Formyparents,whohelpedsparkmyloveoflearning.

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CONTENTS

Author’sNote

Introduction

Chapter1:VALUE

Chapter2:TARGET

Chapter3:DEVELOP

Chapter4:EXTEND

Chapter5:RELATE

Chapter6:RETHINK

Epilogue

ToolKits

ReferencesandNotes

Acknowledgments

AUTHOR’SNOTE

Inthisbook,I’veusedtextthathaspreviouslyappearedinotherarticles,reports,orblogitemsthatI’vewritten.Ialsoeditedquotesforclarityandsharedsomeportionsofthetextwithsourcestogaintheirfeedback.IfIuseonlyafirstnametodescribesomeone, then thename isapseudonym. If thereareanyerrorsoffact,citationorclarity,I’lllistthemonmywebsite:www.ulrichboser.com.Withregardtocitations,I’vefoundtheuseoffootnotesine-booksdistracting,

andsoIwroteupanotessection,whichincludessourcematerial,notableasides,andfurtherreading.Withregardtoconflictsofinterest,Ihavesome—don’tweall?—and I’ve done work for different organizations and foundations that Imentioninthisbook.Again,seethenotessection.When it comes to writing aboutmy own history, especially as it relates to

eventsthatoccurredyearsago,Iwantedtowrite“tothebestofmyknowledge”attheendofeverysentence.Ididnot,butpleaseconsiderthecaveat.

INTRODUCTION

Theelementaryschoolstoodattheendofacul-de-sac.Itwasalow-slungred-brick building some ten miles north of New York City, tucked away amongribbonsofsuburbanstreets,surroundedbysolidranchersandbrawnyColonials.Itwas January6, 1986, a coldmorning, just above freezing.Parents pulled infront of the school in a convoy of cars, their children slipping out, laughing,talking,lettingouttheoccasionalraucousscream.Shortlyafter10:30a.m.,ayoungboytuckedhimselfintoachairinoneofthe

school’sclassrooms.Hewasgreen-eyedwithabigbowlofdirtyblondhair.Itwasafewdaysbefore theboy’s11thbirthday,andhealmostcertainlyworeaturtleneck sweater and corduroy pants. Pages of schoolwork stuffed hisbackpack,mostlikelymixedtogetherwithsomeDungeons&Dragons–inspireddrawings.The green-eyed boy had a difficult time learning, and thatmorningwas no

different.Classbeganwith the teacherdiscussinghow to subtractone fractionfromanother,andtheboystrodetotheblackboardtoansweraproblemfromhishomework. But the boy wrote down the wrong equation and had to redo theproblem.Thentheboybecamedistracted,twistingaroundinhisseat,contortinglikean

aspiringHoudini,andtheteacherscoldedhim:Pleasefocus.Theotherchildrenanswered questions. They solved problems. But the green-eyed boy remainedbewildered. So rather than work through the math problems, the boy simplycheated,copyingdownsolutionsfromafriendsittingnearby.Then, some twentyminutes into the class, the teacher called on the boy to

answer a division problem:What’s 770 divided by 77? The boy didn’t know.Another division question. Another confused grimace. Eventually, the classwound down. The teacher discussed homework assignments, while the green-eyedboynatteredontoafriend—sports,books,recess,whoknows.Theteacherscoldedthechildonelasttimebeforetheclassletout.Inmanyways,theboywiththegreeneyesiseveryone.Alotofkidsmakea

mess of their homework. It’s easy to get distracted. But that child wasme. Ilumbered along inmy classes.My gradeswereweak. I floundered on exams.Teacherscomplainedaboutmyinabilitytolearn,onetellingmymotherIwouldprobably become a cook. So one morning, in January 1986, a schoolpsychologistslippedintomy4thgradeclassroomtoobservemeinclass.WhileI’vetriedtorecalltheday,Idon’thavetheslightestscrapofamemory.

But for decades, I kept the psychologist’s detailed report—a single-spacedblack-and-white typewriter-created document. It describes how I managed tocheat, neglect my work, and forgo all focus during the one hour-long class.“Frustrated,”“inattentive,”and“distracted”areamongthewordsof theschoolpsychologistusedtodescribeme.Kindergartenwasprobablymyfirstacademicchallenge.Iwastheyoungestin

my class, and I ended up repeating the grade because I couldn’t keep up. Inelementary school, teachers sent me for special testing, and I filled in thebubblesofalonglistofunpronounceablepsychologicalexamsthatsoundtodaylike a bit of Psych 101—the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test, the ZeitlinCoping Inventory, the Projective Figure Drawing exam. For a few years inmiddleschool,Ispentafewhourseachweekinspecialeducation,aholdingpenforcranksandmisfits,socialoddities,andacademicoutliers.Different theories about the cause of my difficulties floated around, vague

potential explanations.One account held that Iwas slow to learn becausemyimmigrantparentsspokeGermanathome.OthersclaimedthatIhadanauditoryproblem, thatmy brainwasn’twired correctlywhen it came to listening. StillothersbelievedIlackedintelligence,thatalmostmagicalabilitytothinkthroughissuesandsolveproblems.There’sabitofaccuracytoeachofthesetheories.Myparentshavelivedin

this country for decades, yet they still sometimes slip into German whilespeakingEnglish.Ido,indeed,havealearningdisorderthatmakesitdifficulttofollowauditorydetails,andIstillhaveahardtimefollowingverbaldirections.Andlet’sbeclear—I’mnogenius.There’sanotherperspectiveonwhathappened,though,andwhenIlookback

now,itseemsthatIdidn’tknowhowtolearn.Ididn’thavewaystothinkaboutmy thinking. I didn’t askmyself questions or set goals or even knowwhat itmeant toknowsomething.Theabilitytolearnappearedbeyondme,andit leftme“lost,”astheschoolpsychologistwroteinherevaluation.With thehelpofsome teachers, Ieventuallydevelopeda fewbasic learning

strategies. I would ask myself questions like: Do I really know this? Did Iunderstand the underlying logic ofwhat Iwas learning? I also came to termswith the idea thatpeople learnedat different rates, that Imightneed toput inmore effort thanmy peers.Over the years, I discovered betterways to focus,becoming a devotee of anything that promoted silence, and even today, I buyearplugsbythebox.Eventually, my academic confidence began to tick upward, and so did my

grades.Studentgovernmentbecameaninterest.Sodidsports—track,basketball,cross-country.Ididwellonmycollegeadmissionsexams,andthen,withabitof

luck—andalotofwork—athickenvelopefromanIvyLeaguecollegearrivedinthemail.My academic experiences are not the basis for this book. In fact, if you

comparemyexperiencetotheexperiencesofthosestuckindead-endcollegesorbadcorporate training, Ihad itgreat—supportiveparents,well-fundedschools,generally caring teachers. Plus, my auditory disability makes me less thanrepresentative.But in the end,my experience drove an interest, one that developed into a

career,andtodayIbelievethatalotofpeoplearelikeanearlyversionofme—they don’t thinkmuch about the best way to gain new knowledge and skills.Peoplewilloftenrereadmaterial,forinstance,eventhoughit’saweakapproachtolearning,orthey’llusehighlighters,whichhaveaverylimitedresearchbase.Peoplealsowon’treflectontheirskillsortracktheirprogress,despitethelibraryofevidenceontheselearningapproaches.This happens despite the fact thatmost of us are constantly developing our

skills andknowledge.Someonegivesyou somenewsoftware?You’ll need tomaster the application. (Be sure to explain key ideas to yourself so you reallyunderstandthem.)Landanewclient?You’llwanttopresentyourideasinawaythat’s engaging. (Don’t put too many graphics on a PowerPoint slide; itoverloads working memory.) Need to remember a phone number? (Use yourfingers;they’reagreatwaytostorenumbersforashortperiodoftime.)Notlongago,Igrabbedcoffeewithoneofmyoldspecialeducationteachers.

Wesat inaStarbucks,spinningout recollections.Aswediscussedsomelong-lostmomentsofelementaryschool—myissueswithhomework,certainteachers,otherstudents—itmademefeellikeakidagain.Atleastmyexperienceofbeingakid—theoddshame,theaddledconfusion.Atonepoint,Itriedtosharewithher what I had learned since middle school, everything that I knew aboutlearning.But thewords never quite tumbled out. I felt embarrassed. I didn’twant to

seempreening.Sowhile Iwrote thisbookforall sortsof reasons—toreframetheeducationdebate,tohonemyownthinking—oneofmymaindriverswastoprovideaguidetothatgreen-eyedboywiththebigblondhair—andtoeveryoneelsewhomightneedone.

An experiment took place some years ago at an all-girls school inNewYorkCity.ItwasanoldCatholicschool,withsomecrucifixeshangingfromthewalls,lookingsomberandstern.Thegirlswereintheirfirsttwoyearsofhighschool,teenagerswearing polo shirts and pleated skirts, and the youngwomenwould

laterreceivealittlegiftforagreeingtoenrollinthestudy.Aspartoftheexperiment,thegirlsweretaughthowtoplaydartsforthefirst

time,andthetwopsychologistsconductingthestudydividedtheyoungwomenintosomegroups.Let’scallthemembersofthefirstgroupTeamPerformance,andtheyweretoldthattheyshouldlearnthegameofdartsbytryingtothrowthedarts as close to the center of the board as possible. In other words, theresearchersinformedthewomenthat thebestwaytowinwastorackupsomepoints.Thepsychologistsalsopulledtogetheranothergroupofyoungwomen.Let’s

callthemTeamLearningMethod,andtheylearnedtoplaydartsverydifferently.Theresearchershadthesegirlsfocusontheprocessofgainingexpertise,andthewomenstartedbyworkingonhowexactly to throw thedarts,mastering somebasicprocesseslike“keepyourarmclosetoyourbody.”Then,afterthewomenshowedsomeproficiency,theywereencouragedtoaimatthebull’s-eye,slowlyshiftingfromsomeprocessgoalstosomeoutcomegoalslikehittingthetarget.Finally,therewasthecontrolgroup.Theirinstructions?Theresearcherstold

themtosimply“dotheirbest.”Inotherwords, theseyoungwomencould takeany approach that they wanted to learning darts. Let’s think of this group asTeamConventionalWisdom.Tolearnmoreabouttheexperiment,ImetupwithAnastasiaKitsantas,who

ran the study together with psychologist Barry Zimmerman. While theexperimenttookplacesomeyearsago,KitsantasstillhadthedartsstashedawayinherofficeatGeorgeMasonUniversity,andonarainyafternoon,shepulledoutthelittleyellowmissilesfromanofficecabinettoshowthemtome,layingthedartsoutlikeanimportantrelicfromsomeforgottenSouthAmericantribe.Kitsantas held on to the darts because of the study’s surprisingly large

outcomes, and by the end of the experiment, the young women on TeamLearningMethoddramaticallyoutperformedtheothers,withscoresnearlytwiceashighasTeamConventionalWisdom.Thewomenalsoenjoyedtheexperiencemuchmore.“Severalof thestudentsaskedme to teach themmoreaboutdartsaftertheexperiment.Theykeptaskingmeforweeks,”Kitsantastoldme.The takeaway from the dart experiment is a straightforward one, one

supported by a growing number of studies, because learning turns out to be aprocess,amethod,asystemofunderstanding.It’sanactivitythatrequiresfocus,planning, and reflection, and when people know how to learn, they acquiremasteryinmuchmoremucheffectiveways.Indeed, the learning process turns out to be one of the most important

predictorsoflearning.Onerecentanalysis—orastudyofstudies—showedthatlearning methods dramatically shifted outcomes in just about every field.

AnotheranalysisfoundthattheprocessoflearningworksinlockstepwithGPA.Follow-up research by Kitsantas and Zimmerman replicated the dart study inotherfields,findingthatdedicatedstrategiesboostedperformanceineverythingfromvolleyballtowriting.Withinthetypicallysombercommunityofcognitivescienceresearchers, the

recent spate of learning-to-learn studies have sparked a glee that’s typicallyassociatedwiththeSecondComing.Someresearchershavedramaticallylabeledtheir paperswith titles like “How toGainEleven IQ Points in TenMinutes.”(The researchers recommend thinking aloud while problem solving.) Othersbecome exhilarated during interviews. “We should be spreading this gospel,”researcherBennettSchwartztoldme.(Schwartzarguesformoreself-quizzing.)Alotof theexcitementstemsfromtheoriginalityof thefindings,andasan

idea,amorefocusedapproachtolearningisonlysometwentyyearsold.Foralong time, experts had assumed that the ability to learn was a matter ofintelligence, dedicated smarts, and so researchers didn’t really study the issue.They assumed, it seems, that either people had the skill of learning or theydidn’t. For them, intelligence—and thus the ability to gain mastery—was animmutabletraitlikehavingblueeyes,ageneticgiftofthegods.For their part, schools followed the science, anddespite years of education,

despite years spent in classrooms, most people have never learned to learn.Generallyspeaking,wedon’thaveagoodsenseofhowtoimproveourexpertiseinafieldorsubject.As an example, consider the word “studying”: It’s a remarkably vague

expression.Doesstudyingmeanrereadingatextbook?Doingsampleproblems?Memorizing?Alloftheabove?Foranotherexample,taketheword“practice.”Doespracticemeanrepeatingthesameskilloverandoveragain?Doespracticerequiredetailedfeedback?Shouldthepracticebehard?Orshoulditbefun?There are a lot of othermisconceptions.When it comes to learning, people

believealotofthingsthataren’treallysupportedbytheresearch.Workingwithsome of the nation’s most respected learning experts, I recently conducted asurvey to seewhat people knew about how to acquire a skill, and the resultswere remarkable. While an overwhelming percentage of Americans said thattheyknew thebasicsofeffective teachingand learning, theyharboreda lotofweakintuitionsandfalsebeliefsabouthowpeoplelearn.Two-thirdsofthepublicbelieved,forinstance,thatstudentsshouldbepraised

for being smart, for instance.But the research shows theopposite, andpeoplelearnmorewhentheyarepraisedfortheireffortthantheirintelligence.Another50 percent of the public said people learn effectivelywithoutmuch guidance.Butstudyafterstudyshowsthat learningisadedicated,engagedprocess.And

whilethere’snoresearchsupportingthenotionoflearningstyles—theideathatsomeone learnsbetterkinestheticallyorvisually—more than80percentof thepublicbelievethatlearningstylesexist.There’salsoalotofgoodnewshere,though,becauseitdoesn’ttakemuchto

developthelearningprocess.Manyoftheimprovementstrategiesthathavebeentucked away in sterile research studies show large gains with little additionaleffort, and on the day I visitedwithAnastasiaKitsantas, she pointed out thateven small tweaks would dramatically improve outcomes. In the dartexperiment, for instance, abouthalfof the subjectsonTeamLearningMethodrecorded theirscoresaftereach throw,andeven that taskwasenough toboostperformance.“It’sphenomenalwhenyouthinkaboutit,”shesaid.But,ofcourse,mostofusrarelydo.

Thevalueofthelearningprocessextendsfarbeyondtherecentscience.Italsoreflectsthenatureofsocietytoday—andtheshiftingnatureofexpertise.Recall for amoment the last bit of information that you typed intoGoogle.

Maybeyouwerelookingfortheaddressforalocalpizzaplaceorhuntingforthehometown of pop star Michael Jackson. According to a series of studies byresearcherBetsySparrowandher colleagues, you’remore likely to rememberwheretheinformationwasonlinethanthedetailsoftheactualinformation.SoifyousearchedforthehometownofMichaelJackson,you’remorelikely

toremembertheWikipediapageoftheKingofPopthantheactualinformation(Gary,Indiana).IfyoufoundtheaddressforthepizzaplaceonaWebsite,thenyou’re more likely to remember the URL (greatpizza.com) than the actualaddressoftherestaurant.“Wearebecomingsymbioticwithourcomputertools,”write Sparrow and her colleagues, “growing into interconnected systems thatrememberlessbyknowinginformationthanbyknowingwheretheinformationcanbefound.”Thereareafewcrucialimplicationsfromthislineofresearch.Foronething,

ourbrain—and itsvariousquirks—areat theheartof learningeffectively, andourbrainwilloften“offload”information,storingitinplacesotherthanitsownneuralfolds.Inthisregard,oursmartphones,iPads,andlaptopshavebecomeatypeof“prostheticbrain”inthewordsofonewriter,andrecentresearchshowsthatwe’relesslikelytorememberapaintingatamuseumifwetakeaphotoofthe painting. Our brain, it seems, believes the image is stored on the digitaldevice.But there’s a second,more important lesson here that gets to a broad truth

abouttheDigitalAge:Factshavelostalotoftheirvalue.Detailsarenolonger

asimportantastheyoncewere.Forjustaboutallofus,whatmatterstodayisnotthe data itself—whatmatters is howwe can think betterwith that data.Moreexactly,howdoweacquirenewskillsmosteffectively?Howdowebettergraspcomplex problems? And when should we store memories in our heads—andwhenshouldwestorethemonacomputer?Ifyoulivedjustafewdecadesago—orneartheendoftheIceAge—itwasn’t

thisway.TakethemanknownasÖtzi.HelivedintheItalianAlpsaround5,000years ago at the start of the Bronze Age. He was a small man by modernstandards—justover5feettall,withathick,mattedbeardcarpetinghisface.Hisforeheadhunglowoverhiseyes.Hisnosehadoncebeenbroken,givinghimthevisageofanagingboxer.ÖtzidieddeepintheAlps,trekkingupahighmountainpass,fallingbehinda

boulder, a sprawl of clenched fists and tired legs. An arrow had gored hisshoulder,bloodspillingfromhisback,killinghimquickly.Forcenturies,Ötzi’smurderedbodystayedamongtherocksuntilsomewanderersfoundhiscorpsein1989,perfectlymummifiedinthesnowandice.Ötzi had developed an important type of knowledge, according to the

archaeologists who’ve studied him over the years. A collection of half-builtarrowshungaroundhisshoulders,meaningthatÖtzihadstudiedthefoundationsof archery construction. Filaments of metal coated his hair, suggesting Ötziunderstood the basic procedures of metal smelting. And from the awkwardattempts to mend his clothes with bits of grass, it appeared that Ötzi haddevelopedrudimentarysewingskills.But the knowledge that makes Ötzi so impressive is not same sort of

knowledge thatweneed today.From the timeÖtzi left theAlpinevalleyuntiljust a fewyears ago, informationwasbothhighly static—andvery expensive.Forcenturies,wesoughtoutexperts,whocouldpassalonginvariabledetailslikehowtobuildabowandarrow,aformoftechnologythatwouldnotchangeforanother4,000years.At thesametime,weworshipeddata,whichfora long timecouldbefound

only inrare,hand-calligraphedmanuscriptsandthen,after the inventionof theGutenberg press, in faded books.Whenmany of uswere kids,writing schoolpapers meant spending hours in the library going cross-eyed as we scrolledthrough microfiche. Acing tests meant studying page after page of details,memorizingdates,andlearningequationsbyheart.This view of learning continues to be implemented in most schools and

colleges and training programs. Just pull any thick textbook from the shelf. Irecentlyworkedwith curriculum expertsMorganPolikoff and JohnSmithson,andweshowedthatover95percentofonewidelyusedelementaryschoolmath

textbookfocusedonlowerorderthinkinglikememorizationandunderstandingprocedures.ButintheInternetAge,informationisfire-salecheap,andwithintenthsofa

second onGoogle,we can figure out howproteins bindwith plasma.Dinner-partydisputesarequicklysettledwithaswipeofafingeronaniPhone.What’smore,masteryitselfisconstantlyshifting.Thelifecycleofexpertisehasbecomeevershorter—overthepasttenyears,forinstance,thecar-sharingserviceUbershotfromanobscureapptoahouseholdname.Thisshiftsbothhowandwhyweacquirenewskillsandknowledge,because

practice alone doesn’t make perfect anymore.We need to developmore thansimple procedures in order to succeed, and the modern world requires thatpeopleknowhowtolearn—anddevelopthethinkingskillsthatmatter.It’s easy to go too far here, so let’s be clear. Facts still play a crucial role.

Knowledge serves as the bedrock of learning. Memorization also remains apowerful learning tool, andwhatyouknow isoften thebestpredictorofwhatyou’reabletolearn.IcallittheKnowledgeEffect,andit’sathemethatwewillrevisitofteninthisbookbecauseexpertisedemandsfluencyinthebasics.Butknowing the facts is just the start, andwhenpeopleengage in learning,

they also need to understand relationships, to identify cause and effect, to seeanalogiesandsimilarities.Intheend,thegoaloflearningisaboutshiftinghowwethinkaboutafactor idea,andwhenwelearn,weaimto learnasystemofthought.So if we study microeconomics, we want to learn how to think

microeconomically.Ifwelearnknitting,weaimtolearntothinklikeanexpertknitter.Wanttogoscubadiving?Thentrytolearntoreasonlikeaworld-classdiver.Aseducationalpsychologistsargue,“Thinkoflearningasfiguringoutthepartsofanorganizedandintelligiblesystem.”There’salotridingonthisnewapproachtolearning—andthereasonissitting

right there in your smartphone. After all, recent technological advances havedecimatedthejobsthatrequireproceduralknowledge.Toadegree,thisisanoldheadline.WiththeriseofonlinetravelWebsites,thedemiseoftravelagentsisbasically complete. ATMs have destroyed bank-teller jobs, while countlesscashierspotsaregoneduetotheadventofself-checkouts.Thisshiftishappeningfasterthaneventhemostsanguineexpertscouldhave

predicted. Some ten years ago, for instance, Harvard economists RichardMurnaneandFrankLevypublishedTheNewDivisionofLabor,whichmadeallsorts of predictions about which jobs will continue to exist in the future. Forthem,secretarial jobswouldsoonbegone—replacedbycomputers.Samewithanythinghavingtodowithfactorywork—gone.

But computers will never be able to drive a car. For the two economists,pilotinganautomobilewassimplytoosophisticated,toocomplicated,tobedoneby any sort of device. Most of their predictions turned out to be accurate—secretarialjobshavemoreorlessdisappeared.Samewithalotoffactorywork.But on self-driving cars, the economists clearly missed the mark: CompaniesfromGoogle to Tesla have already rolled out driverless cars, and self-drivingtaxisalreadyroamthestreetsofcitieslikeSingapore.Not long ago, I met up withMurnane at his house outside of Boston, and

when he came to the door, he seemed every bit the Harvard economicsprofessor. He had a white beard and wore glasses and a National Bureau ofEconomicsResearchsweatshirt.Therewasasmallholeinoneofhissocks.As we sat in his living room, Murnane argued that the self-driving car

predicationwas theexception thatproves therule.Technology ischanging theworldmuch faster thanmost people think, and he argued that people needed“expertthinkingskills”tosucceed.Inpracticalterms,thismeanspeopleneedtoknowhowtosolve“unstructuredproblems.”Ifyou’reacomputerengineer,youneedtobeable to tackle technical issuesnotoutlined ina technicalmanual. Ifyou’re a speech therapist, youneed to be able to help childrenwhohavenot-easily-definedlanguageissues.Atthesametime,peopleneedtobebetterabletocreateunderstandingoutof

new information, according to Murnane. So if you work for an advertisingcompany, one of the key skills might be explaining how a client can takeadvantage of what’s in the news that morning. If you’re a stockbroker, it’smakingsenseofhowweatherchangesmightimpactthesalesofgrain.Theaudienceforthisbook,then,ismuchwiderthanthenation’sstudents,and

in the pages that follow, I also discuss ways to help people engage moreeffectively inany typeofknowledgework.Fora toughproblem, for instance,people should look for analogies outside of their field. If you have a film-development problem, for instance, examine themusic industry for innovativeclues. If you have a difficultmarketing problem, look at journalism for somecreativesparks.I also discuss how people can improve their ability to solve new problems,

andwhenworkingonan issue,peopleshoulddevelopapithysummaryof thesituation. By clearly defining a problem, we are often better able to crack apersistentriddleor issue. In thisbook,wewillalsocovervariousmanagementideas—like the value of peer learning and postmortems. After all, a lot ofleadershipboilsdowntohelpingpeoplegrowanddevelop.More broadly, though, we have to realize that in a world filled with data,

when facts and figures flow as freely as water, when even cars are driving

themselves,wehave tobeable to acquirenew formsof expertisequicklyandeffectively. Learning to learn iswhat experts call the “ultimate survival tool,”oneof themost important talentsof themodernera, the skill thatprecedesallother skills. Because once you know how to learn, you can learn almostanything, and as a society, we need much richer forms of education, whereinformation and knowledge work to foster the problem-solving skills thatultimatelymatter.Stillskeptical?JustGoogleit.

In many ways, my interest in the process of learning was rekindled with anemail.At the time, Iwas laboring over a project that attempted to answer thequestion:What sort of outcomes does a school district produce relative to itsspending?We aimed to provide the results for just about every district in thecountry,andittookmonths.Thedatawasweak.Therewerestatisticalissues.Ifyouwanttofigureouthoweffectiveadistrictis,forinstance,howdoyoutakeintoaccountthatkidsinlow-incomeareasoftenarriveatschoolwithouthavinghadanybreakfast?Lateintheproject,anemailflashedintomyinbox.Myresearchassistanthad

flooded a statistical applicationwithdata and confirmedapattern thatwehadbeenseeingallalong:Spendingdidnotlineupwithoutcomes.Inafewplaces,the relationshipbetweenspendingandoutcomeswassonoisy that therewasasmallbutnegativerelationshipbetweenmoneyandtestscores.Inotherwords,ifyouwereBillyBeanofMoneyballfameandlookedatourdata, itseemedlikemoneyspentonsomeschoolsactuallypredictedloweroutcomes.How is this possible? There are a lot of reasons, of course, and I’m not

arguingthatschoolsshouldgetlessmoney.Quitetheopposite.Butovertime,Ialso came to believe that one of the biggest issues within education was thequalityoflearningitself.Intoomanyareas,attoomanylevels,institutionswerenot set up to help people gain skills. Put more directly, in too many places,moneyissimplynotbeingspentonwhatmatters.As concrete evidence, step into any lecture hall, with hundreds of students

passively listening to a lecture.The research is overwhelming that the they’ll-get-it-eventually approach is ineffective. Students in traditional lecture-basedcourses are 50 percentmore likely to fail, according to one recent study.OneNobel laureate told me that he thought that traditional lecture courses weresimply“unethical.”Foranotherexample,considerapracticeliketestingyourself.Theevidenceis

conclusive that the strategy can dramatically increase outcomes, sometimes

showing 50 percent higher outcomes. But students rarely use the approach,preferringtojustleafthroughtheirtextbookagain.(Whenitcomestoquizzing,Itried tomake thisbookanexemplar, andyou’ll finda lotof“popquizzes” inthese pages. I slipped the questions into the text to help you better rememberwhatyou’veread.Theanswersareattheendofthebook.)Toadegree,thisbookisaproductofmyworkatoneofthenation’sleading

think tanks. Sincemy confused days in elementary school—or, perhapsmoreaccurately, because of my confused days in elementary school—I becamefascinated with learning. After graduating from college, I aimed to providestudentswithbettereducationalopportunitiesandworkedasaresearcheratthetradepublicationEducationWeek.Then Icoverededucation—andother socialtopics—atU.S.News&WorldReport.Eventually, Ibecameasenior fellowat theCenter forAmericanProgress,a

Washington, DC–based think tank. Working with a dedicated group ofresearchersandpolicywonks,Iexamineeducationissues,andmyresearchhashadsome impactover theyears, from inspiringquipsonTheTonightShow tosparkingchangesineducationpolicy.Butmore than that, this book rests on thework of themany scientists and

researchers who’ve been studying the science of learning. Over the past fewdecades, the field has gone from an obscure topic to a well-established field.Still, most of the research findings have remained buried in dusty academicjournals andobscuregovernment reports.Far too little has reached thepublic.Fartoolittlehaschangedhowpeoplelearn.This book is not another “what’s wrong with American education system”

tome.Therehavebeenenoughof thosesortsofpolicystem-winders.Rather, Ihopetooutlinetheprocessoflearning,todetailhowwelearnbest.Therestofthisbookwillmapout thisnotion ingreaterdetail,outliningageneralmethodforgainingmasterythat’scomeoutoftheresearch.Not every learning activity requires a step-by-step approach. If youwant to

learnhowto,say,changethetireonyourcar,youdon’tneedtofolloweachideaoutlinedbelow,although itmighthelp.But ifaskill isworthknowingdeeply,then it’s worth knowing well, and we need to take a systemic approach todevelopingexpertise,asfollows:

Value.It’simpossibletolearnifwedon’twanttolearn,andtogainexpertise,wehavetoseetheskillsandknowledgeasvaluable.What’smore,wehavetocreatemeaning.Learningisamatterofmakingsenseofsomething.

Target.Intheearlypartofgainingmastery,focusiskey.Weneedtofigure

outwhatexactlywewanttolearnandsetgoalsandtargets.Develop.Someformsofpracticemakepeoplemoreperfectthanothers.Inthisstageoflearning,peopleneedtohonetheirskillsandtakededicatedstepstoimproveperformance.

Extend.Atthispoint,wewanttogobeyondthebasics—andapplywhatweknow.Wewanttofleshoutourskillsandknowledgeandcreatemoremeaningfulformsofunderstanding.

Relate.Thisisthephasewhereweseehowitallfitstogether.Afterall,wedon’twanttoknowjustasingledetailorprocedure—wewanttoknowhowthatdetailorprocedureinteractswithotherfactsandprocedures.

Rethink.Whenitcomestolearning,it’seasytomakemistakes,tobeoverconfident,andsoweneedtoreviewourknowledge,reconsiderourunderstanding,andlearnfromourlearning.

Acrossthesesteps,therearesomethemesthatwe’llreturntoagainandagain.Learning is often a form of mental doing, for one, and the more someone isactively engaged, the more they learn. If you’re reading some new text, askyourself questions:What’s this text about?What point is the author trying tomake?Isthereanythingherethatseemsconfusing?At the same time,manage your learning. Have you gotten feedback?Have

you benchmarked your performance? If you’re giving a speech, videotapeyourself. If you’re writing an essay, ask a friend to read it over. If you’relearningSpanish,talkwithanativespeaker.Whenitcomestolearning,weneedtotargetourlearningandfigureoutwhatexactlywe’reaimingtoknow.Also be sure to think about your thinking.Do you really understand?Have

you accounted for the inevitable forgetting? In this regard, spreading learningovertimeiscrucial.Afterall,weoftenfailtorecallcertainfactsanddetails,andby some estimates,we lose about half ofwhatwe learnwithin an hour. Thismeans that people should make sure to review what they know days, weeks,evenmonthslater.Aswewillfindout,justmakinglargerpilesofflashcards—and thus doingmore to space out our learning—can improve outcomes by 30percent.Emotions also play a crucial role. We often think that learning is purely

rational,amatterofdeeplogicandfocusedreasoning,butourbrainsdon’tquitework that way. The process of gaining expertise is often just as cognitive asnoncognitive.Inthisregard,wecan’tlearnifwedon’tbelievethatwecanlearn.Likeanenginethatrequiresbothoilandgasinordertorunproperly,ourbrainsneedbothreasonandemotiontoperformatanysortofhighlevel.To gain expertise, people also need to look for connections, and effective

learningoftenboilsdowntoseeingrelationshipswithinabodyofknowledge.Soaskyourself:Isthereananalogythathelpsexplaintheidea?Aretherelinkstoother fields or subjects? If you’re learning about something—like, say, thephysicsofablackhole—whatconceptualsimilaritycanyouenvision?Areblackholessimilartosinkholes?Awaterfall?Atrashcan?Intheend, therearebetter,moreeffectivewaystolearn,andweneedtodo

muchmoretogiveeveryonetheskillstheyneedtosucceed.Thegoalintoday’sworld isn’t just to be smart or to memorize lots of facts. That simply is notenoughanymore.Rather,thegoalistobecomeaneffectivelearner,onewhocantakeadvantageofall thetoolsof the21stcentury.Ihopethisbookshowsyouhow—andsparksgreatchange,sothatwecanalltakefulladvantageofourdeepcapacitytogainnewskills.

POPQUIZ#1

What’sthemosteffectivewaytolearnkeyideas?

A. Circlingkeypointsinthepassage.B. Rereadingthepassage.C. Taking a short practice test on the material presented in the

passage.D. Highlightingthecrucialideasinthepassage.

Chapter1

VALUE

JasonWolfson isn’t sure howmanyLego sculptures he’s created. Standing inthebasementofhishouse,he’ssurroundedbydozensofhiscreations—aLegodragon,aLegoairplane,agiantLegomothwithsix-inchLegowings.Inboxes,in small plastic bags, on the table in front ofWolfson, there were still moreconstructions—ahalf-builtlunarmodule,aLeaningTowerofPisa,acowboy—allmadefromLegos.SomeofWolfson’s constructions are finished—largeartfulworksofbricks,

part Warhol, part toy, part real-life fantasy. Other sculptures are half-builtdesigns, creations in themaking, like an artificial heart sculptedoutofLegos.Alongthewalls,alongthefloor,pushingagainstthetopoftheroom,areallofWolfson’srawmaterials—hundredsofthousandsofplasticbricks.“Ah,thesemeteorsareawesome,”Wolfsontellsme,pluckingoutalittlegray

meteorfromtheplasticboxandshowingitofftomeinhispalmlikesomesortofrarediamond.Withoutquestion,WolfsonisanunlikelyLegodevotee.Helovesmoviesand

vacations in Florida and does CrossFit on weekends. He grew up outside ofPhiladelphia and ran track in high school and helped head up his collegefraternity.Today,heworksasanengineerandliveswithhiswife,andhehangsa largeAmerican flag out in front of the house each IndependenceDay.Likemanyforty-somethings,hishairisthinningabit.Heoftenquotesfilmsfromthe1980s.Idon’tknowifI’veeverseenhimwearanythingbutbluejeans.Butinmanyways,Wolfson’sinterestinLegosmakesallsortsofsense.When

hetouredmethroughhisbasement,hekeptspinningoutlittlestories,awayofexplainingwhyeachsculpturemattered.WhenWolfsonpointedouthistrue-to-size replica of the muppet Gonzo, he explained that his wife loved the JimHenson–createdpuppet.AsWolfsonshowedmethebluepoliceboxmadefromthesmallbricks,hebegantotalkabouthisdevotiontotheTVshowDr.Who.Or the dragonlike Jabberwocky that Wolfson had once fashioned out ofhundredsofLegos?WolfsonalwayslovedAliceinWonderland.At first,Wolfson’s stories seemed cute and charming, something to tell the

writer in this basement. But the stories turned out to be a crucial part of hisdevotion.TheymadeWolfson’sLegosculpturessomethingofvalue,somethingofsubstance,somethingthathadmeaning.

After all, Wolfson wasn’t interested in any pile of little plastic bricks. Hedidn’tcareaboutsomeoldboxofdog-chewedLegos.Rather,hewasfascinatedbythepileofbricksthathehadtransformedintoascenefromhisfavoritenoveloraniconicphoneboothfromhisfavoriteTVshow.Toadegree,we’reallpartWolfson.Wemaynothaveaburningpassionfor

AliceinWonderland,Muppets,orLegos,butinourmind,weallseetheworldthrough the frame of meaning. We engage in activities that we believe havevalue.Whenitcomestolearning,thisideaiscrucial.Motivationisthefirststepin

acquiring any sort of skill. It’s hard to learn something if we don’t see anymeaning in it, and we’ll start this chapter by examining how value drivesmotivation.But meaning is important for another reason—it’s the very first step of

understanding.Ifwe’remakingaconnectiontoabitofexpertise,we’restartingtomakesenseofit.We’llcoverthisideainthesecondhalfofthechapteranddiscussthecrucialroleofuncoveringsignificanceinwhatwewanttolearn.Thevalueofmeaninghasitsrootsinthebrain,andforallitsrichcomplexity,

our mind works as a type of storyteller. Like a film director, we’re alwayscreating some sort of narrative, some type of understanding, some sort ofmeaning. If you walk into a room for the first time, for instance, you willimmediately formulateavalue-ladenstory thatexplains the room’spurpose. Ifit’s a large spacewith a long,well-polished table, youmight think:ameetingroom.Ifthereareafewbarbellsontheground:gym.Thesamethinghappensintwodimensionswithopticalillusions.Sometimes

wewillseeabeautifulyoungwomaninadrawing,sometimesanolderlady—butwe’re always seeing some sort ofmeaning in the image. It’s never just abunchofrandom,meaninglesssquiggles.Thisismorethanacognitivequirkbecausemeaningissomethingwehaveto

create. People find their own value in the world, with meaning serving as amatterofperspective,aframeofmind,anattitudethatmakessomethingeitherwonderfullyimportantordevoidofallsignificance.Moredirectly,valueis theultimatefuelofourdrivetolearn.We’remotivatedtogainexpertisebecauseofthepowerofmeaning.Legos remainagoodexample.Thebrickshavebecomepopularwithadults

becausetheymakeiteasytouncoverasenseofrelevance,andtodaymanyLegoexposwillhavetensofthousandsofvisitors,whileglossyonlinemagazineslikeBrickJournalchroniclethelatestapproaches.TherearealsoLegoskillsclassesandbooksdevotedtoLegotechniquesandaprofessorofLegoattheUniversityofCambridge.

WolfsonhimselfhasspentdecadesperfectinghisLegoskillsforthisreason.Becauseofthemeaningthathefindsinthebrickconstructions,hehaslearnedhow to create curvedLego structures—which is difficult given that the bricksthemselves are square. To create a smooth look,Wolfson also developed theskillofbuildingLegoconstructionswiththestudsontheinside.Foroneproject,WolfsonevendevelopedanewprogrammingcodesothattheLegoconstructionwouldplaymusicwhensomeonewalkedby.BeforeIleftWolfson’shouse,heshowedmeyetanotherLegoconstruction,a

darkbluemoonlandset.Wolfsonhadbuiltthekitwhenhewasfiveyearsold,sitting in his grandmother’s dining room, perched alongside an eight-sidedwooden table, his legs tucked into a low-slung chair. As we spoke,Wolfsongentlyheld theconstruction inhishand, showingme thedifferentdetails.Theconstructionwasanodetohischildhoodself.Itwassomethingvaluable.

