Media and Information Literacy Development Team

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Library and Information Science

Media and Information Literacy

Theories and Models of Media and Information Literacy

Content Reviewer

Content Reviewer

Paper Coordinator

Content Writer

Dr. Jagdish Arora, Director

INFLIBNET Centre, Gandhinagar

Principal Investigator &

Subject Coordinator

Paper No: 20 Media and Information Literacy

Module : 02 Theories and Models of Media and Information

Literacy

Paper Coordinator

Principal Investigator

&

Subject Coordinator

Paper Coordinator

Content Writer

Content Reviewer

Dr. Jagdish Arora, Director

INFLIBNET Centre, Gandhinagar

Shree Kannan P, Scientist C, INFLIBNET Centre, Gandhinagar

Dr Anubhuti Yadav /Vedabhyas Kundu,

Associate Professor, Indian Institute of Mass Communication /

Programme Officer, Gandhi Smriti

Dr Anubhuti Yadav,

Associate Professor, Indian Institute of Mass

Communication

Development Team

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Description of Module

Subject Name Library and Information Science

Paper Name 20 Media and Information Literacy

Module Name/Title Theories and Models of Media and Information Literacy

Module Id LIS/MIL-T/02

Pre-requisites

Objectives

To understand different theories of media and information literacy

To develop understanding of three orientations of media literacy- protecting, promoting

and participatory

To understand reflect on different models of media and information literacy a) message

interpretation model; b) explore, engage, empower (EEE) model; c) media literacy model;

d) Mahatma Gandhi’s nonviolent communication as a model of media literacy to counter

effects of media violence; e) The UNESCO Model of Information Literacy

Keywords Media literacy, Information Literacy, Theories of Media Literacy

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1 Exploring theoretical foundation for media literacy

In this section we will try to explore some theoretical dimensions and foundations of media and information

literacy (MIL). Academic discourses on MIL suggest that a wide range of major communication theories have

influenced media literacy. As MIL is seen as an inter-disciplinary subject, theories from other fields like

education and literacy, learning, sociology, anthropology, film studies, linguistics etc have influenced theoretical

orientation of media and information literacy.

It needs to be noted that with the explosion of digital technologies and the march towards information and

knowledge societies, there is a greater consciousness on the importance of active citizenry and the heightened

role of citizens in a mediated society. Also the new complexities of our society and the functioning of different

institutions in the 21st century- be it political, cultural and educational necessitates new paradigm of theoretical

framework of media and information literacy.

Asthana (2008) points out Dewey’s theory of education with its emphasis on interaction, reflection and

experience and Freire’s insights on dialogical education and developing consciousness has shaped contemporary

discussions on media education, learning and literacy. Hobbs and Jensen (2009) also talks about how

perspectives of interpretive education scholars such as Lev Vygotsky and Paolo Freire influence media literacy

education. They point out how these scholars conceptualized literacy as a socio-cultural practice that embodies,

reflects, and refracts power relations.

Many scholars have tried to fit media literacy education within the broader framework of different

communication theories. These include:

a) The stimulus-response model: This stems out from the work of early communication theorists who

underlined the power of the media message and a passive audience. These theorists delved on how the effects of

media were direct or follow the hypodermic needle model. This approach was used in early media literacy

education.

b)The uses and gratification model: As per this model, there is need to link the need for gratification and

media choice with the audience; also the fact is there are choices before the audience besides media. The users

of the media are in a position to identify their own interests and motivation to use the media. This model forms

the basis of media literacy education initiatives which focuses on developing critical capacities to discern media

messages.

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c)The cultivation theory: Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, and Signorielli (1994) had proposed this theory

pointing out that the repetitive lessons people learn from television (and other media) from infancy are likely to

become the basis for their broader world view. Here media effects are not seen as direct. Meanwhile Gerbner

(1999) had noted, “The stories the media tell – now virtually around the clock and through multiple channels

of communication – ‘weave the seamless web of the cultural environment that cultivates most of what

we think, what we do, and how we conduct our affairs.”

