living - religions

LIVINGRELIGIONS

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LIVINGRELIGIONS

N I N T H E D I T I O N — M A R Y PAT F I S H E R

CONSULTANTS

CHRISTOPHER QUEEN Harvard University

DAMARIS PARSITAU Egerton University, Kenya

RITA SHERMA Taksha University

CHRISTOPHER CHAPPLE Loyola Marymount University

RODNEY L. TAYLOR University of Colorado at Boulder

JOHN BREEN International Research Centre for Japanese Studies, Kyoto

HILLEL LEVINE Boston University and International Center for Concilliation

MARY DOAK University of San Diego

OMID SAFI University of North Carolina

GURINDER SINGH MANN University of California, Santa Barbara

EILEEN BARKER London School of Economics

GEORGE D. CHRYSSIDES University of Birmingham

M. DARROL BRYANT Renison University College/University of Waterloo, Canada

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River

Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto

Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo


Editorial Director: Craig CampanellaPublisher: Nancy RobertsAssociate Editor: Nicole ConfortiEditorial Assistant: Molly WhiteOperations Specialist: Diane Peirano

Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on pages 555–56.

Copyright © 2014, 2013, 2011, 2008, 2005, 2002, 1999, 1997, 1994, 1991 Mary Pat Fisher

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Front Cover: © Scott Stulberg/CorbisFrontispiece: GM Photo Images/AlamyPage xiv: I. V. Chizhov

Student Edition: ISBN-13: 978-0-205-95640-1ISBN-10: 0-205-95640-8

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À la Carte: ISBN-13: 978-0-205-95661-6ISBN-10: 0-205-95661-0pearsonhighered.com

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Preface ixTeaching and learning resources xvMAP Religions of the World Today xviTIMELINE xviii

C H A P T E R 1

RELIGIOUS RESPONSES 1Attempts to defi ne religion 2Why are there religions? 3— Materialistic perspective: humans invented religion 3— Functional perspective: religion is useful 4— Faith perspective: Ultimate Reality exists 7Understandings of Sacred Reality 10EXCLUSIVISM VS. UNIVERSALISM A letter from

I. H. Azad Faruqi 12Ritual, symbol, and myth 14TEACHING STORY Descendants of the Eagle 17Absolutist and liberal responses to modernity 18BOX Angels Weep 19The encounter between science and religion 20RELIGION IN PRACTICE When Science Approaches Religion 25Women in religions 26Negative aspects of organized religions 28Lenses for studying religion 29Key terms 30Review questions 31Discussion questions 31

C H A P T E R 2 INDIGENOUS SACRED WAYS 33Understanding indigenous sacred ways 34MAP Distribution of Indigenous Groups 34Cultural diversity 36The circle of right relationships 39— Relationships with spirit 40YORUBA TEACHING STORY Osun and the Power of Woman 42— Kinship with all creation 42— Relationships with power 46Spiritual specialists 48— Storytellers and other sacred roles 48— Mystical intermediaries 51LIVING INDIGENOUS SACRED WAYS An Interview with

Nadezhda Ananyevna Stepanova 54Group observances 55RELIGION IN PRACTICE The Sun Dance Way

of Self-Sacrifi ce 56— Individual observances 59Globalization 60RELIGION IN PRACTICE The Orang Asli of Malaysia:

Traditions Being Lost 62Development issues 64

RELIGION IN PUBLIC LIFE Damaris Parsitau 66Key terms 69Review questions 69Discussion questions 69

C H A P T E R 3

HINDUISM 71Philosophical and metaphysical origins 72— The Indus Valley civilization 72MAP The Indian Subcontinent 73TIMELINE Hinduism 74— The Vedas 75Major philosophical systems 77— Samkhya 78— Advaita Vedanta 78— Yoga 79Religious foundations and theistic paths 83— Shaktas 84— Shaivites 87— Vaishnavites 89— The epics and Puranas 89TEACHING STORY Hanuman, the Monkey Chief 93The Hindu way of life 95— Rituals 95LIVING HINDUISM An Interview with Somjit Dasgupta 97— Castes, duties, and life goals 98RELIGION IN PUBLIC LIFE Anna Hazare 100— Life stages 101RELIGION IN PRACTICE Sacred Thread Ceremony 102— The guru 103— Women’s position 103— Fasts, prayers, and auspicious designs 106— Reverence of trees and rivers 106— Pilgrimages 107— Festivals 108RELIGION IN PRACTICE Holi 110Hinduism in the modern world 111— Modern movements 112— Global Hinduism 113RELIGION IN PRACTICE Dharmic Principles:

The Swadhyaya Movement 114— Hindu identity 117Key terms 118Review questions 119Discussion questions 119

C H A P T E R 4

JAINISM 121The Tirthankaras and ascetic orders 121Freeing the soul: the ethical pillars 123— Karma 124TEACHING STORY The Story of Bahubali 124

CONTENTS


VI CONTENTS

— Ahimsa 125RELIGION IN PRACTICE Jain Purifi cation 127— Aparigraha 127— Anekantwad 128Spiritual practices 128Festivals and pilgrimages 131LIVING JAINISM An Interview with M. P. Jain 132World Jainism 133Key terms 135Review questions 135Discussion questions 135