Whenitcomestolearning,meaningisn’tsomethingthatfindsus.It’ssomethingthatweneedtouncoveronourown.Takestatistics,asanexample.Withoutquestion,dataanalysis isapowerful

tool.Infact,it’sbecomenearlyimpossiblethesedaystogetfarinmanyfields—banking,medicine,sportsmanagement—withoutsomebasicgraspofstatistics.Yet people generally don’t have an intrinsic desire to master statistics.

Condemntheelaboratenatureof linearregressions—orthedustdrymanner inwhichthetopicisusuallytaught—butmostpeoplearen’tpowerfullyinspiredtospendtheirdaysreviewingstatisticscodeorplottinghistograms.ApsychologyprofessorattheUniversityofVirginia,ChrisHullemaniswell

aware of this tension. As a researcher, he has a statistics program like R orSTATAloadeduponeveryoneofhiscomputers—it’sbasically impossible topublisharesearchpaperwithoutanysortofrobustdataanalysis.Butat thesametime,mostofHulleman’spsychologystudentsgrouseat the

mentionofcorrelations.Manygroan.Afewwhimper.Forhisstudents,statisticsseemstedious—apainful,boringtopicwithoutanysortofrelevanceorvaluetotheirlives.In college,Hullemanwas anAll-Americanoffensive lineman, and todayhe

still has the energetic, aspirational attitude of someonewho has spent a lot oftime playing competitive sports. And, some years ago, he decided to try andaddressthisproblem,toseeifhecoulddomoretosparkhisstudents’interestinstatistics,andHullemanhadsomepsychologystudentswriteaboutwhystatisticswasrelevanttotheirlives.Hullemanandhiscolleaguesaimedtohelpthestudentsfindvalueinthedata

tools,andtheresearcherspromptedthestudentswithquestionslike:Canyouseeyourself ever using statistics in your life? Can you imagine using statistics inyourcareerasanurse,salesperson,ormanager?Thestudents thenspentsometimewritingshortessays,eachfillingapageortwoofanotebook.The outcomeswere clear.By drawing a connection between their lives and

statistics, the students becamemuchmoremotivated in their studies; in somecases,thestudentscameclosetojumpingagradelevel,fromaCaveragetoaBaverage.Inotherwords,theactofexplainingwhystatisticsmatteredtothem—in their future careers, their hobbies, the families they’d one day create—dramaticallyimprovedtheirlevelsoflearning.Sincethen,Hullemanhasrolledoutsimilarinitiativesinvarioussettings.He

has had high school students write about the value of science to their lives,penning short descriptions of why science matters to them. Together withresearcher Judith Harackiewicz, Hulleman has also provided pamphlets toparents to talk with their children about how science can shape careers,suggesting ways that the parents make science homework seems moremeaningful.Inevitably,apersonortwowillpensomesnideremarks.“Man,quitwasting

mytime,”wroteonehighschoolstudentinaflashofdefiance.Butmostpeopleengage.Studentswillwriteabouthowtheymightneedmathoncetheyhavejobsatacompany.Otherstalkabouthowtheskillscouldhelpthemintheirpersonallives.Manynotethatthere’sanintrinsicpleasuretohavingaskill.HullemanandIspokeearlyoneafternoon,andhearguedthattherearelotsof

ways to create a sense of value. Rewards, novelty, context—they all make adifferencewhenitcomestocreatingapersonalsenseofmeaning.Inthisregard,intrinsic motivation—or inherent interest—is itself a type of value. We dosomethingbecausewewantdoit.Butintheend,Hullemanargued,peopleneedtofindtheirownrelevanceinasubjectinordertobedriventolearnthatsubject.Psychologist Kenn Barron—who works with Hulleman—gives a different

waytounderstandthisidea.Notlongago,Barronwroteupaformula.“Itriedtoboildown40yearsof research to fitontoacocktailnapkin,”he toldme.Theformulaismotivationequalsamixofcosts(ortheamountofeffortitwilltaketo complete the task), a sense of expectancy (or the notion of self-efficacy,whichwewilldiscussin thenextchapter),andafeelingofvalue,ormeaning.Thelastvariableisoftenthemostcrucial,accordingtoBarron,andit’samatterof“DoIwanttodothetask?”There’ssomethingfamiliarabout thisargument,admittedly.Afterall,we’ve

allhadteacherswhohaveproclaimed:“Thisisimportant.”Myparentssaiditallthetimeaboutmyschoolwork,too:“You’llneedthislater.”NowIhearversions

of the idea frommy company’s HR department:“Your retirement account iscentraltoyourfuture.”But thecruxof this lineof research isdifferent. In short, just tellingpeople

that something is important is not enough. In fact, Hulleman has found thatsimplytellingpeoplethat informationhasvaluecanbackfire.Whenwe’retoldhowtofeelorthink,wecanfeelthreatenedoroverlymanaged.Instead, people need to find meaning in the activities themselves. In other

words,valuehastogofromthepersontothematerial,fromtheindividualtotheknowledgeorskill.“It’saboutmakingthatconnectionbetweenwhatpeoplearelearning andwhat’s going on in their lives,”Hulleman toldme. “Value is themechanism.Forpeople,thequestionis,‘CanIseewhythisisvaluabletome?’”Great public speakers often take this approach, and a good presenter will

ensurethat thematerialseemsrelevanttotheiraudience.FormerpresidentBillClintonwaswell-knownforthistypeofcharm.IfthetopicofconversationwastheMaldives,askilledspeakerlikeClintonmightsubtlyaskhisaudienceiftheyhadvisitedthenation.Ifthetopicwasabattleofsomesort,heaskifsomeonehad a relative who served in the military. Discussing a boring IT tool? Getpeoplethinkingabouttheirowncomputerforamoment.Thisideaalsoexplainswhythatwe’refarmoremotivatedtolearnsomething

ifwehave—orwillhave—someexperiencewithit.Whenitcomestolearning,wewanttounderstandourworld.Wewanttofillinourknowledgegaps,toseevalue.Meaning, then, can be self-perpetuating.Themore thatwe know aboutstatistics,themorethatwewanttoknowaboutsomethinglikestatistics.If I knowsomething—like, say, thatVenus is thehottest planet in the solar

system—themoreIwanttoknowmoreaboutthat:SowhyexactlyisVenussohot? Or if I know something about data analytics, I’ll be more interested tounderstandSimpson’sParadox,inwhichtrendsarereversedwithinaverages.When it comes to Legos, this idea is oddly obvious, or at least it became

obvious to me on the day that I stepped into the Lego convention known asBrickFair. The promoters billed BrickFair as the “grandest LEGO fanconvention and expo inAmerica.”Wolfsonhad recommended that I attend it,andasImovedaroundtheaisles,itwasclearthatpeoplebuiltthingsthathelddeepvaluetothem.OneboyexplainedtomethathehadonceshotanM4A1rifle,andsohebuilt

a recreation of the carbine to display at the convention. Another man, BretHarris,hadservedintheMarines,andsohemademilitary-themedthings.Andthepersonwhocreatedthepicnictable-sizerecreationoftheVatican,includingthe two winged angels hanging next to the Oltramontano Clock? A CatholicpriestfromScranton,Pennsylvania.

As Iwandered aroundBrickFair, I ran intoBrianMelick.Shortwith brighteyes and a booming voice, Melick had an unnerving amount of enthusiasm.While I talked with Melick, another man came by and jokingly asked hisdaughter,“Isyourdadalwaysthisshyandnegative?”Melickisadrummerandhaslongbeenfascinatedbyusing“foundobjects”to

helpstudentslearnaboutpercussion.Soinhisclassesatlocalschools,museums,and libraries,Melick will first discuss some of the principles of drumming—thingslikeshakingorrubbing.ThenMelickwillhavepeopleusewhatevertheycanfind—plates,pipes,evensticks—tomakeashakingorarubbingsound.Thelessonshelp“connectustoourownenvironment,”Melicktoldme.Melick’sapproachstayedwithme,andIendedupspendingthewholedayat

the Lego convention, looking for ways that people connected to their bricks,makingvalueoutoftheirLegos.Intheafternoon,therewasalectureabouthowtocustomizeyourLegomini-figures.IalsowatchedtheLegoboatcompetition,whereaspiringseafarersracedtheirLegoboatsinthehotelpool.Therewasevenacurtained-offroomcalledStayandPlay,wherepeoplecouldcreatethingsthattheysawasmeaningful.Thestrengthofthisverypersonalapproachtomotivationextendsfarbeyond

Legos, and in the end, what’s perhaps most interesting about the power ofmeaningishoweasyitistounderestimateitspower.Forallsortsofreasons,weforget that people ultimately want meaning—and they need to discover thatmeaningontheirown.Inthisargument,weknowthatmeaningmatters.Wejustforget that meaning is sort of a river, something powerful, somethingmeandering,somethingthatflowsonlyinonedirection.ThevideogameMinecraftisagreatcaseinpoint.WhenprogrammerMarkus

Persson first launched the online game some years ago, few believed that theprogramwouldeversucceed.Afterall,thegamehadnodramaticcarchasesordisplaysofdaring-do.InMinecraft,therearenotevenpointstofigureoutwhoisthewinner.Instead, the online game provides people with building blocks and allows

them to create whatever they want in the online world. Using square blocks,peoplecanbuild sprawlingcastles. Ifyou love theEiffelTower—andwant tobuild a facsimile out of blocks—this is your game. But, as the writers ofPersson’sbiographyargue,nobankerwantedtoinvestinthegamingtechnologybecauseitwas“completelyagainstwhateveryonethoughtpeoplewanted”inavideogame.Butdespitetheconventionalwisdom—andavastmarketbuiltaroundshoot-

em-up games—Minecraft has became one of the most popular games everproduced. There are more than 100 million users around the world, and

Minecraft has outsoldTetris, SuperMarioBrothers, evenCall ofDuty.Why?Because the programmakes it simple to create something relevant, to find apersonalsenseofmeaning.AsPerssonrecentlytoldareporter,withMinecraft,“youcanbuildanythingyouwanttobuildyourself.”

Some time ago, Yale management professor Amy Wrzesniewski conductedinterviews of janitors at a hospital.At first,Wrzesniewski found exactlywhatyoumight think—thecleaningcrewat thehospital seemed tobe all about themoney. The staff came into the hospital each day and scrubbed the toilets inordertomakesurethattheycouldwriteacheckfortherent.Itwasthecash,inotherwords,thatmotivatedtheemployeestosweepandbroomandmopeveryday.Over time, though,Wrzesniewski discovered thatmany of the janitors also

viewed themselves as a key part of the hospital. Some of the cleaning crewwouldfollowuponcertainpatients tomakesurethat theyhadenoughvisitorseachday.Otherswouldmoveartworkaroundtohelpengagethepatients.Onecleaning person toldWrzesniewski that “I’m an ambassador for the hospital.”Stillanothercalledherselfa“healer.”These inspired janitors were far more engaged in their work than their

colleagues. Just as important, they were much happier about their lives ingeneral. “Itwas not just that theywere taking the same job and feelingbetterabout it,” Wrzesniewski once told writer David Zax. “It was that they weredoingadifferent job.”Putsimply, thejanitorssawmoremeaningandvalueintheirdailytoil,anditmadethemfeelmorefulfilled.After the experience at the hospital, Wrzesniewski began studying the

research, and it turned out that meaning was one of the biggest drivers offulfillment.Morethanhappiness,morethanprofits,peoplewantedtheirlivestohave value, and peoplewho report higher levels ofmeaning are less anxious,morehealthy,andmoresatisfiedwiththeirlives.To help people take advantage of this psychological habit of mind,

Wrzesniewski and her colleagues spun out a career tool. They called theapproach “job crafting,” and it has a basicmessage:Shift your job to fit yourinterests.Ifyou’reanextrovertworkingatalibrary,craftyourjobsothatyou’rea part-time tour guide for the library. Employed at a nonprofit firm and lovedata? Consider helping the marketing staff analyze trends as a way to boostdonations.BeforeJustinBergbecameabusinessprofessoratStanford,hestudiedwith

Wrzesniewski,andaspartofhiswork,heinterviewededucatorswhohadgone

through theprocessof jobcrafting.One teacherhada secretdesire tobe rockstar, and so the educator began to include some Rolling Stones–likeperformances into his instruction, sometimes even walking on the tables likeMickJagger.Anotherteacherlovedcomputers,andsoshetookmoreofatechrole at the school. “It starts with amind-set toward your job,” Berg toldme.“Canyouseeawaytomakeitmoremeaningful?”There’s an important analogy, and motivation for learning often requires

something similar.Thinkof it as “learn crafting,” and it’s amatter ofmakingwhat we want to learn more relevant. It’s a way to find meaning—and thusmotivation—intheskillsthatwe’relookingtogain.Alargepartof theapproachrequiresashift inperspective.Areyougaining

technologyskillslikeWebdesignbutarenotmuchofatechie?Thenmakesureto see how the skill applies to your area of interest like couture fashion orbadminton.Learningafinancialconceptlikebankruptcybutdislikemoneytalk?Thenattempt tocraft the topic towhat’s relevant toyou,and thinkabouthowknowledgeofbankruptcymighthelpyourunclewhoisteeteringontheedgeofinsolvency.This idea rests on a deeper and frankly pretty obvious truth: People are

different.Theyhavevarious interests,motivations,andpersonalitiesaswellasdiversepastimes,backgrounds,andconcerns.Yetwecan’talwayschoosewhatwewanttolearn.Sometimeswehavetogainexpertiseinstatistics.Sometimeswehavetolearntodrive—ormasterthecompanysoftware.Asolutionhere is learncrafting,orhunting formeaning in themastery that

you’vebeenassigned.Inpracticalterms,thatmeansaskingyourself:Howisthismaterialvaluabletome?HowcanImakeitmorerelevant?HowwillIusetheexpertiseinmyownlife?Thisideaalsoexplainswhylearnersneedsomefreedom.Weoftenneedspace

to find value, and a wealth of research supports the idea of giving studentscontrol over how they learn a subject. In one recent study, for instance, somehighschoolershadsomechoiceover theirhomework.Othershadnochoiceatall.Theresultswereclear:Thestudentswhohadmoreautonomyshowedmoremotivation—andfarbetterlearningoutcomes.Someschoolsand trainingcentershave takenup thecauseof learncrafting,

although they generally don’t use the exact term “learn crafting.” At St.Andrew’s Episcopal School outside of Washington, DC, students are oftenprovided a choice in how they’ll demonstrate their learning, from taking aconventionalexamtocreatingavideo.Teensattheschoolwilloftenopttocreatesomesortofindependentprojectto

showofftheirskillsandknowledge,eventhoughitcantakethreeorfourtimes

asmuchworkastakingatraditionaltest,accordingtoGlennWhitman,directorof theschool’sCenter forTransformativeTeachingandLearning.“Theyseealotmoremeaning,relevancy,andpersonalownership,”Whitmantoldme.EvensomethingasseeminglyplayfulasLegossometimesneedsabitoflearn

crafting. IoncevisitedCamMeyer’sJuniorBrickBuilderAssociation’scamp,where there’soneoverarching rule: no instructions.ForMeyer, thatmeansnoLegobookletsorrepackagedkits.Thestudentshavetodecideonwhattobuild—andhowtobuildit.ThisisnothowtheLegocompanysellsitsbricks,tobeclear.Justaboutevery

kit comes with a detailed list of procedures. But Meyer takes a differentapproach,andonthemorningthatIswungpasthisclassroom,hestartedoffbytellingthestudentsthattherewouldbenodirections.Theywouldhavetorelyontheirowncreativity.It took a fewmoments for the idea to sink in, and some of the students—

mainly 10-year-olds—sighed loudly with frustration. In previous years, somehad broken down in tears. But the students soon quieted down, and a humdescendedovertheroomasthekidsbecameabsorbedintheirLegobuilds.Onegirlmadeafierce-lookingreptile.Anotherbuiltananimalfromavideogame.Itwasclearthattheywerefarmoreengagedthaniftheyhadsimplyfollowedasetofinstructions.“Wouldyouratherhavetheinstructions?”Iaskedoneboydressedinablue

T-shirt.Heshookhishead.“It’smorefunthisway.”“I’m thinking about getting rid of the instructions so even my mom can’t

makewhat’sinthere,”addedthegirlsittingnexttohim.There’s an important caveat here. Whether it’s Legos or law school,

instruction is important. We learn most effectively when expertise is brokendown into discrete chunks, as we will see. But to stay engaged, to staymotivated,wealsoneedchoice.Weneedtohaveahandincraftingourlearning.WhenIspoketoWrzesniewski’scolleagueJustinBerg,hetoldme,“Manyofuscould benefit from tapping further into our callings.” Berg was talking aboutwork,butlearningisnodifferent.Whenitcomestogainingexpertise,weneedtotapfurtherintoourcalling.

There’s an important question thatwe have not addressed, and that’swhyweevenneedasenseofmeaning.Theanswerspeakstosomethingimportantaboutwhoweareasaspecies,andinmanyways,ourdesireformeaningisaboutourdesirefordiscovery.Weareoftenmotivatedtolearnbecausewewanttolearn.

Peopleseekvaluebecausetheyevolvedtoseekvalue.Thisisn’tascircularasitsounds.EachtimethatIopenanInternetbrowser,

I’mstruckbytheurgetodiscover.Justthisafternoon,IclickedonBuzzFeed’s“21 Pictures ThatWillRestoreYour Faith inHumanity.” I know. I shouldn’thave, and I quickly spun through the images. Twomen saving a sheep fromdrowning. An oxygen mask on a cat. A homeless girl landing a new pair ofshoes.Thenmyeyescaughtaglimpseofanotherheadline—“16MountainstoClimb

forBeginners”—andIsoonspunoffintoanothercorneroftheInternet.Iforgottheexactnatureofthenexthyperlinkedrabbithole—maybeaYouTubechanneloraWikipediapageoragifofasnakeeatinganalligator.PsychologistJaakPanksepphas longarguedthatwe’rewiredtoseekin this

way,describingseekingas“thegranddaddyofthesystems.”ForPanksepp,ouremotionsrunonthisurgetosearch,andhebelievesthatfeelingsoftenserveasatypeofseekingbarometer, something that tellsushowwellwe’redoing inallthethingsthatwe’resupposedtobediscovering.ForPanksepp, this ideaexplainswhypeoplefeelasurgeofhappinesswhen

they try out something new. Our feel-good levels of dopamine jump at theexperience of looking for something original. The converse is also true:Depressionoftenboilsdowntoafeelingthattheworldhasnomeaning,andit’stypicallymarkedbyalackofseekingbehavior.Inthissense,seekingislikeeatingandsleeping,sexandlove,abehaviorthat

comeswithourDNA,andwithoutquestion,ouremotion-drivenurgetodiscoverhasalongevolutionaryhistory.Afterall,newthingsoftenholdthemostdanger—and the most reward. New ideas, new people, new animals—these are thethings that could help us or potentially kill us.Over time, they began to havetheirownspecialtypeofvalue.Norhaslifechangedallthatmuchsinceancienttimes,andtheemotionalact

of discovery is still at the very heart of what we do all day: Get up in themorning, and sleepy-eyed, you immediately start to look for some news andsomeclothes.Thenyouhabituallyrootaroundforyourbreakfast—whereistheboxofraisinbranagain?Nextcomesthefeelingoftheneedtoferretoutthecarkeys,andbythetimeyou’veleftthehouseeachmorning,you’vealreadybeeninstinctivelysearchingfordozensofdifferentthings.Thetakeawayhereisthatmotivation—orvalue—isoftenasmuchrawfeeling

asclearreason,andweengageinseekingconstantlybecausethat’swhoweareas Homo sapiens. We’re a species of searchers. Spending an hour peckingthrough Web site after Web site, going from Wikipedia to TMZ to theWashingtonPostisn’tasimplewasteoftime(althoughoftenitis).Italsobrings

usatypeofshort-termpleasure.This type of seeking, this sort of discovery, often serves as the first step of

learning.Todevelopasenseofvalue,afeelingofdesire,wetinkerandexplore,wondering if somethingmatches our interests and values. Ifwewant to learnengineering,wemight tinkerwith Legos. Ifwewant to learn about PresidentWashingtonandthebattleofTrenton,wemightreviewtheWikipediapage.In a way, we’re getting a sense of what exactly we need to know.We’re

buildingasenseofdesire.InthelanguageofresearcherslikeSuzanneHidiandKenn Barron, we’ve developed a type of situational motivation. Think ofsituationalmotivationasmindbait,andwe’reallprettyfamiliarwithwhatitcantake to spark this dopamine-infused drive: flashy images, bright sounds, ormaybejustacouplecatvideos.Thismotivation can be enduring, and itmight take an entiremorning until

we’veexhaustedallthelinksinanarticledevotedtothe“40ThingsThatMakeYouFeelOld.”Butmoretypicallythismotivationisfleeting.Itfadesassoonasitarrives.Ourattentionhasalreadyrunofftothenextloudbellorhigh-pitchedwhistle.In contrast, there’s what might be called deep motivation. This sort of

motivationismoreprofound.Ifsituationalmotivationismentalbait,thendeepmotivation is a sort of trap. It snags on a fundamental part ofwhowe are—aricherkindofvalue—andit’sthistypeofmotivationthatpushesindividualstospenddecadesstudyingorganicchemistryorperfectingtheirépée-stylefencingskills.So how does situational motivation become deep motivation? The answer

goesbacktotheideaofvalue—andintheend,it’sasenseofworththatkeepsthemotivationtrapclosed.Meaningisthedividinglinebetweenthedriveofthesituationandthedriveofthepersonal,andwhenwefindsomethingmeaningful,itbecomesamuchmoreintimatemotivation.Psychologists likeHidi and her colleagueAnnRenninger have shown how

thishappens. In the first stageofmotivation, it’s typicallyallaboutsituationalinterest.So,for instance,maybeyoucomeacrossaYouTubevideodevotedtoOccam’s razor, or the idea that the simplest explanation is often thebest.Thevideoispowerfulandsnappy.Soyourattentionisdrawnin.Inthesecondstage,peoplewillbegintoseesomesortofvalueinthetopic.

SoasyouwatchtheYouTubevideo,youbegintounderstandhowtheprincipleofOccam’srazorcanhelpyouwinarguments—andsolveproblems.Nowyoukeeponwatchingthefilmclipbecausethecliphasvaluetoyou.In the third and fourth stage, motivation often becomes more and more

intrinsic,andifwegiveenoughattentiontoatopic,theinterestcandevelopinto

aricherformofmotivation.IfyouknowalotaboutOccam’srazor,thenyou’llfindvalueindifferentinterpretationsoftheidea,andbecuriousabouthowthenotionappliestodifferentfieldslikemedicineorsports.Thisdoesn’talwayshappen,ofcourse.Personality, experience,background,

cultureareallatplay.Atthesametime,wehavetosupportourseekingsystem,ourdesiretoknow.Practicallyspeaking,thismeanssometimeslettingyourselfloose in thewilds ofWikipedia to uncover new ideas or spending some timewatching a documentary because it’s interesting or even just making time toexperiencenewthingsandideas.Atthesametime,wehavetorealizethatweneedemotionalsupportwhenthe

learningbecomeshard.Inotherwords,weneedtomanageourseekingsysteminordertogetthingsdone.Formypart,I’vecometoviewmotivationasafire.Itneedsanemotionalsparkinordertoflameup,butwithoutmanagement,itcanquickly die down—or grow out of control. Too little seeking, too littleexcitement,inotherwords,andweloseourdesiretoknow.Toomuchseeking,however, and an entire day can be spent on BuzzFeed’s page, “People WhoHaveNoIdeaHowFireWorks.”

ThesuccessofWebsiteslikeBuzzFeedhintsatyetanotherwaytocreatevalueand drive for learning—our social side. After all, a lot of the popularity ofBuzzFeed—orTMZ—hastodowithourgroup-ishways,andtheWebsitesaimto create material that we want to share with friends. We read articles like“PeopleWhoHaveNoIdeaHowFireWorks”andthentweetthemofftofriendsandfamily.Inthissense,ourpeerspromotevalue.Theyhelpusseemeaning,particularly

whenitcomestolearning.Foradifferentexample,takesomeonelikeLangstonTingling-Clemmons.Whilehegraduatedfromcollegemorethanadecadeago,Tingling-Clemmons still remembers raising his hand in chemistry class atBucknellUniversity.Short and thin-framed,Tingling-Clemmonswas sitting near the front of the

class at the time. It was his freshman year at the school, and he was almostcertainly well-dressed. Tingling-Clemmons favors tie clips and paisley socks.Familymembersjokethathecameoutofthewombwearingacoordinatedsuit.Evenwhenheplayssports,hewearsmatchingoutfits.Tingling-Clemmonspushedhishand into theairon thatday,and fora long

moment, it seemed like every student in the roomwas staring at him.At thetime,Bucknellhadonlya fewhundredblack studentsoutof anenrollmentofmorethan3,000.Tingling-ClemmonshimselfwastheonlyAfrican-Americanin

thecourse.Everyoneelseintheroomwaswhite,andasthesecondsticktockedaway, as the professor finally answered his query, Tingling-Clemmons feltalone,withaquietvoiceinsideofhisheadwhisperingsomethingalongthelinesof:ShouldIreallybehere?Tingling-Clemmons eventually dropped the chemistry class. It wasn’t the

academics.Tingling-Clemmonsgraduatedfromoneof thebesthighschools inWashington, DC. It was the feeling of being an outsider, a stranger—and ithappenedoftenduringhistimeatBucknell.“SinceIwastheonlyblackkidintheir classes, other people would recognize me over all campus,” Tingling-Clemmonstoldme.“PeoplewouldsayhitomethatIdidn’tevenknow,andIwaslikehuh?”It’s hard going off to college for just about everyone:Youhave to develop

new friends and takemore rigorous courses and live away fromhome for thefirsttime.Butit’sevenmoredifficultforstudentsofcolor.Inmanycases,theyfeelliketheydon’tbelong.Theystrugglewithfittingin.Forthem,thecultureofcollegeisverydifferentthanthecultureofhome.“IfeltsometimeslikeIwasanislanduntomyself,”Tingling-Clemmonstoldme.Some years ago, Deborah Bial decided to take on this issue. She started a

programthathelpsstudentswhowere“overlooked”bycolleges,helpingthemtosucceed by giving themmore social support in college.CalledPosse, it sendstypically disadvantaged students of color to colleges around the country ingroupsof10.Each“posse”ensuresthatthestudentshaveanetworkofpeopletosupportthem.Tingling-ClemmonswasoneofthefirstPossestudentstoarriveatBucknell,

and despite his experience in chemistry, the program gave him a way to feelnormal. With the other Posse students, Tingling-Clemmons would listen tomusicandgooutformeals.Theywouldtalkaboutawkwardmomentsinclass—andplaybasketballtoburnoffsteam.Thegroupwassmallandtight-knit.OneofTingling-Clemmons’sPossefriendslaterbecamethebestmanathiswedding.Suchemotionalsupports tilt themotivationscale,creatingafeelingofvalue

and meaning in learning. People in the Posse program are far more likely tograduate fromcollege than theirpeers,withagraduation rateover90percent.Tingling-Clemmons leftBucknellwith a doublemajor in history and religion.During his senior year, Tingling-Clemmons was student body president, andtodayhecreditsthePosseprogramwithhelpinghimgraduatefromtheschool.Like many things related to value and meaning, our need for belonging is

often overlooked. Part of the reason is that social cues are often subtle cues.Theywhisperinsteadofshout,andafeelingoftogetherness,ofsocialvalue,istypically indicated in all sorts of muted ways—accent, inflection, body

positioning.Thismeansthatsmallshiftsinsocialdynamicscanhaveasurprisinglylarge

impact.Inonestudy,forinstance,Asianstudentswithmore“identifiable”AsiannameslikeVivekweremorelikelytohavehighermathscoresthanAsiankidswith the names likeAlex.Why?Because teachers assumed that studentswithmoreAsian-soundingnamestookmathclass“moreseriously,”andsotheyhadhigherexpectations—andmoretargetedmathinstruction.Wealsogenerallydiscoversocialidentitiesonlyinrelationtootheridentities.

IneverfeelmoreAmerican thenwhenI’minGermany, for instance.Being inCentralEuropemakesmerealizeallofthehabits—tooloud,toofriendly—thatmakeme red,white, and blue, and frankly, I’mmuch louder andmore genialthanmostGermans.Theconverse is also true. Inever feelmoreGerman thanwhenI’mlivingintheUnitedStates,andI’mfarmorelikelytobeontimethanmostofmypeers.Despite all their nuances, social factors have a tremendous impact on our

senseofvalue.Familyandpeers,friendsandcolleagues,theyallgiveemotionalmeaning to learning, and when we’re stressed or nervous or sad, we look toothers.Testanxietyisagreatexample,andanxioustesttakersperformbetterifthey have a closer relationship with friends. The support of peers, it seems,offersanemotionalbufferagainstthementalstrainoftheexams.Theymakeiteasiertoregulateourfeelings.Social networks are also a type of motivation, and if people feel like they

don’t belong, they’re far lessmotivated and generally doworse academically.More specifically, people who take classes with their friends typically posthighertestscoresthanpeoplewhodon’thavefriendsintheirclasses.This idea also explainswhy public commitments can have such a dramatic

impact. When people tell their friends that they’re going to do something,they’refarmorelikelytostaycommittedto thatgoal.IfwedeclaresomethingonFacebook orTwitter—I’m going to learn to getmy real estate license, forinstance—we’reoftenmorelikelytogothroughwiththatpromise.Wewanttokeepourcommitmenttoourgroup.This is the positive side of peer pressure, of teams and tribes, clans and

circles, and if one person dedicates himself to learning, itmakes other peoplemorededicatedtolearning.Wedon’twanttobetheoutsiderorthemisfitorthelazyone,andsomotivationandmeaningwillspreadwithingroups.Asenseofdrive can jump fromperson to person.As one recent study declared, “Mentaleffortiscontagious.”When it comes to learning,our socialwaysare farmorepowerful thanyou

think.JustimagineahighlyselectiveschoollikeHarvard.Youmightthinkthat

it’stheschool’sprogramsthatmakethedifference.Theteachers,thecurriculum,thefacilitiesareallsupposedtobethemarksofexcellence.Afterall,thisiswhyHarvardissoexpensive,atleastaccordingtotheirbrochures—theschoolhastopayforthebestinstructors,thebestmaterials,thebestbuildings.Itturnsout,though,thatotherstudentsactuallyexplainatremendousamount.

Through a variety of social pressures, norms, and academic interactions, otherstudents go a very long way to promote learning. In fact, in some selectiveschools, peers can explain asmuch as two thirds of outcomes. Put evenmoresimply,ahugeamountofHarvard’ssuccesshaslittletodowiththeprofessorsor the curriculum or the buildings. Instead, it’smostly about the other peoplewhoattendHarvard.Legoscanprovide some insight,withexhibitAagainbeingJasonWolfson.

Tokeepuphisinterestinthebricks,hemeetswithaLegoclubonceamonth.Thegrouptypicallygathersatalocallibrary,andaswitheverytight-knitclique,the norms are strong.Lunch is always at the local diner.Off-brand items likePlaymobil are verboten. Touching someone else’s construction withoutpermissionisreasontobeshownthedoor.WhenIvisitedoneofthemeetingsonaSundayafternoon,thegroupseemed

likeanextended familywitheveryonehavingclear roles.Wolfsonwasoneofthe gregarious ones,whileKenRicewas the de facto organizer.Micro-buildswere Kim Petty’s thing, and if you need to learn about military history andLegos,thenGaryBrookswasthepersontoprovidethelesson.AsWolfsonreadilyadmits,theLegogrouphashadsomeroughspots,andten

yearsago,somememberssplitofffromthegroupbecause“noteveryonesharedtheir enthusiasm.” But largely, the Lego network provides value. It givespurpose, andWolfsonmakes sure to attend just about everymonth. “Mywifeknowsthatonthosedays,sheneedstodosomethingelse,”hetoldme.As for Langston Tingling-Clemmons, the Bucknell graduate, he’s now

marriedandhasayoungdaughter.Heworksasamiddle-schoolEnglishteacheratanoverwhelminglyblackandpoorschoolinWashington,DC.Weoncemetupforadrink,andTingling-ClemmonsexplainedthathenowappliesthesociallessonsofPossetohisownclassroom.To cultivate more of a social connection with his students, Tingling-

Clemmonswillvisitthehomeofeachstudenteveryyear.Healsotriestomentorhalf a dozen students, visiting their sports games, taking them out to dinner,developingaclosersenseofconnection.Hegivesthestudentsadvice,too:Findamentor,hetellsthem.Ifyouwanttostayinschool,hangoutwithpeoplewhowillstayinschool.AsTingling-Clemmonssippedabeer,hearguedthathewantshisstudentsto

feelasenseofbelonging.Hebelievesthatthesesocialtiesareultimatelywhat’sgoingtokeepthestudentsmotivatedtolearn.AsTingling-Clemmonstoldme,“ItryandusethecreditsthatIgainintheirheartstohelpthemdotherightthing.”

POPQUIZ#2

Trueorfalse:Right-brainedpeoplearemoremotivatedtolearn.

MeaningIsLearningSofarinthischapter,we’vebeentalkingaboutvalueandmeaningasformsofmotivation,detailing theways thatpurposeand relevanceserveas the fuel forourdrivetolearn.Thisisimportant.Butwhenitcomestothelearningprocess,there’sanother

reason to look for value—it’s actually why we learn. We gain skills andknowledge in order to make sense of experience, to give explanation to theworldaroundus.This doesn’t always happen. Not long ago, a community college student—

let’scallhimJoe—wrotedownthefollowinganswerstoasetofmathproblems:

10×3=3010×13=13020×13=8630×13=12031×13=12329×13=11622×13=92

Noticeanythingodd?Moredirectly:Istheanswerto30×13really120?Oristheanswerto22×13really92?In short, it appears that Joedidnothave agoodunderstandingofmath.He

didn’t make much sense of the problem—or uncover any important patterns.Rather, itappears that Joe just recalledsome isolated formulasandbasicmathfactsandtriedtopunchouttheproceduresinordertoprovidesome—incorrect—answers.Now, this isn’t a twenty-point headline. It’s a lot easier tomemorize facts,

afterall,andinmanyareas,peoplecangetprettyfarwitharoteknowledgeofatopic.Indeed,Joehimselfmanagedtolandahighschooldiploma—andenrollinacommunitycollege.

Inmanyways, thebigger issue is thatpeoplewilloftenviewexpertiseas athing,somethingout thereheldbyan instructororcodified inabook.So theylistentoalectureorscanaWebsiteorsitthroughavideo,andtheybelievethattheinformationwilljustmigrateintotheirbrains.Inthisconception,learningisanoncontactsport,aprocessoftakingabitof

datafromonesourceandpushingitintoourbrain.Callitthe“stuff”approachtoeducation.We think there’s “stuff” to be learned—a fact, some procedures, aformulaortwo—andwewanttojamthatstuffintoourbrain’sstoragebinsanddrawerslikeanoldpairofsocks.Thisisn’thowthebrainworks,though,andwhilepeopleoftentalkaboutthe

brain being like a computer, that’s not quite right. First, that notionmakes itseem like if you just added some hard drive space, you’d be a lot smarter.Second,itconveystheideathatthebrainjustpassivelyreceivesinformation.Instead,wewouldbemuchbetteroffthinkingofthebrainasagroupofroads

andhighways,asystemofstreetsandturnpikes.Theroadanalogyremindsus,forone,thatasimplepathway—adirtroad,forinstance—canbeprettyeasytomake.It’samatterofstraightforwardrepetition.Sameistrueforlearning:Basicconceptsorskillsareofteneasytomaster.What’smore, the analogy underscores that for the brain, expertise is about

makingsenseofthings,anabilitytoseerelationshipswithinanareaofmastery.Inotherwords,expertiseisabouthavingadeepnetworkofconnectionswithinaskillorareaofknowledge.TheworkofpsychologistStephenChewgivesadifferentwaytounderstand

this idea. He’ll often do a little experiment with audiences to help peopleunderstand the role of meaning in learning, to show that expertise is aboutcreatingatypeofmentallink.First,Chewwillhandoutasheetofpaperwithsometwodozenwordslisted

onit,andthenhe’llhavehalfofhisaudiencefocusontheletters inthewordsandcountup thenumberof times the lettergoreappears.Chewthenhas theother half of the class focus on the “pleasantness” of thewords before askingthemalltorecallthewords.Theclassroomexperimentisareplicationofamucholderstudy,andwithout

fail,theresultsofChew’seffortmatchtheoriginal:Peoplewhorelyonthemoremeaningfulapproach—figuringoutifeachwordwaspleasanttothem—recalledmorewordsthanthepeoplewhojustcountedthenumberoftimesgappearedinthewords.Theresultsarenotevenclose.Intheoriginalexperiment,peoplewhoengage

in a richer form of processing—the oneswhomademore valuable ties to thematerial—remembered as much as seven times more words than those who

don’t. Even in Chew’s informal demonstration, people typically learn at leasttwiceasmuch.“If you think about informationmeaningfully, you aremuchmore likely to

remember that information than if you think about it at a superficial,meaningless level,”Chewtoldme.“Andthis is trueregardlessofwhetheryouintendtolearnthematerialornot.”For people who’re aiming to learn something, this idea is important for

another reason because meaning also provides learning with flexibility.Understanding is what allows us to use skills and knowledge in differentsituations. If we’vemade sense of an area of expertise—if we’ve shifted ourthinking—wecanbesuccessfulinvariouscontexts.Takemixingupaginandtonic,asanexample.It’sprettyeasytomemorize

thebasicprocedure: Ifyou likeyourginand tonic strong, addonepartgin toeveryparttonic,andthenaddalime,andtheginandtonicisreadytoserve.Buttomakemeaning,toseevalue,tounderstandhowtomakeagoodginand

tonic,peopleshouldlearnhowtheblendofgin,tonic,andlimeworktogethertoprovideadistinctiveMadMen–likecocktailexperience.Becauseit’sthisrichersortoflearningthatmakesadifferenceifthere’sanysortofproblem.So,inthecaseoftheginandtonic,let’simaginethatthere’snotonicwaterin

thefridge.Apersonwithamoremeaningfulgraspofthedrinkwouldknowthattonicwater has a bitter flavor, and so shemight substitute orange juice.Or ifboth the gin and the tonic bottles are empty, the person might pour togethervodkaandgingerale,whichprovidesanoddlysimilarflavor.Whenitcomestolearning,thisideaiscrucial,andsoit’sworthsayingagain:

We learn formeaning, to shapeour thinking.This isultimatelywhatmakes itpossibletoapplyourknowledge.Soifyou’reakidnamedJoe, itwouldallowyoutotakeadifferentapproachifyoucameacrossthisproblemagain:

10×3=10×13=20×13=30×13=31×13=29×13=22×13=

You’dsoonrealizethatthere’sapattern,andyou’dunderstandthattheseriesofquestionsaremoreeasilysolvedbyrelyingonthepowerofthirteen.