(http://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20Clusters/Mass%20Media/Cultivation_Theory/)

Meanwhile Masterman (2001) argues on the importance of practical work as the foundation for media literacy

education. He notes, “Simulations, practical audio and video work, sequencing exercises, prediction exercises,

code-breaking games, and a whole battery of techniques for encouraging effective group learning became part of

the armory of most media teachers. They were techniques which encouraged pupils to take on much more

responsibility for their own learning.” With the foundation of practical work which was necessary for critical

understanding of the media, he notes, “Technical competence in the media does not in itself constitute media

education. While every encouragement should be given to students to express themselves through the media,

practical work should be primarily a critical rather than a reproductive activity.”

Also according to Masterman (2001), “The central unifying concept of media education is that of representation.

The media mediate. They do not reflect but represent the world. The media, that is, are symbolic sign systems

that must be decoded. Without this principle, no media education is possible. From the assumption that the

media represent, rather than reflect reality, all else flows.”

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In Indian context, many of ideas of Freire, Dewey or Masterman which forms guiding post for media

literacy education can be encapsulated through the vision of Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore on

educatioin. Mahatma Gandhi had said, “Real education has to draw out the best from the boys and girls to be

educated. This can never be done by packing ill assorted and unwanted information into the heads of the pupils.

It becomes a dead weight crushing all originality in them and turning them into mere automata. (Harijan, 1-12-

1933) Gandhi had further said, “Persistent questioning and healthy inquisitiveness are the first requisite for

acquiring learning of any kind.” Meanwhile In Young India (29-1-1925), Mahatma Gandhi says, “Pupils must

know to discriminate between what should be received and what should be rejected. We are thinking, knowing

beings and we must in this period distinguish truth and untruth, sweet from bitter language, clean from unclean

things and so on.” The essence of practical work, critical thinking and reflection in media literacy education can

be explained from these perspectives.

Tagore believed that it was not enough to pass on information, what was important was the ability to put

to use what one has learnt and to develop curiosity and alertness of mind. (Shiksha, 1990). Tagore was opposed

to borrowed knowledge that distanced pupils from their own social and cultural fabric. He said that education

which imparts knowledge but bears no relevance to life situations is of no avail. He laid stress on discussion as a

mode of delivery of knowledge. The books should serve as mere supplements to knowledge acquired through

life situations and on independent thinking. Essentially, Tagore focuses on connection of knowledge outside

school curriculum. His stress on ‘learning to proceed from familiar situations to unfamiliar situations is what is

expected out of media and communication education.

The Gandhian model of nonviolent communication can be an important part of the endeavor to encourage

media literacy education to counter the effects of media violence. This will be dealt later in this chapter.

2.Three important trends of theoretical orientation of media literacy

There are predominantly three trends in media literacy education: a) the protectionist orientation; b) the

promoting orientation and c) the participatory orientation. (Tornero & Varis, 2010).

The protectionist orientation emerged out of theories like that of Lasswell’s bullet theory which underlined a

mechanistic idea that media were powerful tools which could cause bad effects. The goal of this orientation is to

offer protection to vulnerable groups like children against the negative effects of the media. It actively talks

about the need to have policies and regulations vis-à-vis the media. It also talks on the need to develop

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surveillance systems to act as media watchdog. This orientation gave rise to the inoculation approach to media

education. Masterman (2001) talks about how media literacy education as part of the inoculation approach

‘encouraged pupils to develop, discrimination fine judgment, and taste by grasping the basic differences between

the timeless values of authentic high culture and the de-based, anti-cultural values of largely commercial mass

media. He describes how the inoculative approaches views media as agents of cultural decline.

The essence of the protectionist orientation is discussed and debated especially in the context of media violence,

pornography, sexuality, racism, xenophobia and other aspects which are deemed to promote negative influence

on the citizenry. In this context, Tornero and Varis points out that this orientation ‘is generally found in

initiatives of educational and political institutions’.

