uroooDG6ooo oooilosor2l rororelgo-rccorog5J. "The sanskrit Language, whateverbe its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than Greek, more copious than Latin, and moreexquisitely refi ned than either..."

cscenOmtlomoro;sdcni tsaz-68 csaereni go'lo (Jacob Grimm) po8cuc aor;coco.r5od ccosia,gJos 6rufi\Do o.tocool'lcttloolocaefl. pog"lcrd, m.lomia,5<oo, ac5l'lof, Ccroooi "OCm1

rec"va,gfloeL oJBm)occD

<o)ooorggil l(,)lo oJccmc5Jooj4 ocoegBua 1o'lo colooroo (Grimm's law) ogcmerlao)oHslcm].1e-co cnJpcerBloS ot5c":e,ocoor'l penecoor oor;errr1cordm'lg1a,glos ogoLldrscolo ecorucLrocmigroo-t

ocnoot'loofl GroBJolsolJe,sd 6,o6reororJcmJ. cor;ernlcodm-l1glagiloetgco ecoru ololeoccn;gg ole,JgloroE <arEoorslaer]CmJ. <orcro<olo5 - lo1lroccoo6, oiomocBUaod' Lolcol;otJo ooa,ol(oJcrD;. rero-o8 <oc<o<oloJ

o5ce,oemorofoofl o-t1rocoi ogrmcr'loo.rogs;cm 'gooco0oimi cerucg] re (rzor-raoz) ruomio,5<ooL;o po0caDc ao)Jcocu5oa rscoua,g]ocaoJgg 6Do\Do oilgoo,etcno ocrg)]oDc(o)cos ocoo)oJouce,o6rDo @ccnigtot"foolm.llrecoo ooeoj(o'ld,o3cm3. oL1<o8cooo Gooc6nd ooJoc6ilcu6 S jtu - rass) Bcolc or"lo-t'log a,oL'l rec

osjcoccoA6,e,og poac(\l)c oJcocoJJoE recova,g;acoo.fl 6rumDo#Sl(oro.)JfiDc(o)cos prD soco-t ot'la,m)ooca,Sa,oorceni.recosi cDlqoJerolosonJo (Static) oJercDcooeroco6rDfiDJo (Dynamic) ggg e6rBJo-r1s;roro'roccorl

o3cm3 pofloofl rmomool(oo-o elo.

cJyiloocg]o (tazs-tazs), ofler5o oSodo]o (rosz-rszo) o.r5a<ofloo.r;o accnm)'la,"etscnao)Jo rec.,sjoao (r)'l

corloof ao;cmoo)6'BnoooqcDrfly oflrilotDff)o oeroo)rol;. occnco.fles6roccn"lqo rscnsjccoccnito<otofoofl GTOBJc

e,SoeoBgc6ni pnc "jloalacrE. o.occn'l"d

"reml'l<orncoor ocmiomi Lo,lc;Bloflmiai (nat- reoz), rera-oE go-r

mlaoogs;rolo'flcor o"gmietcofllai ecosicoromaceni ".lolgooroocc> olJca,o6TDolom<oofloc( GrOBJocros

4,. oocdoLlcnlauorilloofl L"lo'r'l"netmo Bcosraor'lo8 orduolgali togulg1i .det"lnuo;os o-Lloota,cgcosooceni.GCogiOeO Crul(DLCllDOOmO.rOLmi<OSOrCqO'l e6rBl oJCmJ oJosi5a'gcoo.fl rororo'r1oofl oJgdg .'iocnoL'lctDqooc€o]

t6

a

n,\

(mJ. ogellosdoJos 0o'losrJ(Dc() eaocoocmmi oeiol{i (re+s - rsor) roroornmr'leucooo (wave theory) orgoLl

.daeiolaer;cm3. ocaimic.'ocdar) m-l6ga,erccocetcor'loer oLolcoomroccoiogcm ocdmi olggd Gro€oceJ

o(oro e c otu c oJo m 0313 (/a 66y oo ot nsj 6rD'la, oc () G m (o)a <o'[o (r) (o8 6,'1.

oJlc6)lOoola)CarOemcnod

srdaocrr1cofloer oerim)'kd audge,acrocerao'lo8 ecosiculcorosjdrDo cDsolo'looio;cm Grg<n$li oelmie,1m}o (reao 1916) 6,csA enLdaacm;o (ta+o-tsts) rmgeni orlo]ooojeo)ca,oemcacd ogcm a,gicgoJoacend <oro"room.l'leoodso;. oerojml<li mJa,;u0 o6cm c"-ro1o8 oflol5croocao pc olJc6,@6rDotomoJ

cnnpo criletcrr'lcrrilo;cm o-raolomao]o crilcnslui4<orlrncerceni oL'lo6<rocnor'lccDqoocaoo;. ofjo(Dco] oJl

ror'loor "letcnollo ccDolslm) or'lod<omcooemrud oernim-l'kd o-iloola,<rEeei; cmoooo3o genecoo.fl. odepoLlarc@5sBg;os cru;cn1oor1(D(Dlo m>'lnucooot<oiaerolgSoa,cend rccngiao)]os oD,tccnoJol(oooqo) ooo<n1a,o1g3

oa,cen5 oood ms<oro'lqo oJocnesBua otc(ororoJ- o:olgrocooa, cr-lo<n66Bog momtcoigilg;. .LJJtoJoooJ

Qo)ca,(o6TDCEco1o8 crilcni Grgccucroo gcrEoaercene ooJ;etncoeiJ; nuctOoo$ rEcnsicoto'lcrncooror'lo8 re;o'lcoc

migcl"-tooccor "-re,1omgg1

o-ilcor'laercmcooe.lq;. po$"lou;o ooolmlrru;o c"l6cm;erreca,Scm Pidgin olomoL'lctr.lcorocao'I.

otJ(o)JooCIaocaro6rDczco;os cnlnu5mcooflo}cm orlnrdur'lcncoa cd cruqlJld (rasz-lsta) o€lsff)c

o5caoem<o'rofloofl culoro'rgo,<,rE orca,'l. o;oJotlo (Form) o€rscD@]o (Structure) <ormlel;gg m)JLoJ@cmolJ

ro,JcmJ5oBog on"lgornl4]. €coruoccrlool;o (Langue) ecosi6yDootooorso (Parole) alcnglgg mr'leDcoooanua

<orOoLl.daelo14l. ecogicffuocmroe,ua erncLrocrufi\Do o,Jscoroaolo cruoeoiloelco o@crd otletooio;tolol'1. <oro

Lole)Coo cruoCOl'laOJCmtoi ocn]nU5oawl"aio 6,cerceBuoc<olOd<orol'loocQr ooo)6,Jo oa)c6TBco6lDcni mrnc

"-r14. odepo, oJJcar(o6rDo, oJBcoIpI ogcrrflecBocn ecogic(o)eto m;tcor"-lo5coj(o)CIoH(rnJo <oaol (-ttomi"-l

oen:mr.l'l<orolo cnccnJccn5cgcol<oogo GrOo6IDCrDlo Grdoloc> 6rumDodsloltDlcm "lomi"loeuc\Do 6)o6rrE

roro'r elc eni otJ c 6,(0 6TD ol o cn o ocm; o Gn cq ooo cnrnc il 4;..'-r'loE ao c p-t

"-t o m ean rrf

csrde'lff olooolcuca)o6rDcocd mt;mrnc.,-r'koocaolQo o€lscDcolJca,@6'IDo auqp5lo1o8 crrlcm;oceni

r,.rlooilooors;oroloi. ecosiaolos o;oloJ(oocao mto.t'lc<ro.,sJtilla,odad Q,ocmo8 mo8a,1qcDc6ni "J'leiaeiceln-lo

cneun<rE "rl€ go.rc"-fl qoi. Gtool (DCoe gocor;cmo ooceni.

ruo otS onr>l a aes a, atJ c a, @ 6rn o

GrgroaoduBg;os rorgol.daooem<onrr'lo8 recnucrnco{o6-oBpJos "lomiotoerumlroo'ilel;gg Lolcoc

cn5<oo'r1et3cm;cm o"koloocerriloi. ooo8mi <orgeni po o"l<o'floo3os Lo-t-o:co a,o0

oilarcanoLSca)@6rno

orgcacn"laoemoc6o<orol'leJlos a,o6rB<orncc,6 6,9'laolcm ecducogera5oBglos ofkiloemoro'rlo8

LUoaD ceLm"la,olao;cmoceni p.o o1<o1. oocolmi orqem<ol1oerfl g":cemrorcoi.

mscdanar- "E

a6- otJcar@6rDo

OO.,-reer1OOfl m;CdrOoa,- .r{Beal- olJCaro6YDo eCogjCoOerAr6BBg}OS fiUnC{r)56B9}o oflAerOBBpl

<08 oloco;cm oiksc<neuBgJo <orCIolellgg en:mllroro'r1m; LGJcocmJo mo86,Jcml'

ogsmcolJca,(o5rDo ccduclolc(o)Jar(o)oJog Lolm)aooocmJo (0ololcruo(o)ooffDlo oerI3c66')1 0.l"lrsmlao]

cm]. Gr9@aoco'lcotncnoro'ilmlgp cruco<n<oJoced Crr.rmlao'r'l. plc Lolrua<ol mle,ei"lo ecosiaolos 6l2]cooJ

<oao;ocoofl 5Txcnods<oceni. m;a"k06mocao ecolucoelse5uBg;os rooaroloJ6,coce$'ecosjao)Jos olJoJ

m)6oeocDlo olJolrun 6,,oorgortrlccDcogcmoi oeJscnorglos Lcoelcrdoocao GnolLonmorofeL;os acLo')

olC O 6ID fiDlo o€] s cDc olj c & (0 6rD o 6ro5rEt r0lo)] fiD].

cruqp5lcnoofl ,jlcroloocerd'eccn"lol m5a,g<rE "6ycm

c.'to1o8 rorocflqo)od5d. porooe ogd4 <oncg

.oo6floefl ,o'l*5*r.rcor ,-rcuAcni Grucoer, <orgo8erutd$ om;ns/l "gcrrrloolo;os fiDfiuoDocoo'I. tgzo-o8

eocoo0 coccaocoeim;en0, o6mie,<Ecmoimia,1, gs;enrd$cmie,cco) "6crrr1ooco8

eL":cjlelcoo,elg cruq$l

cr'lqocrA ,-t'loola,<rE cL.,lrri m5a;u0 .,6;cm co.toloE C.umlaoocqor. dro'lL<IDoorol crflc,rsju,l'laoco<o mloa,ce]l

arrccngcao'lo8 ot5ca,oeme,coo6 groao oderlorD6n-)oacni cL"lr.d mier;,uE crrl.,ilaerd.,s4ao}Cm}. cruqlJlcrlao)

o0 ,jloola,u66o] ol;oloccDo cno8a1 cacgo0coorncrrlmcoore'l4 "jloolc.rlnr.:o)1 elJaotl oeeocc$otloof, ojl

oota,gcoE mtcnjcmocqor<o]cm;. oucp$cfl<o8 rec.,sjdd olrr.loocL<oco pgg;oole,1o8 eLlocll omoocrgoLloS rec

nsi66i Gcolollo geni.

<orocoo'laooE o€lscDcooolaoca,o6TncDcocoo .,6o.ricotdo-ri m;.u"ld, et'lcqocmcuAorY eg]o.'nloSo-ti

.,gcrrrloLd ecngjc<loccnigoo,o.rloofl ogdgcoloE cruJlolcDco ole,3oloo14;. rszr-o8 Colmfla-u"la,o14 m-1"-t"l

t7

cr'loofl ercocord Gcouccrureco<orofloofl o-rlcrrrler;gg cLoroorlarog oL1e.rcolo3tolo;cm]. ooofleL'lc;glai o0)

cm; oLlccoosilgflaerco;gg mlo-t"lo]aora0 o"l<o1 mrco;.'o'la m;cce,ror'la,orcoe6Bcgcoscdo o5a<orlgcru.Eoc() m)rD(B@Jco@orlo

"rol<nernleerlcml. or$looo168c\ty ccos/eo]os L"rodroro'rmo"lcrr'loo.flo8 L(oGrrgl. tsss-o8

lorm:1ao"lao1! ercoculrd oOcD Lurcnototo1to8 olJc6ro6rDo6ro pLoJa,coo rn'ldor.o-fl4i1o1aer;cml. recnsjao'l

el] gg @l cLl 6BB g; o s m>c<d <oo e, 14, o"l e, o em oc eni ol5 c a, o em o

@JoJ5oBgJos oilcn5cm;ga,oo, oDjo)oJ'l.rro'lemcoo rurouror5rftDoerse,o (supra segmental), Colcaoculo, loJffudrD'l "gcrriloroorceni

<mod<oocre'lo5a<or1aerl criloccnoocnY Grocqooo ollercoio;orolJcm]. eSJoonl

o8nrnoef, "jloole,sa tsroca@'l6ooa mrdqa,occocera,gllo8 ojloolcoilosiaDocer]aroolo {Bcoere@csJgg ormi

<o;cril.domo"lorcnorol'lslcmlcm oflooemcooa, orJcaroorD<rocorcol;os ogdqao; go8cgoroe,oc6,l6r

ccuJo ocJoo)<o;. ococoiocplad <oool<oloJcoccDJo moSa,l oooocp'loqo ono<nerrfl4<o;oa,cend ecosjoa,cerri m-lcuieocorlcD GrocDcrocructrrJroa,og ar;o;aer'looorcm

"ro'lo'lror'l p/rD orJca,oem":aool'lao3eni.

torBm6,orJca,oemroo'loofl oroooreo 1940-08 eg;ooo"loaao1oef, colnu5cncoor om-leL?.d .'ocolmtlo8cD1cmcoorc'ldo;cm3. rssz-o8 ..oco'lmioofl ool"sr5cncocu Gff)co GoJoomia,loorceni pcrr']om mr'lalcooroJooLl

cor'lcoao;oordroofloo<ril. or5e<or1e,g;os o-to'la'l<ooceo ecosjcoctoAee,og GrOtuoqold o.r5e<olecoucoL'legeroc

cDo 6,6rD€o'loerslaoco(o) colcelcDJoolcm Grococol6rDo ogsmcoJca,oem<ooflcnJ GCDo(o colcomiar'l gcmeorgl. pro

"ro1olo'r1oqo ao'l6,s6ocad oormcoorocrD olJca,oemoceni corcocrria,'l crildcqcnlaolcmd.

ecogiao]os m-l5.Elo:ooc() m)c(l)J(o)aua ofletaoro]oro]6)aoceni c"rcomia,'I. .rgscncolcBccDoo)oolJc6,o

6y'Do slcarrmi ooefloco.r;os oOeJoro]UocmiLo'ro (Gramatology) ooo orgdcm]crrlo8eer;cmJeni. recosi6molo.)'l

cn; coo8 "6 v3 <oo1ocn t u <o1.dolao;a,oorcani Gn cQ ooo.

ecog:l - (clil(tlL(,) mm o"lol'lorUa

ecorucoJLolocDo ofJar6jceile,o (synchronic), en:(-to}e,ceilaJo (Diachronic) oocrrrleBBom toJ(Dcmoc

cor'l oene;o"kor1€,g1toE ff)soroco. aol criloo.rl<o a,coenL'lcn;oilocn orgmS"loocaer'loot;gg ecotucolLtnmcnac

eni "6a,e,ceila,o (A study of language at a given point of time is called synchronic). o"ld"eroccor arceraog

oL'lo8 mroreoilaoJ(m rscnsic.,ro'l5rnco<orofloofl GtaorLonmoceni eu"o;e,cejla,o. (A study of language changes

during a course of time is diachronic).

<orgu:3cn1e,recnuccocmSg<oo ooodon'lcnrnfl *q$lcrlcn; o;odi LolocoocaoJo dolt<octooe,o"ko'r'l

ooiletcoorlo;rml ecogjcolLorooo ff)s(fiD'lcoioScm<oi. e,w1elom3c"-rcoor o"l6"erocao) a)ceroo)golo8 ccoqj o{J

o(Dco6o .,iolemcoeoBgfer;os escm;co-rcco.fl nocml aro6TBCIloJcmofloE ocgo)ocoofo;cmJ rccngjc(,ocmi

L(o)p6rDo]os L@r:D. oc(o(DoJccosicuocmSg<oo3o GJoarcero o:3mam-l5.rg1€oc(r)]gg ocdcno ocgroocoofloJ

cm]oocrd cruqlJld oroao]cml. (Comparison is a means of reconstructing past). ecosjcoJLcDtocDo a,]gog(o)c

a,emooe,'lo8 "6a,a,ceL'le,o"l<o'r'l

<oooreroenLlaer;cmo'rceni goro'roo og)sDcqooo 6J<ol<oJfiD3. "lol6ocrrooccor'l recnsioao ccnceo'laercem;cm<d Bcrrucu)co5TDaog oLla,ooceer'locgco0 pscor;oenecni cncqooo rtrr;S

6cm3 m;-o-flglao],rrl.<mg<rgcnla,rec"uc<rocmigrorom'noofl

"-r1ooL1ael;o;o0oj iolcaolcDoooraoca,oemcocd "6a,a,cet1a, <oro

olgcnLnmo"lrorl <oootaoenr'14]ocrn1o]cmJoocnY cruau5]ra oLlmioqocolocos crilo1asl'laoJ(m]. gBcooo6rn

occorl c"lcd$ cocooro8 orJc6,o6Tno<orococ6rd Gneqrroo cr;errslaeic5Jcmcti. et;ooflmi olrur'lcncetcoocfl a,c

er"er5rorol1o8 cnleroLleilo;m) Lon6pulecogicm)Jecolooocorceni p<oflet"-lCtnrnlao]cmail. "63e,a,ceL'le,

<oro

"lg<nmmo"kirr'1 Gnolelo6Trfl4iloJcm;ocue,1er;o Lo-tca-t"lm oooraocaJo6TDocolos GcosicolocDroro'r'lcri oleL

c.,-rcocqoioe,pJo peneccculo]Cm}. o{')glroolo {3cou6TDoJlo <ooaler;enecoorlo]cm or5o'r1o1e<o)o) oroodad'al'lo'lgcr1oolcod a,vlerorolo;crrflg

"gcm<orcenY L.'rcpccn co.tcocoo)oa,gfloaccni.

"63a,aceL'le - entoo;a,cej1e GrdolLomcno"l<ofla,sA 6ioJeorcoel 1"-rculcm5o6oolao;cmoa0)H. Gc

olue,m)o]ooooro) ffDo6Djmo14i1sc<oro'lcgo ofjeJeroetla, ran"lgurLomO"lO)'lOoloerd' L.r-tct:cmocooltoi. 5Txoo]arc

eL'le, oroollcnlncDo ff)sorrD;cmord Gcouoao oog <o'n<o1oco ocgloo'lg ffDoGol6'cBogoorced go-ttuccnoccoi

"o6mJ(md. "6A,A,CeL1e, rOrooJLu)lom(oo)lcd oaoococo; or'levemca,cenE ocL(u)coaoJtsB] - recnua,d. rec

"sja,olo8cDlcni o<olgilot3a,<r8 ccnorolg;oa,carrscerd' plc oloff)o o;ccmoScmoi. ouoo;e,ce.t1e Grdoll@m

cnooflroca,o5 o6n; ot"lesi5rDoooroLl<r-r5eon<rE gerr5. acrd, oo; rrilooil<o mlooorooot6"et5roro'r1oacoJ6o3;

cmroi. (Course of time) oerr5, a,cetorCa,<oo1o8cn1cni "-r;oca,c5;colce,JoDtoi (Retrospective goes back in

time). p<o1oofl .roetocooi GrdoJL(,tocDorofloerfl mscl.rs1la,a<olo'flo8 pogmrcco5<oa,<rE poJolo o6,cgg]oJ

co,)ceni. "gcmco8 cnlco)oeuBg]os oolco]m)ccu5<ooor'lceraoceni nga,a,ceile, recnsJc@cmi6oo oL'loo8ol]

ene;cm<oi. oc(o<rloJcrooa,o"lo'la,u6 ororor'lmm5oceni. (No force in language guarantees the maintenance of

18

a regularity). 6rucro;orceil6r ecolucuocmlgorroroilerca,o5 6'i(o] oJeJCDcoae,coaror'loor;os mrccrrr'lcu5o criletoil

ejl6nd. oleledcg]o pnD oncnloo)(d)corcu-o ocg56Bg]os oL'l<oe1a,oem(oonoy oror'loorce,co(o) Gorc6,JCrDJ. 6-J

ol5o oj(n'i@;<o'ra,o0 acocn'loo.roo <oom;mro1eei3cm3oenee,1o8 ocgtoco m)Jl(oolc6,Jo cril<0m'laeiccDcoJ.

en:oo;a,ceL1a, Gcogicuocmic<ororolo8 BA@J0rc6,](m ffDoGor6sBUS oJeJGdCgJo OOCe5gilA,OJo OOOJcOOTOTI

e,oJJo orge$'. (Accidental and particular)

"6e,a,cefla, rec"sjccrocmiL(oroocmc<08 o'lcdeo'la,orlo omscroccniLooJooJocao 6IUfi\D50Bog P9c"lt0<onr;cn1dor,i.4 L"lroflrecm;oceni. <onoi ecogJa,o;os a,J5co) o.r1"-floolcnoor'lo8 ao; olJolffun cD1d2o1

oqsJ6oJ(m;. (Synchronic - concerned with the logical and Psychological relations that bind together co-

existing term and form a system in the collective mind of speakers).

euoo;a,ceila,oromroror'lo8 <ocdaer'la - oo8(ocmiCto'rLn-troflreccru56Bog ecolua,Co]os a,;5cclio roil

olqo'loo;;crrilg. 6roCI; orJolaun <oloJodsJorc'llcmlolg. o6;cmcoE o5ommcoiaer; oLlccuco.rogcooaoJgg

ooorocgo aDc(l)Jocdoleao)lo orlglcml. (Diachronic - study, relations that bind together successive terms

not percieved by the collective mind but substituted for each other without forming a system).

"6a,a,cej'le, eu.'o]a,cefla, ccogjcoJL(,Locno"ko'la,og€olcAd 9"-ro'16oocaor'l ocL<oo roncr'lcotJcm

Grgsaod ocni oogccrrfloofl cnlocm:oco6rDfiD) Go)cffDco. auau5;cr1oofl ronre'lL"Jcqo)oro'l<08 eicni oogccrrr')

oi oLlo;auog. "6cmco8 "ro11o'r"-tooccor'l rscnsic.,ro'lordoro'rmoBBogao;crl{ o:o1ao;cm<olccnaoccrd Lolaoc

mrcoo'lcolroceni oo; crilsojl<oa,cerooro Bcr{uoaooolcn{ "-ro1eo;a, "6cmroi. A given point of time - cDluoll

<o a,cerenr'lcn3oL1o8 crrlercnlo8aei;cm Gcotuoao€ololgJg.g nJoff)o "6cni "61e,acejla, rec.,sjccocmYgoo<omr

cnl6oro-r'laercoooleL;o 1-"-rcccoccrjla,oerorol'loE ooScmrc<d e,cerenLlcn;, orcetaogolcooi (span of time)oco3a,corcer6',. pqD a,ceJao)goi n-rolor} o-rdnsjcoc 63(0] cDJgcG6rIBc ooLoao]oc&,co. o"ldoelococo.rcoJ a,celao)

golo8 (over a long span) no; ccoru "-rlercgcoO e,coJocao ocgeoBuao€Glccm;o olcttlooraca,cotor po'l

ao;o. o-flcm"ld ge;<oocgooflcd or'lccuqo)acoeocrDJo oJoJo. 61rol cril<lojl<oa,cetaotgotloS oerre; recoua,u0eer;

m;oreoLlg ocgo cnloleMeo;cmLc<lE noJ ccau go;<ol"ro'lemcoeoBsd6d ot'lcu.rooroccor'lcdcaotorJo ocp ccoru o,coJocoo ocgeBBUaed'oL'lc<looroce,c<ol'lo'laerloTl<o)Jo a,enecoS GroBJooro Gcoruo() euclo]a,ceL'le,oc

aolo @6TE}coooro) Gcoruoo) ooearceila,ocoo)]o o-ro1ao]cm<orceni g"jlolo. GooMao'loet cn]<.lorercorfiun

(Language state) ogcm<oflmd<ooo m)JLoJocoac@ ocg5sBopccDJo cruoeoJ'loocoYo a)celaogoi "6cmceni. <aroL"-(Dcmocg56Bog polo)oo

"-rocnoBBgloA oio'lo6rril6oc<olo1aer;cmolcem;"-t1<oo.

crucru5]cr'loofl o€rscDcooarrEcnsicoocaniLtoo oglearceila, recnqicmcmiL<o'rroor'loerfl <oo"-rcom)ccDJo)

a,g](o8 L@raDodet]roro'r]cmgeni. "6cmco8 eurlo3e,cet16, ecoscuocmiLooorol m)lLoJocooJocD(ocoleoc

aorl "owlcrrrorolo ococgo]6rd. oo; o5e<oflaolos eBCDmo ol{o'xo8 o(o6rDo olooao}gts a,cel"el5roroflroS

rorooorcgiloS ffuocoilaolcm ecosjcoJoolcoor or5<oloorccoooBogggl@lgg "rocnocenY

eilotntcp;1d aenEcscscril (Linguistic Ontogeny). uolcnsrecoszoooggloor;gg cnor"lcno:ocndoBogsco p,tc cocorco)eer;a,loe aar;eonlcn'lo8eo;cmoLqoc6ny. m:o;"ororo'r1oofl recnuco5roflccucmeongceni eilo<nrcp;1d

"n'lceLcscrrleojloS (Linguistic

phylogeny) .,iocno.t'lnsJqDocao]cmoi.

oend "6a,aceL'la, ecogjcolL(,ln(r)6oBglos (oco(o)oJocerd', o5<or1co6)co06r rec.,snc<.rocmilcolo

(Constrastive Linguistics). goc"ooemo ocdoloccrnDordmoor;os a,cetroloj crilaotleLlo;cm <o'ro'ld - oet

<>cgdsBog€olol4gg toc(o<o.loJo (comparison of two synchronic Analysis).

oeni oet.to;a,cefla, ecogicorom6oBgJos ocoooJoceni <oco<oloSc(oD& recnsic(/ocoUl(o)o Grom

oc uolgrocooa, ecoscolLu>toff)o (Comparative or Historic - Comparison of two diachronic linguistics)gac:

<o old - o ere)c grecogjcoJ o'lLo eBB g;os oc(o tot oJo.

o)s)o6ruor5aslmfalcaoo Family tree hypothesis

or.rcdoilcrilmtrolofloofl m.l-rctr.l"lcn.'oerocqo)c5, d p.o miar-lcooo ecogjc(rocmic<o'roTor1o8 rsooulla,<o'l

doodsd. o-rooroccrao-rorco {DJ$cerBloop oar:5croro'rcss;o'loi rorgotldreoLlg ot)cdoLloofl olo'lemcomt'la.uc

ffoo oosolcocmiL<oroo<.rr<ooi oer'locorco3 oLlgoro cruJ.44]. sdoooE recnMcuocffdL(Deg6rD(ncao GDU)cnJ

odel"logid (August Schleicher) Bcoruoao eioJ cruro>Loo ooeororrnioso:ccoleo6lTlJ. fiDcocoem s"lo.l'le,ua

do]gg(d)]Golcoel BCDcDorJo DosrDorJo, Lo-l<OgO8"rCB{DOlo Og6gCO.r;o reonslcO)ael}o pggo)cccul rorocg

ooo oL'l etqoro;roro'il.

podcnoc oor;coco:5o0 rec.,9j6,oa66i ooso.t'la,ocacD a,lslocYuol5anu(oloJo crrldml4;oa,cernceni

Grdcqooo p(D t"lca,'lcoasY rcrgoorso a,]cr1goY. cgods(o]o, GDoGQDcE!"IOOCAO)@Jo , o3"lm;IAOIoJOOJlOC

erd' (isolating, Agglutinating, inflectional) ecosioeofiD <oroofl o-r;dgmr2o1a,g;os "-floorcco<oicor'lo8crr1cm3o

19

olJ<orJmitooceo'l ecos/6,og ararc5coroocaol oilrse'l43oe,c6rBlgg oLl6oocenY Gneqooo Gcns/ccocmi

c<o<oroflo8 mstoo'lcocil. pcgooorofloofl o-iloore,od peerce.romi oLlordcomo:'lcocoroccoi5;oenee,ler;o <on

o'rSoeoilg aceLox$' crlcocpocao orornarr:<rEao;o orlojlcroma,oEeer;o crr'locmocoor'loro'r16cnflo;cm3.