Themathapproach,knownasmentalabacus,providessome insights intohowwelearnformeaning.Togetasenseofhowmentalabacusworks,consideranothermathproblem,

andaddup thesenumberswithout any tool.Nopen.Nopaper.Nocalculator.Justanswertheprobleminyourhead:

86,03097,58663,68638,886

Anyluck?More than that,couldyoucomplete thecalculation in less thanasecond?Formost adults, our brain simply becomes overloaded by such a task.We

can’tholdthenumbersinourmindforlongenough.Wetrytoaddthesixandcarrytheoneandbringoverthetwoandrememberthesevenandkeepthefive,and our mind quickly becomes a tangle of numbers, a cognitive shock ofbefuddlement.Themoreimportantquestionis:Whynot?Irecentlywatchedahighschooler

named Serena Stevenson bang out answers to these sorts of math queries inrapid-firesuccession.On the evening that I meet up with Stevenson, she was sitting at a desk,

wearingaMickeyMousesweatshirt.WewerejustoutsideofNewYorkCityina small basement classroom, and hermental abacus instructorwould read outsomenumbers,thefigurestumblingintotheairlikecoinsthrownintothesky—

74,47070,80998,402

—andStevensonwouldaddthenumbersinhermindinamatterofseconds,asfastasifshewasrecallingthenameofsomestatecapitals.Stevensondidn’twork through theproblem likeyouor Imightusingshort-

termmemory. Instead, Stevenson envisioned the abacus in hermind and thenusedherfingerstohelpherworkthroughtheproblem.IwatchedStevensonforawhile,andforeachproblem,shewouldcloseher

eyes and ready her hands, and then, as she started to develop a solution, thefingersofherrighthandwouldstarttotwitchandmove,aslowprogressionofplucksandjerks,acollectionofpinchesandswipes.Themovementswerefast

and exact, an attempt to find the solution using every hand gesture that shewoulduse foraphysical abacus, even though therewasnophysical abacus infrontofher.WhenIfirstsawStevenson’sgestures,Ithoughttheywereapretentiousaffect

likepeoplewhowearpolka-dotbowtiesorinsistonpronouncingVanGoghasVanGoch.ButitturnedoutthatStevenson’smovementswereattheveryheartof the practice, and without the movements—and their associated mentalimagining—accuracy will often drop by more than half. As HarvardpsychologistNeonBrookstoldme,“Whenyoupreventexpertsfromgesturing,theydoaterriblejob.Theycompletelyfallapart.”Thisisn’tanaccident.Learningrequireseffort.Tocreatemeaning,wehaveto

activelymake sense of a bit of expertise. Part of the benefit ofmental abacusgoestothemind-bodyconnection,aswewillseeshortly.Theabacusapproachalso turns out to take a more relational approach to learning, which providesotherlearningbenefits.Butjustasimportantisthefactthatmentalabacusrequirespeopletoproduce

theirknowledge. Itmakes learningamatterofdoing, anactiveprocess, andawealth of new research suggests thatmore cognitively engaged approaches tolearning—like quizzing, explaining, even enacting—show much higheroutcomes.Inrecentyears,psychologistRichMayerhaswrittenalotaboutlearningasa

type of mental doing, and he is an unlikely crusader for a new way to gainexpertise.Asoft-spokenMidwesterner,Mayerisgenerallyprettyavuncular.Hewon’t say someone screwed up. Instead, the person falls “somewhat short ofbeingexemplary.”Mayerdoesn’tbelievethatpeoplehavebadintentions—onlybad consequences of bad decisions. Some ofMayer’s favorite advice? “Don’tradiatenegativeenergy.”Butontheissueoflearningasaformofdedicatedcognitiveeffort,Mayerhas

becomesomethingofafirebrand,andinhislabattheUniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara,Mayerhasshowninstudyafterstudythatwegainexpertisebyactively producing what we know. As he told me flatly, “Learning is agenerativeactivity.”Mayergivesaprettygooddescriptionofhowthisworks.First,peopleneedto

selectinformation,figuringoutwhatexactlythey’regoingtolearn—likemaybeabitofSoviethistoryorBuddhistphilosophy.Thenpeopleneedtointegratethatinformation intowhat they know by creating some type ofmental connectionbetween their current knowledge and the information that they’re hoping tolearn.SoifsomeoneislearningabouttheSovietdictatorStalin,theywouldwantto

linkwhattheyknow(thatStalinwasadictator)towhattheywanttolearn(thatStalin grew up in Crimea) in an active way that makes the new informationmeaningfultotheminsomeway.Thepower ofmentally doing—of creatingvalue in an area of expertise—is

clear inbasicmemory tasks.Want to remember theFrenchword forhome,ormaison,forinstance?Peoplearefarmorelikelytorecalltheword“maison”ifaletterismissingfromtheword(e.g.,“mais_n”)whentheyreadit.Whenpeopleaddthe“o,” they’recompletingtheword.They’refinishingthe thoughtandinthemostbasicofways,they’vedonesomeworktoproducetheirlearning—andthusmakeitmoremeaningful.The benefit of more vigorous learning approaches also extends to more

difficult cognitive tasks.Take something like reading. Ifwepushourselves todreamupsomesortofmentalimageofwhatwe’rereading—ifweimaginethetextinourminds—weretainalotmore,asMayerhasshown.Bycreatingatypeof“mindmovie,”we’rebuildingmorecognitiveconnections—andmaking thelearningmoredurable.For a different example, consider something known as “repeat backs.” The

next timeapersongivesyoua setofdetailed instructions, take time to repeatbacktheinstructionsinyourownwords.Whenyousummarizetheinstructions,you’re taking steps to generate knowledge, and you’ll be more likely toremembertheinformation.Overthepastfewyears,theresearchonlearningasatypeofmentaldoinghas

shiftedalotoftheconventionalwisdomaroundhowpeoplegainexpertise.Inalargeand recent reviewof the research,KentState’s JohnDunloskyandsomecolleaguesfoundthathighlightingwasaweakapproachtolearning,forinstance.Why?Itseemsthattheactivitydoesn’tdoenoughtopushpeopletobuildtheirknowledge.Likewise, rereadingshowedlimitedeffects,according toDunloskyand his colleagues. Why? Again, it appears that the activity doesn’t sparkenoughmentaldoing.So what approaches did show outcomes in Dunlosky’s landmark analysis?

When I reached Dunlosky on the phone, he argued that the most effectivetechniques were more active learning activities like self-quizzing and self-explaining.“Thisisafundamentalfeatureofhowourmindswork,”hetoldme.Tolearn,“we’renot justcopyingtheinformation.Wearemakingsenseoutoffacts.”Learningasatypeofmentaldoingworksinlargersettings,too,andIoncesat

in on biology professor Jennifer Doherty’s course at the University ofWashingtoninSeattle.Thecoursehaslongbeenpraisedforitshighoutcomes,andwhilethelecturehallforDoherty’sclasswasbig,withmorethanhundred

students, Doherty continually pushed the students to learn through dedicatedcognitiveeffort.Duringthecourse,forinstance,sheoftenaskedtheentireclasstoanswerquiz

questions andwould randomly call on students.Doherty also had the studentspairupandthenasktheirsmallgroupforananswer,askingthingslike“Howdoplantsgettheirfoodifnotfromthesoil?”Isawthismyself, too,when itcameto thepracticeofmentalabacus.Some

monthsafterI firstvisitedStevenson,Ipurchasedafewabacusclassesformyelementary-agedaughtersandme.IfIwasgoingtobewritingaboutthepracticeofhandgesturesandmentalcalculations,I thought thatIshoulddevelopsomevagueskillinit.Theclasseswereharder thanIexpected,andevenmysix-year-olddaughter

wouldsometimespointoutmyerrorswithabitofglee.Theapproachrequiredatype of mental strain, of cerebral effort. “Intellectual powerlifting” is howanotherstudentdescribedthepracticetome.Butwithinweeks,themoreactiveapproachpaidoffinunderstanding.Mathbecameeasier.Likeliftingweightsinagym,themoreengagingtheexercise,itseemed,thebettertheresults.I wasn’t alone in this conclusion, and studies suggest that abacus provides

muchhigherlearningoutcomesthanmoretraditionalformsofmathinstruction.Psychologist David Barner has studied the practice in a randomized fieldexperiment,andwhen Imetupwithhim,Barnerargued that theabacuscouldhave a deep and long-standing impact on math understanding. “Based oneverything that we know about early math education,” Barner told me, “I’llmakethepredicationthatstudentswhostudyabacushavehigherSATscores.”Inlightofall theevidenceabout learningasaformofmentaldoing,what’s

perhaps most remarkable is how little our schools and universities have paidattentiontoit.Walkintoanylibraryonanycollegecampus,andstudentswillbepassivelyreading.(Ifyouwanttolearnthematerial,domoretoactivelyengageit.) Stride through any high school, and students will be mechanicallyhighlighting every last page of text. (Self-testing ismuchmore effective as alearning approach.) People often prepare for importantmeetings by skimmingnotes. (The superior approach?Going into anempty roomandactually sayingwhatyouwanttosay.)University of Washington’s Scott Freeman has been studying learning as

doing foryears. In fact,Freemanhelpedcreate thebiology lecture class that IattendedattheUniversityofWashington.Recently,Freemanandhiscolleagueshave decided that the data is so conclusive, so plainly decided, that they nowrefuse to even conduct studies comparing lecture courses againstmorementalengaged types of classes. “If you’re a professor and you refuse do active

learning, it raises an ethical question,” Freeman told me. “It’s like a doctorgivingyoualesseffectivedrug.You’dthinkit’sanissueofmalpractice.”

POPQUIZ#3

Trueorfalse:Studentswho“study”atextwilllearnlessthanstudentswhomakethetext“meaningful”tothemselves.

TomSatocametothelinkbetweenmeaningandmentaleffortonhisown.Foryears,Satohasbeenofferingprivateabacusinstruction.HetaughtthepracticetohighschoolerSerenaStevenson, for instance,andover time,Sato realized thatmoreengagedformsoflearningsparkedricherformsofunderstanding.Satosoonbeganusingmoreactiveapproachestolearninginhisownlife,and

he recently learnedcodingwell enough tobuild an iPhoneapp.Not longago,Satoalsopickedupathree-stringedguitarknownasasamisen—andcouldnowbangoutsongs.WhenImetSato,hehadbeguntopracticethemartialartknownasmuaythai,

andearlyonemorning, Iwent towatchhimpracticehisboxing skills.On thedaythatIvisited,itwascold.Snowblanketedthestreets,andasSatopracticed,I sat in the back of the workout room, a narrow space covered in red mats,watchinghimashelearnedanewmuaythaipunch.“Likeyou’rethrowingacorkscrewjab,”Jimmy,hisinstructor,yelled.Sato tried the two-punch combination again. His first jab was supposed to

yankdownhisopponent’sleftarminatwistingmotion.ThenSato’srighthandwassupposedtolooparoundforastronghit,aslugtohisopponent’stemple.Sato’sattackappearedunsteady,atleastatfirst.Hecouldn’tquitepulldown

his opponent’s forearm, and his large red boxing glove glanced off Jimmy’sforearm, barely making contact. So Sato executed the combination again,movinginslowmotion,focusingoneachstepinthepunch.“Perfect,” Jimmy yelled, after Sato threw the combination for what might

havebeenthetwelfthtime.“Perfect.”Fromalearningperspective,itwascleartoseewhatwashappening.Bydoing

theaction—throwingthepunch—Satouncoveredabettergraspofhowthenewpunchdiffered fromotherpunches, like, say, a corkscrew jab. Inotherwords,theeffortof thepunchmadeita loteasierforSato tograsphowthepunchfittogetherwithotherblowsandstrikes.Thisideahelpsexplainwhylearningbydoingcreatesmeaning.Theapproach

helps us see complexity, to grapple with nuance, ultimately shifting how we

think. More exactly, cognitive work doesn’t just make learning stick. It alsopromotesadeeperlevelofcomprehension.Take,forinstance,achildwhoislearninghisletters.Itturnsoutthatstudents

who manually practice writing out their ABCs develop a more systemicunderstanding than students who just study or type the letters. By physicallypenningtheirletters,thestudentsgainadeepersenseofhowthecharacterscometogether tomakewords—and studies show that the students learn to read at amuchfasterrate.For a different example, take self-explaining.When we explain an idea to

ourselves,we’rementallydoing,andagain,researchshowsthatwegainamorenetworkedformofmastery.So,forinstance,ifIexplainaconceptlikegravitytomyself, I’m connecting the idea of gravitywith other ideas like the notion ofmass. I’m also talking to myself about other historical facts—like maybe thediscoveryofgravitybySir IsaacNewton—aswellas juxtaposinggravitywithotherconceptslikemotionandweight.To be clear, just working hard isn’t enough. People can be active while

learningandnotgainverymuch.Inotherwords,justthrowingpunchesdoesn’tnecessarilymakeexpertiseinsomethinglikemuaythai.Nordopeopleneedtobemovingaroundtobementallyactive.Wecanbesittingstillinourseatandbedeeplyengaged.ResearcherDylanWiliammakesthispointwell,andhearguesthatmoreactive formsof learningareeffectivewhenpeopleare thinkinghardandthinkinghardaboutexpertise.Toadegree,weknowthisidea,oratleastweknowitinsomeveryspecific

fields.Languageattrition,forinstance,hasaprettylonghistory,andpeoplewilloftenlosetheirabilitytospeakalanguageif theydon’tusethelanguage.Thisoftenhappenstopeoplewho’velearnedasecondlanguage.Whetherit’sChineseorLithuanian,itbecomeshardertoexpressyourselfifyoudon’tactuallyusethelanguage.What’s more surprising is that language attrition often happens to native

speakers.Not longago, for instance, I spokewithYayoiOta,whogrewup inruralBolivia.Ota’sparentswere Japanese, and she typically spoke to them inJapanese.Asakid,OtaalsolearnedtowriteinJapaneseandattendedafternoonJapaneseclassesandspoketomanyofherfriendsinJapanese.After graduating from high school, Ota moved to Santa Cruz, one of the

largest cities in the country, and now she spends her days speaking largelySpanish. Few people around her know Japanese, and today Ota has basicallyforgottenhernativelanguage.ShecanspeakahaltingformofJapanesewithherparents—andsomeoldfriends—butherwritingskillsarealmostentirelygone,amothertonguethat’sbeenessentiallycutout.

This seems bizarre. Ota’s first words were in Japanese. She spoke to herparents in Japanese for years. But this type of language attrition happens tonativespeakersalotmorethanyoumightthink.Afterbeingheldforfiveyearsby the Taliban, Sgt. BoweBergdahl’s English fell apart.Despite the fact thatBergdahlspenthisentirechildhoodspeakingEnglishinIdaho,helosthisnativelanguageskillswhilebeingheldcaptiveinAfghanistan.PeoplelikeOtaorBergdahldon’tnecessarilyloseallknowledgeofthewords

in their native language. Ota, for instance, can still recall— andwrite—somebasic expressions. Instead, what disappears is meaning. People like Ota can’trecallhowthelanguagecomestogether.Theycan’tgrasptherelationshipsandsystemsembeddedinthelanguage.Asoneresearcherputit,languageattritionisaslow“untangling[of]acomplicatedknotofinterconnections.”Intheend,weproduceourknowledge,wegenerateourskills,becauseithelps

create the networks of meaning. It supports the knowledge relationships thatsustainvalue, that shiftour reasoning.Afterhismuay thai training,Satoand Iwentoutforbreakfast.Hewastired.Hisfacelookedpale.Weorderedsometea.The food came to the table as Sato explained that more engaged approachessupported deeper understanding. “The big question is: Do you just memorizecertainthings?”hesaid.“Ordoyoutryandseehowitallfitstogether?”

There’san important thing tounderstandwhen it comes to the ideaof findingvalueinanareaofexpertise:Wehavetobeonthelookoutforit.Evenifwe’rementallydoing,wewillnotlearnsomethingifwe’renotaimingtolearnit.Doctors,forinstance,havehadalotofopportunitiestostudythemusclesof

theknee.Operationsonthejointdatebackatleastahundredyears,whilemorethanahalfamillionkneesurgeriestakeplaceeachyearinhospitalsaroundthecountry. For many orthopedic surgeons, the sinewy knee muscles are like asecondhome—theyknowthemlike the insideof theirbedrooms—anddoctorswill explore the tendons just about every day, pulling apart the meniscalcartilageorexaminingbitsofsynovialtissue.Still,SwissresearcherandorthopedistKarlGrobmanagedtouncoveranew

tendon in the knee not long ago. Together with a team of researchers, Grobdiscoveredasmall,sinewymusclerightabovethekneecapthathadneverbeenshownbeforeinanyanatomytextbook—ormentionedbyanysurgeons.Grob is prettyhumble about thediscovery. “I’m just a normal surgeon,”he

toldme. “Anatomy is kind of my hobby.” Other experts were less moderate.“IntroducinganewmuscleisalmostaselusiveasthelegendaryBigfoot,”ishowonemedicalbloggerputit.

Sohowdidthishappen?Howcouldsomanydoctorsoverlookamuscleintheknee,a tendon that’sbeenoperateduponhundredsof thousandsof timeseachyear?Agoodpartof theanswer lies in thenatureofmind-set.Putdifferently,Grob found the tendon because he was looking for the tendon. He learnedsomethingaboutthekneebecausehewantedtolearnit.Withadifferentattitude,Grobsawvalueinasetofmuscleswhereothersdidn’tseeanyvalueatall.PsychologistEllenLangerhasbeenstudyingthisideafordecades,andonthe

afternoon that I slipped into her office, she argued that learning for meaningrequiredmindfulness,anactivesearchforvalue.ForLanger,thistypeofattitude—this sort of perspective—was aboutmore than just paying attention. It alsorequiredpeopletoengageinexperiencesinawaythathighlightedthenewnessof the experience.People needed to turn off the brain’s “automatic pilot,” shesaid,andactivelysearchforexpertise.Inmanyways,thistypeofmindfulnesscomesdowntocontext.Framingplays

acrucialroleindevelopinganengagedattitude,andweoftenneedsomesortofspark,atwistinperception,inordertodrawourattentiontothelearningitself.This was oddly clear when I was talking with Langer. Sometimes, theconversation was irreverent. The mind-set was humor, and Langer teased meaboutforgettingsomething:“You’renervous!”ButthenI’daskaquestion,andtheframewouldchangebacktosomethinga

bit more educational. Langer would ask me pointed queries—“Do youunderstand what I’m saying?”—and suggest that I read a certain text. Thediscussion had become about uncovering somethingmeaningful; it was aboutlearningsomethingnew.There areother factors that promote amore engagedattitude.Whenwe see

expertiseasmoreopen-ended,we’remoremindful,accordingtoLanger.Italsohelpstoseeissuesfromdifferentperspectives,andwhenweshiftourviewpoint,wetypicallylearnmorebecauseitmakesusmoreattunedtosubtletieswithinanareaofexpertise.Butperhapsmostimportantismeaningitself.Oneofthebestwaystoturnoff

thebrain’sautomaticpilotistolookforvalue.Inoneearlystudy,forinstance,Langerhad twogroupsof students readapassage ina textbook.Shegave thetwogroupstheexactsameinstructionsbutwithonekeydifference.Onegroupwastoldto“study”thetext,whiletheothergroupwastoldtomakethepassage“meaningfultothemselves”insomeway.The results? The “meaningful” group was much more engaged, and they

showed better results. They understood and remembered more. Even moreimportant,whenthe“meaningful”grouphadtowriteanessayaboutthepassage,theyproducedtextsofmuchhigherquality.

Forareal-worldexample,takelanguageattritionagain.Itturnsoutthatmind-setplaysakeyrole,andpeoplearefarmorelikelytolosenativelanguageabilityif they have a weak opinion of their native country. Research shows, forinstance,thatanativeSpanishspeakerisfarmorelikelytoforgetSpanishifhethinkspoorlyofSpain.Withanegativemind-set—andamorelimitedsenseofvalue—peoplearelessabletospeakintheirnativelanguage.Ononehand,there’ssomethingobviousaboutthis.It’shardtolearnExcelif

youhaveahatefulviewofExcel.Butthere’ssomethingoddlyremarkable,too,becausemind-setshiftsourthinkinginverysubtleways.Inoneofthelanguageattritionstudies, for instance, itdidn’tmatterhowmuchthepersonspoketheirnativelanguageiftheydislikedtheirnativecountry.Ifapersonhadanegativeviewoftheirnativecountry,theirnativelanguageskillserodedatamuchhigherrate,evenafteraccountingfortimespentspeakingthelanguage.Langer offers some take-home advice on this issue: When people are

acquiringaskill, theyshouldbeon thealert fornuances. Inorder to learn,weneedtoactivelyhuntforwhat’soriginalandnovelinanareaofexpertise.Inthissense,wegainunderstandingbylookingfordifferences.“Noticingnewthingsisthedefinitionofmindfulness,”shetoldme.Langeralsorecommendshavinganexploratorymind-settowardlearning.So

ifyoureadabookforaclass,don’tconstantlyfocusontheresultinggrade—itcan make the experience seem stomach-twistingly stressful. Instead, findmaterialinthebookthatyou’recuriousabout,somethingthathasvaluetoyou.The learning outcomes are often higher—and the experience is far moreenjoyable.Similarly, surgeons shouldn’t always look only to repair a tornACL. They

should also take a moment to search—and discover. After all, they mightuncoveranothernewtendon.

There’saproblemwith the idea I’vebeenwritingabout in thischapter,and itturnsoutthatmakingmeaninghasadangerousside.Bydefinition,learnersarenotexperts,andwecancometoweakconclusions,findingvaluewherethere’snovalueatall.Toputthisbluntly,wecanbewrong.Inaway,theissueisthatlearningisacumulativeprocess.Masterybuildson

itself.Meaningscaffoldsitselfonmeaning,andpeopledon’ttypicallylearnverywellon theirown,especiallyat thestartof the learningprocess.Ourskillsareweak.There’snoexpertise.Wedon’tknowwhatwedon’tknow.Ifyouputafive-poundbagofrocksandafive-poundbagoffeathersinfront

ofsomeone,forinstance,andaskthemtolearntheideaofmassversusweight,

they wouldn’t gain much from the experience. Unless the person knowssomething about gravity, they simply are not going to come to the conclusionthat things with the same mass fall at the same rate. (At least according tolegend,Galileodemonstrated this factbydropping twobags from theLeaningTowerofPisa,showingthatmasswas,indeed,differentfromweight.)In a more practical sense, learning requires instruction. To gain skills and

knowledge, people need guidance—and support.Mentors, trainers, instructorsallplaya tremendous role.Wewill revisit this idea repeatedly throughout thisbook.Fornow,let’scallittheValueofEducators.Oddly,upuntilrecently,noonehadsystematicallystudiedtheroleofteachers

andhowexactlytheypromotedlearning.Certainly,expertshavebeentheorizingaboutthepracticeofinstructionforcenturies.TheSocraticMethoddatesbacktoancientGreece.The apprenticeshipmodel goes back tomedievalEurope.TheHan Dynasty in China may have pioneered a high-stakes testing approach toschooling—itofferedthefirstcivilserviceexam.Still, no dedicated researcher had tried in a reliable fashion tomeasure the

differencebetweenagreatteacherandanaverageoneusingrobustdataliketestscores, surveys, and videos. Some years ago, Microsoft founder Bill Gatesbecame fascinatedwith this fact.He had come across a research paper on thetopic of teacher quality—and crowded the documentwith notes and scribbles.Gatescouldn’tunderstandwhyoneofthemostbasicquestionsineducationhadnotbeenansweredwithmodernresearchtools.“Itwasmind-blowinghowlittleithadbeenstudied,”Gateslaterremarked.Eventually,theworld’srichestmanpouredsome$40millionintotheresearch

project, and it was massive: Dozens of researchers, hundreds of schools,thousands of teachers, almost a hundred thousand students. As part of theproject, researchers developed a new type of video camera that would give a“panoramic”viewofaclassroomduringateacher’slesson.Everystudentintheproject filled out surveys. Some 500 people were trained just to evaluate thevideosoftheteachers.KnownastheMET(MeasuresofEffectiveTeaching)study,theprojectlasted

twoyears,andsomeof thefindingsincludethingswe’vebriefly toucheduponbut in more dramatic fashion. For example, very few teachers in the studypushed students to create their own ideas. Student participation in tasks thatrequiredmeaningmakingwasrare.But themore interesting resultswere something else, and it turned out that

when it came to teaching, there were two main drivers of student outcomes,accordingtoHarvard’sRonFerguson,whohelpedstudythedata.First, there’swhat the researcherscalled“academicpress,”or thedegree towhicha teacher

pushed a student academically. Thiswas amatter of howmuch the educatorsencouragedstudentstoworkhard,toreallyengagewiththematerial.The second factorwas “academic support,” or the degree towhich students

feltmotivatedbytheirteachers.Thissecondfactorwasaboutrelevance,aboutasenseofpersonalconnectionbetweenthestudentsandtheteachers.What’sinterestingisthattheconclusionsoftheMETresearchsharealotof

similaritieswiththeideasoutlinedinthischapter.Specifically,effectiveteacherspushstudentstoengageinacademicstruggle,makingsurethatstudentsdothehard work of making sense of a topic. In other words, great educators makestudents engage in learning asmental doing.At the same time, great teachersprovide motivation and support. They help student find meaning in theirlearning.Theyprovideautonomy—andasenseofrelevance.Thisisn’tafreakdiscovery.WellbeforetheMETstudy,NobellaureateCarl

Wiemanconcludedthatpeopleshouldthinkofteachersas“cognitivecoaches.”ForWieman,theissuewasthattheword“teacher”oftenmadepeoplethinktoomuchofsomeonewhojusthandsoutinformation.Butthatapproachtolearninggets it all wrong, he argued, and it makes it seem as if learning a topic likephysicscomesnaturallytous.WhenIreachedouttoWieman,heexplainedthatteachersneededtobemore

like athletic coaches. They should help students “learn a topic by breaking itdownintothekeyelementsofthinkingrequired,thenhavethestudentspracticethatthinking,”hetoldme.Atthesametime,educatorsshouldmotivatestudentsto do their best “to carry out this hard work.” In other words, people needemotionalsupport.Weneedtobecheeredon.For individuals, the takeaway is thatweneededucators tohelpus improve.

Otherpeoplehelpusmakesenseofatopic.Plus,wecan’tforgetthesocialsideof learning, the need for emotional support and relevance. “When you’relearning, you’re going to need someone who’s going to support youdeveloping,”Wiemantoldme.Interestingly, theMETstudy suggests that students themselvesoftenhave a

prettygoodsenseofwhoisaneffectiveeducator,andsurveysofstudentswereexcellentpredictorsoffuturelearning,accordingtoFerguson.Alltosay:Ifyouwanttofindagreatteacherormentor,don’tlookatcredentials(theyoftendon’tmeanallthatmuch).Don’tcaretoomuchaboutnumberofyearsthattheteacherhas been in the field (again, it’s not hugely predictive beyond the first fewyears).Instead, ask other people. Did the educator challenge people? Did the

instructorexplainthingsclearly?Didthepersonlearnalotintheclass?Alsoaskaboutacademicsupport.Diditseemlikethetrainercaredaboutthem?Didthe

personmakethematerialrelevant?Howdidtheeducatoraidpeoplewhowerestruggling?Theideaofsupportisanimportantone,andwe’regoingtolookmoreclosely

attheideainthenextchapter.Becauseitturnsoutthatmeaningisoftenjustthestartoflearning—andintheend,wealsoneedtoplanexactlywhatwehopetolearn.

POPQUIZ#4

Whichstatementdescribestheroleoffactsinlearning?

A. Factshurtlearning.B. Factsareimportanttolearning.C. Youcanalwayslookupthefactsonline.D. Nevergetafactwrong.

Chapter2

TARGET

TheeducationprogramknownasSuccess forAllhas longbeenknown for itsfeel-goodstories.DillonMiddleSchool,forinstance,wasinacademicshamblesforyears.Inthepress,theSouthCarolinaschoolwasoneoftheposterchildrenfor thestate’s“corridorofshame,”agroupofhigh-povertydistricts located inthe state’s northern corner. A documentary featured Dillon for its lack ofacademic struggles, andwhenPresidentObamavisitedduringhis first run forpresident,hedescribedtheschoolasnoteven“minimallyadequate.”Buttheschoolmanagedtoturnitselfaround,andoneofthedriverswasthe

reforminitiativeSuccessforAll.Shortlyafter theschooladoptedtheprogram,readingoutcomesalmostdoubled. Ithelped, too, thatDillonmade tremendousmonetary investments, installing everything from air conditioning to newcomputers.WhileDillon still has clear issues, the school nowposts outcomeshigherthanmanyofitshigh-povertypeers.Whilethestoriesarenotalwaysthisdramatic,thesesortsofresultsarepretty

standardforSuccessforAll.TheNewYorkeroncearguedthattheprogramhasthe “best sustained record” in education, and when the US Department ofEducation recently reviewed all the research behind Success for All, officialsdeclaredittobeoneofthenation’smosteffectiveeducationalinitiatives.The bigger question is:Why?What’s the reason for all this success?What

besides a fairy godmother can explain these sorts of Cinderella-like changes?MuchoftheanswerlieswithBobSlavin.AprofessoratJohnsHopkins,Slavinstarted theSuccess forAll program togetherwithhiswife,NancyMadden, inthe1980s.Slavinisaresearcher’sresearcher,andhe’lloftengooffonlongtangentson

the best ways to measure effect sizes. His monthly newsletter is called BestEvidence inBrief, and to createSuccess forAll, he drewup clear rules aboutwhat studies touseas thebasis for theprogram.He ignoredany research thathadrunfor less than threemonths—tooshort todrawmeaningfulconclusions.Pre-andposttestswererequired.Randomizedcontrolswerecentral,too.The resulting program was revolutionary for its time. Given the data on

cooperative learning, Success forAllwas one of the first to emphasize grouplearning.Becauseofthevalueofinstructionaltime,SuccessforAllblockedoutalargechunkofeachdayforhigh-prioritylearningtopics.Readingwastaught

byemphasizingthesound-letterconnection,anapproachthatwascontroversialbackthenbutisnowwidelypracticed.But perhaps more than anything, Success for All was highly targeted. The

program’ssecretsaucewas—andremains—targeting.Studentsaregroupedandregrouped, to ensure they are learning exactlywhat they’re supposed to learn.There’sdedicated tutoring for any studentwho lagsbehind.Thecurriculum isorganized, synced together likea lockset.Theprogramevenpublishes itsownbooks,hiringauthorstowritetextstailoredtothespecificneedsofstudents.SuccessforAll’slaurelsrest,then,onaprettystraightforwardidea—learning

is not accidental.We need to prepare ourselves to gain a particular skill. In away,thisideagoesbacktothenotionoflearningasaprocess,asystem.Togainknowledge,weneedtohaveadedicatedwaytoacquirethatknowledge.Thisapproachisunusual,atleastformostofus.Whenpeopletypicallytryto

learnsomethingnew,theyoftendiverightin.Theytrytogainexpertiseontheirown, and then, if the activity turns out to be harder than they expected, theythink: I never was really good at that anyway. This belief in an exploratoryapproachtolearningiswidespread.Inmysurveyofthepublic,morethanhalfofpeople argued that “discovery learning”—or unguided learning—was a greatwaytogainnewskills.Thepointisnottomakelearningmindless—creativityanddiscoveryremain

key.Soistheopportunitytocreatedeepunderstanding.Butwhenpeopleareinthe early stages of learning, they need to manage the process closely, andlearningoftenboilsdowntoatypeofknowledgemanagement.It’saboutsettinggoals and creating plans, about acquiring background skills and targetingexpertise.Inthischapter,we’regoingtolookmorecloselyatthisidea,examiningtwo

questions thatarecrucial toanyone trying togainanysortofskill.WhatamIgoingtolearn,andwhatsortofplandoIhaveinordertolearnit?Thesequestionshelpusstayfocused.AlongwithBobSlavin,Ioncevisiteda

SuccessforAllschoolcalledWindsorHillsElementarySchool.Tuckedawayinone of the poorest neighborhoods inBaltimore, the school has long struggled.Almosteverystudentispoorenoughtoqualifyforbothfreebreakfastandlunch,andlifeexpectancyintheareaislowerthanitisinNorthKorea.Instructionatthe school had been weak, and one of the teachers at the school used to tellstudents:“Ifyouputyourbrainsinabird,he’dflybackward.”Inanefforttoboostoutcomes,theschoolhadadoptedSuccessforAll,andon

thatmorning, Slavin and Imoved from classroom to classroom.We talked tovariousSuccessforAllteachers,andSlavinpointedoutdifferentfeaturesoftheprogram.Sometimeswejustsatandwatchedaclass.AndwhileWindsorHills

hadpickedupSuccess forAll fairly recently, theprogramhadalreadygonealongwayto target the learningat theschool.Outcomeswereslowlygoingup;samewithattendancerates.Teacherswerealsoincreasinglyfiguringoutwhatstudentsneededtoknow—

and how students were going to know it. As I visited classrooms, I saw oneteacher evaluate theperformanceof every student inher class against a set ofspecificreadingquestions.Inanotherroom,aninstructorreviewedmaterialwithastudent,goingovereveryitemthatthestudenthadgottenwrongonacomputerprogram.In still another class, a teacher had her students evaluate their own

evaluations.So the students listened toa littlegirl read fromabitof text, andthenthekidsbegandebatinghowthechild’sspeakingskillsstackedupagainstachecklistofkeyskills.“Ithinkthatwasa90,”oneboysaid.“Shemadetwomistakes.Itshouldbean80,”anotherstudentsaid.“Doesspeedcount?”anotherchildasked.At one point, the fire alarm rang suddenly, and students flooded the halls.

Slavin and I eventually made it outside, where we stood just beyond theschoolhouse door. Standingon a patch of pavement as the alarm continued toring,Slavinpointedoutthatinterruptionsarenormalinlearning.Blueprintsareneverfixed.Sometimesastudentmightneedextraemotionalsupportorwanderofftopicorthefirealarmwillgooff.For Slavin, these more social, more emotional aspects of learning only

underscoredtheneedformoretargetedapproaches.“Whenyou’relearning,youcan’tmakeitupasyougoalong,”hetoldme.“Youcanchangetheplanasyougoalong,butyoualwaysneedaplan.”

POPQUIZ#5

Whatroledofactshaveinlearning?

A. Factscanimpedelearning.B. Factscanimprovelearning.C. Factshavenoimpactonlearning.

Beforeweaddresshowto targetour learning,weshould lookatwhyweevenneedtotakethesefocusedstepsinthefirstplace.Tounderstandthatidea,let’stalkaboutphonenumbers.Morespecifically, let’s talkabouthowhard it is to

rememberanewphonenumber.You know the experience. Someone gives you their telephone number, say

somethinglike231-555-0912,andwithinmoments,you’veforgottenit.Atbest,maybeyoucanrecallthefirstthreedigits.Wasit231?Buttherestofthedigitshavedisappeared,ablankspot,awispofamemory.Phonecompanieshavelongstruggledwiththisissue.Atfirst,thecompanies

tried to avoid relying on the frailties of humanmemory, andwhen firms firstrolledout telephone lines in the1800s, peoplewould just pickup thehandsetandtelltheoperatorthenameofthepersonthattheywantedtoreach.Astelephonesbecamemorecommon,thispersonalizedapproachbecametoo

complex, and phone companies tried to standardized numbers with a type ofmnemonicmemorydevice,relyingonarealandmarks.SoifyoulivedinPorterCity,yourphonenumbermightbePORter3234.IfyoulivedinElmwood,yournumbermightbeELMwood4543.But this numbering system also became a Gordian mess, with long and

awkward combinations of names and letters. So in the late 1950s, the phonecompanies rolled out still another system, requiring all phone numbers to besevendigitslong.Thisapproachisnowubiquitous,andmostpeoplearoundtheglobehaveaphonenumberthat’saroundsevendigitslong.Yet it turns out that this approach doesn’twork all thatwell, either. In the

argot of cognitive scientists, seven-digit numbers typically overwhelm thebrain’s short-term memory. Known as the brain’s sketch pad, short-termmemory iswherepeoplehold temporary information likephonenumbers, andit’saprettylimitedholdingspace,withourbrainsbeingabletojuggleonlythreeorfouritemsattime.(Incontrast,there’sthebrain’slong-termmemory,whichis pretty expansive. This is where the brain keeps memories of old friends,childhoodfeuds,andanysortofexpertise.)To their credit, phone companies today appear to understand the severe

limitations of short-term memory, and so important emergency telephonenumbersarejust threedigits long.Formostofus, theseshorternumbers—like911—are memorized with ease, fitting easily into the brain’s short-termmemory.This idea has implications far beyond phone numbers, and researchers like

John Sweller have shown that short-term memory is often where learninghappens. If we want to learn ballet jumps—or microgenetics—short-termmemoryhastoprocesstheexperiencebeforeitarrivesinlong-termmemory.Therubisthatshort-termmemoryisso,well,short.Thebrain’ssketchpadis

asmallsketchpad,andinmanyways,short-termmemoryworkslikeanarrowdoorway:Itkeepsoutanythinglarge;itblocksoutbigpiecesofinformation.Or

thinkofshort-termmemorylikeadial-upmodem,slowanduncertain.Thisfactgoesa longwaytoexplainwhyweneedtofocusourlearning.To

gainmastery,weneedtobreakdownknowledgeandskillsintodigestiblepartsandconcentrateondiscretebitsofmastery.Inotherwords,peoplehavetomakesurethatanynewexpertisecanfitthroughthebrain’sdoorwayandbecomewellstoredinlong-termmemory.This notion explains, for instance, why we can’t multitask while learning.