However, with the changing media scenario, scholars talked about the paradigm shift from the simple

protectionist orientation. Buckingham (2003) notes how the notion of using media literacy education purely for

protectionist purposes has changed over time to focusing on preparing children for preparing purposes. Here he

argues that there has been a move in both media literacy education and education in general towards

democratization, which he describes as “a process whereby students’ out-of-school cultures are gradually

recognized as valid and worthy of consideration in the school curriculum”. He further notes that over time, it has

become more and more accepted to write in school about every-day experiences and about popular culture. No

longer are values of a ‘high’ culture imposed on students, he adds.

The second orientation is the promoting approach. According to Tornero and Varis, this orientation aims at

promotion and encouragement of different activities and initiatives which can ‘stimulate greater awareness of

the media universe and citizen empowerment’. This approach focuses on the empowerment of the citizenry and

how they can use the media in the contemporary society. It stresses on how citizens can constructively use the

media and their relationship with it ‘either through intellectual creativity or communication relations’.

Linked to this empowerment or promoting orientation of media literacy is an expanded empowerment model as

articulated by Hobbs, Cohn-Geltner and Landis (2011). Based on their own case studies of introducing media

literacy education amongst students of different classes, they note, “The expanded empowerment model,

because it moves through the phases of engagement, finding and using information, analyzing and evaluating it,

then communicating ideas and taking social action, offers a systematic framework to help educators to develop

children’s knowledge and understanding about current events, news and journalism.”

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For children, young people and the citizenry as a whole to negotiate the complexities of the media environment,

it is not enough to just delve on just the protectionist or promoting orientation. Capacities need to be developed

for the citizen to be able to discern between reality and fiction in the media, develop better communicative skills,

develop ability to use media texts, visuals and graphics and develop critical thinking and reflecting skills on

media representation. As large number of media platforms is available to today’s citizens, they should have

critical capacities to communicate their ideas and thoughts in these numerous platforms and formats. All these

lead us to the third orientation, the participatory approach to media literacy.

Tornero and Varis notes, “The participatory orientation stresses on the spread of social production and

communication for the development of knowledge, interactivity and dialogue. It regards the sphere of

communication and its products as the legacy of all of humanity and therefore as open and free. This attitude is

associated with a political philosophy that trusts in individuals’ autonomy, critical capacity and ability to

properly guide their own personal development and thus contribute to the collective welfare.”

Masterman (2001) also stressing on the significance of the participatory orientation says, “Media education is an

essential step in the long march towards a truly participatory democracy…widespread media literacy is essential

if all citizens are to wield power, make rational decisions, become effective change agents, and have an effective

involvement with the media.”

By analyzing the three orientations it can be stated within the broad parameters of the participatory orientation,

the other two orientations- protectionist and promoting or empowerment can be effectively integrated. In fact, in

this context, Tornero and Varis argue that the participatory orientation is definitely the future orientation of

media literacy and that ‘it fits in with the most advanced theories related to the public sphere and the role that

the media should play in it’. They point out that this orientation is characteristic of the new media literacy

movement globally and can be linked to ‘the social and collective production of knowledge such as wikis,

copyleft and blogs. The underlining principles of the participatory orientation according to them are critical and

liberal, tolerant and respectful of diversity, democratizing and defending of equality.

3 Exploring different models of media and information literacy

I) Message Interpretation Process (MIP) Model: This model is based Bandura’s social cognitive theory and

Goldman, Brown and Christiansen’s expectancy theory. This model is framework for studying the ways in

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which logic- and affect-based dimensions of decision making work together to produce decisions. Martens

(2010) notes, “As media literacy is theorized to affect how individuals respond to media messages, it is

appropriate to examine it using a model that treats decision-making as a process of evaluation and

understanding.” He says the MIP model takes a receiver-oriented, information processing approach to media

effects.

According to Martens, the MIP model, “The MIP model proposes that individuals, applying logic to their

analysis of media messages, make logical comparisons between their personal experiences and what they see in

the media. By encouraging a more systematic approach to decision making based on a thoughtful consideration

of available information and evidence, a logical comparison process should provide balance to the affective

route, which requires less mental effort. This may help children and adolescents to resist, for example, the

image-based and affect-laden appeals used by many advertisers to gain customers.”