no] OclocolAotgjoorocHcoer Lor6,Jro'r'lcrilooroeBB<rEaom;ml5<oocool "6co)c OLlrorofloS crrlcmJo oJgd (oGolcoluocojegoOO.fl OIS<0cni 5.JCGOC reCoM()lo olgo]cm]. Lorc6,A(oo,cuo$'l(-rgo, oooJar|{o)o

"6;cm"l oroo

mma,sa accoc ecduaolo goenecni GrocQooo mr'lar-rcoorlg;. oorcoJorcco ot1<o5ec.9jao1o8cn'lcd go;oloo6,col3 ecc{u a,coJoceo ocg6BBoEaei; oilco()oca,co(o) a,;cornc<ra e1ot1{ mrtcrecoLla,Oo6rDo oo&ololao;cm;. rgcnsiccr0cffdc<o'r<oro'r'l<o8 oosroLoJ6,5<or'lmflnucooloocmcard pnD otceo <oneflcorogs;cmcil. ojloolc>los LoJccoorcajlao;o.tocqoc6rd .derlnsid ecoluoao mro"lo-r'lao;cmail. jloolcoiflcoo rscoeicaoc Bcoej

col gco<o "ilco ceeic crneLcrno8 gilg oCIcmcqooo 61<o; ol(ml.6)coo(,)ffuleDcooo (Wave hypothesis)

arJSJo6rUOIJegm:'IAOCcTOGHCOeT(oo)OfiD (o)C(o(o)OJC(oOe,eCdUCCOCmigO',rOrSOCCO, 6rUCr\l)OHS oJ

ole,o8ormcorcenY oroornmr'leDcoDo. $tz 68 srdmo8 "rem-o'Iorcncc)

cslcoocDmi .siold (Johannes Schmidt)

rorO6fli a,JsJo6ruolla,sccru'laDccrol<oro'noofl or'lardoomo "pcmrolercoloS

rorootnm.l'kaDcotDo <or9o.r1.da,o'leer3

cmot. osio\noofl a,cdorgcslo8 ooroo'loScrrlcm;o crocora,oa oocrD cojcoer crurcrEco.r'la,occo, p6rBcarJm)

orao$ ccogieo]os ocgeBBUE. eeerccooo.rroror',loS roloooesB<ra "ocmco-lcoel Gnol Q6rBc6,JCmJ. Belc@ao)

<oonro8 a,g;a,<d or"le;crrfls<oro'rlocLoo acgeoBu0 cru5r,gleerogs;cm o1<oflooflo8 oo3 LorcoJaroloo GnoH

e,'lo8 Lo-rcqocoo.ffurco"lcDo or-terJorolcmd ronroi goreoL'I4 Lo-rcocnoro'rlm;eJ;glo ocL<orocooflo'l6oJo. cooo

<nrolurlaog;oc<oro'rad' toarorloofl m.l.rcru"lcno crilercriloSaer;aaolg.

or5<o5mi<orocao ecducocgeoBUa <oloo<n6oBUEcorcoan oJSoloDJ. ocL.,g"loorcoc aucocrdaoco'la,

coc Gro@ Lorc@ccDJo ccnslocos;roro'r LoicacoesBUaaoJ ollg]ocerri o'roo<necnuac"rcos recoucocgocn<rE

"rso}rmroi. LoJco)coo por3olq L"-tcocoroloY Grdoloololo3cm mrccu1cncooreocu8 a,3oocooio166rlo oIB3oouncm5oBglerlgg <oro<o'r1oefl m:.rccp"lcno. BJoo o6Jo;oD<o1mm;mo12i mlrccu"lcnoonoofl <amgoLla;o a,;oolJoo]o. ao] cr/loo-fl<oorolutlaeig]oo GnorDoo orcS6BBUE Bcosi goJc()c<rilaer;cmoro'lercoa,

"-tsricmJoarcgts6rnoocrrng. rgcnsi crileloiler;gg LoJcBcororofloofl o<dmm:nccn6uBg168 m,lc.'o"-to5ollccueoocaol

6Trsco,JoDo.laolceni oleero.lco;o rec"vcor5ror'loorcmeonogcni oL'lo8eercer<ooi cruouo@c<or'lroocccul orolgilaoil

€ood515l6nd.cB c ou : <6rQ m ] oJ o (ro1 d, cll] o a, erg, J c dl co ol

J o C G)) or 6 o1 a, o ern o

cr) mJ ctJo ro1o,o (Geneological)t6rlcDJoJocol6,oc() (Geneological) or'lreemocerd rEc"sicecncg<ocril6epqomoloilcmsl(ru-oc(r)o. e'lcm

56Bgco) 1."-rcocroeungilo8 "reL<o'rooro'r'la;gg ojolemcoemr<rEeo;o cruBe,crr5BBuaaer;o ojlc(r)qoocor5]o6ll3

e,1eL;o orgooole,ocao m)co5<r05o go8oorfl€olcm Gcosio,og orolL<oe-:agJduBg;os "-r'lool;emcco.rcos

ot'l

eordff)ooejqo)d. GnoqJed o".rc<ogojcao) a(ol Lo-rco.r"lmoco a,dn-r'laei]cmroceni ecosja,g]os culcLo)o.l'lG

smroor'ko8 <srosmBlqololaolcm (D(oroJo. gora5o1a,<6, LoJoJ@6EBuE, gora,5<oflLoJoJao6oBglos c(Dcoo,

olc4,Jcoo66Bgco oJBs',SBg;OS "rOm5orO6U0\Do

o6lcrrflo6BOmAOlgg Gnouo6uBgilo8 mca5co5o ooolao;ffD GCogiarog 6.JO] C<nCgO<OrO'r1O8 PUEOgSSCmOLOCUCOOT',I Oi6rD€OC6OCo. 6110] reo"giAcD'lCerdd Om<OlCmCd <Arg

cno'la,occcu'l aocororc<ol Gruo\DoJlo pscoro recnsiao'loEmncni "ioeuBs6

cruoLero'l€ocoE mlcco5<ooolleni. p

Bcooo6rDocooil gocorlooc<ncL<o<oror'lo8od5 oeJaocgoto'no8 mlomia,5<oo, oolcB'I, poSlod <o;seunlco) pofcnr.lc - ao;GocolJo0 recoslco-ro5cBglos mrccrrilur5o cucocAoccofl gerri. recnuarg;os culcgolcrrlrtepcot

(010)168 ollocolaolgg p(oro(oo m)cBsroJ(oroco8 orslo-il<ooca,c<o'lo'leerco0 1"-rc<o5a,o lcoan'lcaoeneo)3eni.

ocococgroroofloS g<.r0ogsJ(D Bcoua,udad odcarr3orccofl 6'io] o;eJccoscaol6recoro;cm;oocni me,aio-t'leoco. a,cetccroorororltoi pro osetrscnuooieol5TIEcao cB(/oJeeB6oBgceni "6a,c(,cLo)Bar66Bgcao

eco9j6,

uE.

gqoEcooc- co;;cocr5aE ctncto)opcror5cor'ler3o corgcocgiletSo oJJoloorolg]colcolaD o'lael rgcosiaglo P.g c<ncLo<oofletluEogs]

ffn;. ecogicc<lc1-<oerngflo8 o$po;o go-tccDccn5ad"rileel;cm c<ncL<oocern'loi. pog1"d, 1.,-o6roi, sdaoofl, mi

.,lccn'I.d, esceflccuo8, gn"lasY, o"v5o0, col<dnu5o0 <o;seonloo ooo.tcoco'le,ccovarpJo "o1crr, ooco1, cn;e

ocrorol, .,-.leoJcor1, 6DJoocp1, cmgcgil cn;seun'loo poEoo5oErecogjo,glo m.lomia5<oo, oJcejl, etcglo8, gc

$il*.8 C<nlad "Ocm'l et;"i<orec"uargJo pnc oooccocLororo'noofl oocola,gceni. ecquoo aooo odnsi56B

<6ao;o3mi ocu5cor;cocgpcn;o o-rooilcoosjJaolo octtlJ olJol.'oo143c"-rcffn olelecoeiaeY e,cetccto>o56B9'l

20

ej]osaoJ6rBco) olo'l6rDcoooJeloc6ni eoeioJodoro ecog/eJUA (oJoJoHSo(o)cnY o.tooorgslcml. ooola,S(o.)e,

a,giJaolos mlrecoeongcenY poLcoio8 oolc<olooJ arc6lnodslcmo<ore,1et;o o-t'let recnsa,sA cnolL<nmm

o"Io'rlocor cnolelodDfl€ocod L":otem<o 1"ro6<.olgi1aolcm]. o"ld"erm>omioolodoBog m:5os41eercm]gg e,

eloi podcooc - aoJcocor5o0 rec"ua,<daei a,3s;<oetceni.

oauolglai GtnclcrDo.

po8cooc- cor;coc"-t5oE c{.Dclcoo e,e'leorocoS "-r'lcm1d {-o-rctllcmSod"rfleer;cm cocLo)o oauolgr'l

a'ei curcL<ooceni. rrolCeu;, ranqp"lcrloo.ro0, crolcD'lnsJ5oE, oroooeL'ld <ogseanlco; recnsjauA pro'rlet;uEogsJcrDJ.

m.lcrrcil<o5m;fiuoro;oe,ceni <orom;o5oo"lolocoo.r recnsja,ua psAodsJcm pro ctncl<olonAd ccDcooaoJos

oJJL(o)cDc(o) o"vm1oafl "-r'loEosoaocoJos

orJorooc(oecosioaooD crr'lerqo)6oc6rd ocruolglai oocm coJoJ el

,elqoi. celca,oonD oleeirecoslaglo gorcaocrJlao;cm Gna,sioacelegJos eil"-t'l mCoocootesBoa omto'l

gi)d colclro'roollo8 crrlcm;o <onm;e,olaooggoooceni. plc ecosjarcrd ooora,5<oe,av5coietgoEogs;cm;.

"oco1g1d c<ncLo)o

"oco1g1d coc6or<oroflcngo ocruolglci c<ncg<ororoflrnlo ooJco;orcao 6l<o; o-.l;dqocn gensccollo;cm;

oocd recogicol6rrul<ord a,oerretoo;Cml. pqDorgo-fl,rv5o0, ca,cojg1d, oeudorud, "61<oolcootc"-fld

ro'r;sean1

cotot p<oflo8 gcdogs}cm;. a,5grorloocao ejlooorJor(uo, a,cercrr'lticq(ooolo claLoJ(l)ccnoceerlco);o ge,1oo)

oor;os "l36qgo)Gao)e@c

romor;t6ep<ocaoc()c oJ(oacocooceer'lcor}o ggg (6oorJc(o)@J(-ll6BBclE, CncoecB

cgcs] c-aldaer}cm 6TUooJoJoJo 1"-r<o5ooeun<rd, mldgrncoeuBUa "OCm"l

<oraocoecngiloS "oca1g1d c(/)cl(o)

otolloi oau o1g1i ccncL<o.lol;ocoofl eumooSeni.

oo)aol - a,1!,aooa "6"u5cg1ai' G(,CIG)o

a-t"lmccncg<uto, ogorC6fuog"lce,5o'rl#reCoglcc(,)cL(,)o o{;crD"l c"lOSAgleLJo P,]D G(,CLo)o <oroo'lool

oHSJCmJ. rurdcruo'lcni, erudooE, s1erugo0, m-lco.rco"lmi, <or;sanrlcor ec"sia,ua g<r0ogs;cm;. "-tooBBUA "61a,c

6ruo50BpJo carolelLol6,5<or1a,9;o rargeni. 53oJ orBo ff)cococ cncooL'lcconsj6lDcoc ta,loolcoLlcuoog:,6TDcoc

"6 cni crrluo:rcor'l aer; cm oi Gn oJ acDl os p gc <o 5ID o 1co nr-:1 gcenY.

<o (ta) "gcm oln<ooflci oLet;<oca,3a,, oLeilco.r oeilgo, orel](Dcelo olwo P56BocD oLloLlocd(?rro

c6BUA ggcoemorolmm;cruold orcmlslcm;. "Jaesrrua

<omlerggg 6ruo\Do olJa(Docdoco6 cogcntro-loeuBsa

(Empty words) oooD 5Jo]o(oo cBJc(o)&eBBUa "J;d6morB5BBgJOs

OScrrrlCelo o.l'lcrrr'lcelc c"ldao]cm].Jin tsi kiun (om3nu5o;os oceecoi) oOfiD oce,5oroflroS tsi- pos

"6cm orordc'rororo'fla;99 co]cn5n-rr:oceni.

tsi o6cm crolmJoJoo crl<daocoor Jin Kiun n6ycni 1"-rcoorcailgcet;o ond<oroo5roJcauo ooScrrrlg.

cor;oo8 - onu8cgco)ai cocgtoooor;oroS- orooScg$ "ldcg<ocnloarglos

oo.l5cocrooroi o5o.'oolaoogs;colccm a;etrecouoor'lo8 cr,1

cm;oceni pnc ccllclcrlrolo'r'los recnsjauA oloJod5cil. s5ScilooroE, m:ln1aoraE "OCmJo E)qD e@ctoo<orol oL"l

g14;co-tco3cm3. etcgparS, oo'lcrrr'1.d, sdao'l.rd, Doarrlcud, oGEUI ogfiD"l L"lclccnrec.,sla,g;g^9 p.c etDc(oro

cruorgloga,avJaolon rog6ni go0ogs;cmrd. g"la,5ro1oor'loer m.uoc<otorcd gcrt<o5corooloet mttoeuBua@sy

(fiO(nJ@lolJo olo](m crulocuc@JolJ(Daoo (vowelharmony) plD Gcosja)<rE orom;ol<d<otoflaer;cm3.

pBc : ex- ler (or1s3a<6)

at - lar (4,1<o'floe,<d)

oOodcslai'- ctncLo)o

co<root5c.,j<oloa,cerri Loltoocrunccno rnodoo'laerlm) ccncLtoo. podcot-lcccnou5o8, cocglcmnu5

o0, oJcrru1, oJ6rTtDc rec.'sja,ua goEogs]cm]. cruor4l.Ea,asJaoJos mltecojoceni pc GCDcL(o)ol(')lo8oHS

recns/a,ua godooriaolcmoi. GrgoJecogJo,<rEaoSo gocotlnorsc.,va,uEao;o <orOmiCs'la.i crllcLtolol;ocqo, 6rx

mr-l o;enecooio] cm;oocni oro eooH s](m].6ruC6lrclG(,clo)o

ororcao<mggoo1o'oaolos naMomreccneanglerso ocllJcccndsBglg;o ot5o.t"oo'laoodsJcm tso -oE

oJOo eoogjarga Crds5Brrao c(,)cL(oo. aDJgJ, ooooococ, cncodcno, caim:cm.lc, mll.'o"let'1, QD]olcel, o5Do

eru an;seunlccuoJqoc6ni p.l9 c(,cL(t')<oo'ilo8ogs}cm ec.,si6,sA. p.:9 ecdu@rgflo8 ol}oego-lan5coear:gceni 1"-l

{I)c cD oc@Jo I olcao)c U)odsS oror; cm roi.

Ku- ti eroresB<rAad

Ku-vi <urootdad

Ku-je <orootcli

n g-aba-ntu - om;"st5cocd

21

-\

l\

LGconcDG(,CLo)ooEJQocpo, (o)o'ld, orfiD(\D, o(o)ej]d'"OCm1 olJoYBcogj6rgJo, 6)]sai, (o)lgl

"OCm"l ondno"l]oErec

oMerpJo, o(DcB,. ocrugoooel'|, L6Txcooloil al(oercao) Gnor]cqecosJeglo QUaoHSJCm(o)csni LBcoJ'laDcU)c

(oo. cruorSlrqarasdJaDJos oDlBcolm>oilccoosioa,oa esao6ocgg](m pc c(,cL(o)rorol'loet rscnua,giloS

o.rlet<d ooolarA<oloragiJ<>los m)rccorm)olcuoouora,gfcelaei "lo1emo14;oa,cerrg'lo'leoScm;end.

g"-lcuc

o0lcaoJo 6.)(0)6,)65.) pao5 corceni p,]D G(,cL(o)<oo1oefl o.t'l<or o emcnrnccno.

mtomia,5<oroolcorflrolcaol Gndoi LorcarlotdoBUA gcnd. orrococLogl, <o,tDoccrucn1, octDtD'|, .,JceI,

ooo:crocojl ogcrrflooorcemo. p<o1o8 oo"rcncjlcoiloScrilcmceni oeMcemoo5odrecnueglos goBolo0)

cni <orga5a,ceLroroi a,ol<ooggl<o;rmJ. aa,sclc6rnoo5oOrecnuaglos cocLooloocao ooga,JoooaololdF.W. ELLIS o€)crD Bcduc(ocmigoeenoa .,Locno cns<orofcoiS;eni. 'south lndian Languages'oofiD](oooD

oilcco"ulgil2l Gracqooo Dravidian "6cm c"rrd a,oenEroro'iloculg. cocqootooloef, cD'lo"lesc6m6cBo0 "l;o3aoloLloro'laoco.

oToli, ooret;d, 6roDaD, oelQocgo, rolgl ngcrr,lol oeo ecosccoclo<olo'r'los r0laoor6'uBpcdrd.

oa,csal oocrn oogc(o] ccos/oooao]o GroeQooo 6o6rrgrorofl. p/,9 GocLoo;ocooil eumoo$S 6}oJ LoJccB

uo'lerecosicceBo og)fiD cD'leroi6oc6rd' crdcqooo oa,csa,'loco e,enEoi.rorcorsoooo8 LoJeo@ooto cn'lolol

6<naoc<6 cuoffuco'loo;cm oco8cgc oOCm ecolu aro6ne<oo1oor<o3o <oro<oflcd <oo'lg'lcmcs;o otoeJlor'lccnc

slo m)cB5@5a;oenecni mmcoJ14rolo pcqooocem'..,-ro<oero'rolo8 crilcm;oa,cenelo ouc6,o6IDo'rel<otolo8

crrlcm;oe,cene;o.<oo1d, 6,ffDeD, o<o'rer;d "OcrrnoJ

eieto cocLrororo'floSoggtorcoemcni e,cerrrlaocod <arocg

ooo otogfloL;a,o0 a,oeneool.gocoLlnorscnue,ogaeiScil{ <orgo5occofl m)oLooromo cns<oor'loo tncololua,cnceni cocertLd$ a,co8

oo.ro8 (Robert Caldwell). orocqooo'ro1oofl CecoLluecosje,gJos Gnlnolc ae,si'lc5moo5od recnua,g;os or;

etcDco'oaouc&o6rDo (A comparative grammar of the Dravidian or south lndian Family of Languages) "ocmIrD{DOo 1ASO-O8 Latmr',kU-l"laOleero$5}. <oto'le'loSocLo)oceni <oncg.too,oflcri

"-to'leg6lo)c(r)o g6rBceoro]Cm

ail. <orooflrnco8 <oo'lp'lcmcd oncq.'ocro',ld 6rrol LoleoJa, "icqoioi orc6rDco. a,co8mteL'loofl crrlolevem

5BB g'lo8 LoI(I)C(DOCaO) Ol (o)CO g .,-lO OOlSCm Ol OOCeni.

ocni, <oo'ld, adeSgcsa,o, 161JgJ ol161eJcao rz ecosiaua (orloolane;recoua,ogolgil acL161c6 Grdcqooo el

<0goo.tg;cm;gg;; teuc.'o;cor'1oco; <orlmJosJo<rila,ocaofl cru;-ilgilaer;CmJosrncml oc(oro.) 6J<oJ LoJ

G(o)J e) eCdUC Go)CL(o)(oTO'nO8O,C 5 rSCnU e, goerd',.

oerri, gacoLlrutrecosna,<d mromi&SoBmJ6sBgco6tDon ojcBo Groslcru-ocmo"o'lolocerd'.

o;cnY: gaco.flolrecoue,<r0eo;o m:1n1aoro6 rEcnsje,qaooJo <oao1o8 oorco5gila,ogcolol onim.DeonuE a)c6lT,c

cD]6n9.

p.tc crrlo"laoemeungilo8 mrlnlooroE 5rufi\DooroocLanoo n-t'leioocet"-tenuitolt0 cdcoJo o"-rooirirfl

Slpgl. Locol'lnDccosjccocm5g<olulcoosicrDorcilcri <srdslcruncmcro'let olca,'lco rancgoooro'r1oofl <urore1g"-lccor

oao<6ad coco'lcotrecnsic.rlem.ul<ococdaerlsoor'lo8 olo()orodo oJelmesBsa au5.,E1eocoE a,v1eorn1g. tszo-

acs3a,3s1 "gv;rorloro'r"l<0roro

rorgd.m>tcolcncrocrdgo;os Loco.r'loom-l'laucoorecBua "6cm l;m5roa,oro'r'lo8

lacoL'lotrscova,uadd mtom5a,5<oolJoco)Jgg dDJGlJo olc\rso)elocoemcni ocolg;ogileer;a,co;cani. 1884-

ro8 g"lmiao1eo14 ccro.,gl<rilo'lL"-trelor'1oofl (Notes on Aryan and Dravidian Philology) "l3mi<o're,<oroflro8

<oo1

i, o<oret]d "O(m"l recnsjauaad'mromie,5<oo, 1rn"leei, etcgi)o0, o€;crrrlolccorcd erumlo]9qo,lcaol,l cooloH

s2oro:looiolaoJcmJ.GqcoJLrrcol'lnDrscog/a,g;os n:omiuoeruo\Do og)ffn Ccnmn<oo'rlo8 "9oE.o61.ooL'loldmoo.rJo cruomia,S(tr)BmJojcBo(or(') Grd(Dle,3eil4;oe,ceni ruocuco'l€oJ(mJ. oocmcoS, "-Icm"ld P(D olcBo olJ

ooorgpoflS).1900-1947 a,cu"et5roo1o8 LocoL'lor.lrecnsJccocmigoorocneunudad arnre3or<0qocco gemdg penec

c0.fl. Jules block, Alfred Master, T.Burrow, E.H.Tuttle, M,B.Emeneau <ol;seonlao oL'lcr:uo"looro;o, oe,,ol').cruJ

5rgg, .,{Do8.oL'l.ocomtrcol <orog<0 ror;sonlcoor<o}o p"o coeuetqoro8 o6lDJocao ffDoecolff)a)uA meie,'lao)

o:ocorrY. le47-cDleuoct'uol]o cilocn6cB<.rd o'r]soJcm]. 6rucoccxlo o{)o'lcmcao]o Geldcm] 1olm1ou"la,o14'Dravidian etymological Dictionary' leco.tl(tlJrec.,uccocmiLo'r"-tocn@Bog cnem5ocool m-ucolcnlg; crr'loJa<o'r

cril"ererrelolceni. "-t'lcm"ls3ggoLo1o8

go-ro;ord a,o1o8 mletentlua (Kamil Zvelebil), oOo.GDGLCBccnoi, o.t'l

elJo ooL6rx$, <orO<0.e.<orOnud to;seor:loororoceni ."6mi.oL1.nuen6o3o-to, "6o0.a,3ocomllco1oce, e1..,6;

mi.ooco ol;ssoBlaoolo;os oJom6TBuE Lr:coL'lnDrecogjo,og6o3cr1{ "-reL "-r;<oflco.r <aoeflo"r;e,g3o tue,coolgil

dlsl*9.

22

ooooJoerc6ng LBc oJ'laDo(oro 5J o] LorGoJa, G(/)cL(o) ocoil a,c5rnlcm] ?

c(,)cLo)oJoocao) oilegcDol(Dloi oJBGucBJ(oJo 5]co] olcff)B6TnDolfl. GrdslcrunccDorB6sBUE, orJco,o

5rDoJooc@ ffuojlc@ogi(o)6,oa, (r)c(o)]oJooc()) GEcIJL(,)tomo, LoloJao5BBuE c":raesr;cm o"ltoil, a,a,v5coL'l

e eBff)o "ocrriloLoo;ceni

ocmnern DesBsa.

<ons'lmmccnoro5oBogaolo orJc6,o6rDoJ(oocao) m-lol'lcto"sioeogao;o rsros'lcrunccDocael'l LocoL'l

aDooro 5]oJ LorGoJ6, G(,)cL(u)ocqoil 6,6m6oc6oco. mrdgmcoeBBg]o m)oo-t5c(r)co5sB9Jo rsrds'lcrunccDnl

ooonglo8ogs;Cml. pol (o6relo <olcrotoloJogs;oro'r1oorco8, <mocncoo;oi 1-ocoLlnorecnua,gtoa m:dgcncoeun

<6ao;o ffuoolJc(r)coeBBUaao;o roJoJoJooJo rgrod<ooo-tooJocao cl€]a,(o) a)c6lDco "gcmr0ro'rno.

GCogiC(TUoo€l56litUE

e, cao"u5oa GC ouo oDoo€lo

GDoccDc.<ncLtot<o cril<depgoofleei;oLcoE Loloocm)ollggolooore,ler;o re;mrnl<ofloa,cend o"6alo oJJer

droror;cm BcorucrDoo€r5cBgl6rd. a,caeim;mi o.rdqrocriloccond eumooflS a,lsaei;cm cocoecBgloS ol5or

oooleerogslcorcroloD m;dcaernu5oE, a,1ig5od, oelmio.u5o6, eecdeelooro0, o'lodcoleL'loo.ro8 <ol;sor:1oor rsc

oga,<rE roosesnloor<olcerd a,ceelnsj5o0 rscoucm.loo€lo. ecosle,ua ooord,5roa,av5co.flo8 g<6ogs3cm;.

onc oo'laood Gc oc,C oDoo€ro

cncm;crlercl'16ro oJoJffD <oocoo'laood cB(/oJr3oogie,g;os "lomioJ(06DJC\Do

crrloE:aor'laercmccoi5i)

H. o]Hc(o)cgo ord(r)dgBgccofl po cor<6<o'lolerorol; crrieieer;cm}. "6mia,1coc, cno(oc(rcoEa,'loa, ofiucc(r)co, a,iloJIc, a,53o oT;seurdqo) BcngJaoa oroeoo'laeioa Bcduc(ruoo€rGro)1(o8 gcrEogs]cm;.

OCU5Cl.lOlAer o6 reo.rgom;ooelSgBUa

org1.'oleeroo;os ooJLoJcocotoroi ot5otcrooleoogs;Cm oeruccerc"-d, ooco8colrc, ocnlceoril.eL'1,

oenLcil ro:]sear:1ocu rn1cg<ncrsc"ua,gJo onJ]gc, cn5;enL1coo6, ro)co, oorco no(m"l .'oc5odscd ecosl&pJo p<,rEogsScm;.

ag ofloloom rEc"sr6,ua

rorgco;crrlerscosra,gila3o er3"j<orsc.,ua,giler]o "-fleroi corcoroccrn'lccDcs]o GrUo\Do "r;ertd<oro'rcoror

ag<oilolooror; cnleroa,cAg;cm;. "ggsmia,o3,

mrgcoolaor "6crrflo ag<o1o1emro'r er;"jrorrecnuarpJo Bcflm"lmi, oercmid, oa,co'loorof, oorrogdeentcciloorof, "6crrflo <arq<l-l;rrrle,rscnue,g;ocani.

ppeiloo);os golooo(l)JLoJeocoeungilo8 cocoloofl pcrrncm<oroflm; o;oEo:;roocD orJoJooco<oro'fletlo;cm rec

n91aoc6ni "611smia,oE.

plD rscoucofloS ogv;<oosS cnecna,o cro',lerccrocmrmoBBoa a,ene3a,15ilccfl1end. BC

7-co uo(o)6,roo'ilcn;o;mi g"-r"-rcotol(')'leL'lo3cm recnsjaoc6n; o;cooloorod.

enrcmldog<ololeloror rec"ua,gi1o8 eucmid recneiccocaniL(Dee6rD(Dcolos L@aDooor m>oL'lccoouo rmga,d

os44i1o3cmj. o61cscgo co@Jccrr@Bglgg prD ecosi cncer;oJcslo poEcorlc oot;coc"l5o0 recnua,gcoS m;

oco5roocerri. olJc&(ocrDol<o'r'lcoioE .'olccmc - .,ooic<ncrlqooA ec"Bia,cgcd m;ca5@Jo ol;eldonlcml. Lol

(l)cmoc()Jo m-lor4lcEe,avJccDjecolocoame,lel]o (ruoo€j5l(o)6,9jJ, ooolaa(o)a,algiJ o{;crnlolool]os m;l

ecoJ5gBplo e,c6rDodslcm]. ,rloSg}roloi mcororofl(r)] oJ]ooe, 1"-rcoorccolao;cm o"l<oflcor3eni.