Music,driving,andcomputerprogramsalldragonshort-termmemoryandthuskeep us from understanding. Indeed, even a little music in a presentationprevents people from learning: In one study, people who took online classeswithoutbackgroundmusiclearnedasmuchas150percentmore.Thepresentationofcontentmakesadifference,too.Becauseofthelimitations

of short-termmemory, we learn better in smaller doses, and people typicallygainalotmoreiftherearefewergraphicsonapageorPowerPointslide.Thisideaalsoexplainswhyshortsentencesareawriter’sbestfriend.Fewerwords—andmorebreaksbetweenideas—makeiteasierforpeopletograpplewithnewinformation.Still,mostofusarelikethephonecompanies.Weoverestimatehowmuchwe

cankeep inshort-termmemory,andpeopleoften try to learn toomuchatonetime, takinganoverloaded,all-you-can-eat-styleapproach togainingexpertise.Peoplewillthink,forinstance,thattheycanlearnfromaspeechwhiletalkingtotheir friend. (They can’t.)Or peoplewill try to understand a big, complicatedideainasinglesitting.(Theycan’t.)When I reached psychologist Sweller, he gave the example of foreign

languageprogramsthattrytoinstructpeopleinhistoryorliteratureormath.Bycombining the two topics, people learn a lot less, he argues. “You’regoing tolearnneither,”Swellertoldme.“It’scognitiveoverload.”Cognitive overload can also occur during protracted events. Long talks,

lengthymeetings,prolongedlecturescanallerodeshort-termmemory,crowdingthe limited pathway to long-term memory. For this reason, experts like RuthColvin Clark argue that classes for adults should never go longer than 90minutes.Wesimplydon’thavethementalstaminatocontinuelearningformuchlonger.Likewise, thereareourownthoughts,andthe limitedcapacityofshort-term

memoryexplainswhyanxietiescanbesohurtfultogaininganysortofmastery.When we feel stressed—when we’re scared or fearful—we can’t focus. Ouremotions fill up the brain’s sketch pad. Psychologist Sian Beilock has shownthatthissortofstressimpactseventheyoungestofchildren,andwhenfirstandsecondgradersarebusyfretting—thisistoohard—theyhavesignificantlyless

cognitivepower.WhenIinterviewedBeilock,Iactuallyhadaversionofthisexperience.Itwas

earlyonasummermorning,andBeilockandIsatdowninalargeatriumattheUniversity of Chicago, where she’s a professor. We talked about her work,discussing her recent studies. Then, about 10 minutes into the conversation,Beilockmentionedshe’djustfinishedupabooktitledHowtheBodyKnowstheMind.Mybrainfrozeforamoment:Wait,whatbook?ShouldIhaveknownthatshe

justpublishedabook? Iprobablyshouldhaveread thatbook. It’s that sortofbrainfreeze,thatmomentofworryingaboutsomethingelse,that’sdangerousfordevelopinganysortofskill.Withoutmyshort-termmemorydoingwhatitwassupposed to do—interview Beilock—I couldn’t focus. I didn’t ask thoughtfulfollow-upquestions.Effectivecommunicatorsknow thatourbrainsareeasilyoverloaded,andso

they’ll simplify theirmessage so that it fits into the tapered confinesof short-term memory. Apple’s marketing success is all about targeted simplicity, forinstance,andmanyof theiradsare littlemore thanan image inaseaofwhitespace.Notlongago,Coca-Cola’ssloganwasjusttheword:“Real.”Perhapsthebestadsloganofalltimeisjustadozenletterslong:“Justdoit.”ThereareotherNewsYouCanUsemessageshere,andpeoplehavetofocus

what they’regoingtounderstand.Ifsomeonewants to improvetheirmarathontimes, for instance, they’dbemuchbetteroff targetingsomethingspecific likeperformingbetteronhillyterrain.Similarly,thinkofaplaywright.Toimprove,he or she should focus on something very particular, something very focused,likegettingbetteratemotion-filleddialogue.The Value of Educators plays an important role here. Effective instructors

create easy-to-gain chunks, feeding their students a bite-size type of mastery.Moreexactly,greatteachersarehighlyawareofcognitiveload,andtheyprovideinstructioninawaythat’sstraightforwardtounderstand.Thismeansthatifyouoften feel fullybewildered inaclass, theremaybe toomuchnew informationcomingatyouatonce,andyou’reprobablynotlearningallthatmuch.At thesametime, thenatureofshort-termmemoryunderscores thevalueof

attention,andwhenyou’relearning,stayclearofanythingthataddstocognitiveload. So when you’re solving math problems, don’t check Twitter. Likewise,don’t ruminateon travelplanswhile listening to an important talk.Also,keepoffInstagramifyou’rereallytryingtogainabitofexpertise.Allofthesetypesofdistractionserodeshort-termmemoryandkeepusfromlearning.Whenitcomestothefragilenatureofshort-termmemory,myfavoritestudy

lookedatcollegestudentswhousedlaptopsinclassandfoundthatthestudents

whowereonlinedidn’tlearnasmuchastheirWi-Fi–lesspeers.Okay,that’snotnews:Thestudentswithcomputersweredistracted,andsotheylearnedless.Butthelaptopusealsodecreasedthelearningofthestudentswhosatnextto

thecomputerusers,even if thenearbystudentdidn’tactuallysurf theWeb. Inother words, the students were distracted by other people’s distraction. Theirworkingmemorywascompromisedbyotherpeople’shardlyworkingmemory.

When it comes to the process of learning, we need to target a second, veryimportant reason:knowledge.Weunderstand things through theprismofwhatweknow, and anything thatwewant to learn is basedonwhatwe’ve alreadylearned. In other words, we’re going to look beyond the role of short-termmemoryandbetterunderstandhowlong-termmemoryshapesthedevelopmentofexpertise.Everyfewmonthsorso,forinstance,I’llbesittingatmycomputer,tryingto

master some bit of technical know-how. Maybe I can’t print out somedocuments, or perhaps I can’t find the external drive on the office’s network.I’ve already rebooted the computer, hunted around online for a solution, andmaybeevenwatchedaYouTubevideoorthree.Nothing.Finally, I reach someone inmy organization’s tech department.More often

thannot,it’sadesktopsupporttechniciannamedHoracePayne,andhe’llwalkme through the solution, showing me how I need to use a certain set ofcommandsormaybeexplainingtomethebestwaytofixsomesoftware.As learninggoes,Payne isprovidingaverybasic formof tutoring—orone-

on-one instruction—and it’s hard to argue against the overwhelming body ofdata behind the practice. Some decades ago, psychologist Benjamin Bloomarguedthattutoringwastwiceaseffectiveasanyotherformofeducation.Onegovernment report dubbed it “the most effective form of instruction everknown.” Whether it’s tech help or French lessons or marketing strategies,pairingastudentwithaninstructorisoneofthemosteffectivewaystolearn.Many organizations have come to this realization over the years. Some

computerfirms,forinstance,nowofferone-on-onetechservicesattheirstores.Similarly, consider the concierge service you’ll find atmany high-end hotels:It’satypeofatutoringfortravelers.Therub,ofcourse,isthattutoringispricey.Itrequiresalotofpeoplepower.

This iswhy computer companies likeApple try tomake sure that all of their“hands-ondiagnosis” appointments last less than fiveminutes—andwhymostlow-budgethotelsdon’thaveaconciergeservice.Butinmanyways,there’samoreimportantpointtoconsider,andwhat’swhy

tutoringissoeffective.Afewreasonsseemprettyclear.Whenpeoplegetone-on-oneattention,theygetalotoffeedback.It’salsoeasiertomotivatestudents—tutorsknowwhatthingssomeonefindsmeaningful.And then there’s the fact that tutoring is tailored to a student’s level of

knowledge. It’shighly focused.Payne, the techguy inmyoffice, for instance,knowswhatIknowanddon’tknow.Whenwetalk,he’llaskfirst,whatexactlyhas gone wrong, then he’ll ask what I’ve done to fix it. Have I updated theprograms?DoIknowthesoftware?Isthisanewproblem?This is typical in tutoring. If someone in a one-on-one class has a

misconception about fractions, for instance, the teacherwill typically stop andexplaintheissue.Don’tknowaboutyeastbutwanttobakebread?Theteacherwillunpackthetopicforyou.Landinanewtownbutdon’tknowthelanguage?Theconciergemighthelpyoulearnthelocalphrasefor“thankyou.”Tutoringworks, then, because it builds onwhatweknow.The instructor is

adapting the information towhatwealreadyunderstand. In the Introduction, Idescribed this idea as theKnowledgeEffect. It boilsdown to the fact that it’shardtolearnsomethingifyoudon’tknowanythingaboutit.This idea holds true for every field—math, art, wood carving. There is no

learningwithout some prior knowledge. Facts and figures are the first step toricherformsofthought,ascognitivescientistDanWillinghamhasargued,andweneedbackgroundknowledgetounderstandjustaboutanything.Asanexample,consideraphraselikethis:HabenSieheutegefrühstückt?The

text doesn’t make sense if you don’t know German. Or take the followingsentence:“Animproveddispersionstrengthenedlead-tinalloysolderisprovidedinwhichthereisdispersedinthesolderuptoabout5percentofsmallparticles.”Again, the text is nearly impossible to understand without some previousknowledgeofmaterialscience.Think of knowledge as the central building block of learning. It’s the brick

andmortarofunderstanding—andoneofthebestpredictorsoflearning.Therearecountlessillustrationsofthisidea.Masteryoflongdivisionhelpspeoplegetbetteratalgebra.Expertise inconstructionfostersarchitecturalskills. IfpeoplehavebetterunderstandingofbasicCivilWarfacts,they’rebetterabletograpplewiththecausesofSouthernsecession.This happens because our brains create mental templates in order to store

experiences in long-termmemory.Moreexactly,ourbrainswill“bundle”newinformation with previous information, using old knowledge to help us makemeaningoutofnewknowledge.Soafterwe receive information in short-termmemory, it’s shipped to long-term memory, where it rests within a broadercontextofunderstanding.

Wecanusethismentalhabittohelpuslearn.Say,forexample,youwanttorecallthenumber:1,945.OnewaytoimproveyourmemoryofthenumberistothinkofthedatethatWorldWarIIended:1945.Ifyou’relikemostpeople,thismakes recalling the 1,945 number easier because the new figure has becomeattachedtoalong-termmemory.For another example, imagine if Iwanted to recall the names ofmy boss’s

threeyoungdaughters—Kiera,Beatrice,Penny.Iwouldrecall themalotmoreeasilyifIlinkedthenamestosomethingthatIknowwell,ifIbundledthedatainto long-termmemory.In thiscase, Imight thinkofsomebasketball teams—the Knicks, the Bulls, and the Pistons—and use the first letters of the teamnamestohelpmerecallthenamesofthethreeyoungwomen.Similarly, taketheclassicmnemonicMyVeryEducatedMotherJustServed

UsNine Pizzas,which stands for the order of the planets in our solor system(Mercury, Venus, Earth, etc). As a learning device, mnemonics are effectivebecauseof thenatureof long-termmemory:Theyhangnewknowledgeonoldknowledge,evenifit’sjustaphraseaboutmothers.There’smorewhenitcomestoknowledgeandlong-termmemory,though.It

turnsoutthatfactsarenotjustsomeformofintellectualfuelforourruminatingengines.Rather,knowledgeandthinkingaremixedtogetherwithinthestructureofourbrains,asWillinghamsuggests.Contentandcognitionturnouttosupporteachotherwithinourneuralconstructs.AsWillinghamargues:“Memoryistheresidueofthought.”There’s a rich-get-richer aspect to this idea: If we have a network of

knowledge,itmakesiteasiertoaddtothenetwork.Inotherwords,ifyouwantto learn more statistics, the best thing to know is statistics. If you want toimproveyourSpanish,thebestthingistoknowisSpanish.Theconverseofthisideaistrue,too:Ifyoudon’tknowanySpanish,it’sbest

tostartwithlearningthebasicfactssuchasfrequentlyusedwordslikehombreand cuarto. If you’re starting to learn guitar, memorize the basics like chordprogressions.For individuals, this starts with clearly identifying what background

knowledge is necessary for expertise. Sometimes this is obvious. It’s hard tolearntocannonballintoapoolifyoudon’tknowhowtoswim,forexample.Butmore typically, it’s pretty subtle. So ask yourself: What skills do I need toacquire?DoesthisfieldhavesomefoundationalconceptsthatIneedtomaster?In this sense, knowledge really is power.The understanding of factsmakes

gainingexpertisemoreeffective.Speedreadingisagoodcaseinpoint.There’slittleevidencethatspeedreadingworks.Fewexpertsbelieveinthepractice,andin the end, you’remuch better off having some background knowledge about

what you’re reading. If you have some prior understanding, you’ll be able togainfromthetextatamuchfasterrate.Thinkofcontentasmorethanking.It’salsolearningitself.

When people think about learning, they often envision something static. Weacquirea skill—and thenwe’redone.But thenatureof learning, thenatureofexpertise, is dynamic. To acquire expertise, people have to learn at a levelslightlybeyondtheirskills.Putmoredirectly,learningdoesnothaveacomfortzone.During my first visit to Windsor Hills—the Baltimore school that adopted

Success for All—researcher Bob Slavin and I once stepped into a classroomwhere students were being regrouped based on their performance, and IimmediatelyfocusedonaboynamedNassir.Astockyfifthgrader,Nassirwasinaclasswithmostlysecondgraders,manyofwhombarelyreachedhischest.Hewasagiant,itseemed,amongovergrowntoddlers.Formostofthemorning,Nassirsatinthebackoftheclassroom,perchedona

smallchair,wearingaWindsorHillsshirt.Despitethedifferenceinsizeandage,he was learning the same material as the other children, with the teacherreviewingsomeof thebasicphonicsoundsthatgointothevowelcombination“ur.”Later,Nassirsatwithanotherboy,andtogethertheyscrawledouttheword“fur”onasmallwhiteboard.TheSuccessforAllapproachtoregroupingdatesbacktothe1950s,allowing

formoretargetedformsofinstruction.Bygroupingstudentstogetheraccordingtotheirlevelsofperformanceratherthantheirageorgradelevel,theteachercanprovide instruction that’s more directed. It makes it easier to deliver morerigorous—andpersonalized—instructiontokidslikeNassir.AtSuccessforAllschools,thissortofregroupinghappenseverymorning.So

atexactly9a.m.,allofthestudentsintheelementaryschoolmovetodifferentclassroomsdependingonhowwell theycan read. InNassir’s case,he trudgesdown fromhis fifthgradeclassroom to the secondgradeclassroomso thathecangetmoretailoredinstruction.Then,aftertheninetyminutesofreading,he’llhaulbackupagain.Regrouping has its issues. Older students are often embarrassed to be in

classeswith younger students, for instance. But the approach pays off. GivenNassir’sstruggles,there’slittlequestionhewouldhaveflounderedifhe’dbeenin English with the rest of his fifth grade classmates. He was simply too farbehindtoengageingrade-levelwork.Hewouldnothavebeenchallenged—hewouldhavebeenacademicallylost.

Regrouping relies on a corollary to theKnowledgeEffect.Because to learnsomethingnew,theskillorknowledgehastobe,asGoldilocksfamouslyargued,“just right.”The skill can’t be too far beyondour current level of skill, orwebecomelostinahazeoflearningconfusion.Buttheknowledgealsocan’tbetooeasy, or we don’t learn anything at all. The best place to learn, then, is justbeyondwhatwecanknoworcando.I once visited psychologist Janet Metcalfe in her offices at Columbia

University to find out more about this idea. Over the years, Metcalfe hasconducted hundreds of studies of students as they try to figure outwhat theyshould be learning, and she argued that people are often pretty bad at thepractice. When people attempt to learn something new, they’ll often target“either the things they know already, or things that are just too difficult forthem,”accordingtoMetcalfe’sresearch.For her part, Metcalfe argued that learning is often about finding the best

“windowofopportunity”orengaginginmaterialjustbeyondourunderstanding.For example, imagine that you want to improve your understanding of arthistory. Most people would start by reviewing some of the things that theyalreadyfairlyfamiliarwith—RembrandtwasaDutchpainter,VanGoghwasapostImpressionist,theartofpaintingdatesbacktensofthousandsofyears.Learninghappens, though,whenpeoplearepushed justabitpastwhat they

candocomfortably.Weneedtostretchourknowledgeinordertolearn,andthemosteffectivelearninghappenswhenpeoplelearntheeasiestmaterialsamongthethingsthattheyhaveyettounderstand.Somoreeffectivequestionsfortheperson learning about art history might be: Who was Giacometti? Why wasLouise Nevelson such an important artist?Why is Degas considered the firstmodernistpainter?AsMetcalfe argues, thewindowof learning is alwaysmoving. It’s a target

thatconstantlychanges.Assoonwelearnoneskill,weneedtomoveuptothenextskill.Well-designedvideogamesdothiswell:Playersarealwaysjustabitbeyondtherangeoftheirskill.Eachlevelisslightlyharderthantheonebefore,and it’s this ever-evolving lure of mastery that keeps people focused—andhoningtheirskillinthegame.Nassirseemedtohaveasenseofthis“justright”aspectoflearning.Months

afterIfirstgottoknowhim,Isatdownwithhimasheatehislunch.Inmanyways, hewas a typical preteen.He proudly toldme about hisNintendo gamesystemandsomeofhisfavoritevideobloggers.Hecomplainedabouttheschoollunch, which on that day was a brown slop of a meatball sub that he nevertouched—heatetwobananasinstead.We talked about Nassir’s family and friends and how he celebrated his

birthday at OliveGarden.Nassir noted that school has becomemore difficultover time, that the academic expectations had been raised. “You gotta workhard,”he advised, and in away, thatwas thepoint.Weall need to target ourlearning a little bit beyondwherewe are, to alwaysbeworking a little harderthanwedidbefore.

BetterThinkingThenotionofaneffectivelearningzonegoesbeyondcontent—orevenrigor—and even at this early stage in the learning process, we also want to developconnections,tohoneourthinkingskills.Inthisregard,wehavetokeepinmindthatexpertise—andmemory—aren’tlinearsortsofthings.Rathertheyfunctionmorelikesprawlingnetworks,asystemofhubsandlinks.BrorSaxbergknowsthisideaaswellasanyone.OneofthebestlearnersI’ve

known, Saxberg has a medical degree from Harvard University along with aPhDinengineeringfromtheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.Saxberghasalso landed a master’s degree in math from Oxford along with twoundergraduatedegrees, and todayheworks as the chief learningofficer at theeducationfirmKaplan.ItwasearlyinhiscareerthatSaxbergfirstnoticedthatexpertsorganizetheir

understandingverydifferentlyfromamateurs.Backthen,SaxbergwasamedicalschoolstudentatHarvard,workingwithateamonadifficultcase,apatientwitha painful illness. Together with the group of students, Saxberg ran down thebasicsonthepatient—bloodpressure, labresults—withoutanyluckincomingtoadiagnosis.ThenSaxbergandhisteambegantohuntformoreunusualillnesses,reading

textbooksandhuntingaroundindifferentmedicalmanuals.Theyorderedmoretestsandexams.Again,nocleardiagnosis.Sotheteamcalledinoneofthemostseniordoctorsinthehospital—let’scallhimDr.Wildenstein.Aseriousmaninalongwhitelabcoat,Wildensteinwalkedintothepatient’s

room and declared a diagnosis within a few moments. In fact, it tookWildensteinlessthanaminutetofigureoutwhatwaswrongwiththepatientaswellastodetailapathtorecovery.ForSaxberg, theWildensteinstoryoffersaclear lesson.WhileSaxbergand

histeamhadacollectionofisolatedfacts,Wildensteinhadasystematizedtypeofexpertise.Theexperienceddoctorknewtheconcepts—andtheconnections—and so he had a much easier time figuring out what was wrong. As Saxbergargues, Wildenstein was a “walking data analyzer” because he had “pattern

recognitiontorealizewhatwasimportantandwhatwasnot.”In many ways, this is the hallmark of mastery, and just about every

professionalhasdevelopedwhatSaxbergcalls“patternrecognition”skills.Fromairlinepilots to architects, frombaseballplayers tomusicians, experts think inmore connected, more relational ways. Their long-term memory is rooted inlinksinsteadoffeatures,insystemsinsteadoffacts,andsolikeadiviner,likea“walkingdataanalyzer,”theycanlookpastthesurfacefeaturesofaproblemandidentifycoreissues.Anumberofexperimentsbackupthisidea.CognitivescientistArtGraesser

once pulled a group of people together into his lab, and the subjects learnedabout different devices—a toaster oven, a cylinder bolt, a dishwasher. ThenGraesser gave the subjects various ways in which the household items couldbreakdown,anditturnedoutthatpeoplewhounderstoodthedeviceaskedbetterqueriesaboutwhatcouldhavegonewrong.Byseeingconnections,byknowingrelationships,theycouldmoreeasilycomeupwithreasonsthatthedevicedidn’twork.Ittakesalongtimetodevelopthissortofnetworkedexpertise,andinthenext

chapter,wewill lookmorecloselyat the issueofhowtopractice inways thatsupportthisapproachtomastery.Butthere’sanimportantlessonforpeoplewhoarejuststartingtolearnsomething—weneedtotargettheunderlyinglogicthattiestogetheranareaofunderstanding,toseehowexpertisecomestogether.Oneapproachistowritedownwhatyouknowaboutatopicbeforeyoulearn

somethingnewaboutthattopic.SoifI’mhoningmygrillingskills,Imightnotethingslike:Choosesteakswithabitoffat.Highheatworksbest.Usetongs,notafork,someatstaysjuicy.IfI’mlearningabouttheElectoralCollege,I’dwrite:Thepoliticalprocessthathelpsgetpresidentselected.AccordingtoexpertslikeRobertMarzano,thebenefitsofthisapproachisthat

it helps people focus on linkages rather than isolated facts. By writing downwhatweknow,we’repreparingourmindstomakemoreconnectionswithinthatbody of expertise, creating a more systematized form of thinking—andunderstanding.Anothertooltobetternetworkourlearningisalow-stakesassessment.Partof

the benefit of tests is obvious—they provide amatter of clarification, a bit offeedback,ajudgmentofsorts.Inotherwords,quizzeshelpusunderstandwhatexactly we don’t know. This approach can go a long way—when we fail anaccountingexam,forinstance,weknowthatweneedtogetbetterataccounting.But just as important, informal quizzes can help us better systematize our

expertise. For an illustration, ask yourself a question likewhy is Aaron Burrimportant? orwhy do people use crampons while climbing? Inevitably you’ll

start thinking about related facts and ideas. For the Aaron Burr query, forinstance, you might think about how vice president Burr oversaw the firstimpeachment trial andmakeconceptual ties tomodern impeachment trials.Asforcrampons,youmightthinkofthemashoovesbutforclimbingboots.Indeed,peoplewhogainskillsandknowledgeeffectivelyareoftenengaging

in a type of quizzing in theirminds.They’ll ask themselves questions as theylearn:Whyisthistrue?Howdoesthislinktootherideas?InGraesser’sstudyofthe learning of household items, for instance, people who asked “why” and“how”questionsshowedmuchricherunderstandingoftheitemsthanthosewhodidn’t.When Imet upwith Saxberg—the chief learning officer atKaplan—he did

this in conversation, too. As we talked on that afternoon, Saxberg ended justabouteveryothersentencewiththeword“right?”andalittlepause.Inessence,Saxberg was asking: Why are we talking about this? How well do youunderstandthis?Saxberg has seen the value of helping peoplemake connections at Kaplan,

too,andwithhishelp,thecompanyhasbegunusingamoretargetedapproachaspartof itsLSATprepclasses. In thepast, theLSATclasseson reasoninghadbeen taught with a video in which a professor excitedly lectures to studentsabouthowtosolveaspecifictypeofproblem.Butthefirmrecentlydevelopedasetof learning tools thatpresented thecomplex ideas inamore focused,morenetworkedfashion,withspecificexamplesthatwalkedstudentsdirectlythroughtheskillset.Theoutcomesweretremendous.Studentsperformedfarbetterintheposttest.

What’smore,ittookstudentsonlynineminutestomasterthetopic.Incontrast,the video-based lecture required students to learn for some ninety minutes.That’sadifferenceofalmostanhourandahalf.Theissuewasn’tthatthevideowasbadorthattheprofessorwasweak.The

issuewasthatmoreexamplesprovidedmorerobustwaystospotconnections.Itbroke down the material in a more coherent way. It made the system ofknowledgeeasiertolearn.

Another way of thinking about this idea is that mastery is about more thancontent. Expertise is about more than accumulated facts. To really knowsomething, people also need to develop a set of thinking skills. Interestingly,these thinking skills are often so intricate and complex that even the expertsthemselvesdon’treallyknowhowtoexplainthem.AversionofthisideaoccurredtomesomeyearsagowhenImetupwithfont

designerMatthewCarter.Generally,Carterdoesn’twantyoutonoticethewordsyou’rereading.Thatis,youshouldn’tbeawareofthewaythesmallhorizontallineatthetopoftheThoversnearthehatthebeginningofthissentence.NorshouldyoureyecatchontheheavydownstrokesofaW thatgivetheletteritsclassic look. “If the reader is conscious of the type, it’s almost always aproblem,”Cartertoldme.Lettersonapageshould“provideaseamlesspassageoftheauthor’sthoughtsintothereader’smind.”WhydoesCarterhave such strongopinions?Well, he isoneof theworld’s

most well-respected designers of fonts. Microsoft’s Verdana font is one ofCarter’sdesigns.CarteralsocreatedtheheadlinefontoftheNewYorkTimesandtheSnellRoundhandfont.OrjustpickupanyVerizonphonebook.ThedesignofallofthoselettersandnumberscomefromCarter’shand.IspokewithCarterathisapartmentinCambridge.Tallandaestheniclooking,

withaponytailofwhitehair,heexplainedhowAT&Thadaskedoncehimtocreatethesmallest legibletypethatcouldbeprintedonlow-gradepaper.Ideasfornewfontswouldsometimescometohimashesaunteredthroughgraveyards,looking at headstones.He detailed howhis creation,BellCentennial, has flat,short curves on the sides of the g in order to increase thewhite space in thecharactersandmakethelettermorelegible.Butaswetalkedonthatwinterafternoon,Carteralsoseemedtohavealittle

difficultydescribingwhatexactlymadeforabeautiful,easy-to-readfont.WhenCartertalkedabouthowanhandtshouldfittogetherinaword,forinstance,hecalled thedecision “purely aesthetic.”As for theprocess of putting together afont, he told me it was plainly uninteresting, something not even worthdiscussing:“Watchingmeworkislikewatchingarefrigeratormakeice.”Without any equivocation, Carter is one of the best people in the world at

creatingtypefaces,theWinstonChurchilloffontdesign.Andyetstilltherewasavaguenessabouthowexactlyheexecuteshisdesigns.Itwasn’tjustme,either.In other interviews, Carter is somewhere between kindly humble andpurposefullyobtuse.Heoncetoldanotherreporter:“I’mmoreofachameleon.”Itturnsoutthatit’sprettyeasytooverlookeverythingthatgoesintoaspecific

areaofmastery.Onceweknowsomething,it’shardtoexplainthatknowledgeto someone else. In his lab at USC, Richard Clark has examined this idea indozens of different studies. He’ll bring an expert into his lab—maybe anexperiencednurseoratennisprooraskilledfederaljudge.Then Clark will ask them detailed questions about their area of expertise.

What areyou thinkingwhile youperform this step?Where is your right handduringthatprocedure?Tellme,step-by-step,howdoyoudothat?While these individualsareallhighlyregardedexperts,Clark typicallyfinds

that they can identify only about 30 percent of what’s needed to “solve acomplexbutfamiliarproblemoraccomplishatask.”TherestiswhatClarktoldme is “fully automated, unconscious.” In other words, most of what expertsknow is simply beyond their actual ken. They don’t really know what theyknow;theymadeitfullyautomatic.Whatallthismakesclearisthatwecan’tjustgotoanexpertandaskthemto

explain something to us. The experts often just don’t have enough awareness.NorcanwejustreadaWikipediaarticleandcomewithareallydeepknowledgeabout a field or area of expertise. In most Wiki pages, there isn’t enoughexplanation of the thinking and reasoning skills that are embeddedwithin thecontent.But it gets worse. Remember the idea that we discussed earlier about how

short-termmemorycanholdonly a small trickleof information like thedigits911? Well, the small, narrow pipeline of short-term memory makes learningfrom experts even harder becausewe can’t handle a lot of new facts at once.Evenifsomeonecouldexplainalloftheirexpertiseinoneburstofexplanation,wecouldn’tpickitup.Iftoomuchnewinformationgetsthrownatus,ourbrainbecomesoverloaded.However,aslearningprogresses,wecanplugmoreandmoreinformationinto

the holes ofmeaning.Knowledge bleeds into other knowledge. Skills supportotherskills,andovertime,withthehelpoflong-termmemory,wecandevelopmoreandmoremastery.Expertise“automateswhenitisusedovertime,”Clarktoldme. “The automation process frees up ‘thinking space’ sowe can take inmorenewlearningwithoutoverloadingourshort-termmemory.”But in the end, it’s the Value of Educators all over again, and we need

instructors who know their subject—and have ways to explain their subject.People,then,shouldn’tchooseeducatorsjustbecausethepersonisanexpertinthe field. They should also look for instructorswho have experience teachingthatsubject,whounderstandhowtoexplainkeyskillsandideas.Likewise,weneed learningmaterials thatunpack the thinking that’sembedded inanareaofexpertiseandexplainitinatargetedwaythatmakesiteasytograpplewith.Interestingly, this sort of focused knowledge development extends well

beyondknowledgeitself.It’salsokeyforouremotions,whichisthetopicthatwewillturntonext.

POPQUIZ#6

Trueorfalse:Whenitcomestolearning,metacognition(e.g.,thinkingaboutthinking)canbemoreimportantthanintelligence.

ThinkingaboutThinking—andEmotionsConsiderforamomentthebookthatyou’reholdingrightnow.Inthepublishingindustry,thisbookisknownasapopularsciencebook,oranefforttotranslatethefindingsofacademicresearchforawideraudience.You’veprobablycomeacrossthesesortsofbooksbefore.MalcolmGladwell

writesatypeofpopularsciencebooks.TheImmortalLifeofHenriettaLacksbyRebecca Skloot is a popular science book. Susan Cain, Daniel Coyle, StevenJohnson,andAtulGawandehaveallwrittenimportantpopularscienceinrecentyears.Generallyspeaking,popularsciencebooksfollowacertainpattern.Almostall

of thempush a surprising themeor idea. InGladwell’sBlink, for instance, heargues that split-second decisions are better than deliberate ones. In the firstImmortalLifeofHenriettaLacksbook,Sklootdiscussestheoriginsofacelllinethat’sused in just about every science lab in the country. InSteven Johnson’sFuturePerfect,heoutlinesanewwaytothinkaboutsocietalreform,arguingforabottom-upapproachtochange.Like any form of narrative, popular science books have shortcomings. The

books will sometimes overstate their case. In their eagerness to presentcounterintuitivefindings,theauthorswillglossoverkeydetails.Talentcan’tbeboileddowntoasingletypeofbrainissue,asDanielCoylearguesinTheTalentCode. Malcolm Gladwell’s idea that expertise comes with 10,000 hours ofpracticedoesn’tstanduptoclosescrutiny.Why does this matter? Because knowing what you’re reading is key to

understandingwhatyou’rereading.Context isoftenoneof themost importantparts of comprehension. Put differently, learning to learn is often amatter ofknowingaboutwhatyou’relearning.Takealookatthistext,forinstance:

There’sarightwayandawrongway.Neitherisclearlydescribed.Ifyoudoitthe wrong way, there could be a major error. If you do it the right way,though,youmightalsostillgetitwrong.

Youcanreadandrereadthosefoursentencesallthatyouwant.Butit’snearlyimpossibletounderstandthewordswithoutknowingthecontext.Thesentencessimplydon’tmakelogicalsenseifthere’snobroaderframing.Thinkaboutallof thepossibilities: Is the textpartofa technicalmanualon

howtodefuseabomb?Amaterialsciencespaperoncrystalformation?A20th-century spy novel with an unreliable narrator? A metaphysical poem on the

natureofdoing?Thetextcouldcomefromanyoftheabove,andintheend,it’sthecontextthatgivesthewordsanysortofactualmeaning.Thisideahasimportantimplicationsforhowwefocusourlearningbecauseof

askillknownasmetacognition.Psychologistsdefinemetacognitionasthinkingaboutthinking,andinbroadterms,it’saboutunderstandinghowyouunderstandsomething. It’s about gaining mental perspective and a sense of cognitiveawareness.In some ways, metacognition comes easily. When you decide to close the

instructionalmanualandbeginpiecingtogetheranIKEAtable,you’veengagedin a form of metacognition. When you frantically review your lecture notesbeforeabigspeech?Abitofnervousmetacognition.Thatnagging, tip-of-the-tongue feeling that you getwhen you can’t remember the name of a kid youwenttohighschoolwith?Metacognition.Metacognitionhastwoparts,accordingtoexperts.First,there’stheplanning

aspect:Howwill I knowwhat I know?What aremy goals?Do I needmorebackgroundknowledge?Second,there’sthemonitoringpart:CouldIlearnthisidea in a different way?Am Imaking progress?Why am I doingwhat I amdoing?This sort ofmetacognition often comes easily to experts.When a specialist

works through an issue, they’ll think a lot about how the problem is framed.They’ll have a sense ofwhether or not their answer seems reasonable or not.They’llreflectonhowtheygottoananswer.The key is not to leave this thinking about thinking to the experts. The

research suggests, in fact, that beginners often need this sort ofmetacognitivethinking just as much as the experts. In other words, the faster that we askmetacognitivequestions,thequickerwecanmasternewskills.When it comes to learning, one of the biggest issues is that people don’t

engageinmetacognitionnearlyenough.Wedon’tdoenoughtounderstandthethingsthatwedon’tknow.Atthesametime,peoplefeeltooconfidentinwhattheydoknow.Theissue,then,isnotthatsomethinggoesinoneearandouttheother.Theissueisthatindividualsdon’tdwellonthedwelling.Theydon’tpushthemselvestounderstand.Inthisregard,metacognitionoftencomesdowntoasetofquestionsthatwe

askourselves:HowwillIknowwhatIknow?WhatdoIfindconfusing?DoIhaveawaytomeasuremyunderstanding?Thesesortsofqueriesarepowerful,andmetacognition is oftenmore important than raw smartswhen it comes tolearning.According toresearcherMarcelVeenman,for instance,studentswhohavea

rich ability tomanage their thinking can outscore studentswhohave sky-high

levels of IQ. “We’ve found that metacognition often accounts for about 40percentof learningoutcomes,”Veenman toldme,while“IQonlyaccounts for25percent.”Theactofwritingisagoodexampleofmetacognitionbecausewhenwethink

aboutcomposingsentencesandparagraphs,we’reoftenaskingourselvescrucialmetacognitive questions:Whowill be reading this?Will they understandme?WhatthingsdoIneedtoexplain?Thisiswhywritingisoftensuchaneffectivewaytoorganizeone’sthoughts.Itforcesustoevaluateourargumentsandthinkaboutourideas.Some likepsychologistDougHackerdescribewritingasa formof“applied

metacognition,” and it happens to me all the time. Before I start writing, forinstance, I’ll have some sort of idea—a flicker of a connection, a sparkle ofreasoning—and the notion or argument will seem irrefutable. Maybe, forinstance, I’ll want to email my wife to ask if she could watch the kids onSaturdaynightbecauseanoldcollegebuddyisintown.ButthenI’llstartwritingtheemail,andmylogicsimplyfallsapart.Irealize

thatmyargumentisactuallyprettyweaksinceIsawmybuddylastmonth.Myintended audience will never buy it—and the email gets trashed. To useHacker’s words, I applied a type of metacognition and foundmy logic to belacking.Wecandothisourselves.Imagine,foramoment,thatyouwanttobecomea

better travel photographer. Then ask yourself metacognitive questions whileyou’restartingtolearntoshootimages:Howwouldanexpertthinkabouttakingthis picture? What sort of assumptions am I making about light andcomposition?Foranotherexample,imagineyouwanttoimproveyourunderstandingofthe

notionofa leapyear.Soyouaskyourself:Whatdo Iknowabout leapyears?Howwouldsomeoneknowaboutleapyears?Whyisitevencalledaleapyear?Fortheirpart,researchersrecommendthatpeopleaskthesesortsofquestions

wellbeforetheystartlearningsomething.Byprobingourselvesbeforewegainabit of expertise, we’re priming our metacognitive pump—and making ourlearningmoredurable. Indeed, psychologistLindseyRichland and a colleaguehaveshowedthatpeoplewhotrytoanswermetacognitivequestionsbeforetheyread some text learn a lot more, even if they can’t answer the metacognitivequestionscorrectly.Or consider this bit of metacognition: Have you noticed the pop quizzes

interspersed through thisbook?I includeda fewof themineverychapterasawaytopromptatypeofengagedthinkingaboutthinking.Myhopeisthatyouattempt to answer each of the questions and think, Do I know this about

learning?WhydoIknowthisaboutlearning?Intheend,itwillleadtoadeeperformofunderstanding.