C H A P T E R 5

BUDDHISM 137The life and legend of the Buddha 137TIMELINE Buddhism 139The Dharma 143— The Four Noble Truths 143— The Noble Eightfold Path to liberation 145— The wheel of birth and death 146TEACHING STORY The Great Ape Jataka Tale 148— Nirvana 149Branches of Buddhism 150MAP The Spread of Buddhism 150— Theravada: the path of mindfulness 151— Mahayana: the path of compassion and wisdom 157MAP Distribution of Forms of Buddhism in the World Today 158— Chan and Zen: the great way of enlightenment 162CHART Major Branches of Buddhism 163RELIGION IN PRACTICE Zen Oxherding Pictures 164— Pure Land: devotion to Amitabha Buddha 166— Nichiren: salvation through the Lotus Sutra 166LIVING BUDDHISM An Interview with Naoyuki Ogi 167— Vajrayana: the indestructible path 169RELIGION IN PUBLIC LIFE His Holiness the Dalai Lama 172— Festivals 173Buddhism in the West 175RELIGION IN PRACTICE Life in a Western Zen Monastery 176Socially engaged Buddhism 180Key terms 185Review questions 186Discussion questions 186

C H A P T E R 6

DAOISM AND CONFUCIANISM 188Ancient traditions 188— Worship and divination 189MAP Historic Sites of Daoism and Confucianism 189— Cosmic balance 191TIMELINE Daoism and Confucianism 192Daoism—the way of nature and immortality 193— Teachings of Daoist sages 194TEACHING STORY Three in the Morning 196— Popular religion and organized Daoism 197— Inner alchemy 199— Daoist sects 201RELIGION IN PRACTICE The Lantern Festival 202— Daoism today 203Confucianism—the practice of virtue 207— Master Kong’s life 208

— The Confucian virtues 209— Divergent followers of Confucius 211— The state cult 212— Neo-Confucianism 213— Confucianism under communism 214— Confucianism in East Asia 217LIVING CONFUCIANISM An Interview with Okada Takehito 218Key terms 219Review questions 220Discussion questions 220

C H A P T E R 7

SHINTO 222The roots of “Shinto” 222— Kinship with nature 223— Relationships with the kami 224TEACHING STORY Amaterasu Comes Out of the Cave 225— Shrines 226LIVING SHINTO An Interview with a Japanese Businessman 227MAP Major Shinto Shrines 229— Ceremonies and festivals 230— Purifi cation 232RELIGION IN PRACTICE Purifi cation by Waterfall 233Buddhist, Daoist, and Confucian infl uences 234State Shinto 235“Sect Shinto” 236Shinto today 237Key terms 240Review questions 240Discussion questions 240

ZOROASTRIANISM 242

C H A P T E R 8

JUDAISM 246A history of the Jewish people 246TIMELINE Judaism 247— Biblical stories 248MAP The Early Israelites 250TEACHING STORY Abraham’s Willingness to Sacrifi ce Isaac 252BOX The Ten Commandments 255— Return to Jerusalem 257— Rabbinic Judaism 261— Judaism in the Middle Ages 265— Kabbalah and Hasidism 267— Judaism and modernity 269— The Holocaust 270MAP Jewish Populations and the Holocaust 273— Zionism and contemporary Israel 273Torah 278— The one God 278— Love for God 279— The sacredness of human life 279— Law 280LIVING JUDAISM An Interview with Eli Epstein 281— Suffering and faith 282Sacred practices 283Holy days 286RELIGION IN PRACTICE Passover Innovations 289Contemporary Judaism 290


CONTENTS VII

— Major branches today 291CHART Major Branches of Judaism Today 291RELIGION IN PUBLIC LIFE Rabbi Michael Melchior 294— Jewish feminism 296— Jewish renewal 298Key terms 299Review questions 300Discussion questions 300

C H A P T E R 9

CHRISTIANITY 302Historical evidence 302Evidence of the Bible 303The life and teachings of Jesus 305— Birth 305— Preparation 306— Ministry 307MAP Jesus’ Ministry 308LIVING CHRISTIANITY An Interview with David Vandiver 311TEACHING STORY The Good Samaritan 312— Challenges to the authorities 313TIMELINE Christianity 315— Crucifi xion 316— Resurrection and Ascension 319BOX Books of the New Testament 320The early Church 321— From persecution to empire 321MAP St. Paul’s Missionary Journeys 323— Evolving organization and theology 324— Early monasticism 326Church administration 327MAP Distribution of Christians Today 328— East–West division 329— Social chaos and the papacy 330Intellectual revival and monasticism 331Medieval mysticism 332The Protestant Reformation 333RELIGION IN PRACTICE Russian Orthodox Kenoticism 334CHART Major Divisions of Christianity Today 337The Roman Catholic Reformation 339Liberal trends 340The Second Vatican Council 341The Orthodox world today 342BOX Eastern Orthodox Church 343— Distinctive features of Orthodox spirituality 344Central beliefs in contemporary Christianity 346Sacred practices 348— Worship services and sacraments 348— The liturgical year 351— Contemplative prayer 354— Veneration of saints and angels 355Contemporary trends 357— Evangelicalism 360— Spirit-oriented movements 362— The Great Reversal 366— Christian faith and justice 367RELIGION IN PUBLIC LIFE Archbishop Desmond M. Tutu 369— Feminist Christianity 370— Creation-centered Christianity 371— Ecumenical movement 372Key terms 374