II) Explore, Engage, Empower (EEE) Model: UNESCO (2013) has defined media and information literacy as a

set of competencies that empowers citizens to access, retrieve, understand, evaluate and use, create as well as

share information and media content in all formats using various tools, in a critical, ethical, and effective way, in

order to participate and engage in personal, professional and societal activities.

Based on this definition, Alagaran II (2015) has proposed an explore, engage, empower model of media and

information literacy. He argues that the model tries to provide a general process framework for understanding

and practicing media and information literacy. According to him, competencies in media and information

literacy can be grouped in three major practical applications: explore, engage and empower. He states:

a)To explore is to identify, access, and retrieve information and media content skilfully;

b) To engage is to analyze and evaluate media and information critically; and

c) To empower is to create or produce, share or communicate, and use information and media content ethically,

safely, and responsibly for decision making and taking action.

Alagaran II argues that the EEE model ‘encapsulates all the relevant competencies that students in the digital

age must be able to acquire in a more concise and straightforward fashion.

III) The Media Literacy Model: Potter (2004) proposed the media literacy model. This model talks about four

main factors. According to Potter, “At the foundation is the factor of knowledge structures. The combination of

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knowledge structures feeds information into the second factor, which is the personal locus. This is where

decisions about information processing are motivated. The third factor is a person’s set of competencies and

skills, which are the information-processing tools. And the fourth factor is the flow of information-processing

tasks. The four factors work together interactively in a system.”

Potter underlines that the foundation to develop media literacy skills are five knowledge structures. These

include: media effects, media content, media industries, the real world, and the self. He argues that with

knowledge in these five areas the citizenry becomes more aware while processing information and hence could

make better decisions about getting information, use that information and discern its meaning before using it for

their own purpose.

According to Potter, the skills most relevant to media literacy are analysis, evaluation, grouping, induction,

deduction, synthesis, and abstraction. On the fourth factor, i.e., the information-processing task, he points out

that there are three such tasks: filtering, meaning matching, and meaning construction. He says, “These tasks are

ordered in a sequence of information processing. First, we encounter a message and are faced with the task of

deciding whether to filter the message out (ignore it) or filter it in (process it). If we decide to filter it in, then we

must make sense of it, that is, to recognize the symbols and match our learned definitions for the symbols. Next,

we need to construct the meaning of the message.”

Arguing that media literacy was a broad concept, Potter talks about the attributes of a media literate person,

“Media-literate people are able to see much more in a given message. They are more aware of the levels of

meaning. This enhances understanding. They are more in charge of the process of meaning making and

selection. This enhances control. They are much more likely to get what they want from the messages. This

enhances appreciation. Thus, people operating at higher levels of media literacy fulfill the goals of higher

understanding, control, and appreciation.”

IV) Mahatma Gandhi’s nonviolent communication as a model of media literacy to counter effects of media

violence: In Module 1, we discussed how media and information literacy can be used as a tool for violence

prevention. Young people not only are exposed to a variety of violence in different media forms, they are

challenged every now and then in various conflict situations.

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Feilitzen et.al. (2000) discussing on the influences of media violence says there could be imitation; getting tips

and models about how violence can be used; aggression; surrounding; biased conceptions about violence in

society and habituation to media violence. Feilitzen et.al. further points out that it is likely that for some

individuals’ media violence has contributed to feelings of fear, misconceptions about real violence, and

experiences of threatening surroundings that, in a situation of crisis, can turn into destructive aggression.

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The Framework and Plan of Action for the Global Partnerships on Media and Information Literacy (developed

during the Global Forum for Partnerships on Media and Information Literacy which took place from 26 to 28

June 2013 in Abuja, Nigeria. The forum was held under the theme “Promoting Media and Information Literacy

as a Means to Cultural Diversity”) underlines the importance of development of human capital for knowledge

societies. It notes that promotion of media and information literacy globally can be driven around the objectives

of further intercultural and interfaith dialogue, principles of inclusion, health and wellness. All these objectives

are inherently connected to the foundation of peace in the society and a negation to all forms of violence.