The power ofmetacognition goes beyond our thinking. It also extends to ouremotions,andwhenitcomestotheprocessoflearning,weneedtomanagehowwe feel. If metacognition is about planning and monitoring our thinking, weneed to do the same for our emotions, and as people learn, they need to askthemselves:HowdoIfeel?Isthistaskfrustrating?Scary?What’s easy to forget is that learning is a deeply emotional activity. Our

feelings dramatically shape our ability to gain any sort of skill. People oftenassociate this aspect of learningwith children, and really, there’s no questionthatsomeeighthgraderswilldoanythingexceptsaythattheyneedhelpintheiralgebraclasses.They’resimplytooembarrassed.Butemotionsplaya tremendous role in the learningofadults, too.Feelings

oftendeterminewhatwe’regoingtolearn.Anewlineofresearchinpsychologyshowsthatemotionsactuallyserveasatypeofbedrockforourknowledgeandskills. Our thoughts are woven together with feelings, and in the end, there’sreally no real difference between cognitive and noncognitive approaches tolearning.Take a now-famous patient named Elliot who walked into the office of

AntonioDamasio in the late 1970s. At the time,Damasiowas a professor ofneuroscience at theUniversity of Iowa, and Elliot had just had a large tumorremoved fromhisbrain.Thegrowthhad started just aboveElliot’snose, rightbehindhiseyes,andeventually,itgrewtothesizeofanovergrowngolfball.Before the surgery, Elliott had been an upstanding father and successful

businessman. He was smart and funny and well read, a role model in hiscommunity.Afterthesurgery,hestillhadaveryhighIQ,andontests,hescoredin the superior range.Hecould still talk aboutpolitics and thenewsandevenmake jokes. But Elliotwas emotionless. “Hewas cool, detached, unperturbedevenbypotentiallyembarrassingdiscussionofpersonalevents,”DamasiowritesinhisbookDescartes’Error.Damasioeventuallyuncoveredanumberofpatientswhoshowedsimilartypes

ofbraindamageasElliot,andtheyallshowedsimilarsymptoms.Theyseemedtohave lostallof theiremotions.Theyappeared tobepurelyrational.There’ssomething about this idea that might appear attractive. Without emotions, itmightseemlikewecanfinallythinkclearly.But it’s not, and patients like Elliot had a terrible time making decisions.

Without their emotions, they became lost in rational thought. They lacked an

ability to think, to reason their way through problems. There were moneyproblems, and Elliot lost a large sum of money to a swindler with a vaguebusinessscheme.These patients simply couldn’t get a feel for the overall nature of an issue.

Damasioonceaskedapatientwith similar frontal lobedamageabout thenexttimethatheplannedtovisitthelab.Damasiosuggestedtwodatestothepatient,whobeganreviewinghiscalendar.Forthenext30minutes,thepatientoutlinedallthelogicinvolvedindeciding

between the twodates.Hehadprevious commitments and later commitments.Hementionedtheweatherandthetimeandotherpotentialmeetings.Thepatienttalkedaboutanythingthatmightpossiblyshapehisdecision.“It tookenormousdiscipline to listen to all of thiswithoutpoundingon the

table and telling him to stop,” Damasio writes. “But we finally did tell him,quietly,thatheshouldcomeonthesecondofthealternativedates.Hisresponsewas equally calm and prompt. He simply said, ‘That’s fine.’ Back theappointmentbookwentintohispocket,andthenhewasoff.”Whenitcomestolearning—andthinking—itturnsoutthatouremotionswork

asafirstlineofdefense.Theyserveasatypeofdoorman,tellingusifweshouldengagetheskillsofreasonornot.This iswhatElliot lacked:Hedidn’thaveawaytosignalthatheshouldembracereason.Hedidn’tknowhow—orwhen—tothink.AsDamasioargues,“Emotionswasintheloopofreason.”There’sanevendeeperconnectionbetweenthoughtandfeeling,though,and

thesourceoftheissuegoesbackagaintoourbrain.Ournervoussystemisnotlikeacarenginewithdiscreteandindependentparts.Rather,abrainisaseaofconnections, a mass of interwoven components, and people are constantlyreusingthesameneuralpartsfordifferentpurposes.Social pain, for instance, runs on the same brain circuit as physical pain.

Similarly, emotional anguish ignites the same neural systems as corporalanguish.Inmanyways,there’snoneuraldifferencebetweenthepainoffeelingaloneandthepainofslashingyourfinger,andintheend,thedopamine-fueledhappiness that comes from solving a math problem is ultimately not thatdifferentthanthedopamine-fueledhappinessthatcomeswithconnectingwithafriend.Putdifferently,theheadispartoftheheart,orsaidanotherway,thebodyis

often no different than the brain. The lab studies that undergird thiswork arelegendary—and frankly, more than a little weird. If someone is physicallyuncomfortable,forinstance,they’llviewotherpeople’sfacesasangrier.Promptsomeone to be forgiving, and the feeling of redemptionwillmake them jumphigherinatestofphysicalability.Myfavorite?Ifpeoplegivearandomobject

themiddle finger, theyhave less positive opinions of that object, even if theyhavenoexperiencewiththeobject.Thedeepconnectionbetweenbodyandmind,betweenemotionandthought,

helps explain some of the power ofmental abacus, themath practice thatwecameacrossinthefirstchapter:Whenpeoplemovetheirfingerswhiledoingthecalculations,they’reoftensparkingthesamementalcircuitsthatthey’dsparkifthey were actually doing the math. As Harvard’s Neon Brooks told me, thehandsarehelpingthebrainto“think”throughthementalcalculations.Therearesomefascinatingapplicationsofthisidea,andthenexttimeyou’re

faced with a geometry problem—or even an architectural drawing—researchsuggests thatyoushould literally finger thedrawingasaway togainadeepergrasp of the issue embedded the problem. According to experts, the handgesturespromotelearningbymakingthedrawingseasiertounderstand.PsychologistSianBeilockalsorecommends thatpeople incorporategestures

tohelprememberaspecificidea.Soifyouwanttomakesuretothankthehostattheendofabigspeech,makesuretoassociatethewordsofgratitudewithaspecificmovementlikeanodduringpracticesessions.Thenatthespeech,givethenod,andthemovementwillsparkthememoryofthewords.Formyownpart,I’lloftenusemyhandstohelpmerememberthecodesfor

conferencecallnumbers.Notlongago,forinstance,Ihadtodialintoameetingline.Thedial-innumberhadthreefoursinarow,andsoIstuckoutthreefingersasawaytobetterrememberthedigits,basicallyoffloadingthememorytomyhands, usingmybody as a formof intelligence. For a shortmoment, in otherwords,myfingersweremymind.

There’sadownsidetoemotions.Strongfeelingscanalsokeepusfromlearning,and we can’t gain skills if we feel emotionally uncomfortable. Our thoughtscan’tsettleifwefeelstressed,andstudyafterstudyhasshownthatemotionscanalso drive down learning outcomes. Sadness, depression, even just physicaldiscomfortcanallmakeithardertolandexpertise.So how do we target the emotions associated with learning? How do we

manageourfeelingsandplanforexpertise?Let’sstarttoanswerthesequestionsbyconsideringJimTaylor.Foralongtime,Taylorwasagoodbutnotgreatslalomskier.WhileTaylor

was ranked nationally, he often didn’t finish races. Anxious about hisperformance, worried about his times, Taylor would miss gates. He’d makebumblingmistakesandmisjudgeaturnandcrashinapileofsnowypowder.“Amess”ishowTaylordescribedhimself—“myownworstenemy.”

After taking a college psychology class, Taylor tweaked his emotionalpreparation by using mental imagery to practice for his races. Before Taylorevenstepped into thestartinggate,hewould imaginehimself racingdown themountain,envisioningeverygate,bump,andhip turn. Itwasa typeofmentaldream,amatterofwatchinghimselfperform“fromtheinsideout.”Taylorcallstheresultsofhislittleintervention“spectacular.”Byusingmental

imagery,hegainedamuchdeeperbeliefinhisabilitiesandeventuallymanagedto shape how he felt about racing. “From doubt came confidence,” Taylorargues.“Fromanxietycameintensity.”Andwithinayear,TaylorbecameoneofthetoptwentyskiersinhisagegroupinthenationandeventuallymadetheUSSkiTeam.Thepowerofmental imagerygoesback to the interconnectednatureof the

brain.Thedeep ties betweenbody andmind explainwhymental imagery canproduce such dramatic effects. There’s simply not a big difference betweenimagininganexperienceandtheexperienceitself.MentalimageryallowedTaylortogainsomethingthatpsychologistscallself-

efficacy.It’sabeliefinone’sability,afeelingthatone’sgoingtosucceed,anditturnsouttobecrucialindealingwiththeemotionalvagariesoflearning.It’saway to manage our feelings, and when Taylor practiced mental imagery, hedevelopedanimportanttypeofconfidence:“WhenIarrivedatarace,InotonlyknewthatIwasgoingtofinish.IknewIwasgoingtowin.”Likemanypsychological theories, the notionof self-efficacy is both simple

yetprofound.StanfordpsychologistAlbertBandurafirstdevelopedtheconceptinthe1970s,andinanumberofimportantresearchpapers,Banduraarguedthatpeopleneedtohavetheexpectationofsuccess.Specifically,Bandurafoundthatpeople are farmore likely to engage in an activity if they know that they canaccomplishtheactivity.Self-efficacy,then,isdifferentthananoverallfeelingofconfidence.It’snota

matter of self-esteem. Instead, the idea revolves around the belief thatwe canaccomplishaveryspecifictask,thatwecanachievepositiveoutcomesinwhatweaimtodo.Thisexpectationofsuccessbringsallsortsofbenefits.Ifwebelievethatwe

canaccomplisha task,we’refarmore likely toput fortheffort.Withagreatersenseof self-efficacy,we’realso farmore likely toachieveourgoals—andbehappierwiththeresults.Justasimportant,self-efficacysparksfocus.Itmakesusmoretargetedinourgoals,andsowe’refarbetterabletohandlediversions.WhenIreachedouttoBandura,forinstance,heemailedback,writingthathe

wasona“productiontreadmill”forhisnewbook.Hewasworking“lateintothenight”andhadnotimeforinterviews.Thisisself-efficacyinaction:Withmore

confidence,we’remorecommitted.Wehaveadeepersenseofcontrol,arichersenseofagency.Bandurahadabookthathewantedtowrite—andhewasgoingtoachievethatgoal,regardlessoftheemailsinhisinbox.Inthisway,self-efficacyoperatesasabufferfortheinevitablefrustrationsof

learning.Whenweknowwhatwe’regoingtoachieve,we’rebetterequippedtodealwithsetbacksanddistractions,withthebruisedfeelingsanddedicatedfocusthatlearningrequires.Bandura underscored this point when he eventually made time for an

interview, telling me that when people learn, they need ways to cope withvariousnaggingfeelings:AmIgoodenough?Will I fail?What if I’mwrong?Isn’t theresomethingelse that I’dratherbedoing?ForBandura, thesesortsofthoughtsandemotionscanquicklyrobofusourabilitytogainexpertise.Theydisrupt our short-termmemory.While some of these feelings are typical, toomanyofthemand“you’llgettotallywipedout.”Thereareanumberofwaystomanagethesethoughtsandemotions,andwe

have to write out plans, map out long-term strategy, to help keep ourselvesmotivated.Inthisregard,learningtolearnoftenboilsdowntoatypeofprojectoversight. It’s about creating objectives and then figuring out ways to reachthoseobjectiveswithclearandachievablebenchmarks.Theresearchisoverwhelmingonthispoint,andliterallyhundredsofstudies

have shown that people with clear goals outperform people with vagueaspirations like “do a good job.” By setting targets, people are better able toaccomplishwhattheywanttoaccomplish.Tobeclear,learninggoalsshouldnotbeNewYear’sEve–likeaimslikemasterthetango.Overlyambitiouslearningtargets can backfire, Bandura argued, because they seemed too vague anddistant.Instead,Bandura’s research shows that people aremore likely to succeed if

theyhaveeasy-to-accomplishbenchmarks.Soinsteadofsomethinglikemasterthe tango,peopleshoulddetail smaller targets likeattend tango lessonsonceaweek or practice dancing at home on Wednesday evenings and Sundayafternoons.These sorts of goals can be extremely helpful—and often serve asoneofthebestwaystomanageouremotions.At the same time,weneed tokeepourselves emotionallymotivated. In this

regard, self-talk matters, and we need to avoid black-and-white thinking. Soratherthantellyourself,I’mtheworst, tellyourself,I’mstruggling.Alsomakesure to findmomentsofprogressandrewardevensmallaccomplishments likenoting,Iworkedforthreehourstoday.Tohelpkeepusinspired,wecanalsomakebetswithourselves.Someyears

ago,forinstance,programmerFrancescoCirillodevelopedahelpfulapproachto

creatinga senseof efficacy.At the time,Cirillowasa college student, andheoften foundhimself sidetracked, distractedby everything.SoCirillo placed “abetwithhimself”:Hesetakitchentimer—calledapomodoroinItalianbecauseitlookslikeatomato—fortenminutes.Thepomodorotechniqueworked,andCirillosoonbeganexperimentingwith

different lengths of time. Eventually, he found that the best approach was tostudy for twenty-five minutes and then take five minutes off to enjoy a fewminutes of aimless fun like Facebook or Pokemon Go. Cirillo called it thePomodoro Technique, a way to set goals for accomplishing work whilerespectingourneedforbreaks.I’veusedthePomodoroTechniqueforyears.It’sasawaytopromotemyown

senseofefficacy,tomanagemyownseekingways,andit’smademerealizethatthemastery requiresmanagement.We need away to overcome the inevitabledistractions—and rawmistakes—that comewith engagingexpertise.Skier JimTaylorputsitwell.Learning,heargues,isoftenabout“feelingsuccessinyourmind’seye.”

POPQUIZ#7

Trueorfalse:Quizzingisaneffectivewaytolearn.

Themoresocial,emotionalsideoflearningoftencameupinmyinterviewwithresearchers.ItusuallyhappenedwhenIaskedtheQuestion.Just about every time that I interviewed a learning expert, I’d pose some

versionof the followingquery:Howdoyou learn to learn? Ifyou’re trying togainanewskill,howdoyouapproachthetask?Whatdoyoudowithyourownkidsorstudentsthatmostotherparentsorteachersdon’tdo?Inaway,Isimplywantedtoknowwhattheexpertsdidintheirownlives.In

mymind,IcalledittheQuestion,andthere’doftenbeaslightpause,aclearingof the throat.Sometimes I felt like Iheard theperson’sperspectiveshift, fromacademicviewpointtoparentviewpoint,fromexpertmind-settolearnermind-set.Notsurprisingly,theanswersoftenreflectedtheexpert’spointofview.Ifan

expert focused on math, she would talk about math. If an expert worked onmemory,hewouldtalkaboutmemory.Yettimeandagain,regardlessoftheexpert’sbackground,theemotionalside

oflearningwouldbubbleup.WecameacrossDavidBarnerinthefirstchapter—he did research on the mental abacus—and when we meet up for dinner,

Barnerexplainedthathewouldoftendomathriddleswithhisyoungdaughtersothatshewouldhaveasensethatmathwasfun.In other cases, the researcher would basically bring their work home with

them.GritexpertAngelaDuckworthtoldmethatshetaughtherchildrenabout“self-control”experimentswhentheywerestillinpreschool.Perhaps the most provocative answer regarding our softer side came from

cognitivescientistLisaSon.Sheand Imetup inaStarbucksoneafternoon inNewYorkCity.Wetalkedforawhile,andwhenthetopicofchildrencameup,IaskedaversionoftheQuestion.Sonsmiledimmediately:“IexplainthethingsIcanaboutmyworktomykids

asmuchaspossible.”Son studies the role ofmemory in learning, and she believes deeply in the

value of difficulty. Son’s expectation is that learningwill be hard, a struggle,somethingthatcausesunease.“Whatparentsneedtodoisallowtheirkidstobeokaywithbeinguncomfortable, tobeokaywithoutknowing theanswer,”Sontold me. “If students are never given the opportunity to struggle with theirthoughts,thenfuturestrugglesmaybecometoofrustrating.”Son gave examples of ways that she expects her children to really grapple

withtheirlearning.She’lloftenwithholdakeybitofknowledgefromherkidstohelp them learn. She’ll be vague about feedback during science topics, forinstance,or shewill not correctly answer amath fact thather childhadaskedfor.Indeed,itseemsthatSonactuallytriestocultivatealittleacademicpain.Son

won’t protect her young son from bumping his head on the kitchen table, forinstance,unlessitseemslikehe’sreallygoingtocrackhisheadopen.AndwhenSon’sdaughteraskedabout the ideaof timezones,Sonwouldnotexplain theconcept, even after her daughter asked about the idea for months. “As aresearcher,Iwillnevergivemykidtheanswer.Never,”shesaid.Only“hints.”Son’sapproachbuildsontheideaoflearningasmentaldoing,andSonherself

has seen similar effects in her own lab: If people have to put forth morecognitiveeffort,theygainmore.Foranexample,imagineayoungstudent—callhim Moe—has written a short essay with a few spelling errors. As Sonexplained, most people would tell Moe the correct spelling of the words hemissed. But not Son. She’d ask Moe to “look over the page and see if youspelledallofthehardwordscorrectly.”IfMoedidn’tnoticethespecificspellingissues,maybeSonwouldpointout

whichwordsMoegotwrong.Butbasedonherresearch,Sonwouldnotgivehimthe correct answer or spell out the words. Moe would have to discover thecorrectanswerhimself.“Asthestudentreadsmoreontheirown,they’llseethe

wordspelledcorrectly,andthey’llneverforgettherightanswer,”Sontoldme.“People need to do learning on their own for long-term maximum learningpower.”Theexpectationofdifficultyisimportanttolearning.Itisanextensionofthe

notionofself-efficacy.Weneedtobelievethatourhardworkwillpayoff,andwe need others to believe it, too. I saw this in my development. It was anexpectationaround thenatureofwork thathadperhaps thegreatest impactonmyownexperience.I didn’t always have a positive view of grindstoning, to be sure.My early

experiences in school made me believe that I was a little slow. My teachersplayedarole—somenursedaprettylimitedviewofmyabilities.OnefirstgradeteachertoldmymotherthatIwouldmostlikelyturnouttobeacook.AnotheraskedifmygrandparentswereNazis.I acted out, too. In middle school, for instance, I landed an in-school

suspensionfortorchingalabtable,sparkingafiresolargethatitrequiredablastfromanindustrial-sizefireextinguisher.Butmyidentityevolved.Becauseofmydedicatedparents,becauseofsome

helpful teachers, I began to believe something different aboutmyself and thenatureof learning.I realizedthatwhileIhad thesamebasic talentasothers—justaboutallofusdo—mybrainsimplyrequiredmoretimetoworkthroughthematerial.Ineededtoputforthmoreeffort.Andovertime,strugglebecamecentraltohowIunderstoodlearning.Itwas

thenarrativethatIlivedby,thesocialcontractthatIsigned.Ipromisedmyselfthat Iwould outwork everyone inmy classes—and explained to friends that Iwasa learningdrafthorse,ananimal thatsucceededdue tounmitigatedeffort.Mysocialcirclealsoslowlychanged,becominglessrebelliousandmoregeeky.IthelpedthatI’mfromafamilyofelbowgreasers.Myfatherwouldoftenuse

a German phrase along the lines of If you don’t have brains, then use yourbrawn. Being of German descent helped, too. The Teutonic obsession withdiligence gave another layer of social meaning to my beliefs about theimportanceofhardwork.Other people began to expect more of me over the years—and I expected

more of myself, sometimes to an extreme degree. Before my first class incollege, I remember slipping into the empty university classroom to preparemyself emotionally. In the empty room, standing among the chairs and dustmotes,Irecalledtheencouragementofmyfriendsandfamily,mutteringthingstomyselfalong the linesof I’mnotgoing tobeouthustled. I’mgoing toworkharderthaneveryoneelse.Inhindsight,mypep talk seemsoverlydramatic, abitof teenagedreamery.

Thiswasacollegecourse,notaclashofcivilizations.Butatthesametime,weneedthesesortsofboosts.Whenitcomestotheemotionalsideoflearning,wedon’tworkalone,andintheemptyclassroom,IwasremindingmyselfofwhoIwas,fosteringthesocialandemotionalefficacythatcollegedemands.Thepracticaltakeawayhereisprettysimple.Weneedtobelieveinstruggle.

We need to know that learning is difficult.What’smore,we need the peoplearoundustobelieve,too.Toovercomethestrugglesanddifficultiesoflearning,we need social support. Or recall the Posse program thatwe discussed in theprevious chapter. Part of the reason that the program is so effective is that itcreatesastronggroupexpectationofsuccess.I’ve seen this inmy own research. Togetherwith some colleagues, I found

that teachers’ attitudes toward students make a tremendous difference inoutcomes.Inourstudy,forinstance,highschoolerswhoseteachersanticipatedthattheteenswouldfinishcollegewerethreetimesmorelikelytolandacollegediploma.Inotherwords,apersonisfarmorelikelytoreceiveacollegedegreeifheor shehas a high school teacherwhobelieves that thepersonwill, in fact,landacollegedegree.ThisideaisattheheartofLisaSon’sapproach.She’sbuildingnormsaround

thenatureof effort, theessenceof struggle, thepath toexpertise.AsSon toldme, laughing, “I think I overdid it, but if someone gives my kid the answer,she’llkillyou.”

There’safinallessonwhenitcomestotargetingourfeelings,onethatbringsusback toBob Slavin’s Success forAll program.More exactly, an odd paradoxexistsatthecenteroftheemotionalsideofachievingexpertise,andwhenwe’relearning,weoftenhave tobalanceourselvesbetweensocialsupportandsocialpressure.This idea often crossed my mind when I visited Windsor Hills, the West

Baltimore school that had adopted Slavin’s program. A good example is themorningthatayoungmantoldme,“YoulookjustlikeJoeFlacco.”Iwasstandinginthefrontofficeatthetime.AftermyfirstvisitwithSlavin,I

hadcontinued toswingpast theschool,makingfour tripsover thecourseofayear.Iwascurioustoseehowtheschoolimplementedthereformprogram,howthemoretargetedapproachtolearningwouldplayoutovertime.On that morning, I was waiting for a meeting with the school’s principal,

CoreyBasmajian,andafterthecomment,IsoonstartedGooglingpicturesoftheBaltimoreRavenquarterbackJoeFlaccoonmyphone, thinking,“Wow,I looklikeafootballsuperstar!”

But some ten minutes later, I saw Basmajian, who like me is white. TheprincipaltoldmethatpeopleattheschoolalsooftenmistakehimforJoeFlacco,too, and that’s when a moment of awkward racial insight dawned on me.Segregation, rather thanmy actual appearance,was probably the cause ofmybeinganNFLdoppelgänger.This should have already been obvious. The schoolwas deeply segregated,

withnomorethanoneortwowhitestudents,andaftertheriotsoverthedeathofFreddie Gray, the issue became even more salient. The Baltimore police hadpickedupGray during a drug arrest, and he died in the back of a police van,pleadingforhelp.Gray’sdeathsparkedasurgeofanger,andonthenightofthefuneral,peopleburnedcarsandransackedstores.Theriots tookplacejustfewdozenblocksfromWindsorHills.Someof the

middle schoolers bragged about running through the streets, while one of thesecondgraderswasFreddyGray’snephewandappearedonthefrontpageofthenewspaper.Ivisitedthedayafterthelootinghadsubsided,aspolicecontinuedto caravan through the city, National Guardsmen still stood guard on streetcorners,andthesoundsofhelicopterswhoop-whoopingoverheadmadeitseemasifthisweresomewar-tornnation.After riots, it’s tempting for a school likeWindsor Hills to expect less of

students.Powerfulemotionsmakeithardtolearn,aswe’veseen.Butemotionalsupportcanbeaslipperyslope.There’sthedangerofbeingtoocompassionate,tooforgiving,andintheweeksaftertheriots,manyoftheteachersatWindsorHillsworkedhardtonavigatethiscatch-22.On one side, the educators wanted to offer support. They wanted to help

students develop emotionally. On the other side, the teachers wanted to berelentlessonacademics.Theywantedtochallengetheirstudents.Oneafternoon,for instance, I slipped intoNaomiBlaushild’s classroom. Itwas latemorning.Shewasteachinglanguageartstofifthgradersonthesecondfloor.“You started a newbook,”Blaushild said. “Can someone tellme about the

newbook?”Apause.Abitoftalking,whileonestudentmumbled,“Whatnewbook?”Blaushildtwistedherbody—suggestingthisisawarning—andthencalledon

astudent.“D’ante,goahead.”“It’sabout,like,poisonousfrogsandanimals,”theboysaid.“Thank you. Can anyone tell me anything different?” Blaushild asked and

thencalledonanotherstudent.“LaMarcus?”“It’saboutanimalsthataredangerous,”theboysaid.Blaushildwasfarfromstern.Iwouldnotevensayshewasstrict.Herstudents

would often give her hugs. Laughs came easily to her. The classroomwasn’t

quieteither,andBlaushildassignedlotofgroupwork,withstudentspairinguptochatternoisilyincorners.Attheendofclass—andsometimesinthemiddleofclass—the studentswould do “brain breaks,”withBlaushild dancingwith herstudents.Blaushild, it seemed, simply tried to navigate a middle path, and when it

comes to learning, we can all gain from her approach. People need to setrigoroustargetsforthemselves;weneedtoexpectalotofstruggleandsetbacks.Atthesametime,weneedtomakeemotionalspacetosupportourdeeplysocialways.Peoplecan’tlearniftheydon’tfeelliketheycanlearn.Awareness is key, too. Learning is about recognizing what we’re going to

learnandhowwellwe’relearningit.Arewereadytolearn?Doweknowwhatweknow?Doweknowwhatwestillhavetolearn?Whatexactlywillwelearnnext?Thissortoftargeted,metacognitivefocusiscentralwhenwe’rebeginningtogainmasteryinanewfield,andmorestructuredformsofeducationworkwellforpeoplewhodon’tknowmuchaboutatopic.Thisisaforwardprogression,though.It’saforwardprogressionemotionally,

andaswegainmoreunderstanding,wefeelmoreconfident.Learningisalsoaforwardprogressioncognitively speaking,andaswegainmoreunderstanding,we need more open-ended activities. With more expertise, people need topractice their knowledge and skills on more novel, unstructured problems, atopicthatwewillturntonext.AsforWindsorHills,theschoolcontinuedtopostsomeclearsuccesses.The

principal increased the number of field trips and added a football team and aweeklongcampingexcursion.Still, theoutsideworld intervened.Fightswouldbreakoutinthelunchroom,witheverywalkie-talkieintheschoolblaringwithalarm. A few of the teachers left, frustrated with the changes. In someclassroomstheairconditioningdidn’twork,and themonthofJunewouldfeellikearainforest.OnoneofmylastvisitstoWindsorHill,Ilefttheschoolandwalkedslowly

tomycar.Ihadparkednotfarfromtheschool’smainentrance,andasIgottomycar,Iturnedaround.Atthatmoment,underthesprawlingsun,kids’voicesrolling across the playground, the school looked large and regal, an academiccastlepercheduponthehill.Itseemedliketherewasaclearpathtothefuture.

Chapter3

DEVELOP

The first sign was probably the three-pointer. It was an hour or so into thebasketballgame,andmyT-shirtsaggedwithsweat.Bloodthumpedinmyears.Adrenaline,thehormonalRedBull,ranclearandstrong.Icaughtthepassonthewing,andmydefendergavemealongmomentatthethree-pointline.Iwasnot supposed to launchashot.Foryears, Ihadbeenoneof theworst

playersonthecourt,barelygoodenoughtomakealayup.Otherplayerswouldoften overlookme on offense.Opponentswould targetme for steals, a bit ofeasy basketball pickings. Even among a group of slow, weak, middle-agedbasketballplayers,Iwasslow,weak,andmiddle-aged.Still,Iwasbymyself,wideopen,soItuckedmyelbowandfiredtheballwith

abrawnysortofaim.Theballloftedtowardthebasket,anorangeorb,hangingintheair,asmallsliceofeternity,andthen,surprisingly,thebasketballslippedintothebottomofthenet,withaloudsnap.“Thatwasathree,”someoneyelledout.Didthatactuallygoin?Ithought.Andthen,later,afollow-upnotion:Were

mybasketballclassesbehindthis?Thestoryofmybasketballcareerisashortone.Iplayedalotasakid,andin

mymiddleschooldays,postersofMagicJohnsonhunginmybedroom.Butinmylateteens,Igaveupthesport.Otherintereststookmyattention.Schoolworkpulledmeintoitsorbit.Foralongwhile,Isteppedontothecourtonceayear,largelytoplayahackingstreetballwithmybrother.Afewyearsago,though,IstartedplayinginaWednesdaynightpickupgame,

and I fell in love all over again: the exhaustingworkouts, theprideof awell-placedshot,thepost-gametriptothebar.ButIwastheguythatnoonewantedontheirsquad.Onsomenights,Imightplayforsometwohourswithoutlandingabucket.Myonlyredeemingquality,itseemed,wasthededicationwithwhichIfouledmyopponents.Then one afternoon I found basketball instructor Dwane Samuels on

Craigslist.Duringhistwenties,Samuelshadplayedbasketballatsomebig-namecolleges, notching up minutes in summer leagues against NBA All-Stars likeBenjamin Wallace. Later, Samuels found a spot playing for the WashingtonGenerals,theHarlemGlobetrotters’perennialopponents.WhileSamuelswasnowretired fromanysortofprofessionalbasketball,he

wasstillahumanvelociraptor,largeandmuscular,andduringourfirstsession,he had me running sprints and jumping rope and dancing through an agilityladder.Eventually,Samuels tossedmeaSpaldingandhadmereviewthemostbasicofbasicmoves—dribblingthroughasetofsmall,orangecones,shootinglayups,takingtwo-footjumpers.Samuelshadmoved to theUnitedStates fromJamaicaasa teenager,and in

hisCaribbean-tinged accent, he always kept up a slow steadypatter of adviceandencouragementasIrepeatedsomeofthesamedrillsthatIhadoncedidinelementary school: “Keep your elbows in” and “aim for the top of thebackboard,”hesaid.Shy, embarrassed, I didn’t tell anyone about the classes—not friends, not

family,certainlynotanyone that Iplayedbasketballwith.A lead-footedforty-something should not be going to basketball classes. Tennis classes? Maybe.Golflessons?Fine.Butbasketballisayoungperson’sgame,fastandquick,andmost of Samuels’s clientswere childrenwhowere about the same age asmyown.Within weeks, though, my jumpers started falling in more regularly. I hit

three-pointers.Otherpeoplebegantonotice,andafriendaskedmeforadviceonhisform.“YouwereMr.LightsOut!withtheshooting,”someoneelseemailedme.Indeed,mygameimprovedsomuchthatateammatejokinglyaskedmeifIhadbeentakingsteroids.How could a few lessons have such an impact?Was Samuels some sort of

mad-geniusinstructor?OrwastheresomethingaboutthenatureofpracticethatIhadmissedafteralltheseyears?Theanswersbringustothevalueofdevelopingourskillsandknowledge,the

nextstageinthelearningprocess.Oncewefigureoutwhatwe’regoingtolearn—and howwe’re going to learn it—we have to start to develop thatmastery.Moreexactly,wehavetoenterourselvesintoafeedbackloop,tohoneourskillsinastructuredsortofway.Inthissense,whatmanypeoplecallpracticeisn’treallypractice.They’renot

engagedinadedicatedwaytoimprove,notusinganysortoflearningmethod.There’s a good amount of research on this idea, and the raw amount of timespentpracticingoftenbearslittlerelationshiptotheactualamountoflearning.Or just consider that some first-year college students will have clear

misconceptions about basic physics, even after they solved more than 1,500basic physics problems. So while the students had banged out Newtonianproblem after Newtonian problem in high school, the students still couldn’treallyexplainNewton’sthirdlaw.The Knowledge Effect plays an important role here, and whether we’re

playingagainsttheGlobetrottersorimprovingourLatin,it’shardtofigurehowtodevelopaskillunlessweknowsomethingabouttheskill.Inthissense,everybeginner lacks the metacognitive ability of knowing what understanding thattheyneedtodevelop.That’s,afterall,whythey’rebeginners.I can’t, for instance, get better at something like urban planning because I

don’tknowenoughabout thetopic.Foranotherexample,consider thatbirdingexperts can tell the difference among the300different types of doves. I’manamateur,so,frankly,theyalllooklikepigeonstome.Notsurprisingly,thisfactmakesithardformetogetbetteratspottingthedifferencebetweenawooddoveandacollareddove.There’salotofculpabilitytogoaround,andweoftendon’tlookforwaysto

improve our skills, to better ourselves. Handwriting is a great example. Aftergradeschool,wetendnottopracticeourpenmanshipwithanyfocus,andsoourgwilllookmorelikeans.Sentenceswilllooklikeasetoftigerclawmarks.Infields likemedicine, thishappensdespite the fact thatweakhandwriting skillscausesome7,000deathseachyear.When it comes to developing a skill, evaluations are also crucial.We need

targeted feedback. Training expert Anders Ericsson argues thatmany practicesessions are useless because there’s not enough dedicated monitoring andfocused criticism.Whenmost people try and develop their skills, “they don’thaveaclearideaofwhattheyshouldimprove,andsothey’rejustwastingtheirtime,”Ericssontoldme.On thispoint, Iwas sinnernumberone.Before I signedup forclasseswith

Samuels,Iwouldgotothelocalcourttotrainmyskills.I’dshootaroundforahalfhour,throwinguplongjumpers.Ididn’treallyfocusmyefforts, though.Ididn’tgetanyfeedbackonmyfootworkorhonecertainmoves.Foralongtime,Ididn’teventrackthenumberofjumpshotsthatfellin.TheexperiencewithSamuelswasquitedifferent.Weworkedonverydetailed

aspectsofthegamelikeashortjumperfromtheblockoraone-dribblepull-up.Between trainings, I had discrete homework like lying on my back andpracticingmyshootingform.Weoncehadaconversationabouthowmymiddlefinger should roll off the ball, with my index finger leaving the ball with adownwardmotionasifIwasdippingitintoaglassofwater.With Samuels, targeted criticism was a constant. During our practices, I

wasn’tpracticinglayupsasmuchasIwaspracticinghittingtheballhighofftheglass. Iwasn’tdevelopingmyshotasmuchasIwasmakingsure thatmyfeetwerewellplaced.SometimesSamuelswouldholdmyshoesormovemyhipstoget me into the proper position. “Details first,” Samuels would often say,“Detailsfirst.”

Asformyfirst three-pointer,Ireachedout toSamuelsthefollowingday.Intheemail,IexplainedthatIhadswishedatwenty-footer.Hesharedmysurprise—andenthusiasm.Anemail firedback fromhimwithin thehour:“Thesky isthelimitnow!”

POPQUIZ#8

Trueorfalse:Sugarydrinksmakepeoplelessabletolearn.