Review questions 375Discussion questions 375

C H A P T E R 1 0

ISLAM 377Pre-Islamic Arabia 377TIMELINE Islam 378The Prophet Muhammad 379The Qur’an 384The central teachings 387— The Oneness of God and of humanity 387— Prophethood and the compass of Islam 388— Human relationship to the divine 388— The unseen life 389— The Last Judgment 390The Five Pillars 391— Belief and witness 391— Daily prayers 392RELIGION IN PRACTICE Salaat 393— Zakat 394— Fasting 395— Hajj 395LIVING ISLAM An Interview with Dr. Syed M. Hussain 398Sunni and Shi’a 399— Sunnis 400— Shi’a 401Sufi sm 402The spread of Islam 406MAP The Spread of Islam 406TEACHING STORY Transformation by Islam 408— Islamic culture 408— Eastward expansion 410Relationships with the West 413— Islam in the West 415Muslim resurgence 416— Tradition in modern life 418RELIGION IN PUBLIC LIFE Shirin Ebadi 420— Outreach and education 421— Islam in politics 423— Islam for the future 430Key terms 431Review questions 432Discussion questions 432

C H A P T E R 1 1

SIKHISM 434Guru Nanak 434The succession of Gurus 436TIMELINE Sikhism 437TEACHING STORY Guru Arjun Dev’s Devotion 438Central beliefs 443Sacred practices 445RELIGION IN PUBLIC LIFE His Holiness Baba Virsa Singh 448Sikhism today 449MAP The Punjab 450RELIGION IN PRACTICE Amrit Ceremony on Baisakhi 452LIVING SIKHISM An Interview with Sheena Kandhari 454Key terms 455Review questions 456Discussion questions 456

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VIII CONTENTS

C H A P T E R 1 2

NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS 458Social context of new religious movements 458Charismatic leadership 461— Unifi cation movement 461— Sathya Sai Baba 464Offshoots of older religions 465— Mormon Church 465— Jehovah’s Witnesses 467— Radhasoami 469LIVING TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION

An Interview with Wolfgang Hecker 470Combinations of older religions 471— Caodaism 471— African-inspired syncretic religions 472— Agon Shu 474Universalism 475— Theosophical Society 475— Baha’i 476RELIGION IN PRACTICE The Baha’i Model for

Governance of the World 478Social trends 479— Ethnic identity: Rastafari 479— Nature spirituality 481— New Age spirituality 486— Invented religions 488Opposition to new religious movements 489Will new religious movements last? 492Key terms 493Review questions 494Discussion questions 494

C H A P T E R 1 3

RELIGION IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 496Globalization 496Secularism 497Religious pluralism 499— Hardening of religious boundaries 499— Religion after 11 September 501Religion in politics 503RELIGION IN PRACTICE Excerpts from

Obama’s Historic Cairo Speech 505Interfaith movement 506— Responses to other faiths 507— Interfaith initiatives 508Religion and social issues 512RELIGION IN PUBLIC LIFE Jimmy Carter 514Religion and materialism 516Religion and the future of humanity 518Key terms 519Review questions 519Discussion questions 520

Notes 522Glossary 535Index 544Credits 555


PREFACE IX

Religion is not a museum piece but a vibrant force in the

lives of many people around the world. Living Religions is

a sympathetic approach to what is living and signifi cant in

the world’s major religious traditions and in various new

movements that are arising. This book provides a clear and

straightforward account of the development, doctrines,

and practices of the major faiths followed today. The

emphasis throughout is on the personal consciousness of

believers and their own accounts of their religion and its

relevance in contemporary life.

What’s new in this edition?

This ninth edition of Living Religions has been thoroughly

revised and updated. In preparing the text I worked with

an outstanding team of specialist consultants who provided

detailed suggestions and resources for improving the text

in the light of recent scholarship.

Old approaches to understanding and explaining reli-

gions are being increasingly challenged, so in this edition

I have given special attention to sensitive issues raised

by current scholarship and by voices from within the

religions. Since the fi rst edition of Living Religions, which

was published in 1991, there have been sea changes in

understandings of Daoism and of Shinto, for instance, and

the presumed history of an Aryan invasion of India and its

links to the Vedas is being carefully re-examined. Much

more emphasis is being placed on cultural customs, popu-

lar spiritual practices, mixtures of religions, and varieties

of religious ways, as opposed to distinct monolithic insti-

tutionalized religions, and this is refl ected in new material

woven throughout this edition. It is now more diffi cult to

make sweeping generalizations about any religion, for they

do not fi t the facts that are coming to light.

Globalization increasingly shapes our lives, altering

cultures and bringing greater contact among people of dif-

ferent religions. It is harder than ever before to sort out

reifi ed individual religions. The effects of globalization are,

therefore, examined in each chapter of this new edition.

The crossing and merging of religious paths does not

always lead to greater unity, however. Although appre-

ciation and acceptance of the religious ways of others is

increasing in some quarters, interactions between differing

faiths are also leading to defensive hardening of bounda-

ries. Religious exclusivism has been used politically to stoke

fi res of hatred and violence. In the twenty-fi rst century, as

interest in religious participation grows, violence perpe-

trated in the name of religion is also growing. This ninth

edition follows this disturbing trend, while making distinc-

tions between the basic teachings of religions, none of

which condones wanton violence, and the ways in which

religions have been politicized. Every religion is struggling

with its responses to modernity, including fundamentalist

and exclusivist reactions to increasing pluralism within our

societies, and these struggles are discussed in each chapter.

Tied together by globalization, people around the world

have been affected by the global economic meltdown

that began in the United States in 2008. The attitudes of

religions toward economic issues, including greed, mate-

rialism, and the growing gap between rich and poor, are

examined throughout this edition.

People of many faiths are also looking at ways in which

their religious practices and beliefs are interwoven with

and affect the natural environment. This edition, therefore,

includes material on religious approaches to contemporary

ecological concerns, such as pollution resulting from rapid

industrialization in China, nuclear disaster in Japan, and

ominous signs of climate change. Many other social issues

are being taken up by religious leaders. Examples in this

edition include structural injustice, corruption, HIV/AIDS,

and female infanticide.