Zaldi = a,;<oflo

Zaldi - a = a}rorlo - <oro - = og 4,3<o1o

ecgm"lmiecgm"lmrloco oo3oo8 rono8cgooid coclroonrr'lo8 gcdogs;<oroflooig;oenae,'leJlo orcadro.roLoro'r'l

<08 <sno; agorlolooro; crr1o8eo;cmg. odepol.ro'lemcogaoo L.l.retoJa,o1o.l1ao1o8 gggo'lJo a,Je6rolt>ro.lJo

Gro6,lcmJ. 6ruoo](o)ro(oto a,cernlao;cmo',lcd mcoeunog ogorarorol'.lao}(m]. p6c: EtoBo ortaqroeBBsd.

oarcn'lqo))oa

oa,ccr'lqoaoloer mcSJccogJaoc<u oe,ccflaocrflcereei a,tcco5ccrjla,recnuaocao oo2lmlmro8 crrlcm;o

GnccD@,o cuceo]a,<rE (o)(ol3ol66rJgcool m;o1e,o14i1o1eo3cm1. "-racn'1.,ilo-lcnm<oro'ilo8

ruoe(8du6l'Do loJBtd

colg[1aer;cm;.

goc - Ka-ta=coJc6,J(mJk-t ta = c.,LcqD'l

Ka-keit- a = coJc6,lo.

a,etecJo dr (oo (Typological)ccduao)los oJorJogsaro otca,Joc5,ri. olca,Jcoo6BBgc@ olB6uBglos cril,rd"lcomo o6)Hc Gcosi

ootlet;o 6Joleolcosoorg. .ojle.r rec"sca,uA oLlcconsj6rDor'lcuooluJffuo6ruo\Doolo)caoc 6rco6rooo<n1.E5ooror

Z)

coolc ffndeQoo'lcei;cmoflcri goro,5<ofloQooroooD go.tccorc<nleeilcrrrJ. oB] "-r'let

recosio,gi"loS goJa5tola,gld.

"6cmco8 1":e,5o1go.tro5ooleun<.d co<doflo1o34s;aerco8 ap'lcorcroroor6mo a,lslc4rdcrnlo1cer;cmJ. LoJe,So'n

a,<rE, 1o-ttor5oo.rmn<rE, gua5ofl1o-r<o'r5oorca0)coo po.tco;Jos <oros'lmrocmoo168 oroool a,e,v5a,gceerl ecoru6)

og <oflo1aerco.

LTJCAT$o)dreOrJ

tolcarl(o)a,drgJ5conono$s rscnva,gloS olBo 6'loocg cnolaoololgts<olo oJ<oJcnSo6uBgcao m)lorcDa,glgp rsc<neuBgcao,

"-t1o1ao;orcod a,p'lqocrooto;o Grgelcml. crq@aooooroLlco5o <oncn;mo1{ g"ra,5

<o1od' o;"-rccoo oJrolcrrflfl. cDcoo, 16,'lool, oilccroosicrDo rols6uB'lao cnerllorlrsco6uBgloE ng<orlercani "-roo

gudogs;cmoo'rcni crrluo.rcoiao;cm<oY ons;oro'r;a,1seer;cm ogl oJB5oBgJocoollgg "rc<6goor'lo8

cnlcm;oceni.

oo"lm"lmi Bcolu gBcoo(06lDo. ruaeun<ra o0e,ca,9ioLola,5<or1a,gceni. "ir:mnuadd rurodoncreoo g6TI3cerJ

cmcil g4coemoro)lo8 oroJfiD ojJ(o)Jcauo oa,cenec6ni. oqo)o8 o6cm oraoro)'ld gd, a,eg[, rorcocoj, "r;e,o6crrrleunom "reL <srordarroeBBgJo pgco6rDooootlcu5ororirr <orgmi":nocao'l a,ei".r1aoco. slenrgod, 6rud

m"lmi, m oc oor'lmi "OCm"l

ecogi 6r glo LoJcorA tol ore{uJ qolon go0 o gs; cm;.

OOOJdT${0)@r6r9CJ

l"la,5arfla,gJo cnoJaQrlOS olOmY.,-ro6ru(r\Doolodo;cileo;cm Lor(o.)Jao5oBgJo GraccDccn5o co<do-flo1

aoco8 a,p'lcorcorooL'l<rlo a,Js1cgdcrrrlolaogcm recogio,uA ooo:6,J<o6resa5coioS gudogs;cmJ. n6ttorro

orm Lo-tco-t"1ff)ac@ ocnoo'lcered coJccucetlo Loro5corounoAaei g"..tc<o5a,ocao cru<orD ooora,Jroa,av5ooiloSod5 recnua,gilo8 &o6lTioloccocolg. iua,5o1a,glos Grgoo>tocreoo cDlerol'ler]qts m)ro6cBg;os oL5<or1

oorcrnoor'lcerc <n;(DcDm)roduBglos rcrgorl<drscor<otoflcerc <oroutl.do'l<oocooio'laogcm;. po0colc eoJcocolJ

od re C nU A, gJ o, O cru 0l S'1

d' re c.,v a, gl o o oor a,l (o e, a,u5 aei p o c clo o em Oc eni.

Run-Ran, Sing-Sang, mioo<ofl, rorgooo<ofl, L"-rooo<o1 ror;seanlco oJeeoBg[oScDlcni g"-ra,5or1g"r<or5

qo5oBsA cordror'lo'laoco0 eru;no'loJ5c6ni.

On.l1Om1O@rAllCJ

6.)6)Cl1615(oa,a,v5oo.t1o8og5 rscoua<rEo'rocm ogr694cor;os "erSroro'flo8 a,3s3arro8 GnorL@mmcrurBc

olo Lolo<0@'lglaoJctn]. oooror5<ola,asl5ooioSogs;cm poEcnoc - ao;cocor5o8 ecnua,giloS loro'r5coro 1o-r

e,5ro1cot1o8 crrlcml co<6ro1o1o4s]6occDcoc6rootc'mo mrnl<or1o"-rgrloD;. arcerLe,ooro'flo8 ggcoemrorol1

elJo 09Jo oJ(oJfiD Oogson<rEa,c(o6tDo oJB5'mcrE oroooor]os orgrdoog"-r(oolo8 cnlcm;o orgoo (o?a,oD]corc

a,co0 psoorca,Jcm;. p6'6BocD ot'lLreogme,acao) nooloun ooola,Jo.leiesl5coloSogg recnsre,gfloS oro;cmrcsa LolrotJc>5aBglos ounccDtoxi' <n<or1e,gJo crdcnJLoJcocucrnct.lctolJ€og;o ga,loorcorlccrootu6rD6cBg;o Lnr

aol€tol6cr;gcaefl recogJoao) oo"-rLon'l<oa,au5ooioE guEogsSc<oroenelcuo;o. oooJ6,Ato6resn5ooiloet recnu

argJos Gn(r)lLa,oocoor org<dggcolro8 mroreol'laoJ(m 6-Jolo€r5o ocL(ooc6,corco8 poilocn g"Jc<o5a,1oqc@J

e, esr5 oor c ooi <n ern'l c aer ena or1 o g cni ojl eL rd <sro c'l [ol c ao) o H s] cml.

mlor61nga,ool5.g"ra,5or'loooraoJo eilooo, orrJ(Do, a,ceJo o6;nrflooco.r au]ojlgilaocod iara5<olcqocd co-:6eo3cm

LoJoJao6cBoporlo co<0or1o1o4s;eoco6 1"-rcorcmrolg. C"ra,5<o'fl - LoJoJao5BB<.d m)<oloorcmiofl<oro gggoLcorceni. gocoLlnoc<ncgo<orol1er;o s;;eflooro0 ccncL<ororo'fls;o oor5 recosio,qA plc a,esr5ocflo8 guaogsJCmJ.

CUooelS'l(,)6rOrgcJ

ao; La,1co)c"-rero,oloofl pscr) caoc <mo<or'lccncscn;enrmolc4c orgc(r)a,o oJB6iiBgJos Grdo@6sBUA

a,S5ilaeierd<oo'r1 GJ@J orcorJo<olo oo(ocg.ueorrloofl o;ororoflo8 Lo-Lcoorc<rjlao](D ccrrua,ua cruo"€rs'lo@,

esa5coioS g<rEogs;cm;. cnccDero oJaeunua go-rcooccol{ o$ recnva,oE 1o-La,c<.o1gi1aerJm) crgUoacDo dloroc

g m'l o rel s1 <o'r or Bo oe,c 6.ni 1"-r e,c uo1 gileer c o0 a v1 oor3o.

pBc: <oacoo'leerod poEru:Saocolos Gcdu

t<n1o0 erco0ol'loer ecoej

(t) aulisariartoraswarpok - ooo.rod o"lad o-.flslaocod c":ca,gcm<or'lcri <oils;aoo a,lSJCme.

( z) eztakit - o6rrilao<ocr1ooto3a,gsc.

eztaki at - o6 crrlao <o cflooo; e,;sc oeroJ 6oceztakinat - ogcnleo ro ciloorolga;sc ocrJc6m

pcto)J - no] ecosrcceorg<oo (lndia as a Linguistic Area)O5<o5mi<orrSoosJo,sA aleOloS oJeJ arc(o6lDeongcoS olel (oeJ6EBglerlo rucBS@Jo a,cemJa, rcrr'l

orcerd'. recnsjqria6y (o)JoaD o€rsoao]tsa<o;oa,ceni <oroo <orm'lo8 "ret <orororofleJ]Bg oorcgqodocsldoej]

24

o,ua msoroloDroloec6Trsc6rd Loltuccnoco)]o p<oi mroreoilooiaer;cmoi. Blcm ecnsda,cd mtomtco'loo;Cm

lotco<oeungiloS eio; recnsiaoroSolo)ocrD Grocma,o recc{uarg]os mllcO1cno a,oerreol(')coa e,Vloor;o. m)GOc

L(o)BCogJo,Og m:oonrmO14[lscorocgo o-ro<oeroror',ler}o oro6<o'roorerroolel;o olJca,(o6lT)(o)arorolel;oogco

pr9 or6J m)cBAcoJdaB<rE ulcocgocoor'l acomco. o{'1{rnco8 gtoi"loro)l"loocoor'l "lomi":oerumr.lolgcroor,

roarorcoo.r<til oLloLl<.u c<ncu0)eoBglo8o"-t5 rEcnsi6,uaom'lo8 mtccucoemocco)'l otB6BBgJos 6,co5romrlo8oc

L(o)co e(D ffucBsuoJo &c6yDl. Grororcco)o; 6JoJ cocLo<oro'flo8o"-r5 recnsiaoloS eorceocooHsJ<oofloaercenelolao;cm oioeansa<oo* ,gl cocLoccos/agiler;o e,cemcoocni crDcoo. co.rco5gila,ocaol olocolJcm

"-iler mrca5ooJeoBplo e6n;.crucoco6rDo1o1ao1aolo8 pd6Bomoao)co6o<>co6lTe+,1et;o o-tlet 6"-tc<o5acoolelcoio8 p"lcaoc

all4;oo;cmo:o)Jo oL5<o5m5rorecoejccocLooro'rlosog5oraolocao) recosia,ua <o.lm1el;o "-loorelrolor'loeloD

crllcoel olJceo6rDolsdoolgp oggrolaoungler;o ffucolc,oJ6cBUd &c5lDco. p,tcoler m)cB5roJ5cBog eocBs

gfla,oocm; olo6ttno] rorggilaogoor;otccr8 ecnsjccocffdgoezerirrcoctiad a,vloor;e,oo.flg. enc orlosjaooto,loS

oflcmls;mscrD olocnduBgceni recnslccoorer (Linguistic area ) "6cm m>eei"-rmroro'flcd oelo<otglg<tli.

p.o oLloslootootor€olcnd <urgn5occorl ercoJoceo cn'lo'leszemo-rocneuBUa cnsorol'lqod' rorocoo'laero0

mooouo@cmiLroes6rDmccor icrocodmJ carucmi <orgoni. tstt- ro8 C"-rmt'lao"la,o'lg A hand Book of American

lndian language , 1920 1929 ogcm"l odosleongileLcaor'l t"-rmt'lo"la,o1g Jlet celolmeoncrE "6crnloLcor'la;os

corceni cenLcmi po oilnucoro goot<6<oro'iloaoc6TrcJ ocmcoi. olseao <mocoo'laooor'loel (North pasafic coast)

o.r1et g.'rcoeorgirod e,cemodslcm Gcnsja,sa olo(oor@oceil oL'Ie'lcmc<ncg<orsungiloSog5ol@co6rne1el3o

oroot <oreo'lo8 oolce5gile,oflcoto ojlet mtco5euncd a,cem;cm;oenecni ceoLcmi a,oerrgoror'1. olB6uBg]os

6,co5<oo.r1o8 ocL<olog coerg<oeLroro'rletlo olJceoemoreL<oor'letlo e,lsl p,tc cruoccD<oe,<rE &c6rDlcrD]o6rB

cni <orocq.,oo oogilollauoo'l<olo m:o<6<o'rn14]. prc LolcolJortora,<d o;cr0crrldroro'rloeercani 1"lmi<o'r;<orecnu

a,<rfl pn-tccotccrjlesr;cm LolcBU060Bog 6JCrrnrJ col<0roroY ao; ecouccoolgoolcqo, eol<o6lDoacnY oncq

ooo Lolmi<oco1gl. ru.,11<d (Sapir) <oOo8C.,nari .,61roE cla,coenLd (Alfred L. Kromber) arrSseanloo ajlel rec

nsjcuocffryLroeg6rooJo o-r'lcm1d pnlr ooul<ooi cr:eroLlcoroo'r'la;gg rrrlo"l&rsslDoJocDe6BUa ms(olo)]aJao]o og]

oo oL mI <or; <o e, oE o o gil gotor] o6,c 6rrl; o o1a, oo.r; o o"-r co) ro;.

cooSgoeroro ojl-o-jloolmean<.d mt;t"lmino gocoilnorscnuccocmJgtorormn'l<omceo a}ooo oOocmcoao)

(murray Emenau) oogco] otelad jlooiaercoE ct.Lo1gi1g;. o.floL'ltu ecosceocLoeongilo8ogS crrloolol

recnsja,ua e,lslaoetdcm;o:coorc<rilaerlon Lorcrruo56ng1o8 LdoccDog5 acmcao pooJoeoeoceni orocq

ooo olom<onnlmcoo;'l o<oroooorDslctooi. o"k0"ere,celoolo m1o'lagem"locnesBUa€oJccoouo arelq rec

osjcoroocecD o<ogiloL;aoa o4;oaceni pmDJoeoaoJo oo] ecosiccoors (Linguistic area) corcccul "io'lu)ernlaocoocni Gncqooo a,oerrgroor'1. ruocq.roonrloofl LolocmcD'lo"la,si6m5uBU6 (Dcop cuoltllooldlcrJd

aolcm].

L.,l1t;c611ocq)]o olcni ecotucc(,cL(o)eBBEiloSo.,ls]CrD ccoluor<rE m-lomlco'leer;cmoloceni oOoGCnc

cor;os <orore1g.,-tcoor<oro'flo8 pooJCrA golelororrDorolo8 cnlomflaer;cmoi. po0cooc ao]GocolJoofl ao; Co-l

crocolo)co) pcrEcnr-lc <orgo5o0, gocoilru:o, a;6rru .,4crriloccuceni P.c ecoluccurcLrore6Bud. "-to'lL<or"-loocool'l

.,-tolcuaccpleo;cmtcuE pcrEcolc - eorgoScrrloeu Lol<tlcmecotuc>ceo mlomia,5<o'lo 5'Jo] ouoGcdu6rDGcdu

o()ffD crr'letcor,l(oS mtg"loocaor'l g.,-tcoocrjl4ilo]cmoi d'nn.rul. @6l"l3cof0o)&ro olooooc6ni. o(DJa,cejoDlo

<orgcr:Scrrla,alceloo;o poot5coloS po8cooc - Gqo5rnloSod5 cDlcoolcD'l recnso,ua o5or5mio'r GcoucGG

B5gBegcslcu;sl rrrleLcnlcrrflolcm]. pcmlo crilercnlo8aole,eolo orlqlcm]. LocoL'lalccncl<0lrEcnsJo,g0<o8 t"-t

(l)c(r)oHg mcoetepgroro.iloS oots;cm <oro1v1m;o o6l6rc6croo mlomia,5<o'rG{oKDcpo olc@(uoJoJend. olpoo

,o3n4rg;*<6 ocg<orco ffDoffDco1€o;cmlggloore,lel;o gocoLlcttlculcgoloo1oa og] oltolo',JolLoo6rBJ Gc

os/d.rg]o .,lo'loomcoc<dooo <otOcm. Og] GocLolScosjecgcgo Lolel](oLoldcoolggo(o)e'1a;o 0)6T13 G@cLo

oro1o8 o g S e c olu e, o g ao); o o-r olcn errflcd cao ene <o'r; en5.

*raag.r*- ecos/ccgocLro6Br:gJos re;olcocmig<ooJ<ooceo <orocrrlo;a,g;o o-ro1<nerrrlcaoerreoc6ny.

o<r-15 poor5oortlcard p.t9 oJoDJ cocLo6cBplosolo roro<o'r'ldrooilo,<.r0 a,cem;cmoi' po0co-uc <opo5oofl <aro

ur1cn1coLco<o.rol'lcDlo3ml;<oofiD cn<olocooil eumoogscolcD o1<o1qorro8 otI)J pooJoJoo m"lerreJa'1sao3

oD Lole6go5uBglaceni Lolocoocao;o LBcolaDecogi goleaoccnororleflo;cmail. o;em-u ccncgo)<oro'im;o po6co,c - c,.oJmloccor'l eumlodscmlgg m.lccu5rola,<rE re;o1crocm51o'ro-toocoo)'ltotorocm geneccoflolcmJ'

po6cnoc - rarqo5cnlo8oo-rg auocrrJa,srolecotuoqo crnolaMao;cmLcoE moJdol orncnt'lelcol}cm 6r

(oJ 6c(oJo, egcU)tB6.rceloro)](0DocD, onorcqoo; .,leolcent'lcndJoo olsl6lorc)co]LoJcBuo6BBgilcelcliad mlo

25

mia,5<oo g"-rccorcaieeigcmod ars(mloo-rgJc<or'lo3cm m)oooorolroroffD, 6]ooge,1er;o Loco.t'lnr.rrecnsic

c(,cL(ooJ6s'6rJ<6 m:omia,5<oroofler;enecooio]cm] n6cm<oceni. "-rlolaerlgooorocoS Lncot'lcu-lrooloefl o5co:cncro'leto<otord6,]cnd paoceJoorD m.:omYa5<o'recc{uo)ocrD o<ogilo;<oo}cm}6nd. octcE"lco.rcoc, oo)oroGDc, fiDocnJaercole,coc Grgco) e,c<o5rDeuBgcto8 oilolcp c<ncl<oecolua,cr0 m;omlcolael;rmod rom'lo8 eru

cnod5o)c6,co poilcDJa,co6rDo. p(o]GoJcos(')ooD oJoTrJ cU)cL(o)oro'lmlo poAcaDc flngoJcnJo rooolelJo, oJ6Yr\Dao)Jo LBcol'lc\r)c(,cL(o)or]o <omlergo oermDegBua crilscrrlcrrilol€oco. oJ65BBg;os <oetroro'flro8 mscrD GroBccnLol6cm6-oBcgeocoa ouca,o6rD - @drlJoerdsBgflro8 e,cem]m) m)cB5(o5ooBgc6rd poLlos

"-to'l(/)6m(r)"lo)o.

po8colc - eo;GocolJoofl ao; eoJ@coraocooflo;crrr'153o tmo<o'loSaerc6rDcoro cn'loour'l o€ls&60t:l

oE, coen;ot5ca,o6TDro>eJ6cBgiloS, pofcctrc - GrgoJcrilroSo"-rg recnua,gflo8 a,cem;cm;eni. plc "etsa,eanuEeruruofl5)crilo8aei;cm<oY LocoilaoccncLoo]oc@cerd'. pa0cnrlc - <urgoJo0 ccosJa,g]os GrooJoel5cCIro)

aocsa , ocu5"etgroofello , cr9cr;;crrla,oet5rorofleJ;o p.c crutccolcnecr:<r8 ngoloto;cmolccor1 6rc5TDco. LoloJoJ ecosJc(ocmil<oeaormcco e3udmicegcad (Jules bloch) potoao ccoo-rolqi olomol'lccocorocaolcor'lg;end. p.lD a,o6TBrologJa,og oIJCD:oJ(o'lc@cco1eo3a,oor;o oL1<oa'lao1ao3a,cor3o or-tcoirorc<orcoscgo o-t;<ofloo.r

c-tlel oeLsa,euBogdo]sl a,o6lTislolo); "roleer;rm;end "6oomc.

potooio8 tol(I)cmoHs o-t'let m-lo.r'lcconsi

ola,ua rolcog mo8a,;cm;.podcru.rc - aolcocolJcrnoSods rec.va,gi1o8 o;6alm5mrmean<r8 <snolcoor<ril s od<n turcrila,<rE

e,cem]crn1g. "6cmco8

porooe 5J<oJ goJ@corcorcaor po0cnDc- cq<oJcrrlet;o , olaootco;o oo$flc pctoJoE recnua,gileLJo pot e,o6nerorDco. p,rD mucnor'lc<ronsJo poEcnoc oor;coco-r5co!<ogcoroto'flcDcaJo , oJ

oruaoJcsrutoflcrd oogilco.flaeico8 mlc<o;oe,g;gg<olmcelJo lBcoIaD e<ncLtoccova,giloet L.rlcuccn m)o.t'lcuoosJo6,uE acmcaoo'1ff)celJo, poi gocoLlu mrc<.u'lcnooeLocoot'l cruocol'l4ocoemcni rorocflootco. podeuc oo;coco-t5cli mtoreoL'lg podno5oomcm:nsicri porrlco; ofra4 goc.,ooemoceni.ocaol"la,5o'rol]o cloRlcol(D(o)locao mi"idcnesBgloscorJo "et6ou1a,g}ose)lo m:lcn'lororocenY .,6oomc ,-t;enelaerc5;cm oogc@Jo€ls&o. ooco1, o(o)er](,] , grololoa,dapgcso,o , e,]o;oi, o;ens poacnoc or9o5cn1o8

LoloccDocaoJo 5lo1co <o;smn1oo rElcmrecosia,giloSoo-t5 rscoslagiletceni poi a,cem;cmail. plc Bcoruo)<rEoeergco o(l)Jpoo)Jao3acco.fl srxmDoJgg<o3oe,ceni, poi

"6oarre,1etJo ecouooio8 rorgoLldrsnld .gtgg

oLoor'lceiqoidd "-Lsdcm<oce,ccnceni m)cttlJ<ol. rl6larl] ecoeioofletceni poi mloreorlgroi

"Otmi e,5o'r5ocooflo-tocorcad mcuJJoH. ogcrrflo]cmcelJo 61rol a,c(oJo or5a<oroceni. oocroo'loo;JcscoJo oo'ret3ot3o.floerflao;o rec

ouccrsooBBgiko8 oclorco poi mtcdorgarrle,ocoor'l orcomJcmlggl. ogJ ccoeio,glos BcosicceB6cBglon cDoflcri 1"-t"-lcoo orlooJc6ni. rorooflmcosorDoffD pnc oeni recoua,gilooo<oe,1et;oceco p,:c "eLsa,oroflooflg<oio-tooflmmcmo.

po0cooc - aolcocoJJad recnsj g.'tcoocaileei;cmordaer;o ron<o1ocneolcr1{ .-rolaei;cmo:deer;o roro

oBl{o)oU6Il3c6,]c.m oltl)<oo1o8, poEcnoc ogo5crrloS 6rc6Tn;on ao; or'lccnnu<oroorceni o-r;dqmdoeong;os (prepositions) <oorsco.to. podcotlc - ao;cocoJJoE recnua,gilo8 o.,-rc<ogoo o-r;rdt2ru dlr;ealr,ud u:cocgocooil g"-tcoorc<n<oo1a;ani.

"61cmco8 Laco.florcurcgolrecouagilceJc ol6rece<ncLtoecotua,gflceLc p<or1g<orc

mJo. Gr@aortDlmco8 pocor;os m:tctu1oro o6rc6rr3cqo'lol6oco podcolc - orqo5crrla;o oJldqcru du;ear,Ulpflc(o)caooocni

"goomc ctjoao]oD].

"l]depCa,laoaoEad o;mL1o8 roa"r;rdepCa,laoeog (oflcnocor4o) oLlm;mngf2j gn-rcoocdldo;Cmo"l<oil "6gc gacoLloorecosla,gilet;o m)coco6yDoc6rDcflc. podcor.rc - ao;GocoJJo0 ecosco,uAari po ofto.r'l

<srd"lo'l"jlooceni. ogcmco8 po0curc - rmgo5rrrlo8 poi 1,"-r"l;oocqo'l<oo"lcrrn53end. asenece<ncL<o)ecolua,

9Jo p6oc<oltorAo8 <olle6ocao ao; cn'lao:csceni Loa,s'lgileo;cm<oi. LocoL'lor-r ctlrcL<occolua,g;ocao)Jggrnloooom;mtdaooce,co porol(oooccoJ orJca,o6moelo ag; o6TreJ G<;lcLrooongilel;o o,cem;orco8 psaocasrloocli.

e;udmicegced ".rlenelaocerrfl4ilglgg oogcoJ LoJoccDcrDoL'lcuooscoaoc6rd' pool5cor'loet oL'lor1

t.l) GocLo)ecova,giloS a,c6TDloD lol<or1cl:cn1"-taes'r'U} (Echo words). pool5odrecnva,gloS olaoroflet;o 1_o_t

to'ltDlcDloJoeoBud ococgocqo'laoc6rnco. p.lD omi<o;o) ola poot5oE recnsjc(rocadl(oree5lorolo o-L3errelaoc

errrqlsl6n;. pool5ooiloel CIJoDl BcoqiccocLoeangiloEogS rscoua,giler;o lorrofcolcnloioerBUa m-;e]otoceni. aSaneccrnclror<oror1o8 poroofl mrccrrr'lrro5o LolocoocaoJo a,c6r"r,JcrDoi occmc oc6rec rscosra,glercer6'. 1acoJ1oorolol'1<o8 gerucoo;ooi, oa,celco'l, oldeeeel,oroa;<n3, ro'ro1d, oetc>cgo ogcrrrlotcoiloersco lol<or'lcotcn'loloecngl6rd. coocLotl coJcelJtso poEu5oE - <urgoJcra recosla,glet;o pol a,o6rrsorocoarmror'lcnco8

26

A

p(D o€lso,ollo pcroJcorlos m)Ol'lc(oduOc(o) eCduccrucrloer(oJoro'ilo8 goBoild olsdcrD(o)ca,Cmcsni m)c(l)Jo.).

Groor(ruccDfllcoo, rorcrilcoiaololoAoj ogcolo "r;enelaercerril4lslgcoto oo3 mroflcconsi"elsa,orD'l

ceraoidd o{)oomc oL'1oo8.or3ens3a,co,)cerd'. p.lD go-to'flreccuo GnL(o)oaocm)Jo oLl"l]elogc<oro) l"icacoeuBEilGer 6)c5YD](rnlggl "oe,lerlo olcml Gcogiccu)ct(')anrcrEaer]o proi orom5ofl. pd podca.uc - ao)JGocoJJ

oerfl ao; cnlrEco:m-lofleuooru(Dc>ogt+,1o3o po8ccroc - orgo5cnlo8 poBord .,-rs<icm<orce,coocni 1160

omc A,lD"rrlcoieo]cm;. odoe,co6,6BBpJosco.rJo (classifier) .,-ro'locema,c@5BBglos@;o (quantifier) go-r

caorcclloc6rD'loLlos "-rocoduoo.r'lccDqcDoca,scmroi.