Inmanyways,development inanareaofexpertise startswith feedback.Oncewehaveasenseofwhatwewanttolearnandstarttodothatlearning,weneedsomeinformationonhowwe’reperforming.My favorite example is Mark Bernstein. A brain surgeon in Toronto,

Bernsteinoncewrotedowneverysinglemistake thatoccurred inhisoperatingroomoveraten-yearperiod.Ifatubefelltothefloor,Bernsteinmadeanoteofit. Ifa suturedidn’t stick,he’d record it.Even justabitofmiscommunicationbetweenBernsteinandanursewouldgointohisdatabase,taggedwithvariousdetailslikethedateandageofthepatient.Later,whenBernsteinandhiscolleagueslookedcloselyatthedata,itturned

out that the effort to record errorshad a tremendous impact.Bywritingdownmistakes—by creating a feedback system—Bernstein and his team made farfewergaffs.Theeffectswereimmediate—thinkofitasaperformancesteroid—andhis team’s surgical error rateplummetedover the firstyear.What’smore,theeffectcontinuedtoholdformorethanadecade,withBernstein’serrorrateeventuallydecliningfrommorethanthreemistakespermonthtojustaroundoneandahalferrorspermonth.Bernsteinwasengagedinoneofthemostbasicformsoffeedback,apractice

known as monitoring, and according to researchers like Ericsson who havewrittenaboutBernstein,thepracticeoftencomesdowntoaformofawareness.Inordertotrackoutcomes,peoplehavetonoticewhat’sgoingon.InBernstein’scase,thiswasaboutattendingtomistakes,lookingforslipups,reviewinggaffs,andhis team’soversightswereoftenprettyobvious. If amachinedidn’tworkright—orascalpelclangedtotheground—therewasanerror.Butgenerally speaking,Bernstein’smistakesweremore subtle, small things

like a poorly positioned sponge, a delay in anesthesia, a misheard word orcommand.Andit’sinthisregardthatmonitoringissoimportant.Tofinderrors,weneedto trackerrors, toobserveourgaffs,andaftereachsurgery,Bernsteinwouldlogeachmistakeinadatabase,notingtheseverityoftheerror,thetypeof

mistake,andthedegreetowhichitcouldhavebeenprevented.Tohelpmonitorperformance,otherpeoplewillusejournalsordiaries.Fora

long time, for instance, I’ve kept a file in which I’ll reflect on my writingperformance.Likemanypeople,Ifrequentlymakegrammaticalmistakes,oftenconfusing “which” and “that,” and in the document, I’ll give examples ofmyslipups as well as pen some notes about how to avoid errors—or boostperformance—inthefuture.Still others swear by video as a way to track outcomes. In football, for

instance,formerNFLcoachJonGrudenhasamassivelibraryoffootballgames.TodayGrudenworks forESPN, and he still keeps up the data set of footage,includingvideosofpracticesgoingbackmorethantwodecades.“IbreakdownthetapelikeI’maquality-controlcoach,”Grudenoncetoldareporter.Part of thebenefit of this sort ofmonitoring is that it pushesus tobemore

aware. When we’re tracking our performance, we’re more focused onimproving, and in many areas, people often pay almost no attention to theirperformance.Driving is a good example. Few of us make any effort to get better at

navigatingacar. Indeed,mostofusstillparkaspoorlyaswedidaswhenwewere seventeen, or we brake too much going into curves. I’ve watch peopledrivestraightformileswiththeirblinkersignalstillon.Publicspeakingissimilar.Mostofusoftenhavetogivetalksinfrontoflarge

groupsofcolleagues.We’recalledontopresentinfrontofbossesorclients.Butpeople frequentlymake the samemistakes over and over again, like a brokenwind-up toy.They speak tooquickly, or theydon’tmake eye contact, or theytwistaringontheirfingernervously.What’s easy to forget is thatwe’re all part automaton.Whether it’s playing

football or doing brain surgery, it doesn’t take much for a task to become amindlesshabit,anunthinkingcustom.Thishelpsexplainwhymonitoringcanbesopowerful.Wearesteppingoutofautomaticmodeandaskingourselves:AmIdoingthiscorrectly?DidImakeamistake?HowcouldIdobetter?Whenwetrackperformance,patternsofbehavioralsobecomemoreclear.In

Bernstein’s case, he found that an overwhelming percentage of his team’ssurgicalerrorswerepreventable,thingseasilyavoidedlikethecontaminationofa scalpel. Surprisingly, Bernstein also discovered thatmore patients generallyledtofewererrors,notmore.Healsoshowedthataddingnewstaffmemberstohissurgicalteamdidn’tleadtoanynoticeableuptickinmistakes.Granted, this sortofclosemonitoringhas itsdownsides.Trackingoutcomes

canbeembarrassing.Formeatleast,itremainsshamingtoadmitthatIstillmixup “which” and “that,” even though I’m a professional writer. Worse,

Bernstein’s team once dropped a piece of someone’s skull “about the size ofplay card” onto the floor during a surgery. “Mortified” is how Bernsteindescribestheexperience.Yet,thistypeoffocusedawarenessboostsoutcomes.Increasedobservationof

our performancemakes us better at just about everything.Over the years, forinstance, there’s been a lot of debate over the best approach to lose weight.Every day, it seems there’s a new approach to dieting, from the Atkins diet,whichbanscarbs,tothePaleoDiet,whichdemandsthatyourmealslookslikethey did some three thousand years ago. And that’s not to mention all thedramaticallynamedsupplementsandshakesthatlinegrocerystoreaisles.Not long agoVox writer Julia Belluz rang up twenty of the nation’s most

respecteddietexpertstofigureoutwhatactuallyworkedwhenitcametolosingweight.Belluzlimitedherselftotopresearchersandthinkers,peoplewhoreallycare about solid, research-based evidence. “What do your patients who loseweight and keep it off have in common? Where do people go wrong?” sheasked.Sowhatwasoneof the top recommendations?Surprisingly, itwasn’t about

any sort of specific approach likeWeightWatchers orAtkins.Nomention ofthree-hourgymworksout.Instead,Belluzfoundthateffectivedieterswhokeepoffthepoundsoverthelong-termare“aregoodattracking—whattheyeatandhowmuchtheyweigh.”In other words, people who lose weight—and keep it off—monitor their

weight constantly. They jump on the scaleweekly at least—and follow everycalorie.TheUniversityofOttawa’sYoniFreedhoffrecommendedafooddiary,inwhichindividualswritedowneverythingthattheyeateachday.Fooddiaries“aren’tsexyorfun,butbeforeyoustartadiet,youneedtoknowwhereyou’reattoknowwhatyoushouldchange,”FreedhofftoldBelluz.In this regard, learning isn’tanydifferent,andFreedhoff’sadviceapplies to

expertisejustasmuchasitappliestodiets:Inordertodevelopanysortofskill,youneedtoknowwhatyouknow—andwhatyouneedtochange.

There’s actually a more powerful form of feedback than monitoring, and ittypically requires some sort of external evaluation, some outside criticism.Indeed,morethananything,itwasexternalfeedbackthatboostedmybasketballskills.ThisfactwasclearinmyearlypracticeswithDwaneSamuels.Likeatypeof

soothsayer,hecouldseethingsthatIcouldnotsee,andinmanyareas,Isimplyhadnosenseofthescopeofmyweaknesses.

Takesomethinglikesquaringoff to thebasketwhile takinga jumpshot.Asfar as basketball goes, the idea is canonical, the first commandment of theshooter’sbible,andIhadcomeacrosstheideamanytimesbeforemybasketballclasses.Butwithoutrealizingit, Iwouldfireoff thebasketballatadiagonalslant to

thebasket,twistinglikeapreteenballerina.Samuelspointedouttheissueatourfirstpractice,andIsoonchangedmyfooting.Ittookafewmoreweeksfortheadjustmenttostick,butthechangemademyshotsfarmorelikelytogoin.Thevalueofthissortoffeedbackgoeswellbeyondbasketball,andabigpart

ofthereasonisthatit’shardtouncoverourownmistakes.Evenifwemonitor,wecan’tuncoverallofourerrors.This is thenatureof learning, thenatureofknowledge, another reminderof theValueofEducators:Weneedoutsiders tooffertargetedcriticism,togiveoutsidejudgments.Takewriting thisbookasanotherexample.When I submittedadraft tomy

editor, I had read the text countless times, reviewed each sentence with thedevotedcareofa17th-centurymonk.Typos?Ithoughtthereweren’tany.Gapsoflogic?IassumedthatIhadaddressedthemall.But my editor, Marisa Vigilante, found rough spots—obvious gaffs, limp

reasoning, unsteady prose and structure. Even before I submitted a draft,Vigilantetoldmethatthishappenswithjustabouteveryauthor,famousornotfamous,neworexperienced.“It’simpossibletoedityourownworkforthisveryreason,nomatterhowsmartor skilledyouare,”Vigilante toldme, “I’myoursecondreader.”Thisideaalsoexplainswhyoutsidecriticismisoftenalittlehumiliating.After

all,it’shardtohardtohearthatwe’redoingsomethingwrong,especiallywhenyou know you could be doing better.More exactly, it often painedme to seeVigilante’sedits,becausetheyweresoontarget.Without question, there are issueswith feedback. It cango too far, for one,

andgood feedbackdoesn’t tell peoplewhat exactly todo.People still need toproduce their learning—they need to do—and generally speaking, helpfulfeedbackprovidesguidance.Itgivesusawaytodirectourdevelopment.Let’ssay,forexample,thatyouthoughtthattheSpanishwordforroosterwas

pollo.Aweak formof feedbackwouldhave justgivenyou theanswer. (“Yougot that wrong; the correct answer is gallo.”) Or it might not provide anyfeedbackatall.(“Pleasegotothenextquestion.”)Thebestfeedbackmixesanobservationwithastructuredwaytoproducethe

properoutcome.Intheroosterexample,forinstance,themosteffectivefeedbackwouldindicatethattheanswerwaswrong—andthenwouldprovidesomeslighthints. (“The correct translation for rooster starts with a g.”) If someone still

doesn’t provide the correct answer, thenperhaps another tip (“thinkga”)untilthecorrectanswer(gallo).Thissortofstructuredfeedbackisimportantearlyinthelearningprocess,and

thoughtfulcriticismandguidancecanhaveatremendousimpactforbeginners.But over time, feedback should fade—and people should domore to producetheirownanswers, toengage inmorementaldoing, tocreatingunderstanding.“Simply re-presenting a fact or concept,whether as feedback after an error ornot, is far less effective than having people ‘generate’ the information,”psychologistBobBjorktoldme.The role of feedback also explains why curriculum is so important, and

textbooks andworksheets andother formsof practice turn out to have a hugeimpactonwhatwelearn.I’veseenthisinmyownresearchwithmycolleaguesMattChingosandChelseaStraus, and the effectsof ahigh-quality curriculumareaboutthesameastheeffectsofahigh-qualityinstructor,eventhoughhigh-qualitycurriculumisoftencheaper.To put it differently, if you’re a student who has a bad teacher and a bad

curriculum,you’rebetterofffightingforabettercurriculum.Theoutcomesareaboutthesame,butthecostislower—andfrankly,it’softenaloteasiertogetanewtextbookthantofindanewteacher.Sowhatdoesshoddycurriculumlooklike?Well, itgivesbadfeedback,and

thepracticesheetsandtextbookswilloftensimplyprovideanswerstostudentswithout pushing them to build their thinking.Weak textbooks also tend to beshallowinthatthey’llcoverlotsofdifferenttopicsinverycursorywayssothatstudentsdon’tgetextendedpracticeinanarea.Despitetheevidenceonfeedback,itseemsthatpeoplegenerallyhavetocome

tothisconclusionontheirown.Weneedtodiscoverourowndesireforoutsideadvice.Not longago, thedoctorandNewYorkerwriterAtulGawandehiredacoach to help him develop as a surgeon. It was difficult at first. Like priests,doctorsoftenworkbehindirreproachabledoors,andGawandefeltembarrassed.Noonehadobservedhisworkintheoperatingroomforalmostadecade.“WhyshouldIexposemyselftoscrutinyandfault-finding?”heasked.Even for someoneat the topofhiscareer likeGawande, though, theeffects

werenoticeable,andhegainedinsightsintohispractice,developingnewskillsand approaches. Over time, Gawande also provided better support for otherdoctors, letting his residents grapple with key ideas before helping them. Butperhapsaboveall,Gwandewrites,“IknowthatI’mlearningagain.”

When it comes to feedback and the process of learning, there’s one more

important point—people need explanations. To learn, we need to understandwhywe’rewrong—and get feedback on our thinking. This is crucial when itcomes to developing expertise because we typically gain skills andunderstandinginordertohaveanewwayofreasoningthroughasituation.To address this issue, some educators have rolled out programs known as

cognitive apprenticeships, and I oncemet upwith psychologistGaryKlein tofind out more. In the field of psychology, Klein is pretty well known. Hisresearchonthepowerofgutdecisionsrevolutionizedhowpeopleunderstandtheroleofemotionsinexpertise,andMalcolmGladwell’sbookBlinkdependedinlargepartonKlein’sresearch.Klein recentlydevelopedabit of software calledShadowBox,whichuses a

cognitiveapprenticeshipapproachtolearning,andononeafternoon,Iwatchedavideofromthetrainingprogram,whichbeganwithaYouTubeclipofapoliceofficersteppingtowardayoungskateboarder.“Givemetheboardnow,”theofficersaid.The scenewas a suburban town just outside ofBoston, and the officerwas

shortandbroadwiththesquarechestofalineman.Theyoungskateboarderwasmaybesixteenorseventeen.Hewastaller thanthecopbutmuchskinnier,andheclutchedhisskateboardlikeafour-year-oldholdinghisfavoritetoy.“I’malegalcitizenoftheUnitedStates,”theyoungskateboardersaid.“Givemetheboardnow.”“CanIhaveareason,please?”“Becauseyou’vebeenwarned,”theofficersaid,steppingclosertotheyoung

man.“Givemetheboardnow.”Ihitthemousepad,pausingthevideo,thetwomennowfrozenintime,nose

tonoseonthecomputerscreen.Atthetime,KleinandIwereperchedinhislivingroom.TheiMacinfrontof

ushadalargescreen.Kleinhadturnedupthevolume,anditfeltlikewewerewatchingacellphonevideothatwouldsoongoviral.Aspart of the trainingprogram, Iwas supposed tonote every time that the

officer was escalating—or de-escalating—the situation and then provide adetailed reason.Sowith the filmclippaused in frontofme, I typedout somesentencesintheblankboxonthescreen,indicatinghowIthoughtthatitwouldbeagoodtimefortheofficertodefusethesituation.For Klein, this was one of the most important aspects of the program.

Specifically,itwasawayformetogetinsightsintomyreasoning,tocomparemythinkingtothethinkingofexperts.Beforeshowingmethevideo,Kleinhadapanelof lawenforcementexpertsreviewtheclipandprovideadviceonhowtheymighthandlethesituation.Kleinandhisteamthencompiledtheexpertline

ofthinking,soIcouldmatchupmyreasoningagainstthereasoningofthelawenforcementexperts.The clip started up again, and Imade a fewmore notes aboutmoments of

escalation—andde-escalation—andthen,attheend,adialogueboxpoppedup:“Consultingwiththeexperts,”itsaid.No surprise, I flunked the assessment. I identified only one of the crucial

moments.Evenworse,Ididn’tevenseesomeofthethingsthattheexpertshadflagged.Forinstance,theexpertsinpolicinghadnoticedthattheofficerhadputhis handon the youngman’s skateboard.But that gesturewas far beyondmyken.Ialsodidn’tmakemuchof thefact that thepoliceofficerwaspointingatthe skateboarder,while theexpertshadargued thatpointingwasunnecessarilyaggressive.Butthiswastheidea:Iwasgettingfeedbackonfeedback.Likeaninstructor,

Klein narrated the experience, explaining why I had misjudged certainexperiences,whereIhadgapsinmylogicoftheexperience,andwhytheexpertssawwaystoconvincetheyoungmantohandovertheskateboardvoluntarily.ExpertJohnHattiehasspentalotoftimeresearchingthevalueoffeedback.

Hebelievesthat it’soneof themost importanceaspectsof learning,andeverynight that his sons would come home from school, Hattie would pester themoverdinnerwithaquestionalong the linesof“Whatfeedbackdidyoureceiveaboutyourlearningtoday?”ForHattie,effectivefeedbackisn’tjustaboutgainingcorrectiveinformation,

althoughcertainlythatcanhelpalot.Instead,Hattieandotherexpertsarguethatfeedbackworksbestwhenitofferssomeoneanewformofreasoning,whenitchangeshowsomeonethinksaboutatopic.AsHattiewrites,feedback“ismostpowerfulwhenitaddressesfaultyinterpretations.”In this argument, robust feedback is like a type ofmap. It helps people see

how they will progress forward in their understanding. In his book VisibleLearning,Hattie puts this ideawell, andhe argues that good feedback alwaysincludes someaspect of “feed forwarding,” or givingpeople a senseofwheretheywillgonextwiththeirlearning.This all brings us back to cognitive apprenticeships because the programs

underscorethismoredynamicapproach.ThiswasclearinShadowBox,andasIworked through the program on the police officers with Klein, I developed asenseofhowthelawenforcementexpertsreasonedaboutthesituation.Forexample,whatmatteredmostfor the lawenforcementprofessionalswas

thetrust—orlackoftrust—betweentheofficersandthepeopleinthetown,andtheythoughtthattheofficershouldhavedonemoretode-escalatethesituation,for instance, by stepping back from the young man and giving him more

personalspace.Forhispart,Kleincalls thesesortsof shifts in reasoninga typeofmind-set

change,butallinall,it’smuchthesameidea.Intheend,welearntochangeourthinking.Welearntoreasonmoreeffectively,andatleastinthecaseofpoliceofficers,youwanttoknowwhyit’sbadpracticetopointyourfingeratpeopleifyouwantthemtotrustyou.

TheNatureofStruggle—andRepetitionIfdevelopingaskillbeginswithfeedback,thenwe’reboundtostruggle.Peoplewill inevitably flounder. After all, feedback is about discovering what you’redoingwrong.Admittedly,thisisnotapopularview,certainlynotoflearning,andjustabout

everyone dreams of trouble-free ways to improve. We want learning to besimpleandstraightforward,likeeatingabowlofcerealortakingoutthetrash.This desire is evident in just about every subject, whether it’s automobileengineeringorcomputer-generatedcartography.One recent headline-making example is an app called DragonBox. The

approach supposedly “secretly teaches math” by having kids play an algebragame. USA Today declared the app to be “brilliant.” Forbes dubbed it“impressive.”Tensofthousandsofpeoplehavedownloadedit.Asalearningtool,DragonBoxdoesnotseemtoteachstudentsallthatmuch,

though,andpeoplewhoplaythegamedon’tdoanybetteratsolvingalgebraicequations,accordingtoonerecentstudy.ResearcherRobertGoldstonerecentlyexaminedthesoftware,andhetoldmethattheappdidn’tappeartoprovideanymoregroundinginalgebrathan“tuningguitars.”Inthebluntestofterms,there’ssimplynosuchthingaseffortlesslearning.To

developaskill,we’regoingtobeuncomfortable,strained,oftenfeelingalittleembattled. Just about everymajor expert in the field of the learning sciencesagreesonthispoint.PsychologistDanielWillinghamwritesthatstudentsoftenstrugglebecausethinkingisdifficult.CognitivescientistBobBjorkarguesthatmastery is about “desirable difficulties.” Practice guru Anders Ericsson callspractice“hardwork.”Evenhistory’smostpowerfulmindshavearguedthispoint.ItwasAristotle—

the starpupil ofSocrates, the tutorofAlexander theGreat—whoonce arguedthat“learningisnoamusementbutisaccompaniedwithpain.”We’vecomeacrossacoupleofreasonswhythelearningprocessrequiresthis

sortofcognitivepain.Learningisamatterofmentaldoing,aswe’veseen.Plus,

excellentlearningdoesn’thaveacomfortzone,asJanetMetcalfeargued.Inthischapter,we’veseensomeoftheawkwardembarrassmentsoflandingfeedback.Butthere’sonemorereason,anditturnsoutthatthedevelopmentofanarea

ofexpertiserequiresrepetition.Inordertohoneanareaofexpertise,weneedtoengage thatareaofexpertisemultiple times,preferably inmultipleways.Toadegree,thisisobviousinathleticendeavors.Noonelearnsanoverhandserveintennisontheirfirsttry.Peopledon’tgainpole-vaultingskillsinanafternoon.But it also turns out to be true for any sort of knowledge. Psychologist

GrahamNuthallpioneeredaversionofthisideasomeyearsago,andaspartofhisresearch,Nuthallshowedthatpeopleneededtoengagewithanideaatleastthreetimesbeforetheyactuallylearnedit.No matter what the material—math, geography, obscure civics lessons—

peopleneededtoexperiencethematerialafewtimesbeforetheycouldgainanysortoftakeaway.“Iftheinformationwasincompleteornotexperiencedonthreedifferentoccasions,thenthestudentdidnotlearntheconcept,”Nuthallargued.Yeteven three timesmightnotbeenough. In fact, three timesmightbe the

minimum, and in many cases, we have to come across skills and knowledgeagainandagainandagain.Expertiseneeds tobecomeakindofhabit.Foreignlanguagesgiveus a goodway tounderstand this idea: If youwant to becomeexcellent in Russian, you need to have a rich Russian vocabulary, one that’shighly practiced and seamlessly fluent. If you want to say, “Can I have acoffee?”inacaféinMoscow,thewordforcoffee—“кофе”—needstojumptotheedgeofyourmindwithouthesitation.Thisistrueforjustabouteveryareaofcomplexmastery.Todevelopaskill,

peopleneedtobefluentintheessentials.Ifyouwanttobecomealawyer,youcan’twonderwhattheword“plaintiff”means.Politicalscientistsdon’tspendalot of time thinking about the difference between a bill and a law. Expertfilmmakersdon’thavetolookuptheword“gaffer.”Practicallyspeaking,thismeansthatifyouwanttohoneyourgolfskills,take

tensofthousandsofgolfputts.Wanttobecomeanexpertintango?Bepreparedtoputonyourdancing shoes everyday for a fewyears.Want toget better atRussian? Practice your Russian vocabulary repeatedly and “actively seek outnewwords,”saysEricsson.Thissortofpracticeforfluencyisn’tmindless,asEricssonstresses.Wehave

to forever be looking to getting better. In other words, the comfort zone oflearning always needs to be shifting, getting a little harder, always movingupwards,ensuringthateachlearningsessionisastruggle.In recent years, researchers have debated a ten-year rule when it comes to

expertise.OtherslikeMalcolmGladwelldescribeaten-thousand-hourmark.But

really, we should shrug. Ten years—or ten thousand hours—there’s nothingrevolutionaryintheideathatexpertiserequiresamassiveinvestmentintimeandeffort.EvenintheMiddleAges,apprenticeswouldoftenworkforanexpertforadecadebeforegoingoffontheirown.Indeed, for experts, this idea is self-evident.DirectorQuentinTarantinohas

watched somany films over the years that his friends paint him as obsessed,someone who watches movies all the time. So when a reporter once askedTarantinoabouthowhebecameanexpertinfilm,thedirectorlaughedandthrewuphishands,seeminglyexasperatedbythequestion,andsaid,“Well,whenyoukindofclearouteverythinginyourlifeandfocusononething,youbetterknowalotaboutit.”

Let’slookmorecloselyatatypeofdevelopmentthatrequiresalotofstruggle,somethingthatexpertscallretrievalpractice.BennettSchwartzisoneofthenation’sleadingmemoryexperts,andwhenI

visitedSchwartzinhisofficeatFloridaInternationalUniversity,hewasstandingathisdesk.Asoftsunlightcrowdedtheroom.Largewindowsframedthepalmtree-linedquadoutside.Dressed ina short-sleeved shirt and slacks,Schwartzappeared tobequietly

talking to himself, with hushed, mumbled words, and for a long moment, itseemedasifhewassomesortofmonk,livinginanother,moreesotericworld.“Hi?”Isaidtentatively.Schwartz immediately turned around, putting the book away with an easy

gesture.It turned out that when I walked into the room, Schwartz was honing his

Scrabble skills. He had a Scrabble tournament the next day, and he waspracticingwordsfromabookdevotedtothegame.“ThedirectorisallowingmetoplayagainstthegoodScrabbleplayers,”Schwartztoldme,laughing.“IhavetomakesureIknowmywords.”Sohowexactlydoesoneofthenation’spremiermemoryexpertsdevelophis

Scrabbleskills?Well, Schwartz uses a type of self-quizzing: In order to hone his expertise,

he’s constantly interrogating himself to see if he can recall variouswords. SowhenSchwartzstopsata red light—or ifhe’s justwaiting inhisoffice—he’llaskhimselfquestionsaboutwhathe’slearnedandwhathewantstolearn.Known as retrieval practice, the approach fills the recent literature on

memory,sometimesshowingeffectssome50percentmorethanotherformsoflearning. In onewell-known study, one group of subjects read a passage four

times.Asecondgroupreadthepassagejustonetime,butthenthesamegrouppracticed recalling the passage three times.When the researchers followed upwith both groups a few days later, the group that had practiced recalling thepassage learnedsignificantlymore. Inotherwords,subjectswhotried torecalltheinformationinsteadofrereadingitshowedfarmoreexpertise.Within the learning sciences, retrieval practice is sometimes referred as the

testingeffectsincethepracticeisamatterofpeopleaskingthemselvesspecificquestionsaboutwhat they just learned.But inmanyways, the ideagoesmuchdeeperthanquizzing,andwhat’simportantaboutretrievalpracticeisthatpeopletakestepstorecallwhattheyknow.Theyaskthemselvesquestionsabouttheirknowledge,makingsurethatitcanbeproduced.Moreconcretely,retrievalpracticeisn’tlikeamultiple-choicetest,whichhas

peoplechosefromafewanswers.It’smorelikewritingathree-sentenceessayinyour head:You’re recalling the idea and summarizing it in away thatmakessense.Inthisregard,wecanthinkofretrievalpracticeasatypeofmentaldoing:It’sawaytoactivelycreatethewebsofmeaningthatsupportwhatweknow.Aspsychologist Bob Bjork told me, “The act of retrieving information from ourmemoriesisapowerfullearningevent.”Alotofthebenefitofretrievalpracticegoesbacktothenatureoflong-term

memory. InherbookMastermind, sciencewriterMariaKonnikovaargues thatlong-termmemoryshouldbethoughtofasatypeofattic.It’sastoragespaceforourrecollections,andinthisanalogy,ourspecificmemoriesareoftenlittlemorethancardboardboxes,acollectionofremembrances,hanginglooselytogetherbytheirconnections.Konnikova’sideaemphasizestheloosewebthatholdsourmemoriestogether,

and if a box—or memory—sits for too long, it fades. Dust gathers. Imagesdegrade.Theitemeventuallybecomesgray,unrecognizable,withoutmeaning.Retrievalpractice,then,helpusensurethatweknowwhat’sinamemorybox.

Itpushesustofosterassociations—andmakemoredurableformsofknowledge.Whenwe reach into ourmemory and recall what’s in the cardboard box, therecollectionbecomeslongerlasting,moretightlywovenintotheneuraltiesthatbuildunderstanding.AsSchwartzargues,“retrievalpracticealsoremindsus tokeeptrackofwherethingsareinmemory—thus,theyaremoreeasilyaccessiblewhenrecentlypracticed.”Retrieval practice goes far beyond facts, and there areways to use retrieval

practicetohoneconceptualunderstanding,too.Oneapproachrecommendsthatpeople first create a pile of cards that lists facts. Then people should build asecond pile that asks things like “give a real life example” or “draw thisconcept.”Inthisapproach,learningisamatterofpickingonecardfromthefirst

pileandacardfromthesecondpile,andthenexecutingthetask.Retrieval practice doesn’t have to be written down, either. When I was in

college, I worked as a teaching assistant for a class that relied on a form ofretrieval practice, and once a week, I would gather a group of students in aclassroomandverbally ask them rapid-fire questions.The classwas relativelyshort—just 45minutes aweek.But itwas easy to see the effects of the free-recalltypeofpractice,andthemorethestudentsretrievedtheirknowledge,themoretheylearned.Schwartz has been doing the same thing for the students in his psychology

classes,pushingthemtoaskthemselvesrepeatedlyaboutwhattheyknow.“Forexample,mystudentshavetotakeaquizeveryweek,”Schwartztoldme,“andtheywouldmuchprefernottotakeaquizeveryweek.Theydon’tlikeit.Theycomplain.Everyweek, I get excuses about deadgrandmothers.”But the shortexams ensure that students continually construct their memory boxes, andstudentsenduppostinghighergradesonthefinalexams.As for Schwartz, he didwell at the Scrabble tournament, too. The director

placedhiminoneofthehighestdivisions,andhewentagainstsomeofthebestplayersinthestateofFlorida.Usinghistechniqueofretrievalpractice,Schwartzmanaged tonotchwins in about a thirdof his games.AsSchwartz joked in afollow-upemail,“Ididn’tfinishlast,soIdidokay.”

Wecanseethebenefitsofstruggleinourbrain.Indeed,itappearsthatataverybasicneurologicallevel,grapplingwithmaterialinadedicatedwaypromotesatypeofshiftingofourneuralcircuits—andaricherformofexpertise.IlearnedalotaboutthisideawhenImetupwithYuzhengHuatasuburban

coffee shop one afternoon. A researcher on brain plasticity at the NationalInstitutes ofHealth,Huhas longbeen fascinatedwithhow thebraindevelopsovertime.Hu’sstorystarts in ruralChina,wherehegrewup justa fewhundredmiles

fromtheborderwithVietnam.Inhis tinyvillage, runningwaterwasa luxury.Cars were rare. Few people had more than a high school education. “In myvillage,notmuchhaschangedsincetheChingDynasty,”Hutoldme.Huwasoneofthefewwhowenttocollege,landingaspotatoneofChina’s

Ivy League schools, Zhejiang University, and he soon began researchingsomethingcalledwhitematter.Atypeofneuraltransmissioncable,whitematterhelpsdistributemessagesthroughoutthebrain.Itmakesinformationflowmoreeffectively,allowingelectronicpulses to jumpmoreeasily fromoneneuron tothenext.Ifthebrainhasaformofwiring,whitematterservesasthecopper,the

substancethatconductsthemessages.Inoneofhis first studies,Huand somecolleaguesdecided to see if certain

types of practice might boost white matter within the brain, and so theycompared a group of young subjects who received a rigorous type of mathtrainingandthosewhodidn’t.Thedatasuggestedthat themathapproachbuiltup the brain’s transmission material, and under the bright scan of the MRImachine,certainwhitematterzonesofthebrainlikethecorpuscallosumpulsedstrongerinpeoplewhohadstudiedtheharder,morededicatedmathskills.Hu’sstudywasbuiltonadecade’sworthofresearchthatshowsthatthere’s

verylittlefixedaboutthebrain.Ourbrainsystemsarenotlikeapieceofmetal,something rigid in its fundamentals, hard and inflexible.The brain, instead, issomething that can change, something that can adapt to its environment,moreneural cloud than neural cement. If youmaster karate, for instance, there areclear,structuralchangesthathappentowhitematterstructureswithinyourbrain.Similarchangeshappenwhenwelearntojuggle—orlearntomeditate.Thisideahasanumberofimportantimplicationsforhowwedevelopaskill.

For one, there are far fewer neural set points than we generally believe. Ourbrainsarenotfixedatbirth.Ourmentalabilitiesarenotpreprogrammed.Foralongtime,forinstance,peoplebelievedinthenotionof“criticalperiods,”ortheidea that we need to acquire certain skills at particular times in our life. Butexceptforafewnarrowabilities,wecanacquiremostskillsatanytime.But what’s new—and really most important—about this line of research is

howexactlythebrainbuildsnewstructures,anditseemsthatthebraincreateswhitematterinanefforttodealwithmentalstruggle.Whenthere’salargegapbetweenwhatwe know andwhatwe can do, the brain shifts its structures toaddress the issue.AgroupofGerman researchers recently put together a newway of understanding why this happens, and they argue that when “demand”overwhelmsthebrain’s“supply,”webuildnewneuralstructures.WhenHuandImetup,hearguedthatthebrainrespondstoanopportunityto

learn. When faced with rigor, it rises to the occasion. “This is your brainoptimizing the way you perform that task,” Hu told me. “If you practicesomethingalot,yourbrainwillthink,‘Thisisimportant,’andyouwilldevelopastrategytobetterperformit.”Inotherwords, thebrain itselfseemstounderstand thevalueofstruggle,of

learningasdoing.OntheeveningthatImetupwithHuatStarbucks,Igainedtheconfidencetoaskhimabouthisrighthand.Honestly, it’s hard to miss the deformity: Two of Hu’s fingers are fused

together.Hutoldmethatitwasabirthdefect.Hehadnoideaiftheabnormalityhadanameoracause,andwhenIpressedhimaboutit,Hushruggedandsighed

andtoldmethatherarelythinksaboutit.Hu’snonchalancemadesense.Thedisabilitydidn’timpacthisabilitytowork

ordriveorplaywithhisson.But Ialsocame toaslightlydifferent takeaway,anditseemedtomethatHu’sbrainhadalreadyadapted.Whitematterhadbeenbuilt.Strugglehadbeenovercome.Facedwithadifficulthurdle,hisbrainhadoptimizeditself.Thissortofneuraloptimizationiscrucialasweconsideronemoreaspectof

development,ofstrugglingtoacquire thebasicsofaskillorabitofexpertise:errors.

POPQUIZ#9

Trueorfalse:Teachingothersisaneffectivewaytolearn.

ThePsychologyofErrorsLearningresearchershaven’talwaysbelievedinthepowerofmistakes.Strugglewasn’t always part of the learning process, and in more passive, morebehavioristmodelsof learning,mistakesareexactly that:mistakes.Theyshowthatpeoplearenotlearningproperly.Blundersareasignthatsomeoneisdoingsomethingwrong.But it’s now clear that understanding doesn’t transfer immutably from one

person’sheadtoanother.Ourbrainisnotasimplestoragedevice,alockbox,ora warehouse that serves as some type of memory depot. Instead, we have tomake sense of ideas, to grapplewith expertise, and thatmeans that errors aresimplyunavoidable.This notion is pretty clear in something like retrieval practice. If you’re

constantly asking yourself questions, you’re bound to have some misses.SomeonelikeBennettSchwartz,forinstance,oftengetssomethingwrongashepracticesforhisScrabbletournament.Just as important, errors create meaning. They build understanding. For an

example,considerthisquestion:What’sthecapitalofAustralia?Unlessyou’refromAustralia,yourfirstguessisprobablySydney.Butthat’snotcorrect.Secondguess?MaybeMelbourne?Again,wrong.Or perhaps Brisbane? Perth? Adelaide? All those answers are also off the

mark.Thecorrectresponse,itturnsout,isCanberra.Iknow.Weird.Ifyou’renotfromAustralia,theanswerofCanberraprobably

comeswithabuzzingshockofsurprise.AsortofWait,what,really?CanberraisthecapitalofAustralia?Butthatfeeling—thatzingingmoment—islearning.It’sthesignalofashiftin

understanding.Whenwemakeagaff,wesearchformeaning,andsowelearnmoreeffectively.Thisideagoesbacktomemoriesasabunchofboxesthatwediscussed earlier. If there’s an error—and it’s a salient one—we put a red,Sharpie-madexonthememoryboxinourmetalattic.Withinourbrains,we’retellingourselves:Rememberthisidea.It’simportant.Theproblemhereisundeniable,ofcourse.Noonelikesmistakes.Errorsare

sharpandpainful,humiliatinganddemoralizing.Eventhesmallestofgaffs—amisspokenword,ablunderederrand—canhauntpeopleforyears.Inthissense,mistakesmakeusrethinkwhoweare;they’reathreattoourbeing.Notlongago,ImetupwithmathematicianJordanEllenberg.Byallaccounts,

hewasaboygenius,andatleastaccordingtonewspaperlegend,Ellenbergwasreading road signs at the age of three.By the age of seven, he could do highschool-levelmath.He aced themathSAT,with theWashingtonPost dubbinghima“truegenius”atseventeen.Today,EllenbergisaprofessorofmathattheUniversityofWisconsin,withacollectionofwell-regardedarticlesandbookstohisname.Now, I haven’t talked about talent much in this book for a pretty simple

reason: Its role in learning isoverblown,parthype,part excuse.Toooftenweconflate aptitude with everything else that matters like effort and dedication,practiceandlearningstrategy.Inthesimplisticmannerofatoddler,wewantasingleexplanationforsuccess,andsoweclingtotheideaofrawability.What’s more, we forget that learning itself shapes intelligence. The two

factorsaredeeplyintertwined.Overthepastfewdecades,IQscoreshavebeensteadily ticking upward, and many experts believe the cause is schooling. “Ialways think of IQ tests as measures that combine both innate ability andlearning,”economistLudgerWoessmanntoldme.Finally,asmallbutgrowingbodyofresearchsuggestthathowwelearncan

be more important than smarts. We’ve come across this idea already in thisbook, and robust learning methods have been shown to be one of the bestpredictors of academics success, with skills like metacognition being just asimportantasrawintelligence.There are, of course, the occasional Jordan Ellenbergs—people who are

clearlygifted,outlierson the intelligencebell curve.But there’sacatch.Evengeniuses need to struggle. In order to develop a skill, they will spend hoursmakingmistakes,confusedandbewildered.When Ellenbergwas a child, hewas skeptical of this hard-edged aspect of

learning,andhethoughtthaterrorsmeantthatsomeonelackedintelligence.Hebelieved the term “hardworking” was cruel, if not rudely derogatory. Likehaving red hair or being short, genius was something someone had or didn’thave,andall inall,Ellenbergenjoyedbeingdubbedaprodigy.Forhim, talentwas a type of gift, something thatmade learning almost effortless, his specialpower.When I sat downwithEllenberg in a coffee shop, itwas clear that he now

believed something very different about the nature of building a skill. Afterspending yearsworking at the highest level ofmath, he realized that learningdemands mistakes. Errors are necessary for expertise. Doubtful blunders areeternal. “You have to have an incredible tolerance for failure,” he told me.“You’llspend95percentofthetimecompletelyconfused.”It felt goodwhen IheardEllenbergmake this argument about thenatureof

mastery. He might be the smartest person that I’ve ever met in person. He’scertainlythesmartestpersonthatI’veeversharedasliceofpiewith,andintheend,wehave to realize thatmistakeshappen.All.The.Time.Learningornotlearning,peoplearegoingtogoof.Eventhebestlearners—andthemosttalentedmathematicianslikeEllenberg—haveslipsandblunders.Butmorethanthat,errorsareattheessenceofthought.They’reatthecoreof

developinganysortofidea.Tolearn,todevelopanysortofexpertise,therearegoing to bemistakes because that’swhat understanding requires. In her bookBeingWrong,writerKathrynSchulzargues thatbanningerrors is likebanningskepticism—itrobsofusadeeperformofreason.Mistakes,shewrites,areanassuredpartofengagedthinking:Errors,sheargues,areattheverycoreofbeinghuman.

If errors—and struggle—are an inevitable part of learning, we need to bepreparedforthem.Whilethisnotionisnewtolearning,it’sbeenatthecenterofsportsforcenturies,andjustabouteverycoach—frompeeweestothepros—willgivethroatyspeechesonthevalueofemotionalperseverance,abouttheneedformentaltoughness.FootballcoachJimHarbaughisfamousforthesesortsofgrowlingspeeches.

Likewise, the latewomen’s basketball coach Pat Summitt. These inspirationaltalksgenerallyhitthesamethemes.Deliveredinaloud,smokyvoice,withtheplayers huddled around the locker room, the coach will ask something like:“Willyougiveityourall?Willyouremainstrong?Willyoubouncebackfromlosses,fromhardship,andinevitableerrors?”CoachHerbBrooksgaveperhapsthemostwellknownlockerroomspeechin

1980. At the time, the men’s Olympic hockey team was a bunch of collegestudents,most of thembarely out of their teens. In contrast, theRussian teamhadabenchofsuperstarswhohadbeendominatingthesportforyears.Before their Olympic game, Brooks gathered the American players and

underscoreda typeof emotional resilience.TheSovietsmight scoregoals, theRussiansmightevenbe thebetter team,heacknowledged.ButBrookspushedthe Americans to believe in themselves. “You were meant to be here at thismoment,”Brookstoldtheplayers.“Youweremeanttobehereatthisgame.”Theyoungmenwereunquestionablyinspired,andwhiletheSovietsslasheda

puck into the American net early in the game, the United States came back,eventually beating the powerhouse Soviet team 4 to 3. It was known as theMiracleonIce.Although the notion of mental toughness has sparked quite a few athletic

victories,theideahasonlyrecentlyinfluencedthepracticeoflearning.Inmanyways, it all goes back to a single study, themarshmallow test. Formany, thestudyneedsno introduction,andWalterMischel’s ingeniousexperiment—firstconductedin1968—isamongthemostwell-knownexperimentsofthetwentiethcentury.Likemost brilliant experiments, the study itselfwas pretty simple:Mischel

invited a toddler into a room. The child could either immediately eat a smalltreatlikeamarshmallow,orthechildcouldwaitandeventuallylandtwotreats.Manyofusarefamiliarwiththeresults:Somegobbledupthesweet-tastingtreat—they did not delay gratification. Others waited it out, being patient andcontrolledenoughtolandasecondtreat.This sort of emotional kryptonite, a resilience against short-term decisions,

madea lifetimeofdifference:Mischel found that the four-year-olds’ability todealwiththeirdesireandemotionspaidoffinallsortsofways.Infact,thekidswhocoulddelaygrabbingfor themarshmallowdidbetter inschool later,weremoreconfident,andhadaneasiertimedealingwithstressfulmoments.WhileMischel’sworksparkedanacademicblooming,it’sdonefartoolittle

tochangethewaythatsocietyoperates,especiallywhenitcomestodealingwithmistakes. Many schools continue to protect their children from anything thatsmacksoffailure.Helicopterparentsrewardallactionsequally,throwing“goodjobs” at their children for nonaccomplishments like going down a playgroundslide.Whilethescienceofperseveranceisyoung,it’sclearthatpeopleneedwaysto

deal with the emotional side of errors and setbacks, of losses anddisappointments. We need a type of resilience. In this regard, the process oflearningisoftentheprocessofemotionalcontrol.