This edition includes expanded coverage of women,

with women’s voices and contributions woven into the

discussion of each religion. Feminist theologies now span

decades of work and have reached the point of self-criticism,

rather than focusing largely on criticism of traditional

patriarchal attitudes that barred women from roles of

spiritual power. Obstacles to women’s expression of their

spirituality still exist, however, and are discussed within

the context of the various religious traditions.

This new edition also preserves and improves upon the

features that make Living Religions special.

Personal interviews with followers of each faith provide

interesting and informative fi rst-person accounts of each

religion as perceived from within the tradition. I have pre-

sented these fi rst-person quotations from many people, from

a Shinto businessman in Japan to a young Sikh woman in

London, in “Living…” feature boxes and also in excerpts

woven throughout the text, such as new quotes about the

Jain practice of fasting to death at the end of life. There are

PREFACE


X PREFACE

new interview boxes—which focus on how practitioners of

each faith experience the beliefs and rituals of their tradi-

tion—in the Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism, Shinto,

and Sikhism chapters.

Eighteen Religion in Practice feature boxes portray the

spiritual activities and beliefs of religious groups or indi-

viduals, such as the indigenous American sun dance and

the Hindu sacred thread ceremony, providing fascinating

insights into signifi cant practices and festivals. The special

feature box in the Buddhism chapter, “Life in a Western

Zen Monastery,” has been revised and updated because of

the death of its founding abbot, John Daido Loori Roshi,

and the subsequent evolution of the community.

Eight Religion in Public Life feature boxes portray the

spiritual roots of people who are making signifi cant contri-

butions to modern society, such as Jimmy Carter, the Dalai

Lama, and Desmond Tutu. Three new Religion in Public

Life boxes have been added in this new edition, featur-

ing Damaris Parsitau, a Maasai woman who has become a

respected scholar and mentor for her people; Anna Hazare,

leader of a widespread grassroots movement against cor-

ruption in India; and Rabbi Michael Melchior, a Jewish

peacemaker trying to bring religious perspectives to bear

on political tensions and impasses in Israel.

Eleven Teaching Story feature boxes contain tales that

serve as take-off points for discussions about core values

embedded in each faith.

An enhanced image program provides fi fty-fi ve new imag-

es, which, along with over two hundred existing images,

help to bring religions to life. Many of the new photographs

are my own, from countries I have visited while doing

personal research for this edition. Narrative captions offer

additional insights into the characteristics and orientation

of each tradition and the people who practice it.

Quotations from primary sources throughout the book

give direct access to the thinking and fl avor of each tradi-

tion. New memorable quotations include a passage from

the Lotus Sutra illustrating belief in the Eternal Buddha.

MyReligionLab icons in the margins point to entries in the

second and third editions of An Anthology of Living Religions,

a companion volume of primary source material that fol-

lows the same organization as Living Religions, as well as to

other relevant documents on the MyReligionLab website.

Pedagogical aids are included throughout the text. A list

of Key Topics at the beginning of each chapter helps read-

ers organize their thinking about the material. Key Terms,

defi ned and highlighted in boldface when they fi rst appear,

are included in an extensive glossary; many of these are

also listed and defi ned at the end of each chapter for

immediate understanding and review. Useful guides to the

pronunciation of many words are included in the glossary.

All the Review Questions and Discussion Questions at

the end of each chapter have been revised for this edi-

tion. Updated Suggested Reading lists and Additional

Internet Resources, which provide suggestions for gener-

ally accurate and useful websites, are available on the

MyReligionLab website.

Chapter-by-chapter revisions

Chapter 1: Religious Responses has been revised and

updated with increased reference to non-Western perspec-

tives on the study of religion. There is expanded discussion

of the categorization and labeling of specifi c religious tradi-

tions. New material on the defi nition of religion includes

art and quotations that refer to dynamic processes rather

than fi xed entities. Music plays an important role in many

religious practices, so its effects and uses are now explored

in this chapter. There is a new discussion of the profound

effects of globalization, a theme that is followed through-

out this edition. The chapter ends with a discussion of the

hermeneutics of “intersubjectivity,” an engaged approach

to understanding other people’s religions. New images in

this chapter include Jewish women praying at the Western

Wall and Lisa Bradley’s evocative painting Passing Shadow.

Chapter 2: Indigenous Sacred Ways has been revised

with special attention to African spiritual traditions and

their interactions with other religions in the diaspora.

The peacekeeping traditions of the Cheyenne Nation and

the forest-protecting efforts of Kenyan indigenous groups

are described. The combining of traditional and modern

lifestyles is explored with particular reference to the

Maasai, including a feature box on university professor

Damaris Parsitau and a photo of a Maasai man riding his

camel while talking on his cellphone. The cooperative

matriarchal social structures and theology of the Igbo of

Nigeria are discussed, including the efforts of Igbo women

to combat the destructive effects of World Bank and IMF

economic policies.