Grocff)&o odtnooBUa gggcgc<rE acrrr'locn o-r;eneleerc

errr'leocmceni ordoa,coaean<rfl go-rcoorccrileo;cmoi. orogo;occoi eumoofls oLloroeBBUA L.'rmY<ocoLl

aocmcooigcerd' "-ro'locema,coaeonua

g"-rcoorc<n'laerlcmd. po podcct-rc - c>Jcoco-L5oE rscnue,gilo8crrl

cnY <o'r1a,4;o o5tololaorocoorceni poor5oErecosra,ua ( pcrEco.uc - Gro@Jos€oo) L"icqocrileer;cmo<orcnipcqooo o:;eneleocg;cm3. orloilco ecc{ucccncLroreonglrolo$S recosre,giloS p,tc

":oeun<r8 arc6rDogsJffn

<o'loroao;cfl4;o Grdolool]os ossmcorooco) mroL'lccoosioa,ogaer;crlg;o a,;sg<oro8 otd4a,<tE msrorofl "63

oo oL'loroeunsa cosroro'fl "6oo oLlooeun<rE rlrJo<oro'r]o6)c5Tr|lor(olcm]6nd o6)occDc .

porooo a-rdqa,oEao3crooso porDJoaoaoJo 6JroJ Gcoruceoorel (Linguistic area) <argcol "rol<nerrr'l

oOCOOCTD Crrleto-toS',lOgotolcml o€)OOCDC. GCog/CGolOrs "ocm m:e,aioJ(rrooro GnGSor)o p6OBOCD OJ'I(,O

o"le,o1ao;cm;. This term Linguistic area may be defined as meaning an area which includes Languages

belonging to more than one family but showing traits in common which are found not to belong to the other

members of ( at least) one of the families ecoluccoorer e o@crD oJBo eq'loycdo,ororofo8 crocruorolJaito'r1

aoocoemcni c<occm;oou'le.tJo o'rcoE oroail g"-rcoo;colgoi, a;cru;torooD tsSerucg$ca,ccllJos Sprachbund

oL'lodoormooo-tg;cmlc<rE, pc<o'r <oror0<olootollo8 "Od. oI. orcto85o0 (H.V.valtan) g"-tccorccnlg<ol;oerc

5TBoO6rDCrDJo OLICOO'lA,O'14;OA,CeneCeni oOOO(r)C re rOrOOfl Crr'lO"lA,Sj6rneAA<rE go:m-loooolaer]cmoi.

g"-lcairec"v

ccduao)]os "-r;<Eq"lo1lroo {rnaoJ[(,roleer;cmrolcri "roltore.flo-flo6BBogaocerd'

rora"lLrnrn'ldo]oDoo)

cni cnco a,errs;a,vleroro'r;. "6cmco8 o-ro1C<oeilei-flo5cBgJos <snecor(oo'lerlo GcosJe);os o:Sdqolo'lgoro e,

o6rrgcoro6rBol6n;. "OHc Bcosje,ua6o;o eLloJ1a,g1fl. oo(m(0)loa,c6TT3]o ggtsolecDJos (oo(TD oJgo@rceJ

coora,<rE mogodslcoJc@o;o6,c6ynJo Ga<ololglaorlgg "-r;dgrecnucoJlcnncno Gnm)cerJoccotl<oo1o;

cm;. "-rolgroeLlo-no)eBBg]os

Groecol(o'rolo8 "-ro1g<orcooa,ecogicolocDorolm;gg

ofia, Gro(l)coo Lolcdccogjcolo(r)ola.D<o1a,gceni. rorgoo:o1e,orlo 5rucooJolJocao oJlmm)J*$a,gilejlosoorceni l"lcairecnucrual(o)lcrdolLonloqs;aer;cmoi . ecosjccr3oot'les6rocmo]o pq9 erasr5ro6rlcs€o]gE a,co8ootqo)"lc6rd.

.uomi.uomtcBsfoJo poaoorfleelloD ecogiaJp]os Lol6r5(o)1a,u0 , Lolo)J@5sB<.r0 ,g"la,5anlLoJoJeo)

cQcDc(ro ogcrrflo "-ro1cuocur19j

Groor d3co erncL<ororo'ler3<,rEogs]cm<o)cesTDc "ocni a,oensoYoco. ac(o Gc

du(oooD o5<o5mi<or clLorcBUo6oBgi]o8 cruocruco'lcdoarrel oo;cmrcsE a,cerccroo<oofloE rmooj crilolgcrlqocoA a,v'laocorol o"l<orloolo8 o5<o5mSooceaoaolo. GD(orcD@o ecogiarogooo;sco oco cocLo)<oor1o8 guO

ogs;<oror'l rarootocdaergco ooJcolorcooi ao; 1"lcdo;n-ro goenecni aoE.'rl4coS rsrooilomao)ceni c"-tcirecou (Proto language) o{)(mJoJooolcmc,i. L"icdrecns/ao'loSmncni o-l;<o)]toccoi g5rccao ecdua,og

"-l;C<or'lrecnsja,ua ( daughter language )"ocml oro()]fiD] . GnoJ <om1er;99 .uomi"roeruatuo cru)a-flBi1aocoa roro

oJoao) cruBco)recngJo,ua (cognates) "ocm]o or'loa,si'l6oco;end. L<n"laei, ercSr'1od ror;s5Bnlco recnsia,ua .,1

olccncui{ recosicolornJ'l<od ( Proto-lndo European language) ogcm mte,oSoltoolo8 o6<ooflc46cmoi

p,:c olofl .ro et gola acool rorO oL'l.daer ol4orooe o<ot giloceni.

"63o<olulet;o no] recnsiaoi€d g"rceirscnuc"rao.t'l raromoocaor'l mo8e,;cm<d' cooloolg. Ln-tcol"lm

(lndo European) ecnuccocmYlroes6moEocrd mromia,5<oo'ro1oi <ano1<or1"-rctlcmJo {Dr68a,1corrd polm;oc.rooemocqo'l

"l;ene1aoc5co. r6rg{r{Dolei6rucooJoJSm6crildmc5rDm)coJoa,ogdgl <oroord oL'leeiolocccul

o;cm;ooo1o8 m;omie,5<o<oorloi L"rcd ecouc o-tooL'l mo8a,;occoflolcrrng. etcglo8,garled, eerdmo8 , rruo

mYa,5<or" o]seanlco rec.,sioua .r:omio-roo orgoorole,mrcBsuojo 9tstso1()caoarr;oa,cerri crooloao)flco

ooJcco]oJcao no] Lolcdecosiao'lo8 crrlcni po3<oorloleroro);enecoor crueBco)t3corua,gcoemcni oloeocooffD

Sco<or <snolao'lcelooe,let;ooccrrilom Lnicairecnsjc "-too.flccD'lcsael;ocldoro'r;cmroY uoo'lqcDconfl. auoani

e,a(o)o ogJ ecog/aog raroc":a,v1j "rvaeroJgq(o);o6,c6rl:}c6rd' rono'lom 1.'lceirecnuc"lr:oLlcoicelao]oo;

drolor'lqcDorocrd ao; oLlrscuto olcrraolcmrcsa ccoeicllJos oJe€,oo crildepcoiaerlcmoi coolaoogcm;o rec

ogJ 6J@J n'lOrCruoOA,ceni O1"-rOg5J6TT3Cao)(d)OStrnlo GEOo.)COJ rOl;St69;oo.roO6mcnlo (ruBc(0)Gcoe/6)glo8

27

63ffrnd ogJggoloao GrdcoJ6,sjl+i oJgdooJo6rr3cni a,oenerorofocel]o ono'r'lom Ln-tcdrecnsic n-roo'loofcet

eer;cord<oro>coE orcs'logcmJo 16r)<.DJcrila,recnsic"l'loora,d ocnlaei;cm1.

or;dgrecouoooraer;crleeigcm<o'rlcri GrO Bcosie,glos 6,JsJo6rumcooo'r'1m; o;crrr1o8 Proto "6cni c"ld6o]Cml. GD(o,.)'l(r)d(ono @Locdono (original) Lorca(Doo (Primitive) o6)ocrnco6oco,)cer6'. a-r1o pog"l.d "ge;orol;e,crd Primitive o€)crD oroo go-rccorcdl4;a,cem;cm;en5. Primitive oOcD Lolcaocoo ne1orcdolffDrirlc

eni cngoi. Primitive oOffD oloooe,cerreccrd'recnsjao)od eio; "-r3<Eqe<ooor;enecocu'lo3cm;oocrd'

ocganoceni

m3"-fleerogs2rm<d. "ocmco8'ord"veuncacao aDocuco'lglojcm LorcacomGcnsj "o(m m:e,o8go (o)o(rD

GloffDoeorJoceni. <motnr'lmco8 enLc.'o5"-r;mrdcnldaocemromle-.l3os aro6rrSoro)ods]Cm rEc"sc(oiad Proto ogcm 11160 g"-rccorccn'leer;cm<o'rcerd' ao;6<rto. acgloE ro;sarnloo Gcolueog LoJcd@cD (Primitive) ocoo'l a,o;roflcgco;cm olcofiuoJocoor'lo'laeiemo rorg

"-raorofloef, raro<0ornoL1"-ro5oo;<oro'r1oi e,coemocoor'loro'r"ldcmroY.

6rucrloJrlrlm'autr4 External Reconstruction ( Comparitive method)ecosiarg]os (o)co(o)oJo GrdoraoJos r36t2o;"-ro

"geunocnco.flo]cm;oocni CIcL(o)o$ roroor ormlar]

gg olJ(o)Jcmo oo)L(o)coRDcgolo6rBanlo a,c6rrilgl oolcml. Bcdu()Jos "r36qo3"-ro

oncilcorcm]gg "639

orJo coo(')lcqoo'laD ocdooceny 6rucooJorlcn,crus€]. (o)leJ(r)coDa,recnsiccoccrdLooocrD]o (o)co(ooJecoeic

cocmigooocmJo <orocflaoogs;cmoi p,tc orao<ofl<oocmqoccn;. pcni cerce,<oro'r'loE 6ic6IDJoD olaootco;occoM6,6)9Hco or(o'15'mcooro'r1oofloo.r;o oLlresm<oro'ilooflcor}o ooerocoor'l oJoJoHSoJ@co5TDcrDlo <oooocoyao

HCo OoJC(o)JOjCaO) rsrOS'lCn:nocno fiUC(r)JOCO6TDfinJo prlD CroorL@mooolg'l 6O6r"r-SOrOCCDCOJlo. BCogre,gJ

os oosrojsrumr:o crrldqgcoileo;e,, ooBor6ufi\DDJgts ecogiaJg;os "r]dqo3orroofloaoro'r1cgo;e' 5Tufi\.n

roro'noof, "6tg6o];4er;a,uE crrldepooleo;a ogcrrrlooorceni plc o:ar-r<o1oor;os o1<o'rlcocmiL<oo.

"lomin-too erumlo$S1o1eo;cm ecogia,og Lorc6o)oBco9/o)]os arcercmD@GreoeoBgcao'lco6lDo

a,o;rocod. no; LolcroJa,a)ceroorD ecogjceeo5'sBg;os ooooilaDJo (oaD1gco8 rec"v ao; e,caold "63

aocooilo;cm] (Uniform) ooonloroo c<occrrflcgcaJco. ecdu&)d cocrocooroo oeJq]on.lona cloerocaor'l

"{JA)OCCO,OS(rD eCogjCcBBo olel(DCQI'l OLlreeelAOOgSJGolCGaCDdOCo. GCoSiCGrgOO.tlrggCno mloreOLlaOCCnS

gts oc6<n6uBoE <orocnotcr,l'lo)c6rDl(Dcmlo. <o6Trel GcogrceeBdsB<d or5rol5mS<oecdua,gccofl ococoO orgo(o

66)ceJooSJaoJo.

ooslolcruff\Dosoenecni mro@cor'lao;CrDc<oc Gnscroroctorc crgao ecosi6,el9 6ilcooJolJmdrrrl6acemroro'r1m; ollc<Dqoocdoco. ooeoJ6nlo\Do a,6relo-t1sl6ood5;a,vloonnc<o8 on<oloScrilmi l"lcairecnvcooBol6rxfi\Drooloofl c<ocroi ogcrrrlo 6o6rrg(oroccDc6,]o. p<ofmcooi recoluacDJoscaoc ecoruccreo<olofoerf,

caoc p4coemororler;o <oo<0orororoler;o aDcaJolgp oJB6BBg;os "-t5ila, rogcocao;cm;. rorod<oo - g.4c

coGTD m)coJeunuA eco'la,ocaocerJo oLlcocoolg. 6rc@6lDo oco"-ro<oroflcD;<oooD a,cetcoorootorlelJo Gm

rd<o'rn-p4coem or5<olcorccnean<rE cruocol'l6ocorJcrDoco6yDrm<orceni. p,u ffucoJo ooca5gilecoc , ffuoL&

o6'rDonejcoc , ooolosa,acoor'l errel4c<oc Gro6,co. 6]@J ooJc(o)]recnuccultoScrrlcmso o5<o5mi<olrecnsj6,uA

ed oo".tol5aocnor'l erre14<olceni g"-rmi<o'l;<o'r oromr:oge,'lo8 ocgoroo olco<oo5<orollcd g"-raua<oflcor;991.

Gro6cBocno)coome,1o8 GD ecogjar<rf, mrgcrorEcoluo,gcocrDcni e,oenEoocmc&Jo. m)BSUoolBduBUA 6,s

oosJoro)olaoce6lDc oooj(oJoroc@orao)ce6rnc "OCrIi

crflol4crlaolcod rec.,Slccr3B5BBg]os a,co5<orO'ilO8 ano

m)coJocaoo;oa,ceni <olcoolo5o"l<ol oe'l ecosJcceBd'BBog onorgomlaoco0 eu;ado;53end.

L"-tcdrec"sjao);os <ono:cro1.y5uBUA (ruBc(DGcoru6,g1o8 &o5lTSotoccDcarJo. GnoI oir:eBBgco6me,'l

ro8 onooao cruBco)ole66n<6 (Cognate words) "gcmceni otloasr'laolcmd. ouolaro6'tD{onDcel;o aocos*dil

a,(0)ao)cel]o esm)JoJoJm) "ioeanc,A

(russco)oJBd-oBgiloEcrncni corrd<or1o1{ o6<n"la,oleeerenso'r3end. o,co6rDo (rUBC(o)oJB6OBUa (oCO(0)OJoIADTOflOOT;OS rOrOS'lmmCCnLolOC6rD6OBgCeni

"oCmOrJ(0)Ofin. p6OCOJ

on1o8 molcdooo rurgg<ocor'leocod a,vlocl;e, rorqgcol<ino;"-r1oo6Bogaoc6ni. ouoLarodtrlo-oetoc@Jo cotce5gil

6Joc()Jo orgluo](o)o;"-toBBsa o,scm]orocm]gg m)c(])J(D oL1ogocerd',. <ar91uo1o'ro1"-flo6oBgJos ot'lgcnla

oc ecD olJca)o 6rD (o ero "-r

olccocutlgcro8 p/.lD o: mi<or] o olJ6(o) oc6rlo.

oelao)cgo, mtomia,5<oro ogcrD"l rsc"ua,gtoS cruloLolDolBoDcoJo <oncnouicorcoeme,leL;o olJcar

oem<oet<olo'lo8 <aroorcoorafi orggoo1roo;o-r'loocBggos oLlm5mrcn<oro'lo8 - c>co<o)cro; mrco5ot;alggcotol crrl

eloa,cgg;ffn<oi p<orlcn;ec.'ooomocerrY. o3o-tctiroomcoJolgg olB6BBgJos <orqo1e,5coro'raoc<rE olJce,o6rDo)ercruco5oceni ecogiag;os oogror6Dlc\lo o,o6rrE(oroccnJgg mlc<dronaocoor go-tc<.tl1.

pLol6,c.oo e,oareorD'leo m)glc(o)ojBm)douao<oolo8cnlcmlo oDrcD(o)JermgSla, (Phonetic

correspondance chart) tolgcoc€oloD]. m)rcnolelmdsla,aoloer crDrcD60B<r0 ocm;orocmoo;coeme,1o8 mt

Bc(Decoluo,giloS o,cam]CrD rurcDo rorocmccucqololaoemo L(Ltcd'ec"siao'lel;oocni crilcpococoo 6,6)5ITg

28

(ol(Dco. oo(mco8 oLlosooccor oDcoJoacL(o)co B5(nJocar]cm]pg]ooLe,lo8 pooooro'ilo}gg rulcncrildep

cDo cr0fiDC(l)JOCe,]CmJ. OoCgCuE mlrcrrlom:',laucooroo;',los <uros1ru-occD(o)(or(Dr6BBgc() orJoJao)o, oJ]o&r

or'lroroemo , gcooeei;oo.rlcmcslgts cDcroeaecoJo og;crnlorco;;os <aroslmr-ocmroo:'lercerl)' l"lcairscnuc"-:3cndcrikdeocemo rDsororJcrDoi.

g"lcdo;"lorol'loofl "lSmdcnl6eocem<oro'r1m;

ccroogjo 1-ocairscnuoo;;os mlcrrlo56Bglos oL'koroamLa,

oo, cruculffflco)oeBBUA , og"-noe6Bsa oocrrrlorooorHglcorl" l."rcairscnsr m;om:col4iloJoDojoodgloor]o <oro

olo]os cuoffucooomDdg'lqorlo omcpSlercaerco. Lorcdccoua,gioScrilcni mrsc<orrec"ve,gilcereer]gg "lo15rDco(rurBcoro, oJol5rDcoCoiCalqDaoro8 pscrilero)<ra olno'lg ouoccDo , oglcrD'le6Bocn g"lceirecnvoqo d(o'l

dem occor'l Gncncor5 (D occeicoE plc orao <ofl m.loocco.fl ao;cm;.poro'ro<oroflo8 crildemoor'leocad e,pleoro

"-fler L"-rcdrecnua,ogg$l o.t'l"rcoem odgco. sdmccrr'ld recnue,gil<08 ee<6moE, ccncmlai, mrcdmrend n6cml recngja,ua GaccD&o m)B5uoorBdsBog g<rdoaocgg;

mJ. p.lD ccogiaJogflco cLoJcc5c graooccrild recnsJao'lo8crr'lfiDlo o]olo oo)c6lt3(Dcoemcni o<ogileororl5]

6nd. BC - 8oo ccDcssyoroi ercglo8recnsj coco'lerJo ooscrud ma"lo;o-r1-o-rcocroeoBgilalo oclroocaol aro'r;eun1

crrlcrn'lo3cm;. o-flcmld cocoo8mrcgocee5roroloofl <aro<o'r'l6roro'rla,cd oL'le,mtlqcgc<6 ercglo0recnuaolo arJs]

o'ro8 Lo-r"-rcoo m:1ao143. pcni c"rcrd5lolmi o;<o'roE ooccocrflco orooa>;gg ".OHc

cocoodecnsja,g;o ol

omin:om:cos@Jo guAolocileer;cm;. chest o6;cm .uororo'loi p.:, ccdua,giloS p"-lcoorc<nlao;cm 6loJ oJBo

L@nrr6ella,.acgtloE

rucdorflcn'looroE

ooccocD'lqoloa

oooceLlooro0-omiucrnl.d

pnDoaDcoJ ffucBAroJooaceni cocooErscosiaJopsco 6cmr1aoo8 eLcsflcrrlo8crncmceni o3o-jofl5

o<ocnY .,-Loqorcrnco.r'ls. 6rucooJorlm:aulo$ oLel e-.rcSflmJo ogJ cocoodrecnsia,g]o oolco)]olcao "l;dqrecnsjoroScDlcmJo poloo1o16'ro6)o)co6rDcni aoenEoo'lco.flo1eer;cm;. Proto-Romance o61oDcerd plc

"Jldc!recnuco.l;os cn-td,

6yxcooJoJ](r)dcrr'ldoocem<oofler]os 6rucnDecc{ua,<6 <om1er}gg "romi"rocoorcelgilomao}cfl{ oc

t(o)oH Ln-t<or]"lco'laolcmd. 6-Jo] ecdu 6JoJ LoJcoJd:ffDJecoro t-"ra,s16i1aer;cmrc<rE oo8col recnv ror1a,43o

o5o'r5m5roocao oogcoJ ffulecolo tole,slgileo;cmnrrlomeolol4lo oLlacoio3roroJcm]. <oco<ootr"l;m<0rrr'l

doocemo o:o'l.da5orrec.,ve,gilo8 ocL(Dco 1-"-rccoccnlaeicol] oOoD u)c(o6IDoo eS;ooolo8nrJ <oflo;toto'r1

€olc,1gl.oolcololco 6jol cLm)c(o)mro8mncrd',La,ocmlooocoo) oiresmo oJcar(T)()H ecogiaroa o3"-log

sScmroi. LaJocm](/)(Docool crEn<n<ofle,g]os <orgo.rldrecoojlo Lorrrc(ooJJooJeto oll(o)]ollotooa m.lorecns/co@

cruloccooue,<.rE (lsogloss) cn'ldoo'l4loacend rsroo oL'keeemoroflcri 6rco6rDoc6)Jrml. oJJrolJmirolorogofloE

o5c.tileoogsJoD portrroo cD;rolm(o"ko'r1e,gcro8 Ln-rcdrecngi Gneff)6)o recnua,gcccu'l co<d<oflolaoogs;

cm].

org oo o1 a, "-r;

m a cru5'rJ I nternal Reconstruction

6J(oJ ccosioo]os ogrd4drlgg 6-Jo] lojcoJa,ocooo'lo8 ocLro)ocerd' rmgooola,o-lJm:au5og'l goJ

ccotccjl{ LnicdrecngJcol;cn<dcrr'16mc6lDo ffuceD5oca,;cmoi. ccotuao;os G'i<o} LoJc<oJa, ecelo€l5<omr'loet

m;m"ulcn'lcoroeuncra, g.,lm)rcno6BuA "O(rrnol "-ro'lcoocu:19i

Gcosiaolos "-r;6ga,caoJolo aro5TI3oloJCmJ. ao] ecelng5<oroflo8 .r:o'lemco.roelocQo.fl, ccc{uao]os "erscnqo'168 olo}oD o.t5<oloocmeong;os coola,<rd

orootcconMlaoJ(mlooloDlo <org coora,gflo8 crllcm;o m)oreoLlg .r.to'lemcoooroaolol4]g.g "-t',l1roro

oLlerqo'l

o;torocoofiDrosoceni tmgcrotole,o.rSm<0crr1dmcem<oofloofl rsrds'lcruncmo. og)crDc@8 rorgooto'le,o.t3mdcrr16

mc6rDocrrJm)o12j mrm".rolemcooocgroco e,ene3.,-ilslaocoE mlccu5occoiglggl. og; uolemco6oBgJos

e,co5oro'r1oE pnc o"l<o'r1 cor6rnLtol ofleccn4il5il g.Lolocmocao]o o6TT3](o)(orororlerceni m;rcnoro'lemcoo ouoGol'leel]cmoi. ofleumr.rcno:]o 110]6)10,@

6r'DOlJo . pLola,C(oo AUoBOI'lAOlCm m.ltCnUO'l6rDCOo GCogiCo€l5(Doo.r'lO8 m-lmrtl cDloolaeuBgcool',l <orooccro

"sflao;cm;. rrjloSaocsoolol m.lmn'lcrilqoo6aBUa o;oEa,ceLoro'r;6rnoao m.:tcn.,lo'lemco5oBglos onetoco5ln

cm<dono. rsro<ocqo(il m;mr.r'lcn'loo.roeangiloEcriloDJo Gurmdo'lemcoeon<rE a,ene;"-flslaercoocmd<ooo. "gi;

cmcoS olelcdcgJo mtLcn.uo'lsmcoo o{}a,elogcroro)oi (Unique) oa,cend "-ro1":l6olgocoo "-r]cndcrrldmc

- Pektus

- Pettus

- Piept- Petto

- Peeop

29

5TDo ol el cklc 9J o roro cru c rrl)J oc aD'lol(')"l o3 cm}.

Potawatomi oocD ccog/oor'lo6 m)roeung]os (ru-occDo oloJaulaDloroocao orJosLoroJaoeoBsadoJo

(Prefix) ol@LoroJao6sB<rEaerSo (Suffix) <orocn;cruol{ occiloro;cm}. glc ccoruao;os 1,"-tcio3"-toccor Pre-

Potawatomi qo'loE cruro(runccneanud or5o'r5mi<oocoor o"lol'lcor'lerceni or1m5mn4i1o;cmoi. lorcmrcm;mrco1corcqoc6fi; (Rhythamic Principle) oJeJeflceJo mrroegBUa oilm5m:laeiodslolcmo;.

"gcmcoS pcni Potawatomi

co;;os e-fleri1o@JoJ6aBogc(DJo ereJogcoro<or'lcncod p.o rccnelco)cd ffuco5caJooloolao;cm oBJ ccoej6,cgcd <ocorooJoocJao)oi p.tc

"rola,o8gcneo;os cDct,t.lJ<o "-ro'lccoccr.l'laercor;cm<olceni.

<orgo;crr1e,o'ro'lEloa o-fla gocoooemeoBUA mroSe,l plc o"lro'r'l m)JorJa<ooceocod L<oo'laoco.

oaootcgtooloet Grooua "gcm crrldcqcola,ed'cruoccDoco) orBo <o'ro'19'lo8 onor "6cmcerd . tcrrrol

lcncoola,coLlrsaolgo-tro;co;o ca:dcaoerrg'l oro;cmtcod croolog oOoD ro;crlaceni oene; recosloor'ler;o. po)Jcolcoeloo)ocm oa,<ra oOoD olBolJo L@AD1dola,. oor

"OCmJ <oro1e1eL;o oa,<d "6cni oercorcaroloferJo GrO

6YncHc, "grmco8 LoJ<o'lLu)cornarcLol(DJaoo c"-togcmrc<rE o6TIEl ccoluegler]o 06,5)9 o{)cDl(0)ocmoocenig"-tcoorcrlleeicd'. <aocgcua aolncdtoooro,1to8 oL'lreao'r11"-ro'rJao;ooccrnJo ceroc6rolDcgc<lE oct<ooceni uA

oo(m o]olo cDogocaoocoOi e,Cem;cmcoj, orool'lmco8 "rOcoortrOrol(o8

oogco] Lor(o)Jaoor]o c"rocrnlgcroro)cgc<rE ocgtooceni ua

"OCm loJrorJo)o (r)cqocerlcmo<orcnY o<ogilco;cm3. g"-tc"-r"lmo'ro19'lo8 oJBcooJ

<otoll<o8 uE geneccor'lolcrn;oorcrDJo a,celLe,cocrD m.lrrn.,rolemcoloo;elo rorqo;crrle,rololploS onalY rarol"ro'r5

6IUocaoo)co6rDoD]o o<ogiloor}cm3. o61e,1el3o loJoJao;o c"-lo;cm.lcuE cn.,gocooi "Ocml e,o]toflco) <,rE <oq

o;cn1a,<oro1e1er3o L"-r<o5a,9iodslcm<o;oe,ceni oE o-floSaoceLord'recnsiao);os org<dgqoroel og3c<olc BUoc

aururqoroSo{'m.EogS}coJcao<oco6rn(m; orJ6<o ac6}cm}.<oo'lslro8 e,g

"gycm"l or5ooYmmean<rE o6a,"la,o1eerog5ilo1aei3cm3. "gelolo'noE

g,g "{Drm"l<o6113}

oJ

":o;oenae,lalo elc<o6mtoro1ro8 p arccoo ocl<oroceni odcro'laercmco;cmoi. <unrocoo.r<oi "-r;deggacco.r "6a,1

6ro6rDo CnSCmArr'lmCO8 reC.,9iC"€lSmqO)'lO8 a,eneS0ISlAerOItDd'O LoIG(u)J6)(0)A,<6 p'lD mttCnolO',lemCoo ffDs

.,g1aolcrn1ogcm6ooo. "-tgdepocoor "6a"la,oemo cDSoDco8 orqooro'14,"-r;mdcrrldmc6rDo G'ocucruJor;

ocer6'. o61cmcro8 <oroleloer ,-ilei BcnsjccreoeuBgiloS 9 &c(oo s a,cooccoflGrDocD ggoleoogs;cmrolcco'lo<o'rgi'loo.fleerogSlSlen;. (ro'rerorcor;<6). <aro<o'flmco8 gorcrurcDorooc@ Gr9ooole,"-r;mdcrrl<6oocomo oo; oJ

o'l ur'l o o o ooor e,1 o; o p o1o s m) c cuJ oc arl cml 6ni.

e c.'g c.'l o'lem c o o"l <oflo, ua

o"ld"erocoqoc(o] 6,cerq)golo8 recnuooiaer; cruoeol'ldoJ(m oc85BBogdololqlgg oorooceni euoo;a,ceL'la,recnuccocmigoo . Gcotuool;os oglgoLJo toJct.lccn mroLlcconslrol <oroo<orcolaoer;o crrluoraocooi

oleo;crrrlg "6;cmoceni. GrucooJ<oeJroo'iler;o orgoorole,rorerorofla;o recosi cDlooooo.to'lemcoeoBUAod ol'l

ccuqoocao'loeocenel@'l6o;cm;. rutcrrloo)elo,olJca,o5rDo)elo,ffum.ploreto "OCm"l

(610mDo(0)eJeongiler;o <oro

r6<onroreJo, @6r+J(Dero "Om1 dlxcooJ(o)eieoBgfla;o cruoeoilaolcm .,-to'lomcoooje'l recnsjdd o"rcrorJorcoot'l

cruoeC)l'166.)]Cm oSrofloorcmo eruoo;a,ceilorecogicrocmig<oo .,rocnojlc<occuocaoJCrDJ. co<o8gooorol orJ(o.)J

miro<oerecBglos crdoJLcnmmrorofler;os or5<or5miroe,ceraugorl6,gloE cn1erofla1o;oD ecolucm)recol6sB

og orolccocutlqcoS recosiorto8 cruocolqloa,cenE'lo1eo;cm .'rolemco6'cBogao;cn{ omcpglercaoccDc

oIJo.