Thispracticeoftenstartswithknowledge,andYaleUniversityprofessorMarcBrackett argues that people have far more resilience if they identify theirfeelings. Whether it’s a fierce argument with a friend—or just wanting amarshmallow—Brackett recommends labels. So we should tell ourselves:MybuddyismakingmeangryorIwouldreallylovethatmarshmallow.Onceweknowouremotions,wecantakestepstomanagethem.Afterpeople

tagacertainfeeling,theycanbegintothinkthatfeelingthrough.Oftenthistypeofemotionalcopingrequiresatypeofpeptalk—weneedtospeaktoourselves,offeringourselvessupportafteradefeatordifficulty.Anumberofrecentstudiesshedlightonthisprocess,andithelpsifwespeak

toourselveswithauthority.Ifsomeonewantsthatmarshmallow,theyshouldtellthemselves: You might like the one marshmallow right now, but twomarshmallowswillbeevenbetter.Indeed,researchshowsthatthesecondperson“you”ismoreeffectivethanusingthefirst-person“I”inself-talk.Thereason?Thesecondpersonismoredefinitive,andsopeoplearemorelikelytolistentothevoiceintheirhead.Communityplaysa role, too.FordhamUniversity’s JoshuaBrownhasbeen

researchingsocialandemotionalprogramsforyears,andhearguesthatalotofemotionalresiliencecomestodowntoasenseofsocialconnection,afeelingofgroup-ishtogetherness.OneofthereasonsthatresistingamarshmallowwassohardforthechildrenintheseminalMischelstudy,forinstance,wasthatthekidswerealoneinaroomwithoutanyfriends,withoutanyonetooffersupport.Forhispart,Mischelarguesfor theshiftingof thoughts.Toboostemotional

management,tobemoreresilient,peopleshouldreframedifficultactivitiesinadifferent light. If someone is trying to lose weight, for instance, then amarshmallow should be seen as “poison” rather than a “treat,” according toMischel,becauseitmakesthemarshmallowitselfseemfarlesstempting.Similarly, Mischel advocates for “if-then” plans. So instead of thinking,

Maybe I’ll study later, people should think, If I study now, then I can go outlater.Mischelarguesthatclearrulesmakeitsimplerforpeopletomanagetheiremotions because there’s less emotion to manage. Instead of feeling or eventhinking, people are relying on a type of habit, and that takes less emotionalenergy.AsMischelargues,thegoalis“takingtheeffortoutofeffortfulcontrol.”

POPQUIZ#10

Agroupofstudentswantstoimprovetheirlongdivisionskills.Whatisthebestwayforthemtopracticelongdivision?

A. Doonelongsessionofpracticingdivisionproblems.B. Dothesamedivisionproblemoverandoveragain.C. Do some division problems, somemultiplication problems, and

then some addition problems before they go back to practicingdivisionagain.

D. There’s no need to practice division problems over and overagain.Justlearnaboutthedeeperunderlyingconcepts.

Forallthediscussionofdifferentapproachestodealingwithemotions,westillhaven’treallydiscussedwithoneofthemostimportantunderlyingquestionsofthispartofthelearningprocess:Doweactuallybelievethatsetbacksarereallygoodforus?Betteryet,thinkbacktothelasttimethatyoufailedatsomething:Maybeyou

goofedinamemotoyourbossorperhapsyousaidsomethingstupidtoafriend.Aftertheerror,didyouthinktoyourself:Great.LetmethinkabouthowIcan

bebetter?Ordidyouthinktoyourself:Shoot,I’vealwaysbeenbadatthat.Psychologist Carol Dweck has been studying these different responses for

decades,andinaseriesofstudies,Dweckhasshownthatsomeofusaresecretessentialists,membersofwhatmightbecalledCampNature. In thisapproach,peoplebelievethatnature—biology,genes,DNA—arethekeydeterminantsofsuccess.People,then,areeithersmartordumb,strongorweak,goodorbad,andwhenwefailatsomething,wethink:Shoot,I’vealwaysbeenbadatthat.Incontrast,Dweckarguestherearepeoplewhomightbecallednurturers.For

them, any skill—surfing, math—can be developed. It’s a thing that we cansharpen.Withpracticeanddevelopment,anythingcanbeachieved.Thesesortsofpeopleareoptimistic,ofcourse.Butmorethanthat, theyseetheworldasaplacewherepeoplecangrowandchange.Inshort,CampImprovementbelievesinprogress,andwhennurturersexperiencefailure,theywonder:Great.LetmethinkabouthowIcanbetter?While Dweck’s work has been around for a while—and might be just as

popular as Mischel’s work—recent research shows that these views have atremendous impact on how people approach learning, particularly any sort oflearningthatrequireschallenge.People inCampImprovement, for instance,are farmore likely toengage in

mentaldoing,andstudiesshowthattheyaremorelikelytoself-quiz.ThesamegoeswithparentswhoareinCampImprovement:Theyspendmoretimedoingacademicworkwiththeirchildren.Inaway,peopleinCampImprovementare

simplymorelikelytobelieveineffort.When I interviewed Dweck recently, she argued that our attitudes toward

errorsareoftendeeplysocial,andjustafewwordsfromamentororleaderorparentareenoughtosparkashiftfromCampNaturetoCampImprovement.Indeed, in one early study, some researchers praised kids for their

performancewithjustthewords:You’resosmart.Otherspraisedkidsfortheireffort with just the words: You’re so hard working, and even that smalldifferencewasenoughtomakeanimpact.More recently,Dweckhas found that actionshave a far deeper impact than

wordswhen it comes to these sorts of CampNature and Camp Improvementattitudes.Forinstance,Dweckandacolleagueshowednotlongagothatparents’beliefsdidn’talwaystransfertotheirkids.Morespecifically,ifaparentpraiseda kid’s effort, that wasn’t always enough to promote a Team Improvementapproachinthechild.What mattered more was how parents actually reacted when a child

experienced failure.Did theparentsdiscuss the failureasa lackofability likesomeone in Camp Nature might? Or did the parents discuss the mistakes intermsof a learningopportunity like someone inCamp Improvementmight? Ifparentstookthesecondapproach,theirkidswerefarmorelikelytobeinCampImprovement. Put differently, if parents actively showed that failure providedgrowth,kidswerefarmorelikelytoalsobelieveintheidea.For individuals, some of the solutions revolve, again, around what we tell

ourselves,andDweckrecommendschangingyourinnerdialogue.Tellyourselfnottoworryaboutmistakes,tofocusonimprovement,toviewgaffsanderrorsaschancestogainaskillorbitofknowledge.Afteramistake,forinstance,askyourself, “What can I learn from this? How can I improve?” Dweckrecommends.ForotherslikeexpertAngelaDuckworth,thesolutionsaresimilarbutalittle

different. A psychologist at the University of Pennsylvania, Duckworthrecommendsthatpeopleconditionthemselvestoexpectdifficultyastheygainaskill.Soifyoumakemistakesorstruggle,thinktoyourself,asDuckworthdoes,“Thisisnormal.”Inthisregard,SianBeilockgoesevenfurther,stressingthatpeopledomoreto

pushthemselves,tomakesurethattheyputthemselvesinmoresituationswheretheymightmakemistakes. “Don’tbehelpless,” sheargues.For someonewhofearspublicspeaking,thatmeansdoingmorespeakinginfrontofanaudience.For someonewho believes that he’s not amath person, try to domoremath,evenifit’sjustcalculatingthetipattherestaurant.Thisdoesn’tmean thatpeopleshouldn’tmindlesslypraisepracticeoreffort.

Mistakes aren’t inherently good. Neither is resilience, and Dweck argues thatpeople should specifically connect praise and outcomeswhen they’re offeringkudos.So tellpeople:“Doyouseehowyourpracticepaidoff?”or“Great jobworkinghardatthatandlookatyourgreatprogress.”What might matter most, then, is a belief in development. To learn from

mistakes,todevelopinafocusedway,therehastobefullCampImprovementbuy-in.AsHerbBrooks,thecoachoftheAmericanOlympichockeyteamthatbeattheSoviets,onceargued,“Successiswonbythosewhobelieveinwinningand thenprepare for thatmoment.Manywant towin,buthowmanyprepare?Thatisthebigdifference.”

POPQUIZ#11

Whatisthebestwaytolearnfromsometext?

A. Readandrereadthetext.B. Explainkeyideastoyourselfwhilereading.C. Underlinekeyconcepts.D. Useahighlighter.

Whenitcametobasketball,I’velongheldasecretmembershipinCampNature.Despitelockerroomspeeches—andworkinginthefieldofeducationforyears—I would often slip into an essentialist attitude while playing the game, thepowerfulvoiceofthenaturedoctrineplayinginmymind.Iwouldmiss a short jumper and think, I’veneverbeenagood shooter. I’d

take foul shots andwonder,Will Iair-ball this? Ithappened inpickupgames,too: Someone would slip past me, and the notion—always slow—would flitacrossmymind.Like a lot of beliefs, these attitudes have a bitter history, dating back to

December1991.Iwasajuniorinhighschoolatthetime,ascrawnykid,barelysix feet tall, and I landedon thevarsitybasketball team, largely to fillout theteam’smetalbench.Backthen,ourhighschool’srivalwasPleasantville,whichhadapowerhouse

centernamedOtisHill.Atsixfeet,eightinchesandsometwohundredpounds,Hill would eventually lead Syracuse to the NCAA championships and playbasketballprofessionallyinPoland.Byourhighschool’slowbasketballstandards,Hillwasthesecondcomingof

Michael Jordan. He could dunk without a running start: one stride—and rim

rocker.Incontrast,mostofourteam’ssquadcouldbarelytouchtherimashighschoolseniors.Icertainlycouldn’t.Thencamethegame.ItwasaFridaynight.WeplayedPleasantville intheir

gym with row upon row of fans holding drums and cowbells and airhorns.Withintheearlyminutes,ourguardGregConwaycameoutonawildfirestreak.Three-pointers, running jumpers, twisting drives. He finished with almost 40points.Atthesametime,ourdefensesmotheredHill,andthePleasantvillestarcenter

became so frustrated that he nearly got into a brawl at halftime. Then, in thefourthquarter,wetookthelead,withascoreof55to54.Thecrowdwasfurious.Wewereatinyhighschoolridingthelightningboltofluck.TheyhadaforwardwhohadagenuinechancetodominateintheNBA.Then,with some12 seconds togo,ourcoach,EdSands, calledme into the

game.Tobeclear,Ihadprobablynotplayedmorethantenminutesallseason.Butoneofour team’splayersfouledout,andnowsuddenlyIwasstandingonthe court, the crowd stretched into the ceiling, the gameon the line, our teamleadingbyasinglepoint.Just about every child dreams of leading a team to victory,making the big

throw,thegreatkick,thehugerunthatwinsthegamewithjustafewsecondsonthe clock, and I remember thrumming with nervousness as I stood on thehardwood,flatteningoutmyshorts.Sands toldme toplaydefense againstPleasantville’s point guard.Just keep

himfromdrivingat thebasket,Sands toldme.Don’t lethimdribblepastyou.Keephiminfrontofyou.Theguardbroughtuptheball.Thenoiseofthefans—screaming,chanting,a

constant drumming—seemed to envelop the court. I can’t say I rememberexactlywhathappened.Butscramblingatthetopofthekey,Iplayedtheguardtight.Iwantedtoswipetheball,tomakethesteal.Sand’sadvice,inotherwords,slippedmeby.Theguardseemedtoknowasmuch—andinaflash,hesprintedpastmefor

thelayup.Pleasantvillewasnowupbyonepoint,56to54.Thesecondstickedaway.Thegamewasover.Wehadlost.AsIrecallit,Sandswassoangrythatherefusedtoshakemyhand,andyears

later,whenwemetupforlunch,herememberedthefinalmomentsofthegamelikeitwasthepreviousyear’sNBAfinals.“Youwereallhypedup,notfocusing,”Sandstoldme.“I’mlike,‘Givehim

room,givehimroom.’Buthebeatsyouoffthedribbleandboom,layup,buzzer,game.”“Irememberyouwouldn’teventalktomeaftertheloss,”Isaid.

“It could be, absolutely,” Sands said, laughing. “Probably this would havebeenthebiggestwininthehistoryofyourhighschool,andyoufuckedupthewholething.”ThePleasantvillegamewasnotthereasonthatIstoppedplayingbasketballin

my twenties. But at same time, the experience nudgedme into CampNaturewhenitcametosports.ItmademethinkthatIdidn’thaveathletictalent,thatIwas tooslowanduncoordinated. Itgavemea label,abox,aclassification formybasketballskills:fuckedupthewholething.Thepointhereisn’ttorelivecertainmomentsofhighschool.Thepointisthat

labelsareatypeofessentialism.NotionslikefuckedupthewholethinghingeonaCampNatureattitude,andasDweckherselfargues,essentialismisaformoftypecasting.Anotherway to think about this idea is that people have different aims for

learning.Wecanaimformastery,andsowelearninordertoimproveourselves,togetbetter, tohoneour skills. In this approach,we’re less focusedon labelsandmoreinterestedinimproving.Alternatively,wecanbefocusedonperformance,andsowewanttoreacha

certainlevelofachievement.Weneedtoprovetoothersthatwecandoit.Whenpeople are really focused on outcomes, they always want to be the winners.They’re the ultimate in Camp Nature: They want to show that they won thegeneticdraw,thatthey’llwinthebiggame.There’sacontinuum,ofcourse.Masteryandperformancearenotbinarysorts

ofthings.Thecontext,thetask,theperson—allmakeadifference.Theproblemisthatevenafewstepsintoamoreperformance-focusedapproachisdangerous.Itmakesataskseemlikeathreat.Withaperformanceapproach,all isgoodifwesucceedatthetask.Thenwethinkthatwe’resmartorstrongortough.Butifwe fail with a performance approach, there’s no going back—we think thatwe’redumborweakorfragile.Itgetsworse,though,andafocusonperformancemakesusmorevulnerable

tootherdangerousattitudes.Wearemorelikelytogetpulledinbylabels.TakeJoshua Aronson, who used to worry that people would see him as part ofpsychology’s old boy network. To explain, Joshua’s father, ElliotAronson, isoneoftheworld’smostwellregardedpsychologists.AtHarvardandlaterattheUniversityofTexas,Elliothelpeddevelopedthenotionofcognitivedissonance,or the idea that people experience discomfort if they do something in conflictwiththeirideals.With this typeofpedigree, Joshuawasnervouswhenhearrivedatgraduate

schoolatStanfordtostudypsychology.Joshuafelt likehewasan“affirmativeactioncase,”asiftheschoolhadacceptedJoshuaonlybecausehisfatherwasa

famousacademic.Earlyon,agraduatestudenttoldJoshua:Wearehonoredthatyou’re here, and the comment sparked amix of anger and fear. “It was like,‘Welcome,youareunderthespotlight,’”Joshuatoldme.Over time, Joshua overcame what he jokingly calls his “daddy issues.” In

other words, Joshua became more focused on gaining mastery than provinghimself.Buttheexperienceshapedhisresearchinterests.DuringgraduateschoolandlateratNewYorkUniversity,Joshuabeganstudyingthelabelsthatpeopleuseasthey’relearning,showingthatthedesignationsoftenshapeperformance.More exactly, people often live up to the labels that they give themselves.

BrieflyremindpeoplethatChristiansdon’tscorewellonscienceproblems,forinstance, and the people who are Christian will do much worse on scienceproblems. Likewise, women will give a better speech if there are images ofsuccessfulwomenintheroom.Ifpeoplehaveperformancegoals,theselabelshavealotmorepower.Witha

focusonoutcomes,wegetpulledintodamagingnarratives,thinking,I’malwaysbad.Ialwaysfail.Womanalwaysbombbigspeeches.Kidsoffamousprofessorsalwaysgetafreepass.These sorts of anxious thoughts can be the death knell of any effort to

improve. Like a mental computer virus, the thoughts will corrupt short-termmemory. In contrast, people with mastery goals have a much easier timeshruggingoffthesesortsofnarratives.Withagoalofimprovement,theydon’tneedtoprovetheirskillstoothers—andsothey’remorefocusedonthetask.IspoketoexpertslikeJoshuaAronsonandCarolDwecklongbeforeIbegan

my own dedicated basketball training. But without question, their view oflearningshapedmyapproach.IjoinedCampImprovement,forone,andIwouldfocusmymentalenergya

lotmoreontheprocessofshooting.Itriedtoseeeventsasawaytoimprove.Soif I missed a jumper, I’d ask myself questions: Were my feet square to thebasket?HadIreallyusedmylegs?DidIfollowthroughwithmyhand?I took a similar approach to errors. If someone dribbled pastme, I’d try to

viewthegaffasachallenge:Howdidtheydoit?HowcouldIstopthedrivethenexttime?At thesame time, I tried tokeepmyselfclearof labels. Ididn’twant toget

pulled into narratives.They seemed like the black holes ofCampNature, andwhen I threw air balls, for instance, I’d be sure to remind myself that evenprofessionalssometimesmisstherimalltogether.Overtime,Ibegantoincorporateother,betterformsofpractice.Theskillsof

learningfilteredmoreintomydevelopment,andIdidalotmoretomonitormyperformance.Sometimes I’dvideomyselfwhile Iwashoningcertain shooting

skillssoIcouldfigureoutbetterwaystoimprovemyshootingaccuracy.Ialsowatchedtapeofmyselfplayingdefense(andrealizedthatIdidn’tgetdownlowenoughtomovequickly.)Practicingonacourtnearmyhouse,Ialsousedanotherformofmonitoring,

notingwhatpercentagesofshotsthatIwouldmakefromcertainplacesaroundthecourtsoIcouldbetter trackmyprogress.SoI’dnotefivefor tenfromthecorner,sixfortenfromthetopofthekey.Taking a tip frommemory expert and Scrabble player Bennett Schwartz, I

also broke upmy practice so that it was more quiz-like, more like a type ofretrievalpractice.So insteadofhitting thecourtonceaweek, I’dvisit a courtalmosteverydaytoworkonmyskills.Itdidn’tmatterifitwasrainingorcold.Itdidn’tmatterifitwasonlyforfifteenminutes.Itdidn’tmatterifIhadtojumpoverashortchain-linkfenceor if itwas thedayafterChristmas—Iwouldgetoutandpractice.Therewereotherimportantstrategies,too.Ialsoaimedtomakecertainskills

more automatic, and I’d repeatmy foul shotwith the exact samemovements:twodribbles,apause,deepknees,andthenahigharc.Aboveall,Iaimedtotakeamasteryfocus.Mygoalswerefocusedonmyown

progress: Learn how to rebound better. Try to make a basket every game.Defendbetterinthepost.Tobemoreexact,Iimprovedmyself-talk,andifIhadaparticularlybadnight,Iwouldremindmyself:It’sjustagame.Eventually, itallstartedtocometogether,puzzlepiecesformingapattern.I

rememberaWednesdaynightwhenmyshotsstartedgoingin,thesweetsoundofasnappingnet.Ihitonefromthecorner.Inailedonefromthetopofthekey.By then my teammates know something had changed. On that night, one

teammateaskedmebarefaced,“Man,youbeenpracticingorsomething?”Thenextmorning, I got a text froma different friend: “I heard youwere a

ballerlastnight.”Allinall,Ididn’thavemuchtosay.IknewthatIhadpracticed.IknewthatI

hadbelieved.IknewthatIhaddeveloped.

Chapter4

EXTEND

In 1936, the painter Jackson Pollock signed up for a workshop in NewYorkCity. Pollock was twenty-three at the time, with handsome looks and a rebelswagger.Inhismind,hewasasubversivecowboywithastubbypaintbrush,andhe’d roam the streets of Manhattan wearing a cowboy hat and boots, oftendrinkingandbrawling,breakingwindowsandinsultingstrangers.ThepaintingworkshopwasheldbyMexicanartistDavidAlfaroSiqueiros.A

muralistanddedicatedSocialist,Siqueiroswasevenmoreofaflag-wavingrebelthan Pollock. Between stints in art school, Siqueiros fought with a Marxistgroup. Later theMexicanmuralist even tried to gun down Soviet exile LeonTrotskywithamachinegun.The aim of the Siqueiros workshop was to help young artists like Pollock

experimentwithpaintasatypeofmedium,torepudiatewhatSiqueirossawasthe dominance of the easel. In his classes, Siqueiros argued that brusheswerelittlemorethanawkwardsticks.Asforthenarrowconfinesofwoodenframes,Siqueirosdidn’tthinkmuchofthematall.Artwasn’tpretty—itwasreal—andin his studio, Siqueiros would wear overalls splattered with paint, sprawlinghimselfacrossthefloorwhilelecturinghisstudents.“Apaintershouldworkthewaythataworkerworks,”Siqueirosargued,and

throughout theyearlongworkshop, theMexicanartistencouragedstudents likePollock to experiment with different painting methods. Sometimes Siqueiroswouldhavethestudentsdrizzlepaintoverthecanvaslikechildren.Ortheyoungartistswouldbeencouragedtopouroilsstraightontothecloth.Sandordustordirtonthecanvasmighthelp,too,givingmoregritanddepth.Siqueiroscalledartatypeof“controlledaccident.”Like a set of squabbling brothers, Pollock and Siqueiros would disagree.

BeforeSiqueiros leftNewYorkCity the followingyear, for instance, the twosparredataparty,handswrappedaroundeachother’sthroats.ButtheworkshopexperienceundoubtedlyinfluencedPollock.HisworkonaSiqueirosfloatwasa“grand thing,” Pollock once wrote. Siqueiros respected Pollock, too, and theMexicanartistsentalettertoPollockshortlyaftertheworkshopwasshuttered.“Bepatient,”Siqueirosadvised.“Ourworkshopwillopenagain.”Siqueiros’s workshop did open again—at least within the recesses of

Pollock’s mind—and Pollock expanded on the drip-and-pour approach to

paintingpioneeredbySiqueiros.Drivenanddedicated,Pollock returned to theartisticskillthathegainedintheworkshopagainandagain.Dripartbydripart,Pollockbuiltuponwhatheknew,andforashorttime,Pollockmadedrip-styledishes.Then,forabit,Pollockpainteddripstyleinthecornersofhiscanvases.Together with art critic Clement Greenberg, Pollock began to study other

artistswho experimentedwith the drip-style approach like Janet Sobel. Later,PollockexaminedtheworksofPicassoandtheSurrealistswhooftensplatteredpaint. As an artist, Pollock came to see drip painting as a way of expressingemotion,andwhenTimeoncecalledPollock’swork“chaotic,”theartistwroteashortletterinresponse:“NOCHAOSDAMNIT.”Inthepopularmind,partoftheconventionalwisdom,Pollock’sdrippaintings

seemedtohavefallenfromtheclouds,avisitationfrompostmodernangels.Thiswas, infact,howPollock’sfamebegan,withafour-pagephotospreadinLife,which described him as a singular creative genius, the “shining newphenomenonofAmericanart.”ThemagazineevenprovidedaJamesDean–likephotoofPollockstandingagainstawall,cigarettedanglingfromhismouth,theyoungBrandooftheartworld.Theworldlovesagoodborn-to-geniusstory—andthePollockcultcontinues.

Pollock’smostrecentmajorbiographydeclaredhim“thequintessentialtorturedgenius,”while the lastmajor saleofoneofhiscanvasesnotcheda record$10million,apricetagsimilartothatofaprofessionalsportsteam.But thePollock-as-rebel-geniusstoryoverlooks the truthof thematter—that

Pollock relied on a method of learning. He expanded on an artistic theme,developinganareaofmasterybyextendingwhatheknew.“Pollockwasnottheonlypainter to experimentwith the all-over drip technique,” art criticRobertaSmith once argued in the New York Times. “But only Pollock pursued itspossibilities,doggedlyandmethodicallycirclingthetechnique.”Inthepreviouschapter,welookedathowwedevelopskills—orhowpeople

cantakeaveryfocusedapproachtopractice.Buttobecomeanexpert,wealsoneed to expand an area of mastery. Learning—especially richer forms oflearning—isatypeofknowledgeextension,amatterofexpandingonanareaofexpertise, and at this stage of the learning process, we need to deepen ourunderstanding.Thisisthenatureoflong-termmemory,andthepowerofthisapproachgoes

backto thenotionof learningasaseriesofconnectedroads.In thismetaphor,weretainalotmorewhenweextendastreetoralleyandlayoutnewroutesandhubs.Inthewordsofcognitivescientists,we’rebuildingonourpriorknowledgeandcreatingadeeper,morenetworkedsortofinsight.For a more concrete example of this idea, take summarizing, or the act of

putting an idea into our own words. The learning activity pushes us to askourselves a series of questions:What’s important? How can we rephrase thisidea?Thesequeries are important.Becauseby summarizing themostvaluableidea, we’re extending our grasp of that particular idea, we’re making itmeaningful,andthepracticeshowsclearandpositiveeffectsonoutcomes.Most of us knowwhat this sort of learning looks like: It’s another form of

learningasmentaldoing.Recall,forinstance,atimewhenyoureadanarticleinamagazineandthendetaileditsargumentforafriend?That’saformoflearningexpansion,andyou’remorelikelytohavegainedfromthatarticleasaresult.Foranother illustrationofextendingknowledge, imagineyourecentlywrote

an email detailing your thoughts on a documentary that you saw on Netflix.Again, you flushed out the idea—and engaged in amore direct formof sensemaking—andstudiesshowthatyou’llhavearichersenseof theNetflixmovieanditsthemes.Beforewegoanyfurther,let’sbehonest.Learnersarenotexperts,whopush

a field forward, who invent new ideas or fields.Most of us are not going todevelopradicalnewformsofartlikePollock.Butallofuslearnbetterwhenwefleshoutaskill,whenweextendanareaofexpertise.Pollock undoubtedly felt this way about painting. He always continued to

extendwhat he knew, and even during his drip-canvas phase, Pollock’sworkgrew more complex. He continued to expand on the central theme. It was aphysicist named Richard Taylor who first discovered this aspect of Pollock’sworks. The Australian scientist began studying Pollock’s drip paintings someyearsagoandfoundthatthecanvasescontainedatypeoffractalgeometry,withasetofinterwoven,nonrepeatingpatternsmuchlikecrystalsorsnowflakes.Even more surprising, Taylor found that the fractals in Pollock’s paintings

grew more dense over time. At the start of Pollock’s drip phase, the fractalcomplexityofhisworkwasactuallypretty low.Butover time,Pollockdelveddeeper into the approach, and the fractals grewmore profound, each paintingcontainingamoreelaboratedesignthanthenext,amoresophisticatedlevelofchaos.“Thisiswhatarttheoreticianscallthehandoftheartist,”Tayloroncetoldareporter.Orthinkofitasoneofthetruemarkersofexpertise.

POPQUIZ#12

Beforereadingthissection,predictwhatitwilldiscuss.

A. PersonalityquizzesB. Thevalueofknowledge

C. TheimportanceofriffsD. Learningstyles

Adifferentwaytograpplewiththeideaofexpandinganareaofexpertiseistoconsider themaking of the jazz albumKind of Blue. You’ve almost certainlyheard theMiles Davis masterwork. It’s a stalwart in coffee shops around thecountry,thebackgroundtoendlessstudysessions,thebestsellingalbuminjazzhistory.Thealbumhasamoody,almostcelestialenergy.Themusiciansloopandsoar

among a set of evocativemelodies, with caterwauling solos and freewheelingpianoriffs.Withathroatyfeelthatcametodefinethegenreofjazz,KindofBluemanages to provide Beethoven-like complexity with a haunting Nina Simonesound.Kind of Blue ismore than a jazz album, though. It’s also perhaps themost

importantmasterclassinthehistoryofjazz,apinnacleofmusicallearning,andMilesDavisaskedthegroupofmusicianswhoproducedthealbumtolearnanentirelynewapproachtomusic.Inthepast,jazzbandsplayedaroundchordssosoloistswouldendtheirriffswithinanumberofharmonies.Butat theKindofBlue session,Davisaimed to teach thegrouphow touse

scales—or modes—which would give the players a different way to engagemelodies. “This distinction may seem slight, but its implications wereenormous,” writes jazz critic Fred Kaplan. The musicians could now “linkchords,scales,andmelodiesinalmostunlimitedcombinations.”Adevoteeofimprovisation,Davisdidn’tgivethemusiciansanypreparation

forthenewapproach.Hedidnotscheduleanytrialrunsorpracticesessions,nostudiomeetingsortrainings.Indeed,Davisprovidedthegroupofmusicianswithonly a few shortmelodies before theymet up in the spring of 1959. “Play in[the]soundofthesescales”weretheonlywordsonthetopofthesheetmusic.Themusiciansintheroomwereallexperts,andDaviswantedthemtolearn

the new approach through a riff. He pushed them to expand, to flesh out theapproach,exploring—andapplying—thenewtechniqueinaverydirectway.AsDavislaterwroteinhisbiography,“Whenyou’recreatingyourownshit,man,eventheskyain’tthelimit.”MilesDavis’smusicalinterventionworked,andeachofthemenwholeftthe

studioon thatmorning soonbeganusing themodal style.Withinmonths,BillEvans began playing modal jazz. So did saxophonist Cannon ball Adderley.JohnColtranelaterbuilthiscareeronthemodalapproach,usingittocreatehis

blockbusteralbumsGiantStepsandALoveSupreme.Asalearningmethod,playingriffsisawaytoextendanareaofexpertise,and

it promotes mastery because it pushes people to dive deep into an area ofmastery.Playingriffshelpsusgetattheessenceofabitofknowledge,tobuildcognitive links and connections. Plus, it’s hard to be passive if you’reimprovising.ToparaphraseDavis,it’samatterof“creatingyourownshit.”In this regard, extending an area of knowledge is a lot like being able to

explainanareaofknowledge,andstudiesshowthatpeoplegainalotmorewhenthey ask themselves explanatory questions as they learn. Specifically: Can Idescribetheidea?CanIclarifytheskill?CanIputitintomyownwords?Whenwedescribe ideas toourselves,we typicallycomeawaywithamuch

richer understanding of a topic. Some years ago, for instance, cognitivepsychologistBrianRossenrolledinacomputerscienceclassattheUniversityofIllinois. It had been at decade since Ross had taken any sort of class—forgetanythingtechnologyrelated—andwithhisbeardandbaldingdome,Rossstoodout.Easilyadecadeolderthananyoneelseintheclassroom,Rosswas—foralltheotherstudentsintheclass—justThatGuy.To help him through the class, Ross relied on a technique known as self-

explaining.Thepracticeismuchlikeitsounds,andwhenRosswouldreadtextsfortheclass,hewoulddescribeideastohimself.Soaftereachparagraph,aftereachsentence,Rosswouldaskhimself,WhatdidIjustread?Howdoesthatfittogether?HaveIcomeacrossthisideabefore?IfRossdidnotunderstandsomething,hewouldlookituponline.Hewould

also try to build associations, to see if he could explain the idea to himselfrelying on different words or concepts. “A lot of what you’re doing in self-explanationistryingtomakeconnections,”Rosstoldme.“Oh,Isee,thisworksbecausethisleadstothatandthatleadstothat.”By the endof the course,Ross couldnotprogramcomputers aswell as the

otherstudents.Hesimplydidn’thaveenoughbackgroundknowledge.ButRosswas able to answer questions that the other students couldn’t answer—and inmanyways,hehadamoreconnectedsenseof the field.“I sometimeshad theadvantage,”Rosstoldme.“Iwasfocusedonthebiggerpicture.”Anotherway toextendknowledge is toask thequestion:Why?Now,when

weknowatopic,whyquestionsarenotthathard.IfIaskedyouawhyquestionabout the town that you grew up in, the answer would come pretty easily, Iimagine.IfyouaskedmewhymyparentsdecidedtomovetoWestchester,NewYork,I’dexplainthatmymotherandfatherwantedtoliveinaleafysuburbanareawithgoodschoolsandquietstreets.It’swhenwedon’tknowsomethingthatwhyquestionsbecomemoredifficult

—andcreateawaytodevelopanidea.Toillustratethepractice,let’sexamineaquery like:“Whyare therewaves?”Nodoubt,someofuscanforge throughabasic answer, at least when a five-year-old is posing the question. Maybesomething like: “Well, waves have to do with the wind. When wind blowsacrossthetopofthewater,itcreatesripplesofwater.”Butthencomestheinevitablefollow-up,“Whydoesthewindblowacrossthe

top of thewater?” or “Why does thewind lift thewater?” or “Why are therewaveswhenthere’snowind?”Thenwedrawablank.OratleastIdo,andsoIstartsearchingforsomesortofanswer,spinningthroughtheInternet,readinguponhowenergymovesthroughwater,andintheend,Igainalotmore.Justasimportant,whyquestionshelpusthinkaboutourthinking.Theypush

ustounderstandwhatweknow,encouragingamorenuancedunderstandingofatopic.Whyquestionscanbeparticularlyhelpfulwhilepeoplearereading,andtoget more out of a bit of text, people should frequently ask themselves whyqueries.Whydoestheauthormakethisclaim?WhyshouldIbelievetheauthor?Whywouldthismatter?It’sclearthattrumpeterMilesDavislovedwhyquestions.Asamusician,he

continuallyextendedwhatheknew,andovertheyears,hemanagedtoreinventjazz at least three different times. In his own painterly way, artist JacksonPollock wasn’t that different. He created a riff on what he had learned inSiqueiros’s workshop. His drip works were a clear extension of what he hadlearned years earlier. Putmore directly, Pollock asked the question:Why notmakeapaintingentirelyoutofdripsandsplashes?

Argumentsareanother formof learningexpansion.They’readifferentway toriff on an idea, to extend a concept. Not long ago, I watched teenagerKeoniScott-Reidprovidehisopeningstatementinadebatetournament.Scott-Reidhadbeenassignedtoargueagainstmasssurveillanceprograms,andstandinginthefrontoftheroom,hespokeinrat-tat-tatburstslikeateenageversionofacattleauctioneer.Withafocusedoratoricalgrace,Scott-Reidpointedoutthatmasssurveillance

programs were a form of “social control.” He argued that mass surveillanceprogramsoperatedonaslipperymoralslope,quotingBenjaminFranklin:“Itismucheasiertosuppressafirstdesirethantosatisfythosethatfollow.”Withhisnotes in hand, Scott-Reid concluded his speech after several minutes—andseveral lines of argument—noting that surveillance ultimately sparkslawlessness, degrading social order. “Aggressive policing,” he said, is“perpetuatingthecriminalitythatit’sadvocatingtostop.”

Much like a cross-examination in a courtroom, Scott-Reid’s opponentpepperedhimwithquestions,andtheysparredoverwhetherornotthejudicialsystem currently holds law enforcement in check. At one point, Scott-Reidsharplyquestionedhisadversary.“Proveit,”hesaidinaloudvoice.“Showmeyourevidence.”Attheend,thejudgegavetheroundtoScott-Reid.Hislogicwastighter.He

had better examples, and as the judge pointed out, Scott-Reid had expertlyquestionedhisopponent’srhetoric,oneofhisbigstrengthsasadebater.“Iknowyouliketogetariseoutofpeople,”thejudgetoldhim.Inmanyways,argumentationisjustanotherexampleoflearningexpansion,a

differentwayofriffingonanareaofknowledge.Whenwemarshalevidencetosupport a point, we improve our knowledge of that field, and argumentationworks in the sameway that riffswork. Itmakes people flesh out connectionswithinafield.Itboostsexpertisebypushingpeopletothinkthroughanareaofmastery.Butargumentationalsoaddsanotherwrinkletohowwecanextendanareaof

expertisebecausethepracticeforcesustoengagewithreasoning.Itpushesustograpplewith logic.This idea is at the centerof learning, as cognitive scientistLaurenResnickpointsout.Togainexpertise,Resnickargues,peopleneedtobe“doinginterpretivework.”In this sense, inferences help promote understanding.When people develop

judgments, they’re building connections.We’re grappling with how things fittogether and thus improving upon what we know. This explains why a littleconfusioncanhelplearning:Itmakesusthinkourwayoutofaproblem.Other research supports this approach.Give someyoung students classes in

reasoning skills, for instance, and they’ll typically land better grades in theirreadingandmathcourses.OrtakeScott-Reidagain.Beforehejoinedthedebateprogram,helandedmainlyDsandFsinschool.Ayearlater,hepostedmainlyAsandBs.Theissue,ofcourse,isthatweoftenengageinweakreasoning.Psychologist

RichardNisbettgivesawonderfulexampleofthisidea,andhearguesthatmosthiringdecisionsarebasedonlittlemorethanahunch.AsNisbett points out,managers often give a lot ofweight to the in-person

interview. But studies in all sorts of fields—nonprofits, military, academia—show that in-person interviews do very little to predict job success. Instead,what’sfarmoreimportantwhenitcomestosomeone’sdoingwellinapositionistheharddata—thingslikereferences,previousexperiences,andawritingtest.Theissueisthattheinterview“feelsright,”accordingtoNisbett.Formostof

us, the experience of interviewing someone is emotionally vivid, a powerful

experience, and sowe judgepeopleon their ability tobecharming for twentyminutesratherthanontheirrésumé,whichtypicallyholdsyears’worthofactualevidence.The same thing is true in learning.Weak evidence has its sway. It makes

intuitive sense that the explanation for the seasons is all about the Earth’sdistance from the sun (it’s not). There’s a natural inclination to solve thisproblem—½×¼—bysimplymultiplyingthedenominators(that’sincorrect).Inforeign affairs, it’s easy to believe that business interests always explaineconomicpolicies(theydon’t).Whenweexaminetheevidence,we’renotalwaysgoingtocometotheright

conclusion. That’s a job for experts, after all. Butwe learn a lot by carefullyweighingdifferent pieces of proof.The examination of logic provides its owntype of mastery. As Scott-Reid toldme, “What I learned was to extend yourargument.”