Chapter 3: Hinduism encompasses increasing attempts by

Indians to explain their own religions rather than being

defi ned by Western scholars. Tantra has mystifi ed Western

observers, so this edition includes expanded discussion of

tantric rites from Dr. Rita Sherma’s perspective. The rela-

tionship between worship of the divine in female form and


PREFACE XI

the everyday status of Hindu women is also examined, and

biographies of some important female gurus and discussion

of Hindu ecofeminism have been added. New material

clarifi es issues of caste, illustrated by a new Religion in

Public Life box on the extremely popular village devel-

oper and crusader against corruption in government Anna

Hazare. The huge Kumbha Mela ceremony is discussed as

an example of the organic way in which things happen

during Hindu events. Hinduism’s trend of infl uencing and

being infl uenced by other religious cultures is noted as

part of globalization. New images in this chapter include a

woman worshiping a statue of Durga with oil lamps and a

man paying reverence to a Shiv lingam.

Chapter 4: Jainism includes a new discussion of the tradi-

tional practice of fasting unto death under certain circum-

stances, as well as new material on Jains in the diaspora

and meditation based on Jain traditions. There is a new

photo of the late Acharya Tulsi.

Chapter 5: Buddhism features a revised and expanded

timeline and a revised map showing the distribution of four

major forms of Buddhism in East Asia. Mahayana belief in

the Eternal Buddha is elaborated, with a quotation from

the Lotus Sutra. A new Living Buddhism box features an

interview with Naoyuki Ogi of Japan about his ways of

relating to Amida Buddha and his preparing to serve as the

priest of his home temple. Buddhist tantra is explained,

with special reference to the great tantric Vajrayana

adept Yeshe Tsogyel and her teacher and consort, who

helped to carry Buddhism to Tibet. The celebration of the

Buddha’s birthday in Japan during cherry-blossom season

is described. The steadfast efforts of Buddhist Aung San

Suu Kyi to bring democracy to Burma are chronicled, up to

her landslide victory in 2012, with a quote about the dan-

gerous politics of dissent. Other contemporary examples

of Engaged Buddhism have also been added. New images

in this chapter include a children’s graveyard in Kyoto

with Kannon (Quan Yin) protecting those who have died

young and a political rally at a statue of Dr. Ambedkar,

who organized a mass conversion of untouchables in India

to Buddhism.

Chapter 6: Daoism and Confucianism has an expanded

description of the divinization of a young girl who was ulti-

mately declared the “Consort of Heaven,” as well as new

discussions of religious aspects of Confucianism. Professor

Yu Dan, who has popularized Confucian values through

her best-selling book and television appearances, is intro-

duced, and the Confucian sage Okada Takehito is featured

in a new Living Confucianism box. New images include

Chinese graves littered with fi recracker wrappers and the

contemporary Daoist nun Huang Zhi An in the nunnery

she helped establish.

Chapter 7: Shinto has been extensively revised according

to the latest scholarship about the evolution of Shinto and

its ambiguous position amidst overlapping religious ways

in today’s Japan. A new Living Shinto box featuring an

interview with a Japanese businessman illustrates the way

in which people may worship at Shinto shrines without

considering themselves Shinto. New images include a

Shinto priest performing a ritual and an open-air shrine in

Kyoto with small toriis placed by pilgrims.

Zoroastrianism includes new reference to home-centered

worship facing a light source.

Chapter 8: Judaism features expanded discussion of the

growth of the Jewish state in Israel and its interaction

with other religions, including peace-building initiatives

alongside the age-old desire for a secure homeland. A

new Religion in Public Life box features Rabbi Michael

Melchior, who has been deeply involved in the peace

effort. New images include a scale model of the Second

Temple and a retreat bringing together Arabs and Jews for

inter-communal leadership training.

Chapter 9: Christianity includes slight condensation and

clarifi cation of Christian history in the light of current

scholarship. Experiences of Mexican, Russian, and Chinese

Christians help to fi ll out the picture of global Christianity.

Responses of the Vatican to sexual abuses by clergy are

updated, along with its refusal to support ordination of

women as priests. The growing split between liberal and

conservative factions within denominations and the form-

ing of new alliances across denominational boundaries

is discussed. New quotations from Ecumenical Patriarch

Bartholomew, the “Green Patriarch,” address our respon-

sibility to preserve our natural environment. New images

include the blessing of the animals on St. Francis’s feast day

and the Mexican posadas celebration.

Chapter 10: Islam features updated material on contem-

porary Islam, particularly with reference to politics. It

includes new text on the Prophet Muhammad and his

ancestors, commentary on the esoteric meaning in the

Qur’an, and spiritual experiences evoked by fasting. New

material discusses recent laws banning the wearing of

religious garments in public; persistent misunderstandings

of Islam by non-Muslims; the “Arab Spring” of 2011; and

American reactions to the death of Osama bin Laden. The

hopes of progressive Muslims are explained. New images

include burqa-clad women eyeing modern clothing in a


XII PREFACE

shopping mall in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, and partici-

pating in a Muslim reality TV show in Malaysia.

Chapter 11: Sikhism has been updated with reference to

the latest scholarship. Additions include an explanation of

the symbolic meaning of the story of Guru Nanak’s disap-

pearance in the river, the history behind Emperor Jehangir’s

torture of Guru Arjun Dev, a quotation from Guru Arjun

Dev explaining the spiritual signifance of community wor-

ship, the history of attempts by some Sikhs to distinguish

themselves from Hindus, and contemporary experiences of

Sikhs in the diaspora. There is a new Living Sikhism inter-

view with a young Sikh woman in England who has never

lived in India and is trying to study her Sikh roots. A new

image shows the Guru Granth Sahib being read.

Chapter 12: New Religious Movements has been exten-

sively revised with the help of two important scholars in this

fi eld. Some relatively new movements are discussed, includ-

ing Agon Shu in Japan, which combines Shinto, Buddhist,

and Daoist practices, and invented religions such as Jediism.