L"-rc"-t"lmeL'lojl<oeBBgc6rd' recos/colol6mcoo:om<oofloS o61oo m)ooco)erocarJ6,. ejlo-no"roBBgil

Hcoto Ccosjeo]os aco5roo'r1O8 recosicoJ(o'l6rDcooroff)o GrocrDcraDJoccoioleo}o. GrO oroffo (o)cogHoaol

cm cD'l co.r oesB <rE roro mg m-l o1 c eo ene <o'r; en5.

1. 63GO rEcogjcceooro'loofl e,cercoooor5<olaorccneoBgc6ni ocooaJodsScorolarreali. oJ5<o5mi<o rsc

nsicceo5BBUA ocoooJods;<orolcod ro]crrleoocoS GnorJao.)(Doorcooiolao]o o-oero.

2. eLl"-r'la,o0 cuoffIJc@Gcogiao)]os ocn'lo;o-ro orga,emoocrnlflcoroltorloa,cen5 e.r1"-rla,gno8cnlmi g

4 C O 6rD Ol ojo 6n orr'l eerJ cm <O'rlO8 O O OJ ogj OJ o C cn O1 S3 cmJ.

s. eLlo-r'1<oo3"-rorofler;enecceo6ocorlcrD <oo4s1gi1<na,3aud LooeDlq] oL'lercolo;croro'reneroceni.

mrrrn'lo1a,o-ro'lemc oo (Phonemic change)mrtcriloeong;o Gnoraolos coro;orargJo rcros6orroortorcenY m.ltcrr'la'la,<orero. aoJ recnsrcoiloer oeneg

or5ro5mi<oa,ceraogorlargiloer mrcriloecBUa <ocorooJo oeJg;c(rucoE cn'lsorler]gg "ls mlcrrloeuBg;o

crdLoroJa,g/odqJcmoccQo)c , "r;rofloo.r m)rcD'loeBBcgc Grdorao]os GeJco]orecgc tor(,)JasioHsJffn(o)c

eeoc a,6TBco8 m.ltcrilolaore.roro'r'lo8 o-.to'lemcoo mroreoLl4soorcm<drono.

oo a)cool]o oo 6,c(o cruocru<Ecoo ov1 au5.,g16oodsl(m aoocLorc6Tn5uBglo oeroo;cgo,iiloofl aut

cn'lo'la,roer<oo>'lcered m:omYa,5<o m;rccr.l"lcnooetoccor'l a,scrDlorcrD<oceni.

30

cuJC a,o6m o) pllrl o'l6rDC oro (Grammatic change)orJcaro6TDoeJooffDoJoe,cerri o;"-iloaneroceni gcgcoleeiogs;cm<til. m)roLcrDo;"-i1oo6Bg3o , Gro

lcolroo3"ilaeangJo recnuooier;oenee,1er;o cogl-co1<oo3"-fl0l66Bglos cngoo-o'r1c(ococcn6cBgceni poflos

"rocordcnoL'lc'9i()oc€olonoi. raoorcol;os cro(,o - ro'lcoc<r.lcmeun<rE oJejollsTrlco,]oD ec(-{ucoro'lemcoron

og olct(o)Ga orJc&o6rDoro'lemcoo "oml oL'loe,sjldocoJggl. m.u<oLoolo;o.t'lo6uB9Jos orqoororlcococcD

ooBUA or91oolJ6TBce;cm recngic.,r<o'l6rncoooro olBcru6'ouQoolo'lemcoo (Lexical change) "gcmcord'

otlora.gi'l

eo;cm<d.

mrml'lorer.'-r o'lonc oo (Morpho phonemic change)m-lmr'lroero-ro'lemcoo oens; <oaoro1o8 mroreot'l6olcm]. Gqer5<orlo5rorlcorcmo (Shape change),

oJolc{I?Doo (alternation). o3o.flo<oro'r1oofl o;orrorllcn;oro}cm ocgooroaoceni <arqa,5<o'r1or5ro'rlcocmo oOcmrorl

oa,cene]cgcolael;cmoi. .'t1s1roro'r; ogoD o3o:o .-t1slq] "gcmccol occilaorroi pror'lcn;ocoooemoceni. o-t'lsl

oofiD m)lo1oolo]o.floo]o (o)l oOCm e](o)a,cer LoroJaoor]ocerd' corlocgaoo polos c"-togcm<oi.

mrmo'lcrilooroeungfleL;ensca,;cm "-rolemcoeuBgc5ny

(olojcrooo. ":omio:oen:mDa]gg oeni

"-rnooBgloacotdailol{ a,cerrflaeicorJcrD acffDc roo<o1ero'la,Goc Gno(o6onglerlgg oJJoJcm)6BBo6 roroorcoiao; mt

occDocao cecar:1e,gtro8 <or;sd4oorccoil roporrdroroflaer;cmgooe,loS <nocn'lomaoceni o;ucaoloo ogcrnJ oJ

oco;cmoi. m;md<oerroro'flo8 oLo;cm p,u o5ro'lcorccno La,co6'rD cn'lcoro"-rooilooicetad goordrororogs;a,

aorlo oraalY recosjooloS orSommc"-i(DaceJarc>;o orrglcm;. (Two related words differ in only one or twoelements which are easily singled out and that the same difference regularly repeated in a series of like pairs ).

oetoorcgorofloet go-tcl"lcnorJc6,o6IDl<ncnneoBgiloSooc6rD;oD orer m;mn'lcDlooroeuBg;o pcny Lol

odtotoflao;crrilg. etleLc<olete,oror'los ermeBBua@de,"-r"JeonuA .Lroocqoco8 o6rc@o rorgcocoocool oto;o.(etmcootc orolcolosi;o')

"Ocrn crr'lootoo oeroorcgroro'r'lro8 pcgc<6 Lotcod<oro>'le,og. crd<olcao)<oi a,o8+o-lsl

"O(md e,6"-rs1 o4cmca,;crrflg. a,o8gs] oo(mc6rnc6lcmd. oo-tco0+o,epgcs1 - oo-rcdaoepcs'l "Om,Ho".rceieereSgcsl / ootcoOa,epcsl ogcrnleoBomcorceni oeroorcA<oro'r'1o8 go.rcoo.rcrnlao;cmroi.

randronroso-lolemcoo (Semantic change)oJ66sBgJos rsrod<ooo oo]o(o)co] rec"ucoilet]o a,cetLa,eo6lD ocgroo'flm] ot'lcc.Dqoocao'loeercene'lo'l

6oJo. ecscoolororo'lo8 oj660Bglos Gnrdo)oeunuAed' mroreol'ldolcm olo'lemcoorooroo;card' <srodo'ro"lo'l6rDooo

"OCm] oLlgildolcmoy. locolalrsccrsiao'loeJ o)ooorD o6cm olororo'flom rorogoi o6)fiD oJBo crr'l.da,c

ffucDo oaJaoi<orroi pocooro6rDo. oooo.rcgooloSocm plc ocgo <olo1p1o8 mroreoL14i15ilg. <o'ro1v1o8 (DooolD

"gcmcoS "-tlrocollomccoc ot1<or5ro'r;er5ocaofl 6r5TD€oc€oJoDolcocao)c m:;"-flgileocmlgg 5TUooJocmcru;

aJa,ocao o.toocerd. ooocroo"lo'loocd oocmcoS o-t'lto5<oselJmcao oo.to'lqo)cd ogcm<6<ono. oetco)cg<oo1

eLcoeme,'lo8 <ooo.r ogcrn oJBo Gnff)coom)l4Ja,ocerd'. o-ilercgcofl re"lcrrlmlldorol;o (colco;eergilo8)

mlrrn"-lo'lemcoo (Phonetic change)acetcoo)orol(')'lo8 ao} mJcn<oo1oofl g4coem<o'iofleJJo rDJcrrlca;1elJo auorBol'16o1(m oSoflcorccn

oroooorceni crutcn.,lo'lemcoo oOCmJ "-rooor;cmroi.

mltcn.,ro'lemcoo oDoeoJ'lao;cm<oY mtcojcuccnoloietccor<ol]oa,cend o"ld"etocool acetoorgotlm;cconuoceni L<roall'laooro;aerroccor'koo1o;cmoi. ulcrilot5ror'looccno(Soound change) uollop1*rcno5rorlcorccno o4;crDlecnom p<oi oene;rooorol'ler;eni. 6JcelLa,eo6rD crulcD

om1oofl ggc(osrn(I)rcrr'l6,gilo8 cruoGoI6oJcm o5<olco.rccnororocorceni corcn',lo5rolcocmo o0)oDo)loe,c6TBJ

cqcolaoJcm<oi. <lrcrilor5rolooc{DGroocpo mtcorcoccnoml'lag cnll.amlcnol5roloocff)o fiuoGol'leoJcmoi.(Less gradual than sound change)

6lcc(oc mttm<oro'r1cn;o 6-Jcecoc orgo5roroflorolutlcor;o oL'l<oloemololcoloo;o gend. oetorcorloofl pocm:"lmrorool]o cgoc<ocoL1oofl crrl"d"la,slroraoJo p,l,

"-rolu,a,og ocflaseeicod a,coemoccoi<oro'r"lo3oD]. 6celcolounaoJos o5<orlooccDor;o ggco6rDcoeoo5oBg;os oloJocg66Bglo rrulcDoJolemcoorolcri cooarlJaogccoilotollo;cm;. cmlcn; LaroccnJcororocqo'l crurcaootoloc€'oJcrn rscou o;<o1r0aDolo;os ecotuaoJos rocrr'lger0gce,emoocrrag. <ooofl GnoJffuoco?Do5oBg;os o:o1c-ulcorloScrrlcmSoa,censceni coltro; ecosj oDtcaoorD

ocaeilooo;s;eer;rmali. <ooo3oa,oO oilcrnls;cmco)cos onoSgor5<oil@ccn6cBglos GDca,elJo LCoceDaoocootloo"lo; cmJ ogcD] oc(oro.

ooflc ctoc6r+i1a,o-to'lm>oeoBgletJo m-ucn"lo'lemcoo ouorBol'laerJcm]oore,1o8 rorooro'roo oDrcnoJ@'l

6TDcoooro rorarncgcolcoro "OCmJ

oilg!€olcm;. "jls LoJGoJaro rocerlrfla, "rolmtoeongfloSoc6ooceni olol6[Dcoo auoeolaoJ(moroe,'lo8 ora<or'locn orotcro'l<oo

"6cmcerd' or5orcloolceoenEnil. o-ro'lemcoo"lo'r1oo3os

ronslmroccnorof er;o m-lrcnoro'lemcocreoe6Bg;G'fli'.

31

A

olenlmlcno - s<ol curff)o oerrsco, ojloloor;cm o"l<ofl

"6a,"la,oemo - oL'lrelcm mrtcnonua ocmca,gcm o"l<ofl

pro @6rE] o"kofe,g;o cr-rdcm crurcn.,-ro'lemcoor;o aDoeol'l€oco]6nd. eio; cur<no oenEcqo, "l'lro1

oom ro1cn; c co crvo ol"l ansSo Gl oD c eiloro"l o; cm C"-r ta,'laor qoc 6rrnd.rE C.'slo "l

(O'l6Tn C OC(IO <O;aO <rd

B C oY C m) o LA, A 6fD o, @lO B C O LoJ B C cn eAA Cd

oLSaro'loroo

or5a<orlacgc, ouol(3coo56Bcpc (ocL(-E6uBcgc mrmrdaeio orJerdororlcmorloofl .roerocoor'l crdoroJ

os recosragiloS rargaccng"-rocrnesBUa Gromorc oa,cs}eoo8 - orcdsBer]arsa msdocoJeni. ero] or5a<o1oor]

os Gcoru, oogco] ecogJccB6coc ecogr'Gaoc ouoouco'loo]Cm o5a<oloo.rSocan]gg mrm:deerooeLocoor',l oc

geBBUa66i oL'lctrlqooc6,co.cecg'lc6ocd mrn'lorocom)olcdo;oD ao3 ror5r4lr0eocooofl Gcolu La,co6rn ce,cslceercsoE oocoeL'l rur"la,o'143oor(D;oJ(oco. mr.r'le,oemroro'r'lo8 o5eo1<ncoocao og$eet;ogtersaoE mrc(l)c(oSrDoc6TDl(')c(r)]o. Lormrao)roro)1oer <ol5r43r0aocoo0 LeJGo5rD .r.r;depca'cwleeerc5;a'cocncco)'l ococccnc "lo'lo-rldw

(o)Jq;deelcocnccorl cD'leroa,cAqccff)c cruco5o)oor;eni. ooo.lqodco'l6,ocoo p.:D oerrim.lcco5tila,<rEaelgloo croaocglos Gcogj @6IrsJ GcotuceeoooBpJoscorJo a'ltco1<ooccoioo'lo3cm<ocenY mlccucoemocooi auocoldo;a,. rec.,9jc"lo'lemcororo'l'loofl Lolocff oJs',Jo m.loreotlaolcmd proorscnuergtoS

d*lgg 6,soo6rcgjDoE o;co-rmcoceni. poro'roo Grooccr, g"-roccneongiler;os orSe<ola,pJo olJorole,gluAodsJ(m cruo]ooor]o Bcosaao)]os o5ommco-rlor"erscnqoroS olo]Gro]cm ocg6sBogaocsn; ecoMccruoLa,o

6TDo og)OD CDoEg6rDOaCenedrOOOCAOSCmOi.

@rsoo@rcgonnoQ m'lolamrnarr8 (Conditions for borrowing)

o5<o5mi<orecosia,uA $uocruc(o'l6o3cm, A,B "Om"l oend mro;acqoonUa goenecrrilol€oo5. Grdor

m.lmtr0aororo'ilo8 cuo;cmrc<rE ocni oogccrrflo8cnloDlo rgcosic"-tooccor'l arsoorc6'6B6rDooe,1o8 "-t1a

cnlenr

mr.r cn e, <r0 o"l aM c eei eng (o] 6n5.

1. ocrolAo,aocao.r'l or<0<olo'r'l6o;Cm ol5eroflrecosroojlos (B) auorlcuoosiocao poloo.rc5ooooorcrd recnsJe,of crfl

uoraoocao]o omcpglaceolcor'lolaoemo. (The speaker (A) must understand the particular utterance in idiolect

(B) which contains the model .)

2. 6rso olc6"B]fiD rBcosJoe) ".rolordroro)1glleo]cm<oAcd

rec"sja,oi "-t1er

ml]<orcoJeraluJ5cBgsensccoiloleer

erno. ( The speaker must have some motive overt to convert for the borrowing )

{3CoUCODoldrO6IDo.

oLaoiloLao (Prestige motive)r3cotu ffDoGucoleei;cmoto}os

"-tootlcao)ao]o ouoccDooroaorlo <oroslmlocrnocaei'l recnua,<raeer]o

"-teorl e,oEgiloolcmJ. Cenr1S1"d mlcgoce5<oror1oofl roo<l"lcororlooJeJo po$loti oJoodo Grdoul"l6o'l6oogs;6,aolo poglos4o8crr'lcni ooccoaro oJB56BUE oaoolcAoroflcerad m)olar0l'l6o]a,aoJo o"-roo)<orail' gBcoo(o

6'IDo. GrOoJcut'lcD'lcocoo aa,sl'lcemao5oErecoua,gilo8 genecaer'1oor m.lomia5o'rm-ltcttt"lcnolo pr3cooooDo(DOoD.

or5<o5mi<orscoru rDofiucolaer;cmord 6'Jco LoJco@roroi orru'lao3a,oocoeme,1<08 rorouie,coo ooo,ojuoo]gqoj(o]os Gcoej (Upper or dominated language) rsolaoogs}crDolo]os ecoMoo) Le,coem a,"lps66rlo. rorocDle,colagsos rec"s/ao'lo8crncmlo eo'l€oods]oDorosos rec"uco.flcereerceni (Upper language to

I owe r I a n g u a g e ) rs c ov c m;o 16r o6yD o m s eo; cm oi.ode6gmloo8oro (colour concept) rmglcoeor:<.rE,rmoco;,rdocrneuno0

"6;cm"l oout'la,co'l6,gJos an?

oJrruna,og rsolaoogsSoDorolos cnoe6ruc<t)o roamDocqoil mrle,olao;fiDroJc.t-rcoeJ ecosioaoc>;o mr"la,

olael;a,oocer6'. Gro66Bom rEc"sj Groura,co"-r'lomoocmcrilerqcD'lo8 gcmoleongloAcrncni <orocuocoraomrgilcer

ed' rur"la,o'ldoogSJCml. rororor;ovl rorocrl'la,co16,gJos crucoanJaoco'le,corcnrn o1a,googe,1o8aer;s'l reol

ao; cm or d g uE o aer c e q c od crrl d eu mo'l ror oc 6,J (m].

@t,otuoJ6,@ (Need Filling motive)ogorcn5ocer6' ecorucruol&oemorol'lo8 m:.rcco"lcno orJeJ]ortrlJcm oogcroJ o€rs&o.

"-r3<orloor ormi

arl;docgc Grouoao6oBegc o"l<or1a,cgc mrla,olcaoendoLoscmrcua Gnoroc) cru;o-tlgileolaD oJ65uBpJo

m,lr"la,o'lcaoeneloro;cmoi p<oflm;ocoooemoceni. ae.rco;cglesi onoro'la-r'l<ooccor'lo;cm rsrdoJCru-o6,ua c6,ogoro'iloeroroloorcgco8 Grdtollcd

"-r;ro'r1oo o-roo cn1<0oo'lao;cm<oflm;oJoicoo cn'laoL'ler;gg oJoototor mrr"le,ol

4ail gac.'oo6TDocooosJdoco. enc: crul1g], coc6o$, co.rcc6{........ ol(Dercaoor arsooarctstsJon oJ6o

32

mr1 a, o1 eei; cm o"l <o1 e, gil a] o oJ roJ cn5 o o'r cor; end.

m)lo)Loo)C(,)CDr06nJo

oogco) recosiao'lo8crilrni qoco(o)co] (o]orcB6or]o oro]orocoo) m:r"lao'l6olcm ooergocernloi.

p6c: eoodeQorc, oseiloil.,sJoA

rorg o ro c d an "L

a'l otS aot'lolBo guao€'ocggJffD crguoaooorooclo)o mr"la,ol{ arl5uBglos recngjooyad cncnloloroccor o;cil

oo) ot a au5.E1 cD S6lol oD o"l<o'rloorcerriloi.

Train - ro"lorarel

Rad io <ag a,ccro orcern'l

handsome- GD5rDe6roA - ( oold)fWgOA"LA'lreCov.

mr"le,olcao6rn oc<o5er m.lomiorn-roocoeme,1o8 eon<or1cn; rotJerJocao o'lordoro'rcnoJodoBplo Grdo

ut"l a, o1 aer o g s c o; eni. p o'r1o m org o <o o: ols c os/ oO cm3 oJ o aol oDJ.

goc : Black leg - a,o1e,cet1

White man - oogoaocoo8apoaalgoo

m)roLcoco<o'rcoer11<oro'r1on0-lo (6rg<narr"lolecdu()los(D]o m)m'lLroo;.'roceni <argr.oora16oo. p<ofccngo;o rng pocooo5rDo - mt'lcnlocclocer

"6)cm "looceni. poglo*ila;gp mr"lcrrlo og)oD olBo o;ol

c{3Bo a,JSCO<O mrr"lA,O'laeiSCOC<6 rOlccOrgd o€Xm or6O(oYD "-ro'lrecnsio"rqoid

(/ocs oocmcao}on]. ffDo

te,o6Trrcruol@corci a,sooe,cg.g3crD ecogJcoco5aroqo a'laoorcoJo curolDo Bcouao;os "eiscncot'lcuonsidol3g;occofl oorco;oroodslololcm o"loflooioS mlcoo"la,oemL<noeun<6 msororco;eni. food, college, lorry

"6ycrnlorcor;os p+lco6rDo {rrco p<rd aercorcArooloS oo-rg;cmoleorcoeraog. cooloo;coo.r egc@6rDo CIogco;

o"l<o'flqo'leJcoemrm6<oroo. m)oLAo6T'o 1-o:ga,loorcor;os "r3d<otofaoemoro'flcn;c(ooruo flDo[6roemo.t'lccuoo.roc

ao) {3co9ico}"roan<rE recosiacD',loel mro'loc"-r<o'l.do1<oeangc@ fiDrecoJojlcconsi56Bg;occoi o"-Lcosrololorofl

o s o'ofl e c oru c c uo or o <oro'r1oofl re c r.tl oc ao'l(oo"l og cm;.

aaSaotS"gl (Analogy)

m;rcncD'lq0)o6sBog a,"lvseo;ocoE aua5cnnu5c,gleel; a,e1o;eni. "ils olo5uBglos aucoltoJo o$]nilet .uaarncdaer;eneceeigcm mloL'lccronsro]n-r1-n-.rcirolaoceni mreScncru5rEl no(ml ntooor;cmroi. mJJ(nol

avoror'lm;coa]gg re;o1o-rasaooloofl m:rcculmocen) aue5cnau5.,g1co.flo8 cnseogcm<oi. recnsiaoloer trud

qm)coco6rDocoor "-r'ls LoJeoDc(,)5gBog cncD]eol{ -ilo ojloggclrcoorc<neBBUaad oJorGGBo orololoJcm

LorLalooroorcern'l<oi. "1ol"-fl<o)ocao o]olo toJ{DJoro o.too ogcrrr'loraoJos oc<i'r5a,coio8

"-t;<o1co.ro crusrlt]laol

ocod ocnqplom cl"ro1gi'laei;a,coceni aua5ooau5.,ry1ao;os Lororsoro'fl. poi recnsiqo'lo8 "i3ooo0o;"ieoBg;os au5.,gled a,c(06'rDoc&JaDJ. oejaocg<orofoS no] oo(m ffuoo{cceBa,<orol'lo8 crr'lmi orgoS""rcnlgilaoc

or;cm m5go"le.t'lo<n - or3 glocn roar-l'l<oeon<r0 lcoar:1eer3a,.

ao;+rorood -ao;oo06-Jol+<ooua-ao;ood

miL<o1elo<no',o)1d <o,ofl o6ocmc@] LoJoJeoo a,lslao]gg<or]oa,ceni aosorofooo.rooDco] oloJo

auoeoJoc6fli. olJHlo(/)Lolro5corocoofl oro'ro0 pgcroro)(o)]oacani ao;roroloa oOoD (o]olo mcnDJDH. o0)

cmc<oi oetcotcA<oo1o8 oo;ororod oOCm o]oro m;<0qmrc<ocoemoceni occD]o. p<oi ao;roro)laoJoceolgg

mto5coe,e)ucn o;aoacni "jloofeer;cmorceni cuJdtoo. "ieqoacerod aur:5ooau5.,E1ooor o'lLn5cmtce5t,oJo

(false analogy) o6cmceni o.flgt4i1olcmoi. recnuoor;os Groolel@"etgroor1o8 1"-tc"-t"lmo3"-t66Bg;os o€lsff)

cor]o oror0oooJ]o CIcDcu'lelc€oco(d) eoJcar](rD(o)]oa,ceni olLo5cmrca5croJo Qsoers]ao]Cm]oolcmcerd'.,rl]Docerrr'la,d oL'1cotm14[olcmd. "gcmcoE orgcr-l;crila,rscnsic<,ocar5L<o.leelol<6 proroo1aolaolcrDlg. o-t;<ofloor

o;":eun<rd p6rBcaoJfiDd.lgg a,e1oi ccosiaolos aIuqo)ooroQDg og<dgoqoeoc6n; au3"-r1g[leo]oDoo)

cmceni <o9 co;crilo,o;os <ororslg.rlccoro.

crue5cnru5.,g1coflro8 orgor<oJocao aucBtr(oJo tsotEcrrocmioJBGoc, o]"lcmi"-tococ AreoocmioJBcoc

GDA,Co, olBo€lsff), olcorJoelscD <or;soanlooro ocgeBBuadd oilcc.Doooce,J(mJ. ocarJ"elsmooio8 <ruorBol'l

6o](m oio'lemcoesB<rE ot5ca,oem<orofler]o Co-L<or1.oeilgi16o]cmJ. mlrnolo'lemcoollo m:tcrflo'1e,"-lo'lomco

ollo aDBA@m;5.,g1o2ao Lolceo5'rD m.roreorlao]crrrlg. or5<or5miro o"ko'lqorelJgq cruBs@a,oE"Jma,ua co

oroHsJ(oro.)oCSlSlend.

JJ

apt (Dc@)old mcnrDo ( Back Formation )Peas, Cherries,cheese

"{DCm"l nioe6B0a

"6aor"rm<oro'r'lel}o 6rUorrJololm<oo1el;o oojco);olccoi g

.lrcoorcrjlao;cmo.loolceni. "ge,1et;o croolcl;los rcroorm;ccn<oor'loet S eurroJol-oJrnLoJrot5eorocootl otogflaoo'l

{ <oaotcliad Pea-Cherry-chee "gcm"l o{Ja,ordff @;oie6BUa aoSgileer;cmJ. Pog"loulo}gg boy, idea <o;s

eanlcot o1 eeroco;o olB60t:tgloS 6runr,]oreJmoSo-to boys, ideas "ocmle6Bom)Qo)cocu<ol;oa,cerri

Cheese,Peas,Cherries ngcrnlocl)ari o;acuc<o'r;crildmcemocns<ao'l ootLocLe,oo Chee, Pea, Cherry "OCm"l

o3 "-r

eon <rE crrl<d mlao; a, coc eni o ".r

g)3 cm <oY.

bJ c cD c o) cD c al an c o ms aS rn a, ad "L

a ( R h yth em ica I I y co n d i ti o n e d )1.,lcm-lo"lesaaerm;ruo19] mta5croa,o8orcD oeJg]on o"l<oflqo)c6rD'l<oi. o;oE":oaroo oo3oloro0 / oo3

roor'l orcnro p<otlcd polocococ.'ooemoceni.

ran d an oLS col an a o ms a S a a, al "L

rn an'l e4 a s ( S e m a n t i c c h a n g e t h ro u g h a n a I o g y )poglouloa house, home n61cml oGTrsJ olo6cBudaei corLocLa,oo ol"ld, 6rlslo5Tuo ogcmcemdoroo.

o-t;oo;a,cdoe,ceni crildool<ooccor orls1m;gpJo8 rcomi"roJo cD'loeo;cmtcua raraoi a,;s;oeruoccor'loro'rlo]

cm;. "6cmco8 pcni po o6rBJ olB6BBgJo m)occDcdrom<oro'flo8 g"-tccorccdleoogslcm;.

"l;ror1co a,celcororl

ro8 house go home eo rolCIolellgg <o'rororldroroflcoor ccn<6<otollcolcaoo;oa,cslecarco ptola,coo <ruoGol'l

goi.n a"ldepga asrna,odarn ( Conflict Analogy)

@6TB;oJB6BBoE a,;s1c4dcni "-r;<orlocu

11160 g6reco,;cm o"l<o'rloorcerrflail. o6YBJoJB6BBglos Goouo6oB

oE romleL;gg qltcoemo (blending) <ogeni poL'los cnsao;cmcil.

goc : Dont Shout so loud

Dont yell so loud

poLlos Shout + yell = shell

"gcm olgotoro p6TBcaofl mtaaceL<ooi

Dont shell so loud o6cni go-rccorc<rilaoco;end.