Also the NCERT’s Position Paper on National Policy for Education for Peace (2006) while underlining the need

to promote media awareness amongst children to reduce violence emphasizes on media literacy education not

just for students and teachers but for even parents. It also says that teachers can help children to relate to the

media in a real and wholesome fashion so that its benefits are derived and harmful effects minimized.

In this backdrop in order to develop capacities of young people to resolve conflicts through nonviolence and be

able to challenge those models of media where conflicts are resolved through violence, we need to promote the

powerful model of Mahatma Gandhi’s nonviolent communication. By developing critical understanding and

imbibing the strategy of nonviolent communication, we can encourage young people to resolve conflicts through

peaceful means. Linking media and information literacy education to nonviolent communication can contribute

to a culture of peace and nonviolence.

According to Borde (1995), Mahatma Gandhi’s nonviolent communication theory consists of four theoretical

units: (1) nonviolent speech and action; (2) maintenance of relationships and enrichment of personhood; (3)

openness; and (4) flexibility. According to him, the theory of nonviolent communication means flexibility and

openness of achieving the end.

Further Gonsalves (2010) talking about the communication approach of Gandhi says, “From start to finish, the

underlying principle of Gandhian engagement with an opponent in a conflict is to keep the channels of

communication open, to avoid intimidation and to remove all obstacles to dialogue. Such openness calls for,

first, a well-planned strategy of social interaction and, second, a rigorous personal attitudinal discipline.” It can

be gauged from Gonsalves’s observations that the Gandhian method of communication was strategic and well-

planned with a thrust on nonviolent conflict resolution.

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Integrating the Gandhian model of nonviolent communication in media and information literacy programmes

can contribute to a more nuanced understanding of conflicts represented by the media and also help develop

capacities to respond to such situations through nonviolence.

v) UNESCO’s Conceptual Model of MIL: This model recognizes the importance of all forms of media (including

community media) and of all other information providers including libraries, archives, museums, publishers, and

those on the Internet. (UNESCO, 2013) According to UNESCO, “The concept draws on the convergence

between telecommunication and broadcasting and among many forms of media and information providers.” This

model also includes different oral traditions.

As per this model of MIL, the centre circle ‘represents the information resources and the means by which

information is communicated and the media as an institution.’ “The availability and access to information and

media and other information providers, including those on the Internet are important aspects of the enabling

environment of MIL to flourish.”

The second circle from the centre of this model looks at the reasons on why people use information and engage

with media and other information providers like entertainment, association, identification, surveillance and

enlightenment. The third circle from the centre of this model refers ‘to the basic knowledge that all citizens

should have about the operations, functions, nature, established professionals and ethical standards of all forms

of media and other information providers.’

The final circle talks about the process and practice. It tries to communicate different steps that ‘should be taken

or competencies citizens should possess to effectively create and use information and media content ethically, as

well as engaging with media and other information providers in their social, economic, political , cultural and

personal lives’.

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(http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002256/225606e.pdf)

vi) The UNESCO Model of Information Literacy: As was described in Module 1, the 11 stages of information

literacy as described by Horton (2007) is often termed as the UNESCO model of information literacy. Horton

points out that this model of information literacy fits within the context of other literacies, “The family of 21st

Century “survival literacies” includes six categories: (1) the Basic or Core functional literacy fluencies

(competencies) of reading, writing, oralcy and numeracy; (2) Computer Literacy; (3) Media Literacy; (4)

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Distance Education and E-Learning; (5) Cultural Literacy; and (6) Information Literacy. The boundaries

between the various members of this family overlap, but they should be seen as a closely-knit family.”