Discussion of older “new” movements is updated to include

the Unifi cation Movement’s split be tween followers of two

of Rev. Moon’s sons, a warning from Mormon leaders about

the disintegration of the traditional family, the controversial

Mormon practice of proxy baptism of dead non-Mormons,

and issues surrounding the refusal of blood transfusions by

Jehovah’s Witnesses. Responses to criticism are illustrated

by a perceptive quotation from a leader in the Unifi cation

Movement. New images include devotees at the death

ceremonies for Satya sai Baba and members of the Baha’i

religion demonstrating in support of seven followers accused

and jailed in Iran for alleged spying.

Chapter 13: Religion in the Twenty-fi rst Century has

been updated to explore the two-way infl uences of glo-

balization on religious cultures, including the long history

of Hindu effects on American culture and contemporary

European bans on the wearing of religious garb, especially

Muslim burqas. New interfaith efforts discussed include the

latest developments in Kazakhstan, inter-religious schools

refl ecting the philosophy of a Turkish theologian, and the

International Center for Conciliation’s leadership training

to deal with “pained memory.” Religious perspectives are

offered on social issues such as the bioethics of cloning,

terrorism, and consumer greed. The importance of deep

refl ection on historical political differences associated with

religions is underscored by a quotation from a Yemeni

prince. New images in this chapter include a mural from

an interfaith day-care center in Israel and international

participants in the World Forum of Spiritual Culture in

Astana, Kazakhstan.

Acknowledgments

In order to try to understand each religion from the inside,

I have traveled for many years to study and worship

with devotees and teachers of all faiths, and to interview

them about their experience of their tradition. People of

all religions also come to the Gobind Sadan Institute for

Advanced Studies in Comparative Religions, in New Delhi,

where it is my good fortune to meet and speak with them

about their spiritual experiences and beliefs.

In preparing this book, I have worked directly with

consultants who are authorities in specifi c traditions and

who have offered detailed suggestions and resources. For

breadth of scholarship, I have engaged the help of a new

group of consultants for each edition. For this ninth edi-

tion, a number of extremely helpful and dedicated scholars

have carefully reviewed the various chapters and made

excellent suggestions for their improvement.

Dr. Hillel Levine of Boston University, Director of the

International Center for Conciliation, fl ew to meet me

in Israel and drove me all over the country at his own

expense, introducing me to signifi cant people from many

walks of life to help me better understand the complexities

of interactions among the various religions living together

there. Dr. Christopher Queen of Harvard University, world-

renowned scholar of Engaged Buddhism, met me in Kyoto,

where we stayed in a traditional ryokan and together

explored Buddhist and Shinto holy places. He brought his

dear translator, Naoyuki Ogi, who then stayed on volun-

tarily as my invaluable guide and helper in Kyoto and also

in Tokyo.

My other specialist consultants for this edition have

been similarly helpful. They include Damaris Parsitau,

Egerton University, Kenya; Rita Sherma, Taksha University;

Christopher Chapple, Loyola Marymount University; Rodney

L. Taylor, University of Colorado at Boulder; John Breen,

International Research Centre for Japanese Studies, Kyoto;

Mary Doak, University of San Diego; Omid Safi , University

of North Carolina; Gurinder Singh Mann, University of

California, Santa Barbara; Eileen Barker, London School of

Economics; George D. Chryssides, University of Birmingham;

and Darrol Bryant, Renison University College/University of

Waterloo. Robin Rinehart of Lafayette College revised and

updated the Review Questions, Discussion Questions, and

Additional Internet Resources for each chapter.

All the consultants understood what makes Living

Religions special and gave generously of their time and

knowledge to help improve this edition. I am extremely

grateful for their sensitive, knowledgeable, and enthusi-

astic help, and also for the assistance of the many scholars

who have served as consultants to the previous editions

and are acknowledged therein.


PREFACE XIII

Many other people have helped with insights and

resources. Among them are Noordin Kassam, David Peck,

Neeraj Gupta, Lee Bailey, Karma Lekshe Tsomo, Erica

Rothschild, Daniele Goldberg, Bill Roberts, Efrat Meyer,

Morio Skywalker, Wang MinQin, Kevin Fan, Mr. Liu,

Frank Kaufmann, Wolfgang Hecker, Elinore Detiger, Afe

Adogame, Azad Faruqi, George Renner, Rev. Tobias Mboya

Jairo, Rev. Ambrose Obong’o Mbuya, Nina Zaltsman,

Tatiana Slonimskaya, Tolegen Mukhamedzhanov, Hans-

Peter Dürr, Adin Steinsaltz, Mohan Jashanmal, Robert

Chase, Hiromi Yano, Rev. Tomokazu Hatakeyama, Megumi

Wada, Masamichi Tanaka, Kyohei Mikawa, Katsuhiro

Kohara, Eisho Nasu, Katsuyuki Kikuchi, Kazumasa

Osaka, Koichiro Yoshida, Arvind Sharma, Iman Valeria

Porokhova, Grigoriy Moshnenko, Kurakbayev Kairat, Yuri

Ageshin, Larisa Trunina, Willi Augustat, Raman Khanna,

Yair Lior, David Rosen, Kher Albaz, Orly Peer, Alza Shefer,

Yair Levin, Danny Ivri, Alex Zaltsman, Leonid Feigin,

Ester Raydler, Sheikh Nahayan Mubarak Al Nahayan,

A. H. Dawood Al-Azdi, Sara Nazarbaeva, Rabbi Michel

Melchior, Udita Panconcelli, Diane Stinton, Rajiv Malhotra,

Somjit DasGupta, Bob Maat, Sulekh Jain, Shugan Jain,

Eli Epstein, Rev. Fred Strickert, Rev. Tobias Jairo, Alan

Nykamp, Paramjit Kaur, and Jaswinder Singh.