9 aJ m, A aJ @ A C @ OD BJ @ A, Ad oL tn

m;toscngco8 "-ilool;soogslor@Jcm "jler o5otiecneunuA o-fletcgc<d crilaoLlet;gg pgco6Yn

roro.no8 crilcm;o ot5o5mio'rocco o"lo','laoro8 ggoleerods;m)<olcoor'l a,cemco. cordLole,coo ggro16oogsl

cmro;oa,carri Gnolao;os rmod<olorolo'r'lo8 o5ro'ilccucff)o crJoeol'laer;cm3o1g. roro<ocqoc# oco m-ltcnloorcl'l

o erfl g or m.x m o acm cn'l e"l ool el c eni p,lD m) B5 uo a o8 "-:

m oo,)3 ene c e,3 cm oi.

ol]ooe) o@ffD oJBo <oo'lg'lo8 olJoooo oo(mcsmlgo'leercd. oJ]ooor) o6cm oJ"-l<olofcd o;ooa,

"gcmrolo8crilcni o5or5mi<o ocqo'l oogcdoroo too1v1o8 p g.

n6cmcoS og; o-ilo recnua,giloS - oercorcarorofoS d, "-ti ngcrrrlo o5<or5mi<omrcnlooangceni. Grdol olJ

(DJ ao)o] Pg c mco.da, gcoemcmd rooo.

ameuoccr.r;Looloocaolo o€lsmcoJ(oocaoJo cuo5uoa,o8"lcn ouocol'l6o;Cm;end. oa<orcoLloofl tn-t

c<oJa,roc>cerri m;o5cromt5.Sd arco6rDacqo ocne6ocmiLooels&,o. ccogi goJcaoc<rllael;cmoo;cgld GtO

ecogicfiutco"lcno e,;oocoeme,'loE rmoccucud rue5cnau5r,glooorootconY rorggcooot'laolcmd. o€lsff)oeo ffOtrlc

o ocaol mo5 co ru5.,g1ocor oScmc cot'l <ol1olao3cm;.

qat m) c BJ @Jo ( Forma I Ana logY)

oo; olooro'floofl o;".ro ole'lcmul6mroo1o8 oors oogco; "-reroroioorfl

roloJoolo mllcttl'lcrr1aer;cm;.

oooocAooloel rnarcocorD olecsBglos cruo5rxcruia,coL'lrearo'l o;olo oo6)fiD;o og;ggotco;Jos gos oO)

cm;oceni. .,6cmco8 cna,cocooroor'loefl auco5coJooeceni gos "61cmo'r'1cn;

oJ&oo oogonJo go-lccolcafl

aocoSeni. oc5uBao)Jos "6cmor'1cn;"-r&(0o

oc6-6Bon3 ngcmloccolcdlaerScmoi goc.rooemo.

a c d ao'l a, mt c BJ uoJ o ( logica I An a logy)

ao; "tororoioof, o3"-ro oro<oiloofl o)offD oogcolololoorcDcaoc cnoGto) cnemroro'r'lo8og5 oogcoJ ol

arooloop o]oloorocao)c m)lco"lcrflaolcm]. m:omie,5ror<oror'loa elud'o{)cm uo6,c@cmD uo6rlj" Loltoo o{Je,

otr-rcnroo.r'lro8 o1d orga,;cm;. og3 oLlrsa<o1a,gi1oagco rdudcq6d. <o5an"loo.r ot'lot"lmoro1o8 n1rdrs5co "6;

rmlo olcrDlolao]Cml. 6ruoo]old(r)(oo,'lo8 rr0dc1 : oOCm oJoJo]srBcao)oY 1"-lLoocoflrsaolcorsos <rucBluoJo

Oa,CerrgCeni.

aq aS"L c a'la, rrw BJ {mJo ( Propotion al An alogy)

Grocn]otc(o)csruco)ol]o, me5<oau5.,g1eei a,coemoca,Scm;eni. ao;orooa eio]<oro'r1oolce,3cm<oi p1"-r

O,COOCerd.

34

tttrm'laro'l6rnc0o (Sound change)mltcnoro'lemcoo(u)ocDG)ceni cr:tcrr1"-to'lemcoo oooD(o)]o6,ceni oLloleMaer]cmrd. ecosjcoJo'l6mc

ocoo<o;eeigiloE m:;L"jclcff)ocao acmcerriloY. t"-toorcoicnerc"eror<oorlcn;ts9 olc$D(DcolcenY crulcn.,lo'lemco

oltrt1oi &cocrDo. m.:tcncrlo'lemcoooro 0o6rg5uBglos "-r;93"-.rcd,

6rceto, GBUoo "6crrr1o crr'loolCaofaolml. p

oJ m)rJ5@m)5.{'lCr lCAC eCogr'CffUoL&OemrOl('flCeto mrCCU'lCno OreL;<OrO'r;Crn1S. Olgooao)<r)',la,o m.llcneon

uA Grdollco<no'rooio8 94olcaoeneloo;cm<oceni mrmoto'lor0orormroo'lcnl 6,co6TDoca;cmroi. <cta6cBocn

oto3cmtcuE L"-toor<dmmt.oe,o5c6<ooo ao; rrDrm)o o<olcssloro mrcncroorcd oolc@J@Ioogsloto'r1 pgol€oc(nlgg LoJol6TDo t_"-ro<6uo1gi1ao;cm3. roroo.ro0 - Acoa, poilos -oios. "ocmco8 ffuoGcolu6lDroro'rloel

m)lmcejcoleon<ra Bcogico-to'lemcoo'ro'lcn; pro)a,co1H. accoc Bcdu€o]o occ(oc culcgo<om1cn]o LolGoJ

a, mtrmcrflqooeuBg;6ni. onm;cncmile,c<o'r'llolmtoo, (0)celolJccB(oo "OCm1

crrloooeanua oelcorcgorrrlel]

gg(o)]Golcopl ogl recosior68 aol Lorc(')jor 6rcero€r5oro'n(o8 61(0l LolGOJe, o-t;93"-tcs1<08 oo3 Lolc((')Jer

croen;<oro'r1oi crucoco6rDocoo, mloreol'loolcm io-rc<o5a,oL16rcoo6to ffO ccosj@]os mttcncn'lco;ooccor'l a,em

66)C@OCo.

ooCmCrOS "OSC reCoSje,UAAOJo OoJCo)IolCqO ,-ileJ m)mcrilqooeBBUa g6nd. rEc"sjccrutcDssBuads;

e,celoarp'lo)Jcoo)co]o GGBo GDoGol'leel;cmroi crucoc(o6Tnoceni. occoc e,celo€l560[}9!ro8 ao; recnsJoroE

penacoor'l5;gg eilerrloeoBUa <oro"-rion14co8 p.o ormio;<o olJoolocarJo. arcelL@,eoem roroein-tcel"loc

aol6reccol ocgean<6 "l;deggoccoflorollo;cmg. ":3rd<lgecoilnDrgcnsao)'loel (oooel,oooel ogcrrfl6sBom oo0)

e,coccrooccor'lo;Cm uo6rlJ5BBcd rargu:lcrrla,oacorcgroro'r1o8 <aroa,cocooreangcooioroll<dcrrrlolao;rDJ.<olel,oel

poglcrd rec.,ucoia;o p<oflmsocoooemeoBg;6rri. Thou Shalt be the King "gcm cnudmiu"lo'lcorod olcel&o

<orgco;cn1a, pog"louletcosme,'lo8 You shall be the king o6lcmccoioro'r"lo3o. porocoo acgeunoS loorao1q;

cmceer'loorcoS rorootqo'lo8 -ajla ga,oor;o crrlcoroo;o LoJo6<on'laer;cmrocooi omqiletcaoco. poJoao;6oJo1

4J gg oJomoceni m::cncrilooroeonuA.

re.llofle,roccrdL<orcn'looromnogegcoeJ mlrm"lo'lod<ororcncnlooroesBoa a,celcof od<otol'lc>H. ecosJ

coflo8 oo; a,celorD;tsts mlcncD'lqo)oo6Bc,a ecculao'ler;6rnc6](m mttm.tlolordon'rcn<oro'flcd aeLccDa,ocqor@'l

do6rDo "OCrrnH.m.llcncD'laooost3<rEad o.rololo'r1cor;o geni. Jls mltrocDlqoo6sBu0 ,-ilel recosla,gl<08 ocLarlcol L"-lold

roo1eo;. roo'ls1<08 .,lacoo'r<oofl<08 ooSrm oo{') &c(oo (oooer) oeloocg<oo1o8 <oroe,coocao}o (oel) a,cm

sorol<08 o€) a,coocao;o (ooa) crfleroa,ca9;cm;. ojlo cD'lcorosoBUA o-t'let L"-tc<oJoi arcelns56uB9lo8

mtcdo'roa,ocqol Lolold6rol6ola,co)]o n-rlcmld o;<0eruerococl o1<olqo'lo8 Lo.to<0<oro'r'leoJo,co;o oeJgJcm].

Loco'lor.leil"-t'le,sa ocLoo p"-tcoorco'14i1oloD cugooecerrod , oetco.rcgoroflo8 m-lomia,5<orecnuooio8cn'lcnY

6,s o os; oro oo er11 am o0 ad ot g o o oot u:1a,o m)J cn olJ ro)J c cu o o crrrl o; cm;.

QBC: GelCAro -9el6,oo;ur1oo - grorloo

fod(Do - GroCoA(Do

"grmcoE mtomia,5<omlcoooBuA recnsjaolceJa6; orscrn;orcrncro)cos @6rlJ6BBog tororuaecBgcao,

mr"la, o1aer; a, c>]o tin? c o) c o s m;t m "l

o'l ot 6 oIcD CDo a; 6 oet el oc a,] a, o;J o o "l

co) ol;.

"6cmco8 rcc.,gioroet "OSc mlmotolotd<ororocrrlooromng;o cDlqoooJ'lcoaoolcoslDoDJo GrO cDlao)

oeon<,r0aer.,-totceologcm;o ocru6oaco6, ocdcrorc.,-d o3<oroccoro<0 a,o;oflooio;cm]. <,oerll"lolemcororol'lcrY

cDlcoroecBUa e,o8"-r1eer;cmrololocm cooloorg "OCml

ero3<ollcm recns/ccoccnilroeeeroloEocolo psni. "g)ffoc

aoceJJo .,lomi.,loeumr-lcriltaeSgccuroloflm;o rgcnsccola,cmro-tolgrooo-l(r)do]o mllcncnlcoroeanua Grocrl6loolco1

ceslene ci' GrotolJo olroJ ocem'.

re'lcma,cet"s55uBg1o8 mroccnolo'koecruolonorellgg oflclcmmlcneanuaad arc6IDlffn La,olacq)

.,lomiotoououolJo 6'Jcro ecosico,;s3oeu<oro'floeJ uocolcecoua,giloS o{Jara,celeoltrtc oLlre'lcma,ce.reungt

cetc 6c5rDJ(rD CrulcD6UmDOlJo <O'ro6'ni m)rcncrr'lqoo66Bgcoofl aameelcdS)odslcnoi. recnsJa,uEad o"lcro.)]

otcoor'l a,cemlcrD oucoccDJm'ltcncn'loorae6nUa(General Phonetic tendencies) orcovmoEa,Scm;.

go-rc cco c rn1@, ec oric roc mIl<o o (Appl ied Linguistics)

rec.,sic6ocm56roroo1oofl m)ccDJrotarog ogl coorere,pilcelaolo oL5c"jlgpaocoocrDl oJoDc(otcos

o"kor'1.,:ocno, m)o]oooJo(Do, o(D8(OCCniLrO.r:OCno "OCm"l

COOletaglceleet;a,Jsl arro<o'r',loefl m-lcu)5<ora,<rE

o5cn_r'143. olorlocoggflolgp rec.,sjc@cadLto)orocn(ocoroao) oo(oslot'leeetocmo (Stylistics) o0cmJ o-lo

ao;cm3. mtco;.,ola,ecorucolomo (Socio-linguistics), pcny "Ago;o<.u1a,o 1"-llcorooflelJtsts Gcoeic<ocmY

35

Lololocno"lolaoc6ny. m)o;oooro'loofl e<oi"rcmocqo'l ecogioc> a,c6rDloD oltor'loorcerrr.lcoi. ocmco.flc(Eo9/6m

olon(o8 (Psycho-Analysis) rEc.,scccocmil(u)o (-oJcaoc<n'leerog5crocos Gcduao]o omcRJo <omlel}gg ent

o\Do o,S(o)Jocoofl crildo"-flaeiced m:cufl4}. scarmi eJaocoE "gcm (-ltem.uloroE plD oJglcoroA oJgo(o oJ

ecmc5] co-rccor'15;an5. ocn;osiJCIrnq3lo ecoedaolo romlel;gg enLm.ooceni pojlos ol'lcoo"la,o'laerogs3cm

<ril. rorgcnooreuBog ecrrucolcqo'l cruce,<ocno rnsroo;a,ool;o oAold oflm-lce,orcno cnsololereo)Jo oelg;CrD

o(D6oBocDoootcni <o5"j<o'la,oocaor'l crrldot"-t'laer;cm;eneloilos. orgco;crrlca,cotoro"-t'lffo6,9ceo "-tl"moLleeroccn'looro (Semiotics), <oo.,-rcn'l6mc6rno( Deconstruction) "ocrrr1o

g.l9<6eeeo cruoBo'l€ol(md *WUolcoro0

"lo'la, ei"-rm a, gf oS cnlcmceni.

or5oflcoa,cona, o-r'l<ra@rercnculo (Contrastive Analysis) rsro6uaDol'koo,etmollo(Error Analysis)

ccoluc(l)JcolcDCooU)(od olgo(oco)Go LolG(o)cBCD&(OOCQO O"l<O'rlargoerrilol. (o6ITiJ ecoMcoelsa,5oB

<.rd <orco<oo5oooiqoyd mlcaJ6uBg;o ooolBc<o6ecBg;o oocrreolo]ffD o"ltoloocerd' ol5roflcroa,cooe,ol'lcroa,

elcDo.Gro5rUADO'lcroaetmroro)letcolos BcogicLorcaocu)ol(')loS cruoeoildolcm o(o)g]a,gilcelad' a,scDJo4J

cni <oooooor .,-ro'looo'laeicmlgg oc<6<nocmtnsi'lao;a,cocard'o"-rg;cmalY. pno o1<o1 mcell o€lS5cBgilet;os

oorceni "oag"-rcJ<o1

ooaoto'laolcmd.( r ) "6

v3 oro'r1 o; o-r onnl c o c e c osi 6TD (o3 "l

roro'flc elc P gg olc a'rJ anr uA e <lo il o1aer; 4,

(z) oorgccor orce,5euBUa cootodsloroleJ( s ) occoc oca,5<orol1o eleolo o<o$ a,oens otol]e,.

(a) mo eoJLolB ocao oLlrsc<noon gcoofl o<o g;ao g cold <oflo1aei;e,

c'ets (rrc oDe ec.sic (,oomit(u)o

emlcu mieerSu0 ac".o eJlooflcSr;1d'cni

eecD"lo miaerlgloo} Lo.tcuccol crg<l1cn1e, recnsccuoccnitroromr'loo! .,jl<occuccor'l to'ocrlcoo6s1cm m.rilmi

ecosic crocm)L<o'reerooE o.,-odnr:1m.rq'c,D1rum.rtr1t6 cOerd. one6"oomrloa! mlooto.rrur0otolao;o rulr:5cdoro1

6o9)0 cotdcmrocord eem"lcu miaergu0. Albert Sechehaye, Albert Riedinger, Serge Karcevski, Charles

B ally "gcrrAcuocerd pcuoloE 1.,:a1eud

eelculcudqeunglos grirecuororogs o.rcodmi cr,ucrOoilm;o m-ro1.,oronn1oe.r cudr4cuSorlcolcmooletu:1

.do'l<o'rocco.r mtmtrd.ssmoeoHs ocddml;o ocnl.etromcp$ocr0 ggEo ooocruJ5gBoeggrl ct"occoiru;o

poloJ(oco mggcerrelml m.,mccntg edroccneonDeorcu8 dl5lo .'iloeletccoflo3cmlg mljlmi racnsrcsoccrULo)

e51ocDcqg) oonraollmcae" ru, m-rm-r51d GccsJcoe.IscDocolg$ moEalco <oncrlcu;o. crucru5lcnoQ osscDc

cuceo pro]oJroco mlgc6reloofl c'aoor5ecoe,eonglo8 .,.rl.deoe.roc6oog5 orgullcrrleecoroffoaolos ronsl

cruoccD 1.,:ocemoccot'l cugolcmlseorocgo a,>cml9rotlocaotlo;cm;. oeJscDccucoorolm;ccloovo rruoGcr-fl!

.OHC mrC.DcAOeogCrOeOlo oeJscrrcoJCoccDfiooo o6cm colol erre14ailOOfl &co5'IDo(Oocm GO cuor:orolOa$

LotocsrDJooro o.t'l gilc gc<o)1cm]6nd.

oeJScD .,gcm m.lm,.,eiolcDo B"lcucrocmiC<orunrrloE mlrmcerri o.roderur0$ mio.loEm-lr0 o;"-logslomrl

oco.rsgonrrd. 18-co mlScoreloa elculgilolcm ru"lcaoc oelsmoaoggl .,.loco6oo1eo1cm;erd. s"lad -[lao,)co"sl

uo'1o01 recnuoargfl orocordcolaolcruc<r8 osscDocolggil tcorar.lcellcucen5. "ssmccucr:romlco; oloE"j tolsruel

occoiolcm ,orggoola recnslccocmiLrolollo roleJcDcooe rec.sicoJeDrol(Dlo 63o .r.to'luroJoo cocmiL<olcoloccol'l

o1cm1g. cudomoccnacetrec.,saqoy6d loJctDccrrJo moEa'loeoceneccoio;crrrlg cIO oJralror'lau0 ofla,mt1glcU

cmoi. cu6onnocc96celec.,vcoiaer;o .,6aace-.tla,olomonrrlm;o loJctDccDJo moEa'loaocend ascmlcucm o€.ls

cDccuc6 o G c o9/CoJOCD G oeU elcoiad ollorom] smdq mOE 41.

oo; m.lcmiaerco'laL.,.t<o'r'lreccruo Groro'loofl m.rccncoo molaol "le<0cm;ro'ro;cmai cm<or1oof, "as6,

esnu6 rooo'lslgp <oanol6et'lmerumle6nu0 oleeumcorcerd. recnsiaoloE m.ucrr'loeonglo o3clilo5c'Bplo rom1a}o,

m.rc,rcr1<or56o5<orlconoE p<oi]cu5oroenrml-reonua <om'lel1o, oraml"docm66BgloE La,'lcolco0oe6Bu0 tooola;o "elscDco666rucruo rrrletcn'loEeo;cmlerrd. 6rgoaoslontcoE onotoied 1"-lcor5a oadroroooccmlologe,lolo

Gncucolos oeJSCn ora<aroroeerucocD 69/o(oeolpcucaolcrnl. ocmoila- cnrcmiaocola olomeunog onsl

o;s1 ocgl oolg p,t9 cDl16:m .lrallrorloororcerd .,sscoccucrao (Structuralism) .$cm) cu'lclras4leolcmd.

O€JSfi)

ml"da5"dsoccoi cnltaepgcoieoccu;cm oerso6TBglos (o6aaeanglos) cuJoJffuocclSdcuaccor

ffuocqo)ceRcnoceni "ersm. p,:c cn1dqojmonrrloE oenel cum)o'r;orau0 gggseGBlQroleo;cm}.

r. ml "de,5

nds o ccol'l crrl <0 ep cotl aoc ru ) cm "eL s a eon uA

2 cuJorcruo

36

gGcooo6lDoriD'lcd ao; oml"v5ocrf, m1taeo1<oflocorggl o.ro5ccaca-ilae)co. e,eS, o1ed. acnil, cuccQi, lleni,o6ycrrrlmnom crrlnda,5"dsoccoi crrldepgcoiaocculcmcucolceni om3ou5oofl oe.rsoeunu0. p'o Gncu@olouno0

mloEjl<o oram;"-rc<olronrrloE e;slegdaoogs;cocscsri' omlos/JoloJo P5rBcalffnrd. "63o<oralello 6'iocu

co.rolo crr'lcrot'lo cnmioJcoororleroge,t6E, {oao-.roorcuongloerccni' mlcm.l"rr'loloogoloE, socucocuo on<l'le,

occo;oenee,loE ooflco colcroilo "ssmcoioE ocso cucrrr'lold.orrDlocucml cDco oloQ)]o. orgo;o-floa;gg

ooe cuJcufiuocoocrtoocalcmail ond oml"slloofl oeJSCDoao crrlocao'leo)cmolo6rc6rEcerd, cucoE om;

.,v5"osmcot'1oE m1.da5"dsoeJseofl, "6cmcoE cuccDoo€.JscDcoioE oocn'lcucoJocsrn)occD]o. L5n.I.OCCUIOOfl

m,r5"ds1cot'1oE mitotlac/46.o] cnsoroo oolgflaeroE ogercrnco] oets&o a,;s1 geneccoio]cmocucm]o, GD(o]

cruo(/)(6)'lcucrocoE aocmlcoJco)(6)loeceneceni onocorcrnlooro mgmcnolcoicacoiaer; ",.toloo"letamccot'l arnco.l

g o (o.) cm )o m g o:o1 ro o or5 5 eer ro coi oE .!o c o rE uo'l eerl cm oi lcoed 9p 51ene o g c

(mgmrnco cucelcrn] o'orcoE/mgilm BcD cuarcpc/mg1m olslocdoaerflco/ms ":olgileercoE)(6la5686)CD o€JSCDOQOffD m.lO,ei.r:mo m)rlc(BoJ e6Yuc(l)o(oroeolsl .rooc6001ao1cm ermccofl oJcolcm ocd"-.r

cotcem'lai'. ml1m1<loftooc@ GrdCDl.lcoorolel;ggorlom ocLoo m.l.t1e,olaerlcm m)JGCruo omloslJoofl

mlleccum.rcr-ilcco.,siroaoccr6. rorcoccu)6u0 roeung;os algrorolaa,ocg5 Grooeocmooro onr"rrl"daerolaol

cmd m),DcnoJecocosJ6rDo oec6reB, oc,ld rodoBElos mlsei.,:moroloeJ oelscD onm;m.lo1aoc6.Io@)

oocenecerd.ptlc eeJcdbonD)gE m)eg oml"srSdaer)o 6^JGo oerscDeoc6rD)geo(ocm) 6)c6rnco. "gcmcoE

oncu

olcaceocolonDolo cu5<o'r5mi<o olorolgporocend. golmilaEal5oolo emcoo)6. om;nu5orQ aepla,uEed

oncuaoioE cu5roSmi<o o1.,.reanu0 ocemcaE aelcorgocoflogole.rlo roncuql)c€'oceoccmlcnlo cul<or;m)crr o;.,.t

ocem;ggd. cqmo.o4cusaercd toqmoog cu;rorlola<ooccofl roascorcgo.Jsloolcm<olcoJcoel ml;adooil(J.odbplffro ocL(oco "-Iercgco8 o;o:oro']oofl cu;<ortrmiro<o m1<oepco,aol. "6cmcoE

o€JScD cDunccDl(o

eonu6ooc5rplroercm a5<o5occor1 crooJogslorocod aelco.r;o. oelsrDo)'le.ll99 Gncruoollel<orccumroa,og

o1gcorloaceerlolceni mr6-olqoeJlcg$d jlt<oecocorcolo mtc.,rrtot5acocacolo orJcnauA msoro'laorrii.

ecogioao "sscncolccol'l &c6rDcoo(m;gp otdoomo ecoiuccrocmilrooorloofl €lculo oJ(oot JCDccD

ocao o)ccmgocooiolcm). ccosioao) cocmit<ol"lcooccor'l on.rrloLoleocoocmlo pgar'lo1 .lo'laocoocmlooflco

cucmcgcua ,ecoilc"etsaeunoggglcolo oetscDaog ..rg1cor1o oiUlo'ormeonglorreccofl. G'rOUoeo oilmlcoro

ronnloof, €!ot;o oo-tcr'lco.l ooere,oc(o clJc6JoonD cucoJoS6Bgcaolo. oJ{35'6Bpca0}o, oloiloeungccollo,

m-r.rcoloeangccolo cDslaoslaoccoi pvlriloleocoocni "erscncoJcoo aoeneroro'l. ecos.oaocmco0 nua"lr0e[g

oceo) cuJcumlo1oormaocs)5'rDcrd .,etscnco.rcr:o mr'lra.lccrofld]. m)Jm6'6BuE e,;slcgdcm)6rcce,lcm old(oelo'

OgoilAeonUa eo:dcm;enec6]cm oJB(oeJo, oJB66BUE clracm;enecelffD cuceJroeJo

ogcmleonom cns]aoslooceorlgp oerrelerurao rolel6'6Bglos cruceeJJoceni m)e,"l66!B cuJcutrun

g6r6c6olrn<ril. crucru53cioofl "osmccucn mte,eioJcDo Grdcrnlo.roo cn'looilelo;cm Gcos/aolos Uo'lcoceJl6ul

661ooro6nDocm oogfloo1g1. Lc.ucofloS mlrugd msoror'lco.r ofl6cuaoacco) gcrooo aene1.'ilsloroe6Bgcsrd

orgolcnla, recnslccocmilol<orirrloof, .'il<olcoi o6cm GaolocDcoo (6nc€"oru'mr1cd o:cr6onrr'loaercs;onnd'

oers cDccllce romf oofl ["..rmla<orl

u.*.ror*il161oJlo proococmiLro6c'Bglo <om1oE cns'lmroccnoloocco ctlJ@Jcm)o Pend. po'ro

uoccnjl(o)5B.Bglos oJomo-il.,saooto .,61onolcni moled a1oau-rcoem peneccollo1aolo. ccogiccrocmit<or<oorloE

.rJocn oilnsicoo €)ofiocm)gBrol'lomaololg1gg a5roJoccol tuco6rn mo;ao1g. ec.s/ o0cmroloa,cend mcoo

no:ceni gcquo'leerlcmail .,61cm1c.,-.tcello mo)66i cruocro(Dotc5rd. ac$":gcslm1 olo0oj cumi<o'r1 pflcolo

Grdolou-o. "63<o;.aci4gcs1et1os cmcaerlqoceJlo ecosJ "6cm 1"-r<ollrecm.romlcri .,.rom)"1o"J1coeollo oJo

mi"Jo ctuol(o)ot)ocao (06r.13) cucro56B<r0 p Oenecm) ec6rDcoJ]cmocerd.

ocrri c6orueJ coenioorirr'lcri oomi<o'lol.lo1g. .,OcmcoE ondoloculoccor'l erum.uoflS)6-IDlccrucu0 soco"l

o1 a cu1 o o c cn mr1 e cu) o c eo o c cn56B u0 <oo <ot1 m; ene c a,l cm )

oend OOCUqOaofla (oeleronDcosccSo crucolcrole olteJculo reo"uCl)AOlend

olcrd olnrslcolccoflolao;cmLco0(dnDoffn o:o'lemcooilccDaoo aSslootcerrr'lai

mcej ggcodm GrooJqocu56gog 6r6toocol16olcm ccos/ etuoc(oco-ilcri tuocueml.uror"lorl ocLroacerd

p,9 ojlolra1; <ore..reungiloE.,6rorlom to11cn"rr1g;oe,cend ecogr'oar) mlo"l.,ilaoemoocmai cueloorco;

1.,1c.,ogilacocor1 oncucco.,*fleo;cm<o;oe,cend Gtra(ontoo oicnteo'BgAad Pso cDoEectdro oeJs(Dc(oelooRt)

org1cocor141o6cc6,rc rccosjoeo "Jocnoil.,si(oocaocru] "61crd'. m)ru5)d ml'lraoce,o1o5)l(rDl.

37

oelscDcoD& oJom(6lo']ofi0 oilordcoa<a pcmcofleerlcm aoo<o'ldcucoo ecos omlosaJoop oomm.rrEt4ila,

mirao'lcorcoemcmocenY. or6de.e1tol ccos/coJJoJmrna,uA aldolgaeregnog ",r1o6<orlsolcmlcucolcerd'.

oommtdr4lacroe<orlcolccor ecosJoco cu5cum:oad a"ldogs;roolcmol coolcorg ogcmc6rncu<olos cuceo.