(http://image.slidesharecdn.com/nenetworkfeb2011-110218022847-phpapp02/95/the-seven-pillars-of-

information-literacy-research-lens-6-728.jpg?cb=1297996235)

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(http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/resources/publications-and-communication-

materials/publications/full-list/global-media-and-information-literacy-assessment-framework)

4 Summary

There is no single theory of media literacy and draws its theoretical foundations from an interdisciplinary

approach. The participatory orientation is emerging as an important theoretical foundation of media literacy and

its underpinning ideas are critical and liberal, tolerant and respectful of diversity, democratizing and defending

of equality. Its foundation is also rooted on the idea that media literacy enables citizens to take part in the public

sphere, make rational decisions and can contribute to social causes. While there are several models of media

literacy, Mahatma Gandhi’s model of nonviolent communication is a significant approach to prepare students to

resolve conflicts through nonviolent means and minimize the effects of media violence.

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/resources/publications-and-communication-materials/publications/full-list/global-media-and-information-literacy-assessment-framework

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/resources/publications-and-communication-materials/publications/full-list/global-media-and-information-literacy-assessment-framework

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References

1. Alagaran II, Jose Reuben Q (2015). Explore, Engage, Empower Model: Integrating Media and

Information Literacy for Sustainable Development in Communication Education Curriculum; in Media

Information Literacy for the Sustainable Development Goals; Jagtar Singh, Alton Grizzle, Sin Joan Yee

and Sherri Hope Cuiver edited; MILID Yearbook 2015; International Clearinghouse on Children, Youth

and Media; NORDICOM; University of Gothenburg.

2. Asthana, S. (2008). Innovative Practices of Youth Participation in Media; UNESCO.

3. Borde, Richard (1995). Mahatma Gandhi’s Theory of Nonviolent Communication; Paper presented at

the Western States Communication Association Conference, February 1995.

4. Buckingham, D. (2003). Media education: Literacy, learning and contemporary culture.Cambridge,

MA: Polity Press.

5. Feilitzen, Cecilia Von and Carlson, Ulla (2000). Children in New Media Landscape: Games,

Pornography & Perceptions; Children and Media Violence Yearbook 2000; UNESCO & International

Clearinghouse on Children and Media, Nordicom.

6. Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1994). Growing up with television: The

cultivation perspective. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and

research (pp.17-42). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

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its Viewers: Cultivation Theory and Research, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, and elsewhere.

8. Gonsalves, Peter (2010). Clothing for Liberation: A Communication Analysis of Gandhi’s Swadeshi

Revolution; Sage.

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9. Hobbs, R., & Jensen, A., (2009). The past, present, and future of media literacy education.Journal of

Media Literacy Education, 1(1), 1-11.

10. Hobbs, Renee; Cohn-Geltner, Henry & Landis, John (2011). Views on the News: Media Literacy

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Approaches ; Cecilia Von Feilitzen, Ulla Carlsson & Catharina Bucht Edited; The International

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11. Horton, Forest Woody, Jr (2007). Understanding Information Literacy: A Primer; United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

12. Martens, Hans (2010). Evaluating Media Literacy Education: Concepts, Theories and Future Directions;

in the Journal of Media Literacy Education 2:1 (2010) 1-22; The National Association for Media

Literacy Education.

13. Masternam, L (2001). A Rationale for Media Education, in Kubey, R. (Ed). Media Literacy in the

Information Age: Current Perspectives. Information and Behaviour, 6, New Brunawick, N J

Transaction Publishers.

14. Media and Information Literacy; Policy and Strategy Guidelines; UNESCO; 2013.

15. NCERT Position Paper on National Policy on Education for Peace; NCERT, 2006.

16. Potter, W J (2004). Theory of media literacy: A cognitive approach; Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage.

17. Tornero, J M Perez & Varis, Tapio (2010). Media Literacy and New Humanism; UNESCO Institute for

Information Technologies in Education.

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18. Yadav, Anubhuti ( 2011) “Media Studies in School Curriculum : Obstacles, Challenges and

Possibilities”, Journal of Indian Education, NCERT, 2011, pg 93

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