As always, Laurence King Publishing has provided

me with excellent editorial help. Melanie Walker, Jodi

Simpson, and Kara Hattersley-Smith have guided this

edition through its development and production with bril-

liance, patience, and extraordinary helpfulness. Mari West

has worked hard to fi nd the new illustrations that so enhance

this edition. Designer Jo Fernandes has put everything

together beautifully. And at Pearson, Nancy Roberts and

Nicole Conforti have been discerning and supportive.

Finally, I cannot adequately express my gratitude to my

own revered teacher, Baba Virsa Singh of Gobind Sadan.

People of all faiths from all over the world came to him for

his spiritual blessings and guidance. In the midst of sectarian

confl icts, his place is an oasis of peace and harmony, where

permanent volunteers and visitors from ninety countries

regard each other as members of one human family. May

God bless us all to move in this direction.

Mary Pat Fisher

Gobind Sadan Institute for Advanced Studies

in Comparative Religions

For this ninth edition the reviewers were Michael Bradley, Georgia Perimeter College; Jenny Caplan, Sinclair Community College; Barbara Darling-Smith, Wheaton College; Marianne Ferguson, Buffalo State College; Alison Jameson, Lehigh Carbon Community College; Charles Johnson, Washtenaw Community College; Ivory Lyons, University of Mount Union; Carolyn Medine, University of Georgia; Chris Newcomb, Bethune-Cookman University; and Cristobal Serran-Pagan, Valdosta State University.


TEACHING AND LEARNING RESOURCES XV

Whether you want to enhance your lectures, create tests,

or assign outside material to reinforce content from the

text, you and your students will fi nd the most compre-

hensive set of instructional materials available with Living

Religions, Ninth Edition, to reinforce and enliven the study

of world religions.

MyReligionLabMyReligionLab provides engaging experiences that per-

sonalize, stimulate, and measure learning for each student.

Key components include:

• MyReligionLibrary features over 30 sacred texts and

over 100 secondary source articles on a wide range

of religious topics to help students better understand

course material.

• NPR Program Broadcasts, including 90 selections rel-

evant to the study of religion, help students engage with

the material.

• The Pearson eText lets students access their textbook

anytime and anywhere they want.

• A personalized study plan for each student helps them

succeed in the course and beyond.

• Assessment tied to every video, application, and chap-

ter enables both instructors and students to track

progress and get immediate feedback. With results feed-

ing into a powerful gradebook, the assessment program

helps instructors identify student challenges early—and

fi nd the best resources with which to help students.

• Class Prep collects the very best class presentation

resources in one convenient online destination,

so instructors can keep students engaged throughout

every class.

Please see your local Pearson representative for access to

MyReligionLab.

Instructor’s Manual with TestsFor each chapter in the text, this valuable resource

provides a chapter outline, preview questions, lecture

topics, research topics, and questions for classroom dis-

cussion. In addition, test questions in multiple choice

and essay formats are available for each chapter; the

answers are page-referenced to the text. For easy access,

this manual is available within the instructor section

of MyReligionLab for Living Religions, Ninth Edition, or

at www.pearsonhighered.com

My TestThis computerized software allows instructors to create

their own personalized exams, to edit any or all of the

existing test questions, and to add new questions. Other

special features of this program include random generation

of test questions, creation of alternate version of the same

test, scrambling question sequence, and test preview before

printing. For easy access, this software is available within

the instructor section of MyReligionLab for Living Religions,

Ninth Edition, or at www.pearsonhighered.com

PowerPoint SlidesThese PowerPoint slides combine text and graphics for each

chapter to help instructors convey anthropological princi-

ples in a clear and engaging way. In addition, Classroom

Response System (CRS) In-Class Questions allow for

instant, class-wide student responses to chapter-specifi c

questions during lectures for teachers to gauge student

comprehension. For easy access, they are available within

the instructor section of MyReligionLibrary for Living

Religions, Ninth Edition, or at www.pearsonhighered.com

The Prentice Hall Atlas of World ReligionsThrough the use of over 50 visually arresting maps,

this atlas shows the origins, historical development, and

present state of all the world’s religions.

TEACHING AND LEARNING RESOURCES FOR LIVING RELIGIONS


NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

CANADA

ALASKA

GREENLAND

IRELAND

PORTUGAL

SENEGALGAMBIA

GUINEA BISSAU

SIERRA LEONE

LIBERIA

WESTERNSAHARA

BELIZE

HONDURAS

HAITI

SURINAM

FRENCH GUIANA

GUYANA

CUBA

GUATEMALAEL SALVADOR

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

ECUADOR

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

MEXICO

VENEZUELA

CO OMBIA

BRAZILPERU

CHILE

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

URUGUAYARGENTINA

L CÔTED’IVOIRE

TOGO

EQUATORIALGUINEA

SOAF

BOTSWNAMIBIA

ICELAND

FINLA

E

GER. POLAND

ROM.

GREEC

CRO.

DENMARK

AUST.

NORWAY

SWED

EN

UNITEDKINGDOM

SPAIN

FRANCE

ELIBYAALGERIA

MAURITANIA

GUINEA

GH

AN

A

BENIN

NIGERIA

C.A.R.

GABON

CONGO

CAMER

OON

MALI NIGER

CHAD S

ZAIRE

UGAN

ANGOLA

ZIM

A

ZAM

BURKINAFASO

MORO

CCO

SWIT.