"61cm coE olcm) oJCG5EBu0 grm cofl g;oacend mlcruS;<O p.o orco<nro1 euerdnr-r1aer;rm;.

acrd recosiccnlut1 o:gdepoccorlo oocrrcrudg;laocoemcrd orolgileroroA$g. oB) omlosiJccuocueoBs0 coJcoeJ

aeeJleccucorcueo'BUa ggcoemcdrooo m16en:crw'laoo.lsrorcoemrmror'loi godg.oeni a5rotr<ocolcracm crouoeo6BBuad.d cruocnoooco) 6s(')J(oo)c6cm jlctm63Bclos cuJcucru-oaocao)

ec osioao ru5ndsleocm; gp a elcucerd om; "vJ

m) gp oomrm-r6r41e ml'lran1,

alcrr; Eceoc cutra<oflao}o rec"g/cculeoJoorD LoJGccDo oo-relcmd mro;.roocerd. ecogicoeismcologaloErecosicctilecu6BB glo pHcccIUGDlo ecogd6IDculo (LANGUE-PAROLE)

oeJScDc(oo&recnscccoccnit<uro gu0cu"o16olcm mcetl taroslmroccD(l)co6,D6gloE ocmcocorororcerdrecnsl (Langue), ccosi6mo (Parole) oo)ffn BJrBro. cutre<orlcol;os recosr6ln Lo:La'lcorocor [e]6rDccucruodr]Egrecoslcolccor'l o-roloern'laolcm ruruJ]d, cn<oloE cnlcrd ru5rortrmi<o'roccoi rec"slcoioaoco; mtco;orr'16roroo

edcrilao;cm). 6lro) ccosj cruofiuco'la,olcm "OHc cuSe<or1ag;o pqo rruco].,o16 oJJcuffuoaocoE .lom).,-too

erum.ulaerog5ilolao;cm1. 5lco Grocroaoooro 1o.r<olcrrloJccDo o"-rgcoE d]o) ecos/cffuolooo oco ilomoronnGroocm poJccolcrnleo;cmcil p,]c cuJcum)o cn'lercrr'loEeo)cmolo6c5rccerd. aol ecosJccruo]ooo mlooooocao Goeosic"Jcqoc(,(6roletlos orode.elao]cm mlaojkorm.lomiaocoocerd eJcocd. €gc cu5e<or1eg1

oseo)]o <oelc4ccrloE e;sloacgp)ffD rscosic(r)co5rDoglos cDa(6ro)ecorcemcil. ooflc oetcgcolet;ocoeo'r1o3"..rrurcfloE elsloe,cggymci pnc cuJc6o6'm cuJcucruocolconi. ooeniocu5cum.ro, oJBcolefl, oo.rc<or3crr')

coro6onu0, ogcmlcucorlos ooJcro) ffuceerJoccmcil. aog m'Idql"ds "lo'lL<omrcndreoror'1e.r;gp

no; ccosj

cor;os m:om)@ crucurJroaopcollo reoleo;cm cnlcoroeong;os Grgo(orir;acorcerd eJcocd. ccosJcffualu)(o

ogcm<or1om orlgfaoym<o'loE oroglg. corLoc6<or.ooro'loE ercocd roocmcorceni rccosJ. 610l cutra<o1co.r;os ro'rocu

ao)cu5EBg)os GDeonDla "gcmCOE

Onqocu8 o)ocmoo)ffD rnsrrr'koo eoJcos prl9 m)bOEBmooro cuccor'l

ogS]6'6)co.

GCogiCUOSoS',UetCOt'lOg OOCUCOIA<O)']ACoCrOOC5n; GCotU5IDo GntoOTC ",-rCOCga.

6l(0] toJc(oJA mtrndre

ololloE 6Jo) LoJcroJe cu5ao1 golcao)crnocgsionDlrm ccog/6rDolorocem<ril. recovcor;os/ ecogJcm)ottr)(oo)J

oS cruc&etJolor'loEmlcrd m)cndrecm;m.rcolco)ccor'l o.rcocua oloJoHslcm]. 6rcc(oc ortre<or1co.r;o poJccoc(,oBs]<ulolcm eilail<ocu;o/ ggoltocr;o Gr6eo) crueeJ ecosicLoJcaoco5onp)o aeocgiloofl .r.:o1u:'lcor'loE guEogsgcml.

gorcco.lc<nonrrlcDlc(oos,o "-ieocua ccogicm)oL(r)(ocolos reenicuc<ncooroloof, recooccor'l <or1o1ogoro1e@]o

ooJglcm]. cu"lenelo aogcocuE Grdco) oJcocgilom cruoccDocQo aol mtrndreromlot ruoto<ooorlotcolcrd

"61s;od 2oJccoc(r)oHs)(o'n ]6(0))o oo.rplo. ".rcocgiloE

ofls;cm oscu1.,.r1gg'la,u0 e,1og16ceJo(on cruJ(o

tcrocejc&cucmrorolm;croosJo BaDlsocofleerco)ad olologonDlcm 6coJo ac<aonrrcoE olcocua "6cmm.rsoE"-.to cu goo oO glHorDl(oA o mqpilerce,;o.

rrucru51cnoofl mleto-rcs;auO oogco; crr'lgcorloE oilcoo"le,olaer;acoceni GCDCo Gorcomi€cn. ercai-

"-rcocud BJcBJo GDorotrcojrooocmcno1,ni' o6)8co) 6irBjo, ecosices'rocmo (Competance)- ec.ruc m,l(Eg

oo6rno (Performance) crrlde6uoloolccnJcelo m.rm.rtr;cr1om mlc"sJor6ocmg, rgolg[laoccncsni c"-Lcomieejl

lcooleo;cmail" ercocd m.rco;"rlie<olcot1e.r3cm;cocuA caco.Jlg.rE,ni oocuoore<oilarorcotle:;cm;cmJoo.rcm] oct(oo,

GDtrtctl.l.,eJsmqoroE (Deep Structure) crrloco;cm ecosrcpd,ocmcdesmoor'lcDlccroosio oct(oco, poroloetsm

oofl.)C.g (Surface Structure) recovccrrldgoo6'mo m)coJoc6) ogffncQooo oile.rcor'1o;onrrgcm;. "gcmcoE

cule<or1 cmslocolslonrr ecogicPsrocmoroloofl o"-ro'lcol uO(ooccDo ocLtoroceni l.r.rccocrrleercoE eelcor;cmd.5lo] LoJe(oJo cruCooorO5rOmlOE L"Jeqoc(,ldoccDcoJlcm ccosicLoJe(o)CCnonn'lm;oclroco mtcdoloa(oao)gp;. on<oloofl ,sogoi 6lceoc cu5eo1co.flo;o ogcrlcor;o elocrololo poleolomrn)octroo. aco cutre<ol1

(oocm cu5<otrmiro mrcndreeongloE o:tr<o5mirorocoor'l recouccnldrgoo6lro msronD)ffnro)o roato'lcruccDcodrDo

ot(o.)l

CUlaJeo - ml;Jloroomrcmr;3olcoroE jlomoileerocmronrloofl calcno "JlomoomeotolgtgE <ancgooorirrloofl olcefla

occor cruaoE":mocer6. jlome6BUa, cru]oJoo (Signifier)- mrgo-iko)o (Signified) "61crrr1eonom

@6rB) (0)(6'10)r

e6BOa Crucmgilg;enece;cm p@5m)6rococerd. uo6nYBo, 6f!flo5'DJo, GroooJo o61cm'lcucor;os plrnlcorcm]re)<or1

.LroocQo 6rulo6ruocsni cruloJeo. onro'lecncoscso om$$lOE orogierOmlcuolcm org<rccoenr'1o6ruo c@6rd

38

A

m,l;o-il<oo. ecosJoco) o]fiacD166nD1 uocrio6ru'lo6ruo (Sound Image ) oOeni ou]4ra,oocmlo cnd cou0eer;

cmrcua amcpi'le.rlcrrrlLeocalcm m.loei":cno/ mloloro'rtrcoro (Concept) oOend m-r;j)roroocmlo omJcm)Jld

oiloor:"loolaer;cm1.

o.r'lomo (Sigt)crulereo (Signifier)

m.r;"..r'lroo (Signified)

: 0(0o

, d <ood'road (ooenioenjloeruo). (cuJaveruloertlo)

(rum1516 ooo "61cm

c'ndroroo;gp 'arbor'ooffn oJ6ocerd pno oilcoaermorolm)oJcao)c(r)ocls]onn;cmrd. oJo cDcruoaoS cdrono' ooo' .,g'; rm o16o m:.r"lao'l g;ocucml o c6oo )

rucru51cnoofl mt;o.ramll"Jl<o,esBUA re,tc<o'r1o croenieeongg. culo.J6o (coeniooriioenro) relcoila uoenin

og, croeniororoloop ocmm-r16ocao olt/3corc5rd; plcBaocmlel<o1rt.rooceni. m.r;"-r',1oro (m.ro1o-rortrcoro) ro1e,g;oonoldonrrocao mlaei"tmocerd. e:oocg ree<orle,cumi<o;ojlomcorg, <or9 crulora,o o6c5rd m.r;jl6ilaercodaeloo;cm r6rdcruo6'uJo rel:crorlacumi(o)laoglos cruonDocoo)ceni cruo1..:roJao)o oocm(o;oacend gcquoleolcmni. ooo

"61cm coeninerulo6n:o p,l9 eeLcaoni' crucrilJaco1cm 'oo'cruooJdg6B'Bog o;e;cloE cru)"ild

aocoE ".roScojooceni.recosaco-flomeon<r6, mr;o-lao (uoeniaenflosruo), mr1"-il<oro (m-1o1.,-ro'rtrcoro)

"6ycm1 o5rr3loJ(o6oBglgE

eio; ocmm.flarumirorl<ocolcerd. ml;"-rl<o'ro(dnD GrocoJegflq m.r1o:aronrr'lcri plcnlcocm;re1ro'1"loro "63o;oacni

oct(oo. ool e,selcmrloo3 pol"tlo5oBogcmeorcos Groor 6ruou)o.g$o1eo3cm). ffuloJo,o oclrooccor'l crrlet

mloEao;cm1g. ,mcil ao; randoroo moEacoE .,:o5c"j<ooca,)GmJces recnsJccroccniL<oo.roocaoi crucdroroa

aca3. coo"loo/ eoJ(ocD .r61rm<orlcmc5 mllo.ra- mr;jlroeoBog m.rm.r5;6 6'orcruogs)<onrr;cm;end. ea(ocDclrorco)os (ocD(ocao mreccuoileco"sjd'6lrU0 oersoeoBu8 ccur8orlolgcoE pgc<oce,lcm(olcoJcoet

"-.rlc,monnloo! e,co5onrrlo)o cruoccril 6oJ o ocrDc€ooo <o)s<E cri' oJoao) cm).

onoflreceetrooccuggl "locorlcm:coo

(oocm p,lD 6ru{T\!o roocnlcucolcoc m):cGco.r'loreoc cDo6mcm)

"-toco.rcmcoilg. plc en:mlronrrloop crurgco.roor(Arbitrariness) crqerri mrm-r5;cr'lcoroE adcomrunrr'loofl euEaoc

rooE. ru1"1a m-lgilroeonu0 6umxogslcmrd eio; ecosi6rDcruolooo ooJco;cuccoi .'re,ls;cm oco5rn ogcm

crrlelcofloE ocltooceni. ooflc ccosJe,gfe.rlo 5]olcoJcoeJ p(c 5nJcruo 1"'rcudru'nrrlaoleeolH. ooo oo(m olBo

poslosi]6coocrp cu5cu"ocoonrrlcd oram5occoionrr"lo;cm<o<orloocerrecenY.

m;llaeoncrE moEa;cm on<0roroo m.rco3"rrlau.rco6rDaolos oosoccoi ognuoccoflor"l<6cm<orlmcoE

co1 cutra<olad oo1 mr1L..:rec<ooroloE ocgo oro)6nDccrrlcrn@fl. o6)cmcoE taoccDlu)(oacco.fl m)3o:a-mg"-I<or <oeJeBBUa ocgeono0eo; oilctlcorocerfi. cudepcu5curuoool'loE o"61cuo1, org.d, <o;secBlco mlocgo;auE ascmlcucm oY gorooe o<or gilcuc erd. prd mrolo-ra csonil olorogsrol ocerri.

GCosaccruoojltucmronrrloop orctoiloecBgcenY cuSrol5coro(Difference), oncnmSor(ldentify) "ocrrno

ocorcni m)m-r116 p,lccm',l oJoaolcrD). oJJoJaoo onmmtro'rco)ed ro'om;"-t;oaoccofl cudrorolaolcm;. oc6or'1 a.so

cri <or1o;cumoo:o.r;o<om3m1crd oo(,)eicoJlocorirrcoieo; c.lJca)ffn otscoioE "Ocm) o.rootrotcoE mcocor'locn am

qpletceerlcmrd <oaoilos oaoo:<Erecd2ilolaer;cm corcrocr0<uro5oonrr a;oEcnldronrrlcorg. otscorlcrr'loap cecgj,ecolo;cm o.r5ero'lau0,

"61ode146, "-.rlaegcu0 fiuoQo)o(oocmco.rlo cuJ<oJcrrjorocaer'lcorceni jler r:lmeungloE

lormio);o) otscoioE or)ooBslcmrd. "6cm1o1eer1a1o

GroLoJ&c(oo cruc6gc/oJo acoro;m);au16o]cm ocm'letqrao oLsao'lmleglos rnemoro'lrnaonil m.r;"-ra mrg"jltor Grufi\Jo cnmmtroccoionn"lo;a,corcerd. or-rc5g;

eplaolcm co.tgcoioE ao1 ao;oiloo! roromccmlrau5ronnloE Gro] 6g1ercr14;oa,cend ao;cuccorl cruoot$d1agteercmcalcmrolo Grd<orloarc6rrBlrorocm. cn'lornnoo ocgorolmg o.r'lccocoraccor'loaocene'lo'leo)cm cDtno

6BBp)o, o<oolcuiaglo clJpeo) c.uoloEroocm ono'lcorogs){rD(o)}o pp crureccuoilccroogio o6c6rB](o)ocm.jlorno cmo'l$ cumio;oilom a;oleocorororlmcoE <onrd orgc.r.tavlaoccorl, rma<occorrd

"-:omi..:oen:cnu5cBog o;oEcnlf,<om1 oleJJo ooa,cuo'leo;cm;. o-iomoroloo! o1er5o, oonil t"rcur0rorocDaruoocoilcm, 6ruff\l6BBC)os GDeonDJeo)cco cuJolcruoocor/ "ersmocor .'rocncumi<ogo.rccofl m.rflaolg;oaccrelocL@eo cnlttepg

oo;'leocmccul "6cmceni po'r1mr0<oroo. mrmrS;crloo;oE "ssmccucr:oro'loofl orgocoooloagiloerccmccol

"lo1a,oE gm e gloE ml;t"-r cr-t c m o caorro c erd p ,tc o d co m o.

o6 aac eJla o- 6ruoolorc eJle, o Symchromic-DiachromicGcog/oaoaolnlglgE o:omroroloE oerre; mlo"l"rmeonua m)ccu5ocer6. aog crrloo.rtoe,cerent'lcnioilom

or9cucoocoorlco)gE ecosjc.,rLtnlomocerd- "6ee,ceIlao.(A study of language at a given point of time).o"l6"eroccol acetcorgculoE m,loreoilao;cm GcosJcoro'lemcoorrrloofl <ano-.rlolLocnocerri eruoolaca'lao. (Astudy of language changes during a course of time)

39

A

A

epl6rurolcoJccol 61do€Joceo oceteogoiloE recnsc oOoroco6o oro'lemcaeuggilei;os a,scmgcorccoi

.ocm) eo6r]3rorol(rn<o)loE oct<oaccor',lolcml nuru53o1ocr! osoEcncolaglos Luorc!. oncutao.d cl(6)@rceJocdro

o.rlm:nulogs'ldocm)gB ocdg;o aclroraccoiolcrr,] ccosccuocm)1roo. ecoEcorL(,)r.omo e)gog(o)caemooe,'loE

oge,aceilao"l<ojl onolsoorllaeilcmrorcsn5 gonrroo "6crd m.rm.r5;<E a,o;<o,1. 9.:o'lLro.r.tooccol'l recosaoeo cmcaeil

aocem;cmail ecolucu)codrnaog ofleoocaoccDc5lD;"-raolaolaooorcrd mlml5;t6 <or'lolgcnoorolg.

orgculm'le rec"sJcuoccrJt<ororoloo! oiloo-r1ao1o;oEi 1.,.ica<om oocuaoceoemcocrd "6e6)ca'laGrooJL@r.ocDo"lror'l oacueroenn4f olesrlcm3ocucni crucru536 oilmioco.rcorocos m1o'lasl'loorm). gccooo6m

occo.r'l ccl-rc<a$ coccoroE oJJceofinoomoorcerd GBc€ooo o:genelaocglcmd. olcotlmi o:ror'lmcercoor( aceLoe.rgoroloE cn'letoileflolcm Loo6'ruulccosJccruJeccuoonrrcorceni prolroE ro'a.r:1orn'lgilolaerlcmd. "6aace.rlaroo",.lonmo"lroilcolcoorlolcmlocuole.rlo p.lc ecosJcoJomromrlcfi .rJeJ cctrcoc(oioe)Elo 2eneccoio;cm). o09)(6r?'))0

ccosi5mculo (oq'leJlg.g cuSro'r1o1a<o<o'r guEoaercenelolcmlgg "ocmrocerd

<sncucotloe.:ccni.

crucru5lcnoafl elcd"-rgcsloE rec"s/acruolooooro cruosrucrrxl2ilseonDcgo ogaecejla GnoJ[olocD

o"l<o'lcorcerd Loroccnocao<d. eru"olaceJla ooo.rlf)Locno msroro](mcutd recosioeoaog onrolom ocgilocnq

cruocru5GBogcocerd LoJoccDocaolo orgtcocotleo;cm<til. "61a,6)ceJla

roro":lOLomrOnnlni OcOOcOrCol culavemcacenE ocL6ro- rec"s.ad. rec"ga,o'loEcn'lcm1o oorglcu;o,o0 ccoeuo'lg;oocerreceni ond o;ecmo;cmd.

eruc,oSaceJla Gnc,JL<nlcrmonrrlcri oene; cu"lasrsmoocucr-ilcuJ5ung]6n5. eicni: m'loo.ilo cruoeoooer0oerSoml

oeJco]5BBicmrd. oend: a,coorLaoro'loE cn1cml oJloeercsl c"r.rca3cmcil. poroo0 oosocaor'l GrooJ[cDLocD

omnoo! cnso.rsllaoo po5 cructrlJroau0oac6nd aeJlosiocculecorcerfi. "6cmcoE cnlcoroeung;os ooJc(olcDco

emco.flceraocerd "6laacejla rec"srcmcmilroo oilooE o:3errelcm<til. eruoolaceJl& ecosJccrocmit<ooroloE

e;slcorloleerlcm oJejcncooecroerolao;os mlccm',l€.uJo GBm',lco(occucruoeolos o)oJooJlend ocgsBBglos

ojluoe1aodrDorolcri oror'lcorcacoro cuolcm). eiro] e]So rumio;ro'rauE slco m'lcotoo ronmlmto'laolcm)ocu

e,'loE oct<oeo cru;Locuca; mldmcemo crucoJocal. eruoolaceila ecos/crocmitroonnloa 'cruoccrJ56Bu0'

.lJeJeclcglo corco5gilaru]o, oooJco)6(ol6culo (6oa)cm(oloacend p(omoo 61(0) m)]L@cucatr nllamc6mt"Jt6,1

o) oo) cruoo ccor'l eoc oE on.r.roj c ojo o c cofl onn"l o; cm ] o 5rB cm ) 6) c 6ID c o.

"gaacefla rec"srcuoccnilrooocmcoE <oc<6aolaorlo ocD:uoccn)Looroorloceo 6r:.lcnD6oBog p9er6onn; m'16m14 1o:rolrecm.locenY. ono; ccoearo)os al5cao oil"jloolmonrr'loE eio; cuJcucruo cDldml

ogslaolcm).(Syncluonic- concemedwiththe logical andpsychological relations that bindtogether. Co-exist-

ing term and the form a system in the collective mind of speakers)

eruclo;aceJla .,:omomloE <ocdeo'lo- omcocmilor l.,JrorlecmleoBog ecogie(o;os e,;Sccoio <oflo'l

4cnco;cm1g. oa<til cuJcucruo to]orocgs)rorolcm1fi. "6cmcoE ruJoJm)o culculcorogcoto.lcollgp oooocgorructl)Jocao]6c0l)o o4lg]cm).

@iachromic- Study, relations that bird together successive terms not percieved by the collectivemind but substituted for each other without forming a system.)

"6aacele,-en:oo;acele, o"lro'laogaerlol{ p"-rol6cuoccoi oclolo oroolcotgcm rsr9u06d 6JCrd

oogccmloc( crr'locmto cr5o6mcrn) Go)ccmco. mrcru5lo1oofl rsncll.,JccolroroloE ocni oogccmlml culoyatog.

"6cmcoE o.tollroo.toocaor'l rec"s/c "-rolcudorrrmoomeergol2j "-.ro1aer3cm<o'lccneocuE L"-.toolccnlcocr'lcot<ocerd

srol crrloo.r'1<oe,ce.renjlcr:;ojloer ecoruocoggl o.roleolaocorcmd. qDLncd(oroc6rD1oE acerenjlcB], aceJoPcll]roocmqoc66. (Span of time ) p,til ao; rura"ucoc, ro rutaovcoc, cD]gcc5'nBc GO6co. e"ld"elocoo.r &cejo)gotcernloota.lerlo rscosj AJ(oJocao) ocg6B'nuaad oilcu)coloce,coto polaolcm o1.o;r0<oroocernld.

ao; cnloor'l<o ec€Jcolgoilo8 o6rre] ccosjeu0eer; m;oreoflg ocgo mlo"lasflaolem:ccrE eito) ecogi 1r:1<o.uo1

emcoesnffAoo; culcu-lcoroccorlcgca;cmolo oegro] erc@Joc@ ocgeonu0e.d oilecucolocacololaer;cmo1o

oenecoE GqeJooro ecosJoe) eruoo;aceJleroc(Dlo o5Trecocolircn'locn ogae,ceileoccollo "loleolcmrocem;"-ilroo. recoslcor'los m'luorerccucn]n (Language State)

"6)cmro'1m6<o'roo cru)tor(l)ccnoceo ocg56BogcffDlo

cruoccu'looc(orD 6ceJao) goi .ocmorcerrS

06113l o06ecejla, ecosJcoJ[(,Lom56Bg]os @co(ooJoceni cu5roflco6coD6 rec"vc<rocmilroo

(Constrastive Linguistics) poc: oc6omceninlcudmor;os aceLoni crrle..rrulelogcm roold- oereo)cg6oBog

oolol gl C,g <o co(ooJo. (C ompari son of two synchronic Analysis)(06rB) 5'ruc}OlACeJlA, GCogiCoJOCD6BBgIOS (d)CO(oOSaCeni (oCO(oOJC(OE&i GCCTUC(OCmiLrOo GDLOCUC

,-.rol1rocooa ecosic.lLoromo. (Comparative or historic Lingustics) pocooo6rno roo'l$- oeJeocg ecosc

\^

40

oroltrol5snglos to.rcoro.roJo (Comparison of two diachronic Analysis)oene; .r:omo'kolaogcorlo ccucr'1$ acecrD6rrB(oloenacrd mlml51t0 crrlndeslr6"silg). osn5 o"l<o1eg1o

d'Jolc..,.tcoeJ LoJee)cecDogsl<orolcm<ril crarelgasrsm'lcorog. o:o1tro'roflo;euoceni om;cml;1cr1orod ",lal<olocolcrd,jlaooe,la;o oJ]6re16ocmr1gt. m-r<orSoroloE rumltr;crloroE e,cd4gcd o'l<o'lcocmitooJoocao 5sffnco6rncrnlo

ccosrcoJJoJounooot o:o'lcnernlao;em:cu0 9.:o'l[ro":orooaorgfl crr1(8enieace,]cm@c6m]6nDooocm)o cLil4Jc

o'laer;cm<ocerd colSe<oi1. "6aaceJleoJocD66Bog

oloEcrrltaorol o.lo'lLrot"r.loocQo oJoCDo cDs(drolcmlcg0 ocl(oco

fiuoL(,oco) ccos4coJlorocDo cruc(.l)Jocor]. oCIeecejlo o:omo6lo olrmloJcur'lcolcaer;cm o:o'llror"lcorono'lcm

1"-rmre<o)1co;gE] "ocrd crucoo.

.,6aa,ceJlaoJocDc!]o enno;aceJl&c'JocDculo psa,orEorolcm<o1cfi m)mll;<E "61o1occoio1cm3oo.rcrd

mlg"ilX|4ogc. prolroocmcorcerd ecosicoJocn o"l<orlcocmicor<orolcd GEG€ooo moEalcor o6Scu;o (ocDoco)

CToGCCUCD.

4J(OlOoCf)OOgilCOlOS CnlCOlOeAnglo eCogiQo',loeJ m'lCOroOACnrOrOrOr:esnuEaerlo 4Jcdqcolen5. o.lto;oo

rnaerglcor;os cnlcoromnuA ag1 rorgooeleer;cm<o'r1m1a1oEc"r.r m'lelcn'loEeerlcmrolcoJcoeJ recnsiaoi€olo crulcol

<ro.ilroroccol cnlcoroeoBglos oJUsucoroerolerrd. a,ldcusaoeanglos olelJo aolaeru8 m"lao;cm<ol'lm1 o1oE.,.t1o

e(no9icu)o 5lo)eo$oeJ o10616. eru.ro1aceJle, GcosjcoJomoro,',lffDc(l)cooceo recoslc"lo'lemcoS6BcceoS 4l(oloo

olaogilco.floo ao}mlaereunuac.JcoeJ oncrr'lsojl<o'roceni. ",g;cmcoE

rsracDlooil(o oonDJ66Bopooolfco crrlcolto'ui

aolcm crr'lco.roco..reJlaolos aufio;eil<olccumro agilocor o;ccmc$ mootleolcm<olccucos rec.,saccrlo'lomcoe6B

oc(o))o crrlco.rloo:'leolcm;.

ooroflmcoE rec.,slcuoccnit<orooloE eruoolacella cu'lasaemconrraoccrE m)]LoloccDo ooeacela

",:ocnromlmcosmcni m.rm-r516 6o5rerun lcm1. enr"o;eceit& oJomo GraLoJcruooaco6lDcm3 pto1m6<oroo.

ecos/oco ocgloo'leo;ffD oelsa6-oBogeerlcrlglgp <sacr'loi moEacmlgp cue'l "6cm<o1o;..:o1 Glaorolco)

eJdbsiJac6olo(ocrDlocLoo. ecorucoJom<oror'loE 1.,:ecorceecnmrlrJ:lcollsrrece)emooa',lo0 aol oc<Eglo ocL(oco

Groeccu] "6cmcsrd g(olo6c5rElc6uo1eer1rmail. accoc &ceJo(olit GcogicoeJscDoao 6o6rB(onD)e (ooffn

cocerd rec.,siccocmiL(oolocDcooJeJaolos cruiloJt,t.lcm erau5eongiloetccmccol'l oceo6rBoocrd mlcru5gr0 cru]"i

gilaolcmlorucm; ocLoo.

oJl mSmrm aroo -{rucGf toJclloo Syntagmatic- Paradigmaticrulm5mtm.uoollo cruce5roJoJooJiocco {/o}oaJeJaogaer;cr1q3gg<o'rcerd oeJscDccuce<omnoofl orgulcouo'lel

dbg1(6a [olu)ccDocao oogco] rum.rlgcrlcoloE mtaeY.,rcno. oeJscDo]os Pgg1oE "else,eoBua oflmtrml'laerlcm

o1o'r'locorcorcerd oilm5mlcDoloo o6cmto.lloacene;cqcroleerlmcil. cucayurirrloE o;oEojloE, ofloEofloE, ms1

culoE "6cm1d'6BocD "-rneBBUA

oflm5mieerlcm m)Louocaoooro p<o1m;oc"ooemoccol'l o:1ene1eoc5co. p'c.r:omi.,.roclcro(o 6'rucnDoonrcorceni mfoflozcgleer] (oero oocm(6)]oocenelcquoleolcmci. oeJo)cgccosr

cor;os 'mrloflcnocg;1d ac6rut6' c'rgo:5-adooo- c@oJJcrdro ogcrrrlecBomcolcsrd. pog1"*ilcaflrolcao5 GO6UJ-

GrOoJJc(oo - admo .,6crrr'leonomcOllo

ocooE o:cmJlocn o6ccrn) (S-O-P)

Raman killed a Snake (S-P-O)

mna!<racgld acdru-rd <o'lo<.rEt"lm<ole.lonrr'lercerd 1"-rcudrororlaolcmd. ao1 <o"lcuenelorlos cen:ccrr1

au0 .rJomi.rJoo armlm;o-flooa eicmccol'l "erslgilaerlcmo)colcoeJ cucasoroloE oJG@BU0 ocrnlm;r'ilooe,

elcmccot'l oerslgil4polaolcm). onro'lcmcu:coocao cuJcucruoaocerd ao; L.'JerolJe ccosico)os cu1mtrmlm.,.to

OcCo oejo.Grod'BBom "e.rs1{l4ilo1ao}cm 6-Jccoc .r:ororolcnlo cLJ&oo cuoiaerco-r;cm GtraccDo)o .rJaeoBgA o0o(6)c

o;recoslcoflolo &c5'mco. acmlmlo.raoo oJeiaolcm oogccmloof, etcoerrrlcorc6rd, Paradigms oofl olaoocuqJ6oeJc6rd, oucB5soJolooceo) oero of)cmoloec6rBle€uoleer;cm<d. GrosGBocD oJo)oo cucoiao]cocu0

LoJGAOC(/)CTUC(l)I(o)(o))o CUJC6OsrnCrUC(l)]{O)AOl)o ...roloernlao6rDoa(m}ocl(6)o

ocooE .,:cmj]om oercrm) o{Dcrn cuceJromlog 6jccoc .r:oronrrlmlo.l.leroo olQ)6ocoJ}rm GDGcnao

oiOe6BU0 rec"ucofletleni. a5odemoE, ectcolceloE, o'uloof)o, a1o1 "g1crn16(mocD

.r:cmJlom oarcgcoE ae')

ollg m)6o coa<oilaogcorgo mlgjlg|aergcm o:oeonuE pdoBocn oilmSmieoccu;cmrocsrfi. o:ccnJlocD, ooccm)

"Ocm'l .r:Oeun<.rEaolo ()J&oo cuooiae'rco.r;rm ctrdccDo)o oJB66BEloS .r:$a rec"uoiellend. Gocuaolos alcoernl

ootcotcerd cruccs@Jotooccot, Paradigmatic order "6cmg.,.tocorymail.