BEL.

NETH

ITALY

CZECH. REP.

Mediterranean Sea

Buddhism

China: Remnants of Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism

Japan: Shinto, Buddhism, Sects

Christianity (Roman Catholicism, Protestantism,Eastern Orthodox)Islam

Judaism

Sikhism

Varied r

Zoroastrianism

eligions

Indigenous religions

Hinduism and Islam

Predominant forms of religions in the world today


INDIAN OCEAN

NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN

SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN

LESOTHO

SWAZILAND

SOUTHAFRICA

BOTSW A

MOZAMBIQUE

FINLAND

ESTONIALATVIA

LITHUANIABELARUS

UKRAINE

ROM.

GREECE TURKEY

MOLDOVA

AZER.

GEORGIA

ARMENIA

SYRIALEB.

ISRAEL

KUWAIT

YEMEN

OMAN

SAUDIARABIA

IRAQ IRAN

AFGHANI

TURKMENISTAN

STAN

PAKISTAN

INDIA

BANGLADESH

CHINA

MONGOLIA

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

MYANMAR(BURMA)

THAILAND

LAOS

CAMBODIA

VIETNAM

TAIWAN

PHILIPPINES

NORTHKOREA

SOUTH KOREA

JAPAN

MALAYS IA

AUSTRALIA

PAPUANEW GUINEA

NEW ZEALAND

SRI LANKA

UZBEKISTAN

KYRGYZSTAN

TAJIKISTAN

NEPAL

KAZAKHSTAN

JORDAN

EGYPT

SUDAN

ZAIRE

UGANDA

ZIMBABWE

AN

ZAMBIA

TANZANIA

KENYA

ETHIOPIA

ERITREA

SOMALIA

MADAGASCAR

MALAWI

I N D O N E S I A


18 BUDDHISM

TIMELINE 2000 BCE 1500 1000 500 1 CE 3

2000 BCE 1500 1000 500 1 CE 3

Vedas heard

Vedas first written down c.1500 BCE

Series of 23 Tirthankaras before c.777 BCE

Life of Mahavira 599–527 BCE

Digambaras and Svetambaras diverge from 3rd century BCE

Ramayana and Mahabharata in present form after 400 BCE

Code of Manu compiled 100–300 CE

Patanjali systematizes Yoga Sutras by 200 BCE

Life of Gautama Buddha c.5th century BCE King Asoka spreads

Buddhism c.258 BCE

Theravada Buddhism develops 200 BCE–200 CE

Mahayana Buddhism develops 1st century CE

Life of Laozi c.600–300

Life of Confucius c.551–479

Educational system based on Confucian Classics from 205 BCE

Life of Zhuangzi c.365–290

Shinto begins in pre-history as local nature- and ancestor-based traditions

Life of Abraham c.1900–1700 BCE

Moses leads Israelites out of Egypt c.13th or 12th century BCE

David, King of Judah and Israel c.1010–970 BCE

First Temple destroyed; Jews exiled 586 BCE

Jerusalem falls to Romans 70 CE

Life of Jesus c.4 BCE–30 CE

Paul organizes early Christians c.50–60 CE

Gospels written down c.70–95 CE

INDIGENOUS

HINDUISM

JAINISM

BUDDHISM

DAOISM AND

CONFUCIANISM

SHINTO

JUDAISM

CHRISTIANITY

ISLAM

SIKHISM

INTERFAITH


BUDDHISM 19

300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2000 CE

300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2000 CE

Ancient ways passed down and adapted over millennia

Jain monks establish Jain centers outside India 1970s–1980s

Tantras written down c.300

Bhakti movement 600–1800 Life of Ramakrishna 1836–1886

Life of Songstan (c.609–650) who declares Buddhism national religion of Tibet

Persecution of Buddhism begins in China 845

Ch’an Buddhism to Japan as Zen 13th century

Buddhism spreads in the West 20th century

Full ordination of nuns from 23 countries 1998

Japan imports Confucianism to unite tribes into empire

Sung dynasty revives ritualistic Confucianism (“neo-Confucianism”)

Cultural Revolution attacks religions 1966–1976 Confucian revival in China; International Association of Confucianism established; Daoist sects and temples re-established 1990–2000

Shinto name adopted 6th century CE

State Shinto established 1868

Rabbinical tradition develops 1st to 4th centuries

Life of Maimonides 1135–1204

Expulsion of Jews from Spain 1492

The Baal Shem Tov 1700–1760

The Holocaust 1940–1945Independent state of Israel 1948

Israeli wall for separation from Palestinians 2003

Centralization of papal power after 800

Split between Western and Eastern Orthodox Churches 1054

Monastic orders proliferate 1300s

Spanish Inquisition established 1478

Protestantism established 1521

Second Vatican Council 1962–1965

Churches reopened in USSR 1989

Life of Muhammad c.570–632

Spread of Islam begins 633Sunni–Shi’a split c.682

Islam’s cultural peak 750–1258

Akbar becomes Mogul emperor in India 1556

European dominance 1800s–1900s

Muslim resurgence and OPEC 1970s

Terrorism and counterterrorism increase 2001

Life of Guru Nanak 1469–1504

At death of Guru Gobind Singh (1708), living presence of the guru is embodied in Guru Granth Sahib (scriptures)

300th anniversary of Khalsa 2003

Mogul emperor Akbar initiates interfaith dialogues 1556–1605

First International Human Unity Conference 1974 Parliament of the World’s Religions centenary celebrations 1993


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