GnoJeolos oflm5crumo elo6luoteJrorDl

scerd m-rctdaogcmnfi.

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ptoJo)coo cucaJ5BBUA cnldmleerlecrucuA GBcruo6rucnxoloJoroloE raoaogsco'l@'l6.o6rDoocmo)ocLooc5ni Luocrrc6o6rr3ail. goc.,oo6m6ro1cd "a,olo1 6lcocDoao) ,'l*J" o€')ocmco) cuceJo m)coJocsrD

cBc. oocmceJ(o) crucocmJe6ruc(r)(6rolm) cD1o6.oc(6nD(o)co)(olo6c5nd (oa(o1oi lole(o)c(,)cruc(l)](oto1fl..'iloEaocerrwoi coJcom.Yao'l crrldeqoolaerlcm " Colourless Green Ideas Sleep furiosly" €cm cuceJo

IoJGQOC(,CTC(j)J(6)ADIHC(6TO, o€)(DCOE CUSCaOemCrUC(I)]OJCQO, CUC&JoeJSmCOiaerl pBCoOO6TDOCCO).I r;ene1

aer c em'l eer c cu] cm ro c 6nY.

m.lmrtr;cr1m3 csooluo t"rccd miaerluE p,tc ootnonil Lcoeru)aoocao cruoecoJcDaua mroE6,1. ro6TB

9]OS o€lsmc(oE& Gno{CnmcDo'lorloao LoJecoJoJooceo GcosJcoocmilroo o0)rDcsrnojd oilg'1ao1cmrtil.

ls3erufmicaoccoi, eocooE gccaocenimren8 ..6'1rm1cucE p,tc oocnronil (ocD(oco) cruoGccuff)auE moEe,'lqo,

S)6n5.

rsra co o'l €o oA oeJs tl)c orcoo

1.,ocoEm) cerucmi (tssa- rsaz), o6'1ruIccut0rui m-r":ld (raa+-rses) er'lcco)cmcs0rui og;o"nloErui(raez- rs+s)

"g1cm1o.oceni oncooleoo8 oeJscDccucooro'loeJ 1o:o1al6. oncoo'leocofloeJ crgolocucmrla,g;os

mcslecoei6ua on1"-r<ortrasrocalcmrorlcnloloaoj GnolqDlos mlcmieocolao;Lr:aoa coorogs;orcfl cueiaocoA

<o'roofl oflo;cdro'rnlacgcoscc$o e6TUcmi cordcn'lg;. m.ra16 oncgoooroloo! ojle5cdrololcorccologcm]. co)]eoc

"rlaE rec"uae)os oJsaogs'loE crrlcrd onsrdrorolocgfl mcg;recnuaglos romror) cu5erol<o:o 6o5reorocmcsrd cncud lcoo'lqcil. ecosJeo)os g1oilalo1olcolo aiffoctrl<or1corlo recouco.t;occoi oncreo5occo.r'l 6ruou)

oBSJCmlO6rBCni OOCq.,Oo 6o5r'rB(6nrr1. OmCOCmiLOoJOOJlo, CDOClorOrOCm)1rO.r.rOculo GOeo) m)Olo:mOCerd

cerucmi oo6o6oc6rrs<d'. m-r"-116 <oofig oneJcdrorolcorccor o6rudroJo'lfiE et"l ccucdoolooconi <ogcocaeilcor

mt"-r"16-ccucd"-d m.r'lnucrnDo eeJca) t"-rmtlalocerd. ffuJcDo, r6rar6roroo, reoog, ffuocfrjd.ocoo oo(mlclJoaooo)

o1g;o ro'rm<olccor odcomeonuA cru"J"kd o;ccmcgg orcoiao;cm;. oncn;recuronnlmlo o)fiEcoJ Gcogie)lo6reffD;o,

caor'lmmlmro1gcerd. (6nmleor56Bu0 o3.,rogs)oomlo, o06m6BBglos cDcoeoo)cllo c@40.fl 5rucruo.lSprc m-flralccrolo coolaolcm).

rec.,siccoccniL(oooro ca,ruercocmi[rooccot'l cl:o1cnernlgl .l61cmo)cerd eJooc(,rd "6crd

rec"vccocmiLro

lomororoloof, adorocoJcao %Jlo"n1oEruioo! l.,JcrorJe,ot. onrdoroorirrloi m,lculccoosioceo cruoccDo

eSlo"nloErui accmlcmlg. m'kdra.ucoemo"l<o1ag1er3os GnlooJc culsoo'lao6,Doloolsc'Bg1slos ondroroo

GD[oJoccDcudeOolaoogslacorcsrri. mt...rolo1o, e5ruccru]o pco6o'm1.gils1g om:crocmitro rnocuo<ro mlrcu-1")

m5'sBog efi)o ooloEnd cn'locao'leo)cm). pdocotr<ololoE <oi1a,q}o corcLo'oiaaccor cn'lerucscerr5 oglo"oloEnt)ooero65)cAg]cm(oY.

ooeoo'laooE oerscDccuceronnlcri croctncg t.rroomirol cms'loaocslolDd eslooolo8nri oo6rd.

GCog/C m.lrrecoromlm; oiloalolgg GLoro6rne,ogaercuE GcosJaolos 1o:cu6onrrmo'l<or',lqo'leJcsni o$]o.o1oEru)

lcmedgai. cumj<olcnlodoaceo) Grorltu)romo'korlaorconi p<ri. oogcucnloS m.lrndreccDlcruoaDocorl gemo;cm

c"..rcocoosA oogco;otcnloE gemdoro:lcmci recnucoieLlosorceml clcocrorcoilcn;o cuaorcoflmlo psao'letlgC

oj)sot; crrlaonrrl Grdcuoo eicmlgilcoiao;cm otdeoo ecosi o'Jglcm<o;oacend ecoluoeo cruoe@)ceBo

oogoJoeJs6)0 ro'rgot'l 6)(o)(or6rDo. m-ra3.roomr1oel GDocroSgBcra clromi.r.roerum.u'loracelcmd recnslcolla;os

corcerd. eslo^nloEru.floop o<0oomo Gros'lcruoccnroororacao'l rszo agiloO rsrdcao'ldoaoroE olologsrocerd

oilcuosmccooe Groo{crllocDo. ecosJoQo <or1e,g;o ormirolmlndoocco.i m.lor03|eerlcmg "gcmroceni o.lruo

42

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drDc(6o& cuJc&@6rr6ro'loofl m;ofleoo.saror. mlrmloculo olo-ilacu)o orOeni oilcuoemroolod 9.,:acoculo.5s;onnlcm<ril, m;ct0rooaoacml l"uocem'le,oleerog5 p,tc ecosjc o03e66ong;os ojkoloemLaoocsrd ojlruo

5rDC(OOe rOo",llrnnmrororloofl tuoralcc6LcBo. ":olecroccucnc oileclcoroce)crn o{J6eo(6nD

":olajkoroccor.,6ae,<oro1oofl mrocmoro; t".r<ofl"siolaer;cmtcuE ooroilm; o;od":1o .'fl40o:3o 99ts ecosicoelsmau0ed acg

olcsrEc "gcmceni pcurd t"lcuccDocQ)]o .rolccoctu'leerlcmd. ondro}ocu5cotraorom croe<ojlco.rco'leeremo

cru.rcolocrrlaepcorroroloo! raos'lmrocmo. on<6rooroercorL@r.ocDo 'cu5<o1o1a<oo' .,41cm orocucnroeor'lot oclroco

Lolffu6(o)oce1. rec.slcofaO oOrdomcollao)olcLJ5'BBog '.r.tocluo'koo' CrulollrrDo "6crrr'leunom eB]o"oloEnri

oilreelao;cm). o€rs6o, cur8g;o, mroorr'ko "Ocm1

rruoLoJ(oJqo)6sBgno8 g.Iccmlcorcsni oilcuosmcoae,crr'lqo)o

eunuE cn'I0cguolOoogs;cmni. "ssaoonrr 'crucrrfl.,rfkoo', '(sraffo'lao' .,6cm1eonom ojlreeelao;cml. tcnclol

ooeJse,5'6t: gceni o1.'fl oe6BrA.

oeJscDcoo&oltrca,oemororlocrfl o1euJorc1otoil, recnucor;os <onilaerceJCrur3ccuo .l.rotnernlglcnsorolcm

Gnojl(,)rocDocerri oorocosrnffnlFg(o)csni. 1"-rocoo erscmleiscm)gE cruccDJ(oeocenY p<onoofl ooejoocmlo

oilodcnad otleneleercg;cm;. oor0roroouoL&odrDocerd ecnsraolos orooeJesiJoocm cumianl<o'r GncucD

6m'ld, GEdolooJocotdcoecBUE ap'lcucaer'lo6.oc6rclcDsGnDlcm pqo .,:om.r:rauro'l (6la(o)lo6)c5rBl(oocm

ru cru y0 sp o c a I crrr'l o g cm I o ofl o 6 cro a, r0 oil eL cotl o ; ono I cm I end.

olcomJoJ oJJceo5rD ffuLfiuBcao6oBuaoaoo)'loo .,sscnccucr:'lag0 crnuol(oocco) cu'la6uorn6'gBu0

gco<oorolcmlerrd. onaoceLonil 1...tcocemtrolsnecooflolcm ercgilaEccosiao)los ons',lmrncmonrrloE oB] Gcosic

cuJceo6rDd6Bu0 o"jl2ilolcm o1<or1 (Latinate Fallacy), orocr-ilreccreoBggos cukeecno orodrororonn'loofl <onsl

mrocmoro'loE msorolcrn o'l<or1 (Semantic Fallacy), rec.,srocol cn'lc.rqsccumrocor'loE acem3cm olor'1 (Nor-

mative Folling), oJJceoorDo cnldcqcrocrooao Gqru6lrlo .,6)cm i)col (Prescriptive Fallacy), elceoc Gcosi

co)oscolo cu5cumroauE gsAo€.occEco(o oolcolmlcoroeonu0 o1.,.r'laolaolcm oc6g;o (Logical Fallacy),

rec.,sicuoccnylooilcuoem66Bgl(6E arc6rDlcm mle,ldep<o (Explicite Fallacy), oJeao ecosicoJor6GBuA octo)

ocerd cooloaorcm .'ilslocao (Historical Fallacy), <or;seon1coru orcoclUoJcuSceoemronrr'locfl c"-.tcocodoa,

gccoi "etsmco.rcr:1aua grmoiaolcm;. 'e:cglcmf "ocamtl' 6.er] ffuoccrooacerd cD@)os cuJc6o6rn

eon uEaol m'lcorco aoccoi ascmlcucm mromiatrrolecogieolos crutc ctt"lmo.

oeJScDc(do& rec.,siccroccrutrolrorol00! oaslmrocmocoemegilo;crrr'l0aocerrscerri oiloloemcoD Gcogic

uoccniLoo crr'lsoe,cBFlrmo;. oilcuoomcoo& ecogiccrocm)too ottrorSm)ro ecosra,glos "e.rsme,sAad cuJcu

cruoeo]srr3caolcrD). m)Jm(oelo, olor(oero, oJcorJ(6)Ero, o€lffn1 Cracumroegle.rlcmloaocend o..r5<olcolo

(Contrast),".rloe6nicruo (Complimentation) mr.r<otoo.,ro')o.r<0roromo (Free Variation) "gcm1

oqtuo'lo6rucru)

66Bglos rgroslm:ocmoroloE ecogicoclroeglos oikuro5rDrurecoJo cnlOepconaolcm<occolconi oeJsmccuc

oo. oodrooo.toloemmcolg, orodorocu5ccu6ommcuonMlcoceni ojlcuoemcroo&oJocDo lcoranlaolcm<d. m.lcr8cu

g.lDa'ldb cuJceo6rDo o6cm mlooEcHo(dro po.rd ono<n1aoleo;crrrlg. ecosi "-:o'lceoerreni

onotloof, (oocm

orgo'olo1a oelsm&glos rsns'lcnncmomrlerccoflo'laeremoocrd <stacud m.r'lraocooflao;cm1.

.'iloEoercetoni' GCDco-Gelcomjaellocorcgcer;ggcud <s'Deoo'laofiA oeJscDccucoooro "-t;<o'lco

<ooeongiloE

1oro1.do1gl. c6,coclilgoEm.[ o",:6c.rocooEmi, ru1"i mitsd"-.td, m.l6c.,omi mitsd'.rt6, o"-Lcoccmoem

LoJtsCDA CUJCeO5Tno, LoJgcDaCdro'roofleenrrccoo, o1cn1oer',lg$ c1".rc1coco, cD)6rrrlccudmloE 1cnco6 roSs

ouB'lao mlocutll mtaoEgmeuncr0 c"rcomieo'l o1"-rogslronrrlocotslorr]. gaocelotirlo "-L;rolcor

.r:o1

osrem mn u0 olor o H sloroi cm <o1 o6 cn c €oo o col "dem

c<o m c erd.

clord eJl oon migl dm, ml 6 aeil sd ( ct.,tcri miaerl o0 )

recnslccrocmigo'rrmoletlo m.rc"rr1<o; oilor8comoro'le.rlo rocDroceo oJc(o raacuooenflg ecoluc-cruc

.'rilo1 "lsniru.fl<oolos

cruooeJoorocorcerd ct",.r<i mieoluA "Ocm) oilglaerlcm<d. oaJcaoco3ccuceJeolos

<oretffuoccDoccoflo;cm e1"-Lrd mooocco.r'1o1cm; pcuolos crgcruoccDo. 1926 cDlo o6rrcco celceoooco))eD

oro'lm;o pCC psccugcorccoiolcm) pcuolos L.,.rcudonnme6Bglos ru)o.ldeSgacao. oJlelo ooro'lcocmi,

cocoo8 scceercenimlen8, cnloeocgccoi s5;on:6micaccoY, om.rtdel ar0cruoimid6i1, ooocD ocugad,

ecod oleucocojmjeerl ror;seonlcor .rreninr:lorcacoceni mrru51oloaf, creJsmccuceolo'loop e.r",oo1cotloE crr'lcni

IoJGoJCGCDo ptraOaocerrd on<o1oofl oJJc5'uJc@caoglo oilorauoaolo ro@oorai. ecos/aolos "6aeca1aoocumlocot'lo8 mrcco;1e5o n<Ouo1g rumtlgcrlcoroE o'l<o'rlccorcd roootd ronror'lcoa<orocaofl os.rcrld). c4leoceilarorcco.tcoscHo 6T oolacelarooo.l}o, mrco;"rr1ecrufi\roeg;o, crucmiaercola, "-to'lml(oculo

oJol(,5rDl

ooco(o ecolucoJorDo .r:o1o:16ep<orcoioeloro;ecol'logcni oracud m)'lralcooflg3.

cuJcu^ocoec"uco)ao; ocL(oeo o€rsmcoo&<o ffucalJoco) o6cm m.rm-r5;o1co;oE otceo pcu<0

43

rogg|€ogcollcm]. cuJoJoocroecogicaocosccgo m)cooloJccnuco)oer;o oeJScD oJooLoJoccDocoemcni pcude6rel. oerscD ocgroro'lm1 oilcurcoracaicmooHcm ruru;gcrlcora8 oJceculo pcud rogp16,ogo))crDl. eceJ

[&coGID "ersmco)eerlc.JceJlo ocgo m)occulq]y6oco. prd'recnucor]os o-JeJcDc(onaro@ydd co'loduomoc6rd.

mrcoo1to5recnsaqridd pcu<0 moEelcor m'kdcuo.rcDoJocD5oBogcolcerfr enoolilcp;1ed ocgge-.tlmjgldcni "$cm[oJAO]6(6) re c

"s/ c cro c cr$L(o uo c 5uao c cor'l rsD c,'lao o gs) cm d.

"Every component of a Language, such as phoneme, Morpheme, Word, Sentence, exists to fulfila particular frurction - and structuratism the context not just the components what is important. In addi-tion, synchronic and diachronic approaches are seen as interconnected and influenceing each other. Theyregard language as a system of subsystems, each of which has its own problems but there are neverislolated since they arepartof a larger whole. As such, a language never in a state of equilibrium, butrather has many deviations. It is there deviations that allow the language to develop and frnction on a livingsystem".

c1.,.rcd mia;91ofi} ecu:ocao'l oi.,JoHS r:<Ecomeongcerd eooEaoc6rDlg cuolagiloE clacnu"leolg[oleo;cmrd. aocmica,c eilooflgl;'ldmi rutdaolgiloa! taodororamcaor'lo)cn cocooE eeceoocenim.renE

c t"-rcr) miaoi 91 o c cofl mr"o o o'l ao; cm <til "il oE eslc er om c erd.

(o6]-BCo GercooooCeoleDo Ct rrd mialcloog 1",:cu6rorocn66Bog <oe6onn1ag5r6ro). rsze olorot1939 cuooeo;Bg aceFelgromllercard c1"-.rcd m)aer1u0 croa<oaccor mrccrrr'lralSaccoi crjlercn'lcmd. onrorlm;co"uordgaegc ffuoclco6-oBegc cn6<oroo.rg<0epoccon cnsronrrcoE ct"'roi mialgtcmccoflg. ogo'ler;o ecosrcroc

mitor t"rcudron rDGocueJco.floE <sracud moEa,lco ffuoeccucD&uE cnldepccora cru:cru'lmo oaJer)6rolcm)6rd.

tses a;<oo0 s:cuEndcrlg] oermiaercor;os ecD(o5ororoloE cturi miao;uE 1.,..rcu6onrrrno oJ)cnocoel

91. cocaoE scceocenimroofl m;oco c,-ilocmcua crgeoercosiconrrcsmlen:m112] rsso o0 zo cud"saooro

1oJru6 oro co eoB g ] o s o

J rtJ e o eu L.r:mr1 ru1 e, (o1 g].

o)CorJCCosiO@HsCOrtgg cocooa scceocenimloo! "lococ6uo6sq(U6

prlD orocDdolcn*poofl o<ocS

s](oro c!rlodcBploE culoooocqD'l L"Jo1"rco1ao1cm1errd. oocroeL"l oilgrrocmcroceuqlyod (o)cD(o)co) ffuoeccucD

ouA moEaleeolo, mrcorr'l<o"lco<ooaorgglcolpp <nrDocu "-rgdepoccol

ordcomeonu0 oloJogs]oroleaolooraoiro am'l"cilo@cm cnlerqoleJc6rfi oqo;crr'1ae,ceJo eaccaocenim.rom ojlercoio;oro;aeJloollcnigldmi mlr6aefls0 eic".d' cecgoE cooocE (cecgaE c.,oooE miaerSo6)

recnsicroccniL<octrom<olor'lcri ccuenel cruadgld ":erdm1<ocu5cnoonrrcorcerd

cacgoEcootnoE dao;cra

€cm) culgleolcm<ril. pol.,J(oco m3gceneloofl orrDJconDcos e.r;corl opoecSoi, oilearc clerucoEcr.uco8

"0ycrrrlruocerd p49 Lorm)ocmromrloo! cruocoJaoccoiorolttcmcil. c.rocgene'loofl rorermroccDocao ca,cgnE

e"ocn oE m oororol er ccofl o1 cm; p cu o ) o s 1"-.rcu doro cn a erdru: ero.

Prolegomenato atheory oflanguage, Resume ofatheoryoflanguage "Ocm1

<o6re) L<rrmn6'ong|erJ

oscocerd oeaoccsoi ooQ mtlrar-lcnoeoncrA <o'ncu<oolgilaolcmcil. cgcmiocgildmi .glcmceni <oaeq.,oo

ol c cm c Slcu g mrlauccrooro'loof, c"rrd.

reeg (6E cacgrd c.,ocnoE deggloc( 1"-Lcurdronrre,mccoio;cm Simon C Dik o.gr)ffD Gcosiccocmilro)

eerooE cognitive rec.,srccocmil<ororofloof, pode,eo guooeerceni nr-rccol"d .,nai"sr6TD@'E lrncod ogcm

"-rra-r:<o'l or6oil"d6oo1gl. Paul Diderchsen, Otto Jespersen, Peter Harder, Elisabeth Enberg- Pertersen,

Frans Gregersen, Una Canger, Michael Fortescue "gcrnlcuocerd

pnc roo<nerrurol 1ao;er-rd.

c g c mio C gfl dmi .,.ro m onrr'l o of, tc.re <o'r1 a ro a uA. ( c g c ru1 o )

t. rec"sjedad gp9sooo LoJaccro(Do €cm1 BrcB.to p6lrd

z. recnslcoied <olsrdgcotlo clJJcucruleo))o pend

3. P 99 s€ocu] o L.lrac crocnojlo oJocnidoo-.r3O1<Oreon U0 rgOerd.

+. rol;sdgcorlo cuJcum)Dcorlo <om1to0 "..r'ler

enicruesnuE pend

rac"szemroro'le.rg (Parole) rec"vcotlerceni (I-angue) eacgd c".oaroE daoggloofl 1ooal. pai mcruJl

crlooE mtooEgro'nrrlod m'lcni cr.r5<o)5mi<o)ocerd. .rocne6Bg;os p.lcdeeo g<rEoaercerrelo'1ao;cm<rfi crucruJ]

oloE crrlcmloceni. "6nf rsc.,src.,.ro'lemcoeunuEao; "'iloa,la;o on<orlcri cro(l)cooce) 6-Jo) clJJcucru! go6nBcmlo

org cuScumincorceni oiloOeocs o.ro'lemcoeonuaod t rJc".Jcomoccoionololcmorocmlo otsoecfioi m'lo"lasd

dolcm]. ecos/coelscDocor roroo;6<orrrcucfaoolg;oocenS on<or',loE cnooldcudoro',lcorccor (lmmanent) acmcqoro'laodmo rec"srcrocmiLrom.flr3uccnno ogrnlo eccogi(Do 1.!<orlrecm-reoBglos olluotooccor'l oool; occic.!c 6(0) o(onnlo GraG eooo m)'lralcn'ut',1 g;.

44

rucn)J)6 crrldcquolg cruloJeo/ mr;"-i<oo o€)cm BJcBJoonD oBocqNol L.l:ac<romo/ gggseelo

.,0m1 m.rar60.,rmo oa,cond ctrolodoerolgl. jlomo LoJecuocDoloJoJ)o (ExpressionFOrm) pgpsao oJoJculo

Content Form) c^-rdcmo'rceni. gggseer<orolocrg LoJecsocno ffucuro.o;emlces L"Je,cuocnroro'loi oomiroloro)eC). roflo1g;o

mlru5;o'loE m.r;o:amlijl(o Gruru)o ccruJftJcoJoooolo8 oeeocc$cukoE c'nd "-Icrmrulo GrlcooJ

cerc6oJlo <o'rm1erlgp 6'rucru)o oacond .:lolgileoogslcmroceni. 6rucooJceJcoomrlos onmyecuoerdole.t

eono0 (Purport / oikecuo) "-ilomcuScumrooflcerqo)ed "-.ro1emo1Calo*.rrreceni

ggpseercruc@slrorol cru]cro

aolocaolcmrd<ooo! "e.rsmcoJ@ocao) culesic'mooro ond<orooeroor'lceLcoied m.rotaolXileerlcmror'lcri otsocc$oi

.o1o1oo(Figure) "gcm m.raei.,-ro ooor<oolgilcoi6olcm). ecosr'oao cru]orcDcoDao.flomo (denotative sign)

cr6co, "iolo6rnleoyaolcm oeoccr$oi m-r;"-flrooca)cm LoJr.oocdroroonrrlmglooloi' m)coJoc6)cmcuJooJodoEoonrr m-r1"-r1C*)., cuSeoYemcooao.r'lomo (Connotative Sign)

"61cm mrodorooroQ))o

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rec nslc coc miL(o) o (616) oro m @1 g(o1 e.r c erd o eB o e crN clil o ap toml eor1.

o.rc Jl e cug rororl cuc ra o (VERBEL BEHAVIOUR)BURRHUS FREDERIL SKINNER(1904-90)

polcJo)co m;gceneloe.r Lcrocri.Daocncoor oncoo'laeroa rac.,s/cuocmiLoeeromcerd ozil."6".d miaejlcmrd.

omcocmitro .,lo"lasJorn66.Bgiet1os one€ooo oo:ocmorolcoxfi 1"-rot5orolcolo olcaolo roraaleJJgg psoolsetge,og.ggilcotcerd. cucj)acu5oro'lcucoo o6)ffncerd oocqoo<oro1ocrfl mr'leocctoo oncrlcorogslcmcil. oeale,occor'l 1.,1ru<0onrrcac"lcur'loroYesroemo (Operant Conditioning) "Orm] nJoaocculcm co"lscreocn rolno

eangila;os (behaviourmodification) om1.sr5oo! crucmDcosicu1o crurcounJcu;o rudrallXilaercoocrd coroc€ooo

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on d uoo'lcucoiaerlcm;.

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nuoc&)cm). porooo oolgcosmoloE ooo.16 <om1er;gp 6ruffLDo cuosigcoJlecolcerrS oaJg)e. mco o8igE

cucocd ooJoloco)ffn oflu.locsni Grdcuoo mcaocd onsli|co)eolecol)o Gneg)acolo o"-tg;cmnfi. cruoloo

omloE m.loreoflcoiaellcrn clel GrgclJoroleglo orcaologlos GlaoJlocru6ro:c@o66c5rrc] m.loreculco)ao;cm

rorcoemcni miaolcm<E pcacrrrlgoco.llcml. o6cgorc(o&o, eruelcrdEm)oc)o, CrD(oDoorotr, oeJlcn"laoSmo, (o)S

ounlcot ol.dlo.rcuemroo<rE Lo:ror'lcercoaoacao ooJolCIcgo oe,cerrd m.roreoiloi6o;cm<orcerd. pcu mlcoltcrorl

eocoE eo6rDels66BuAad cru",ocaoaoocao rucolootrco1(Dtcro6rDo Social Engineering dedlcmo;os mtlralc

crolonrrloafl .,iloEen:etrorirrloE o3"-rogs;onolocorsloro<ocsrd. oetromnoofl goJe(Dcoo aloclieocoE aolcn')

eoc(])cDoB ocrl{ oe5cudeemonn'lm}gg c5'nJcocudaooemo oto5nS.Ocm} 6,o5Ir3(dlo]cm(o}o po mrlralrc

crorcm1oofl .rjlaE6;uemol1etceni. ecDco eorcomia,lcolos oilodcomonrr'loi crr'lootlo .r:clroroccor'lo1cm1 da'1cmr0.

o)GuJoccor eoJcBJdcBoC <oromieoolaer;rm<or'ler3os ccogiaolos ogclocotcdcrrloo)oloocao m.lcrall5oe,uf

mieo'lcmra oomieerolaer)ffDlocucrnccol'lo1cm1 e"lcomiaer'lco))o5 Lolocro o:ocro'I.

aD]6rrilfl e

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l.,lce5roia,ocoor'l ecnsj5rnm)lcD6oBg]os galin-tcocn<oro'r'lmcaol'locL(1')o LolG@Ja, (Erdolaod6oBopccrn]o omJ

.giJcrngd. g"loruocmil<o.,-tooccor'l Loltr;cmods oiet cudooecBgJo ( colm'lcno, Loelc5rDcDo) crildolorrlaoJcm

cnoolg)old'(m<rE orourlm5mi<orcodaaocccul ( Extra - Carricular activity) ecolu5TDm)lmsoBgJos pail"-lcocno:;o

45