TheNeedforApplicationTheprocessofextendinganareaofexpertisehasitsrootsinperhapstheoldestformoflearning—imitation.Manyanimalslearninthisway.Onemonkeywillspotanothermonkeyopeninganutwithrock,andsothefirstmonkeywillcopythebehaviorandstarttopopopennutswithastone.As an approach to learning, imitation works because it’s concrete. There’s

nothingvagueorabstract.It’sasimplematterof,well,monkeysee,monkeydo.Thisideaholdslessonsfortherestofus.Whenwemakelearningmoreconcrete,it’s easier to understand, and when it comes to the learning process, we canapplywhatweknowinordertobettercomprehendwhatwewanttoknow.Many years ago, for instance, I visited Jackson Pollock’s art studio with a

childhood friend. The studio sat behind the Long Island home that Pollocksharedwithhiswife,LeeKrasner.Anoldconvertedbarn,thestudiowassquareandvaulted,almostlikeasmallEuropeanchapel.Inside, the studio hadn’t changedmuch from the day Pollock died in a car

crash.Thefloorofthestudiowasstillthickwithflecksofpaint,likesomesortof expressionistic carpet. Behind Plexiglas stood some of Pollock’s cans ofpaint,completewithold,thinbrushesthickwithcoloring.Over the years, conservators have tied some of the paint splatters on the

studio’sfloorwithspecificcanvases.Thecobalt-coloredfootprints?That’sfromthetimethatPollockwasmakingBluePoles,whichnowhangsintheAustralianNationalGallery.Thedotsofredinthecorner?That’sfromConvergence,now

in theAlbright-KnoxArtGallery.Inorder tostrideacross thestudiofloor, themuseumsasksvisitors topullon somestyrofoamslippers toprotect thepaint-filledsurface.IhadseensomeofPollock’sartbefore,almostcertainly inabookof some

sort,discussedinsomeconfusingartworldspeak,andittooksteppingintothestudio to grasp the raw energy of the canvases, to get a full sense of therebelliousbeautyofhisdrip-styleapproach.Thestudiooftenprovokesthissortofreaction,andpeoplehavesteppedinto

thespaceandstartedtocurseandswear.Adocentoncecalledita“holyplace.”MyfriendDanBelascoattendedthemuseumwithmeonthatday,andhewassimilarlyinspired,eventuallybecomingaprofessionalartcurator.Anexpertinabstractexpressionism,Belascotodayoftenpullstogethershows

onsomeofPollock’scolleagues,creditingourvisittoPollock’sstudioasoneofthe reasons that he went into the field: It “was a more direct and personalexperience of the man than a hagiographic museum exhibition,” he told me.“Seeingthestudioreallymadeavisceralimpression.”Our brain struggles with abstractions.We like things to be tangible.When

thingsaredirectandmaterial,they’reeasiertounderstand.It’sonethingtoreadabout how Pollock created some of the most seminal works of the twentiethcentury inanoldLong Islandbarn.But it’s averydifferent, concrete thing tostepintoanoldbarnandspotPollock’sbluefootprintsrunningacrossthewoodfloorasifhehadlefttheroomthepreviousmorning.Thisurge for the tangible shapes just aboutanything thatwe thinkabout. It

alters just about everything thatwe hear or see or believe. Recall any sort ofanecdote, as an example, because the narrative is a lot more memorable if itincludesconcretedetails.Takethissentence:

Thebearwasbigandlargewithverysubstantialpaws.

Andcomparethatsentencewiththisone:

ThebearwasthesizeofaMiniCooperwithbaseballmitt-likepaws.

Both of these sentences are talking about the same bear. They’re bothgenerally the same length. But the second sentence—the one with the moredistinct features—is far more evocative. Because of the way that our brainworks,aMiniCooper–sizebearwith“mitt-likepaws”seemsalotscarierthana“big”one.When it comes to learning, this is important. Because making something

concreteisapowerfulwayofextendingwhatweknow.Bybuildingsomethingthatwecansmell,touch,orsee,we’remakingiteasiertounderstand.Thereareanumberofreasonsforthis.Thebrainisadistinctlyvisualorgan,forone.Evenif you’re not an aspiring Pollock, your visual circuits are yourmost powerfulcircuits.Take, for instance,mental abacus, themathpractice thatwecameacross in

thefirstchapter.Oneofthereasonsthattheapproachtomathissoeffectiveisthat itoffersavisualway toengagewith thesubject.Byseeing thebeadsandrods,peoplehaveaneasiertimeexecutingthemath.Likewise,wecanlearnalotbydrawing.Whenweusepenandpapertodraw

something, we have a richer understanding, as psychologist Rich Mayer hasfound.So,forinstance,ifyou’rereadingaboutplatetectonics,you’llgainmorefromthetextifyoudrawimagesoftheearth’smantleandcrust.Thisgoesformemory, too,andyou’remore likely to rememberaMiniCooper–sizebear, ifyouillustrateanimageofthebear.Anotherexampleofthepowerofourvisualwaysiswhatstand-upcomedian

BobHarriscalls“stickyimages.”SowhenHarriswantstoremembersomething,he’llcreateavisualpicture.WhenHarrishopedtorecallsomeofthenamesofE.M.Forster’snovels,forinstance,heimaginedhimselfinaroom,lookingoutthe window to see “a giant, throbbing thirty-foot-wide buttocks.” While theimage is a bit unnerving, it also burned inHarris’smind the titles of the twobooks:RoomwithaViewandHoward’sEnd.Thepowerofconcretenessgoesdeeperthanthevisual,though,andtheother

thing to remember is that learning is a whole body affair. Our emotions, ourfeelings, evenour senseof touchall help to supportwhatweknow. In averyliteral sense, learning is a form of doing, and people will learn more if theyphysically engage with a topic or skill. Or just consider that some forms offingerdexterityanticipatefuturemathskillsbetterthansomeone’sIQ.Wecantakeadvantageofthisaspectoflearning,andperformingconceptscan

havebeneficialimpacts.Ifpeoplereadatextandthenactitout,theylearnalotmore than peoplewho just read the text, asMayer argues. Inmuch the sameway,peoplecanimprovetheirexpertiseathigherratesiftheyusesomesortofsimulation or role-play; it helps us get a concrete sense of the skill.This ideaalsoexplainswhymentalsimulationscanbuildself-efficacy,aswesawwiththeslalom skier inChapter 2:By imagining his performance, he got better at hisperformance.In a roundabout way, the museum devoted to the Pollock studio had

discoveredthisaspectofthelearningprocessonitsown,andafewyearsbeforeIvisited,thestaffbeganinvitingpeopletomaketheirowndrip-stylepaintings,

usingbrushes,sticks,andtheoccasionalturkeybastertocreatetheirownversionofPollock’sNo.5.Someyearsago,twofathersbroughttheirkidstotheevent,recallsHarrison.

Themenwere “Wall Street types,” she says. Theywore shorts and had theirbaseballcapsonbackward.Eventually,thetwofathersdecidedtogetdownontheirkneesandhelptheirchildrenflingpaintoverabitofbutcher-blockpaper.“I’mchannelingmy innerJacksonPollock,”oneof themdeclared,spilling thepaintover the canvas, andnodoubt, hewas channelinghis innerPollock in averyconcreteway.

POPQUIZ#13

What’saone-sentencesummaryofthepreviouschapter?

A. Theauthorredeemshimselfafterlosingahighschoolbasketballgame.

B. The author argues that learning requires a lot of feedback andstruggle.

C. Theauthorbelievesbasketballiskeytolearning.D. TheauthorisplanningtojointheNBA.

Evenfromtheoutside,it’sclearthatHighTechHighisaverydifferentsortofschool. It’s located near the airport in San Diego, so planes often thunderoverhead. Sunburned drifters loiter in nearby parks. There are some Marinebarracksnearby,sodiversoccasionallysurfaceoutofanoceaninletinfrontoftheschool,theirheadspokingfromthewaterlikelargedarkbuoys.Inside, High Tech High is part auto-body shop, part artist studio, with a

sprinkle of SouthernCalifornia cool. Inside the foyer, there’s an old cigarettedispenserthat’sbeenconvertedintoaso-calledArttoGodevice,wherefor$5,visitorscanbuysmallcanvases—littleportraits,smalllandscapes—asawaytosupporttheschool.Fartherdownthehallways,futuristiccontraptionshuddleincorners,whileartisticmuralshangfromtheceiling.The brainchild of founder Larry Rosenstock, High Tech High is all about

students applying their knowledge, having people create projects thatdemonstratewhatthey’velearned.Thereislittlehomeworkattheschool,atleastofthetraditionalworksheetorproblemsetskind.Notextbooks,either.Bindersare online portfolios.An informalmotto at the school is “You can play videogamesatHighTechHigh,butonlyifyoumakethem.”

While there is a curriculum at High Tech High, students typically developprojectsontheirown.Ina10thgradechemistryclass,agroupofstudentsoncelaunchedasmallsoapcompany,nettingmorethan$10,000insales.Inamiddleschool class, students have created their own kites in order to learn about thephysicsoflift.Agroupof6thgradersoncedesignedanexhibitonfossilsfortheSanDiegoNaturalHistoryMuseum.We’ve already come across a few explanations of why a school like High

TechHighcanpostsuchsuccess:Whenweapplyourlearning,ithelpsusfindgaps in our understanding. If you’reworking on the design-a-kite project, forinstance,it’sclearif thekitedoesn’twork:Itsimplywon’tfly.Relevancealsoprovidesmotivation, aswe’ve seen, and atHigh TechHigh, I never saw anygroupsofboredteenagersloiteringthehalls.Butthere’ssomethingthatwehavenotconsidered.Becausewhenweexpand

ourlearning—whenweapplyourknowledge—itbecomesmoreintegrated.Theexpertise becomes part of a richer system of knowledge. Applying ourknowledgepushespeopletounderstandtopicsaspartofawhole.Whenstudentslearn how to build a kite, they study physics, math, and engineering in anintegratedway.Whensomeonelearnshowtomake—andsell—soap,heorshegrappleswithissuesofchemistry,business,andmarketing.WecanalltakeapagefromtheHighTechHighplaybookandworktoapply

ourknowledge.Practically speaking, takedataanalytics.Oneway to fleshoutourunderstandingofthepracticewouldbetoanalyzesomestatsfromabaseballgame. In this approach, we’d see how analytics is a mix of science (we’remakingpredictions)andcraft(there’relotsofrulesofthumb).Buildingengineeringisn’tanydifferent.Ifyouwanttolearnhowtobecomea

betterbuilder,workonthecreationofanewhouse:Itmakesiteasytoseehowplumbing,electrical,andengineeringallworktogether.Samewithanyaspiringfilmmaker:Startmakingfilms,evenwithyoursmartphone.Byexecutingshortfilms, you’ll gain amuch better sense of how amovie works as a system ofvisualnarration,amixofgraphicandauditory,ofexpositionandaction.This isn’t an argument for endless hands-on projects. Without conceptual

understandingand fluency in thebasics, theydon’tdomuchgood.HighTechHighremainsagoodexamplehere,too.Theschoolgoestoofarinmanyways,andwithoutarobustbackgroundknowledge,somegraduatesstruggleincollege,complainingthattheydon’tknowhowtolearnfromtextbooks.Butaswedevelopanexpertise,masteryissomethingthatweneedtoapply.

Learning isacar thatweneed to take fora spin.Peopleareoften reluctant toexecutewhattheyknow.It’stheghostofAlbertBandura’sideaofself-efficacyfromChapter2:Weareoftentooworriedthatwe’renotgoingtosucceed.But

oncewehaveabasicunderstanding—andsomethoughtfulpractice—weneedtoapplyourexpertiseinsomeclearanddedicatedway.This idea also explainswhy computer simulations can have such a positive

effectonlearning.Theyallowpeopletopracticetheirskillsonamodelofarealsituationorexperience,tousetheirknowledgeinamoresystemicway.I first learned the value of computer-based learning simulations some years

agowhen an email came acrossmy virtual desk: “Be in the boardroom in 10minutes.”Itwasamissivefromaseniorvicepresident in thecompanynamedAlanYoung.A huge fire had been sparked in the firm’s call center,Young’semailexplained,andthecompany’sCEOwasoutonhisboat,sotherewasnoway to contact him. To solve the crisis, the board has given senior staffemergencypowers.Whatdoyoudo?While it feltabit like thestartofabadTVmovie, thiswasa scenario ina

computer-based simulation called vLeader. The technology allows people toapply their skills in a real-world setting without the high stakes. Othersimulations give people the opportunity to learn how to become a betterfirefighterorimprovetheirsocialworkerskills.Simulationsworkbecause they’reaway toapplyourknowledge.Theyhelp

peoplemodelideasandconceptsinmoreintegratedways—andtheevidenceisprettyclear that theyhelppeople learn.Agroupofresearchersoncecomparedanonlinelearningclasswithfocusedsimulationsandothermoreactiveformsoflearning to a traditional online learning program and found themore engagedapproachhelpedprovideoutcomesthatweresomesixtimeshigher.Theresearcherstitledthepaper,“LearningIsNotaSpectatorSport,”whichin

many ways summarizes the point: In order to fully gain a skill, we have toactuallyparticipateinthatskill.

POPQUIZ#14

Trueorfalse:Learningrequiresmistakes.

There’sanotherwaytoapplywhatweknow—teachsomeoneelse.Someyearsago, for instance,DavidGoodstein had a question about quantum statistics.Aphysicist and vice provost at Caltech, Goodstein wanted to knowmore abouthowquantumphysicsmightpredictthebehaviorofaspecifictypeofsubatom.SoGoodsteinvisitedRichardFeynman.Oneofthenation’smostwell-known

scientists, Feynman had helped create the atomic bomb and developed new

modelsofphotonsandeventuallywonaNobelPrize.“Explaintome,sothatIcan understand it, why spin one-half particles obey Fermi-Dirac statistics,”GoodsteinaskedFeynman.AfterhearingGoodstein’squestion,FeynmanpausedandthentoldGoodstein

that the bestway to explain the notionwould be to develop a class for someundergrads on the topic. “I’ll prepare a freshman lecture on it,” FeynmandeclaredtoGoodstein.Feynmanthentooksometimetodwellontheissue.Buteventuallyhebecame

stuck.Thisaspectofquantumphysicsseemedoddlyoutofreach.SoFeynmansheepishlyreturnedtoGoodstein.“Youknow,Icouldn’tdoit.Icouldn’treduceit to the freshman level,” Feynman explained. “That means we really don’tunderstandit.”Itmightseemodd—even ironic—that teachingothers isagoodway togain

insights intoa topic.Yet there’sadeepbodyof researchon the idea.Whetherwe instruct a classof thousands—or just try andexplain something to a smallclassoffreshmen—wegainabettersenseofanareaofexpertisebyteachingit.Researchers call it the Protégé Effect, and it’s really a form of knowledge

application:Byprovidingalessononatopic,we’regivingourowntwistonanidea.We’rearticulatingwhat’simportantaboutthetopic,puttingitintoourownwords,andthusimprovingourexpertise.Asalearningmethod,teachingothersalsorequiresaformofmetacognition.

To explain something,we have to think about the thinking of the person thatwe’re instructing. Put differently, when people educate someone else, they’reasking themselves a series of important questions: What’s the best way toexplain this idea? How will they understand this notion? What is the mostimportanttakeaway?These questions promote learning for the instructor because they force the

persontoturntheproblemaroundinhisorherhead.Peoplehavetoengagewiththematerial inamoremeaningfulway,and it turnsout thatwedon’tactuallyhavetodoanyteachingtogainthebenefitsofthisapproach.InonerecentstudybypsychologistJohnNestojko,forinstance,subjectswho

believedthattheyweregoingtoteachlearnedmorethanagroupofsubjectswhothought they were going to be tested on a topic. According to Nestojko, thebenefit boiled down to the fact that subjects who thought theywere going toprovide instruction processed thematerial in a richerway, even if they didn’tactuallyendupprovidinganytraining.The other important thing about teaching as a form of learning is that

instructionissocial. It’sanemotionalactivity.Whenweteach,wethinkaboutvalueandmeaning,aboutpassionandenjoyment.Afterall,noonewantstohave

their students slumped in their chairs like they’rewaiting in line at theDMV,andsowethinkabouthowtomakethematerialmoreengaging,howtheideasandskillsmightrelatetotheaudience.Peoplesimplyworkharderiftheyknowthatthey’regoingtoteachsomeone

else. The social aspect of teaching othersmakes usmorewilling to put fortheffort.Moreover,teachingisiterative.Afacegoesblank?Presenttheideaagain.Eyeroll?Takeamomenttoengageemotionally.Thestudentstumblesonabitofpriorknowledge?Reviewthatfactagain.Inthisregard,theProtégéEffectisstrongestwhenpeoplearewatchingthelearninginaction.Teaching as learning has been a driver ofmany of the successful programs

thatwe’vealreadycomeacross.WhenIvisitedtheUniversityofWashington’spioneeringfreshmanbiologyclassesthatwesawinChapter1,Iobservedlotsofteachingaslearning,andstudentsfrequentlyworkedinsmallgroups.Samewiththe Success for All model, which we came across in Chapter 2. Cooperativeformsoflearningarecentraltothereformapproach.Over the years, some individuals have developed this approach, too. David

Rönnqvist,forinstance,isacomputergraphicsdeveloperinSweden,andsomeyearsago,hebeganvisitingWebsiteslikeStackOverflowthatallowpeopletopost and respond to questions. To help Rönnqvist extend his skills, hewouldsometimes spend more than an hour each day on Stack Overflow, answeringqueries.Thesitewashisbrowser’shomepage,andheloadedupthesiteeverymorning,sometimeswritinglong,thousand-wordanswers.As an animator, Rönnqvist would typically answer animation-related

questions,andovertime,hefoundthathedevelopedalotofnewtechniquesandperspectivesbyansweringquestionsonthesite.Anotherdeveloperonceposteda question about repeating an animation. It was an approach that Rönnqvistwasn’tfamiliarwith,andsohelearnedmoreaboutthetechniqueandnowusesthepracticefrequentlyinhisownwork.“I would learn a lot by answering questions,” Rönnqvist told me from his

homeinStockholm.“Iwouldpushmyselftoanswerquestionsthatwerealittleharderthanbefore”inordertogainmoreskills.Eventually,RönnqvistevenusedoneofhislongerStackOverflowpostsasawaytolandajobataSwedishtechfirm.Hiswrite-upontheWebsiteshowedthatRönnqvistknewthematerialandcouldexplainittoothersinathoughtfulway.PhysicistRichardFeynmanhad come around to the notion of teaching as a

formoflearningwellbeforeDavidGoodsteinappearedinhisofficetoaskaboutsubatoms. In the 1940s, Feynman hadworked on developing the first nuclearbomb at the Los Alamos Lab. This was long before Feynman had becomefamous,andbackthen,Feynmanwasaquantumnobody,oneofthemostjunior

staffers at the lab. It was everyone else who was well known, and the labbrimmed with a Who’s Who of physics fame from Robert Oppenheimer toEnricoFermi.Still,famedphysicistNielsBohrwouldoftenmeetwithFeynmanprivatelyin

asmallmeetingroom.Atthetime,FeynmanhadnoideawhytheesteemedBohrwouldcareabouthis thoughtsorwhyBohrwould schedulemeetingsbetweenthetwoofthem,usuallyearlyinthemorning.Buteventually,FeynmanrealizedthatBohrintimidatedalmostalloftheother

physicists at the lab, and they would just defer to his theories. Feynman,however,wouldpushback.Heaskedquestions,andevenattheirfirstmeeting,infrontofalargegroupoffellowresearchers,FeynmanpointedoutanerrorinBohr’slogic.So, intheearlymorningmeetings,beforetheotherphysicistscamestrutting

intotheconferencerooms,BohrwouldpresentnewideastoFeynman,whilethejuniorscientist triedtoaskpointedquestions.FeynmanwouldputoutflawsorproblemsorconfusionsinBohr’sideas.“Thisisnogood,”Feynmanmightsay.“Thismaybepossibleifyoudidthis.”Putdifferently,FeynmanpushedtoBohrtoteach—andthustounderstand.

POPQUIZ#15

Whatisretrievalpractice?

A. Agamefordogs.B. Atypeofself-quizzing.C. Anewexamformat.D. Abetterwaytoplaytennis.E. AsportinventedinAustralia.

TheValueofUncertaintyInthischaptersofar,we’vecomeacrossanumberofartists.Someofthemarewell-knownlikeJacksonPollockandMilesDavis.OtherslikeRichardFeynmansimply travel in creative fields. For still others, art is a hobby. The fractalscientist Richard Taylor is an amateur painter. Helen Harrison of the Pollockmuseumstudiedsculptureforyears.Thisisn’tabizarrestrokeofchance.Expandinganareaofknowledgerequires

atypeofcreativity.Weneedtofeelathomewithnuanceanduncertainty,andinfact, researchshows thatpeoplewill learnmore if theybelieve thatanareaofexpertiseistentative,ambiguous,somethingthattheycandiscoverandexplore.All in all,weprobably shouldhave addressed this issue earlier. It’s hard to

expandanysortof skillwithout theexpectation thatyoucanexpand it. Ifyoubelieve learning is just a matter of collecting information, of developingsteadfastprocedures,there’snoreasontofleshoutmasteryindeeperways.Plus, knowledge is uncertain by definition, and just about every area of

expertisehas tentative ideas, subtlenuances, freshareaswaiting fordiscovery.This idea is self-evident, at least for experts. If you’re an authority in a field,ambiguity isagiven.Expertise isalwayschanging. In science, top researchersare constantly building up new areas of knowledge—just look at the constantchurnof journalheadlines. In literature,everyweek, itseems,anotheranalysisoftheGreatAmericanNovelhitsthealreadyoverladenbookshelves.Buteventhemostbasicmathproblemsarereallynotthatdifferent.Theycan

exhibit mind-stretching complexity, offering all sorts of room for ambiguity.Consideradding75 to962.At firstglance, it’s remarkablybasic.Butconsiderthat there are—literally—more than a thousand different ways to solve thequestion,noneofthemanymorecorrectthananyoftheothers.Thisapproach ismore thanawaytomastery. It’sanactualgoal,asphysics

educatorAndrewElbytoldme.Afterall,welearnareasofexpertiseasawaytograpple with the world, to understand complexity, to shift our patterns ofthought.Thisistrueforwell-knownexperts—andrawbeginners.“Learningisaboutreasoningandexplanation,notjustrightanswers,”Elbytoldme.More than that, this idea also reflects the world that we live in, and the

KnowledgeEconomy has become theThinkingEconomy. In otherwords,weneedmore subtle formsofknowledge inorder to succeed, andevenacademicareasthatmightseemrotejustaren’tthatroteanymore.Takethemilitary.Therewasatimenotalongagowhenthearmedservices

were all about learning the rules, following orders, and executing commands.TheUnitedStateswonWorldWarIIinexactlythismanner:Five-stargeneralsorderedmassiveamountsofmenontotheshoresofBelgiumtobattletheirwaytoBerlin.But themilitary is changing because theworld is changing, and theUnited

States isnevergoing towinawar in thesameway that itwonWorldWar II.The days of fixed battles, of set marches are over. As one military scienceprofessorexplained,“Whatwe’retryingtogetawayfromisthe‘rightanswer’typeoftraining.”At least within the field of learning, no one seems to take this idea more

seriously thanpsychologistMarkRunco.Moreanyother learningexpert that Iinterviewed,Runcotriestoavoid“rightanswer”approachestoexpertise.WhenI reachedRunco at his office at theUniversity ofGeorgia, he toldme that henever drives the same way to work, always commuting on a different set ofroads.To embrace uncertainty and promote new ways of thinking, Runco also

shavesdifferentlyeachday.SometimesRuncouseshislefthand,sometimesheuseshisright.Healwaysstartsatadifferentpointonhisface.Runcoeventriesto tie his shoes in a new way every day. “That’s actually gotten kind ofdifficult,”Runcotoldme.“There’safinitenumberofwaystotieyourshoes,Ithink.”Runcoarguesthatthisapproachmakeshimmoreopen-minded.Itensuresthat

he’smindfulofsmalldifferences.Plus,Runcoargues,peopleoftenneedalittleproddingtobemorenuanced.InstudiesinRunco’slab,forinstance,peoplewillengageinalotmoreopen-endedformsoflearningifthey’vebeentoldtoengageinopen-endedformsoflearning.“Inmanycases,‘onlythinkoforiginalideas’isallyouhavetosaytopeople,”Runcosaid.Part of the benefit ofRunco’s approach is that it pushes people to question

theirbeliefs.InRunco’scase,forinstance,hedoesn’tassumethathighwaysgethim toworkany faster.Hedoesn’t assume that shavingwithhis righthand isanybetterthanshavingwithhisleft,eventhoughhe’sright-handed.Thesesortsof variations have helped Runco learn some new streets in his neighborhood.He’s also become a bit more ambidextrous—and much better at tying knots.“Creativityisatypeoflearning,”hetoldme.Admittedly,Runcomightgotoofar.Therearerightanswers,certainlywhen

itcomestodrivingsomewhereinthefastesttimepossible.Butthecorelessonisan important one: Effective learning requires uncertainty. We need to seeambiguity. Expertise rests on shifting how we think about a skill or bit ofknowledge.This is why changing perspectives can be such a powerful learning tool.

Becausewhenweconsiderotherpointsofview,weacquireamoresubtleformofunderstanding.So,ifsomeoneislearningaboutthefalloftheSovietUnion,theywouldgaina lotby lookingat the issuefromdifferentperspectives.Howdid Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachev understandwhat happened?What aboutPresidentGeorgeH.W.Bush?Ifyou lived inMoscow,wouldyou take to thestreetstosupportthefalloftheregime?Self-questioningcanalsohelpusfindsubtlety,andwecanlearnmoreifwe

ask ourselves:Why do people believe this idea?Why might they be wrong?What’sadifferentexplanation?

Psychologist Keith Sawyer has a helpful way to think about this approach.Specifically,Sawyerarguesthatpeopleshould“stretch”and“squeeze”issuestouncovermorenuance.Whenwestretchaproblem,wemakeitmoreabstract—andthuspotentiallyeasiertosolve.Orpeoplecansqueezeanissueandmakeitmoreconcrete,whichoftengivesdifferentinsights.If we’re having a hard time with sailing, for instance, we can stretch the

practiceandask:Whyexactlydoesthewindmakeasailboatmove?Howdoestackingactuallywork?Orwecouldsqueezetheissueandmakeitmoreconcreteasawaytolearnmore:HowdoIusetherudderinwindyconditions?HowdoIslowdownafast-movingboat?AsSawyerargues,thoughtfulquestionsareoftenthebiggestdriversofmore

subtle forms of learning. They create new ways to frame problems, and justabout every major invention basically answers a new question, according toSawyer.Thequery“HowcanIputayearbookonline?”sparkedFacebook.Thereason thatSalKhancreated theonline tutoringprogram, theKhanAcademy,wastoanswerthequestion:HowcanIhelpmycousinNadiagetbetteratmath?Askyourself:HowcanIextendwhatIknow?

POPQUIZ#16

Trueorfalse:Intelligenceisfixedatbirth.

Oneeasyway to introducemorenuanceandcomplexity into learning issocialdiversity.Thepeoplewhosurroundushaveadeepinfluenceonhowwethink,andinevitably,peoplefromdifferentbackgroundspromotemorecomplexformsofexpertise.Foranexample,recallthestoryoftheDutchtulipcrash,perhapstheworld’s

firsteconomicbubble.Accordingtohistorians,thetulipeconomybeganjustasthe Netherlands started to become wealthy in the early seventeenth century.Becauseofoverseas trade,manyDutchmerchantsgrewrich,a sudden rashofimmense wealth, and tulips became a symbol of money, the McMansions oftheirtime.The prices for bulbs began to climb, and inmanyways, the story becomes

familiar to anyonewho follows thenews:The tradersmade riskier and riskierbets on tulips. Contracts grewmore complicated and byzantine. People begantradingbulbs that theydidn’tknowanythingabout,whilequickprofits soaredwithmarkupsof100percentormore.Butthenthetulipbulbmarketbombed.Atonepoint,bulbsweretradingfor

morethanthecostofafancyAmsterdamhome.Yetwithinamatterofweeks,thesamesmallbrown,earthybulbwasworthclosetonothing,barelyenoughtotradeforasliceofbread.ItbecameknownasTulpenwoerde,ortulipmania.Bymodernstandards, thetulipbubblewasn’tall thatmuchofabubble.But

thecrisisshinesalightononeofthecausesofeconomiccrashes:toolittlesocialdiversity.BecauseasresearcherMauritsvanderVeenrecentlyargued,manyoftheDutch traders knew each other socially in someway. Themen all sharedchurches and families. They had similar jobs and backgrounds. The group oftradersformedasetof“densesocialnetworks,”vanderVeenwritesinhispaperonthecrash.They“allknewoneanotherasfellowaficionados.”These social connections influenced the traders, and they had “an inflated

senseoftheexpertiseoftheirpeers,”accordingtovanderVeen.Indeed,forvander Veen, the “dense, localized social network made the bubble possible”through a type of peer pressure. Or think of the tulip bubble as a type ofeconomicgroupthink.What’simportanttokeepinmindisthatatradeisessentiallyanargument.By

purchasing something in amarket, we’re saying that the item is undervalued.That’swhytradesareoftencalledbetsorhedges,andforthemostpart,marketsworkbecausegroupshaveacertainintelligence.Whenweaveragetheopinionsofalargebodyofpeople,they’regenerallymoreaccuratethantheopinionsoftheindividuals.Lots has been written about this idea in wonderful books like James

Surowiecki’sTheWisdomofCrowds.Ask a lot of people to solve a problem,andgenerallyyou’regoingtogetabettersolution.Putadifficultissueinfrontofagroup,and theanswerwillbebetterdevelopedand reasoned.This is trueeven within large companies, and more social diversity leads to higherproductivity.For us, the first takeaway is that diverse groups promote richer forms of

thinking.Whenwe’rewithpeoplewhoaredifferentthanus,wearemorelikelytoengageincomplexthought.SheenLevineattheUniversityofTexasatDallashas studied how people of varying ethnicities think in groups and found thatdifferences in ethnic backgrounds make people do more to consider theevidence.Levinebelievesthatpeoplebecomemorecriticaloftheirownthinkingwhen

they’resurroundedbypeoplewhoarenotlikethem,andhehasshownasmuchinexperimentsthatapproximateastockmarket.“Inthepresenceofpeoplewholookdifferent thanus,weput less trust in the reasonablenessof theactionsofpeople,” Levine toldme. “So people tend to think for themselves rather thanmimicothers.”

In Levine’s work, ethnic diversity promotes critical thinking by makingpeoplemoreskeptical. Itpushespeople toaskmorequestions. Inhisownlife,Levine takes this idea pretty seriously. When Levine makes any decision—buyingacar, takinganew job—he tries toconsultwith friends fromdifferentbackgrounds. For research projects, he tries to create as diverse a team aspossible, and for one of his stock market studies, he made sure that hiscolleagues differed in age, gender, religion, ethnicity, and professionalbackground.“Diversitymakesyoubrighter,”hetoldme.Whenitcomestolearning, there’smoregoingonhere.Diversitydoesmore

thanpromotedoubt.Wealsodevelopexpertise from theperspectiveofothers.Maybethebestwayofunderstandingthisideaistoimagineagroupofpeoplewho generally have similar backgrounds. Let’s call them the Geeks. Thenimaginewhat Imight call the Lunch Room. It contains some geeks, but alsosomejocks,goths,andairheads.AccordingtoexperimentsdonebyscholarScottPage, theLunchRoomwill

typicallybeatouttheGeekswhenitcomestoproblemsolving.WhiletheGeeksmight be bright, they’re limited by their intellectual toolbox.They can’t thinkdifferently about a solution. They are stuck with a Geek way of thinking. Incontrast, the people in theLunchRoombenefit fromdiversity, and so they’rebetter able to solve problems. They gain a more intricate form of expertise.“Novelperspectivesonproblemsdonotcomefromtheether,”Pagewrites.“Weoftenconstructthemfromotherperspectives.”Thebottom-upnatureof technologycanmakeadifferencehere. Itcanhelp

create the communication that fosters this sort of learning, to help build linksacrossdifferentgroups.Inaway, this issimplyoneof the inherentbenefitsofthe Internet. It’s made the cost of connecting with vastly different peoplebasicallyzero.Not long ago, for instance, Melissa Schaser enrolled in a Bible class at

VanderbiltUniversity.Aspartofthecourse,Schaser—anaspiringpastor—hadtobuildherownWikipediaentry,whichotherstudentswouldcommenton.Shealso reviewed the work of other students and provided feedback. “Thoroughexplicationofthetext!”shenotedononeentry.Theonline exchangeof viewshelpedSchaser developher understanding. It

pushedhertothinkmoredeeplyaboutthewaythattheBibleiswovenintothemodernworld.Onestudent,forinstance,detailedtheroleofsaltintheBible.Hediscusseddifferenttypesofsalt—anddescribedthevariouswaysthattheBibletalks about themineral in different rituals. “Iwouldhavenever thought aboutsaltintheBible,”Schasertoldme.Today,SchaserisapastorinNashville,anddueinparttothedivinityschool

class,she’lloftenweaveeverydayculturereferences intoherpastoralwork. Inonerecentarticle,forinstance,shemadeuseofarecentcommercialrolledoutby the office company Staples. “Once you’re in tune to it, you see biblicalmetaphorseverywhere,”shetoldme.“It’saveryhumantext.”There’sanimportantqualificationhere.Onlineoroff,wedon’tactuallyenjoy

diversity. It’s socially uncomfortable to engagewith peoplewho are differentfromus.Formanyofus,engagingpeoplewhodon’tourviewsorbackgroundproduces social anxiety. As one academic paper concluded simply, “diversitycontributestoincreasedconflict.”This explains why people tend to spend time with people similar to them.

Theywantthecomfortofpeoplewholookandactlikethem.WhenIspoketoLevine,hepointedoutthatwhenheasksstudentsinhisclassestoformgroups,theyoftenpartnerupwiththeirpeers.Theblackmalestudentspairupwiththeother black students. The white women gather in clusters. “They frequentlyselectthosewhoaresuperficiallysimilartothem,”hetoldme.Surprisingly,thishappensafterLevinehasexplainedthepowerfulbenefitsof

diversity. They “disregard the advice to feel the emotional benefits of ethnichomogeneity,”Levinesays.Thesolution?Levineassignsgroupstoensuremorediverseperspectives. “The studentsarenothappywith this,but itmakes themmorewillingtochallengeeachother,”hesays,andthus,theylearnalotmore.

POPQUIZ#17

Trueorfalse:Learnersshouldn’tsetgoals.

In a way, I’ve been arguing that richer forms of learning require a type ofskepticism. To gain expertise, to expand on what we know, there has to bedoubt.Weneedtoquestion—andevenrebel.As a case study, then, Jackson Pollock remains valuable. His learning was

fueledbyatypeofdissent,andwhenPollockfirstarrivedinNewYork,manybelieved that he was a glaringly awful painter. One high school friend said,“That fellow couldn’t draw!”Another colleague declared that Pollock “didn’thavewhatittakes.”Still, Pollockworkedon his technique.Dedicated, almost obsessed,Pollock

practiced, clocking hours upon hours in his studio. Eventually, he collected afew ardent supporters. Painter Thomas Benton admired Pollock’s sense ofunorthodoxy. Art critic Clement Greenberg championed Pollock as anuncommon talent. It helped that collector Peggy Guggenheim would

occasionallysnatchupapaintingortwo.Pollockadmittedthatheneverwantedtomastereverytechnicalflourish.He

wasn’tamodern-dayVermeer.YetPollockhadafightthathewantedtofight,arebellionthatheaimedtolead.Itwasn’tthatPollockalwaysbelievedinhimself.Ravagedbymentalhealthproblems,hediedinanalcohol-soakedcaraccident.Rather,withsomeambition—anda lotof rebellion—Pollockbelieved thathehadsomethingtosayandthathewasgoingtosayit.Mostofusaren’t likethis—andgenerally,peoplelikecertainty.Likeanold

wintercoat,certaintyprovidesasenseofcomfort.It’ssimpler tolearnasetoffacts.Procedurescomeprettyeasilytous.Justtellustheanswer,wewillsay.Thisaffinityforassuranceisbakedintoourbrain,andourthoughtsgenerally

tend to swirl around the same ideas.We anchor ourselves towhatever seemsaccepted.Asanexample, let’s imaginethatIspinawheelnumbered1to100.Thenumber10popsup.ThenIaskyousomethinglike“WhatpercentofBeatlesalbums won a Grammy?” Your answer is likely going to hover around 25percent,accordingastudybypsychologistDanielKahneman.But then I spin the wheel again. This time a higher number pops up—the

number 65. Then I ask you a different but similar type of question, “Whatpercentofdogsareblack?”ResearchbyKahnemanshows thatyouranswer isnowlikelytohoveraround55.For experts likeKahneman,what’s happening here is pretty clear:The first

numberthatIwouldsay—the10orthe65—hasagroundingeffect.Thefigure,it seems, to provide a type of certainty, anchoring our thoughts. Sowhenwethinkabout thenumber10,wethinkabout lowernumbers,andwhenwethinkaboutthenumber65,wethinkabouthighernumbers.For many of us, distrust is what changes this equation. A streak of

rebelliousnessmakes usmore curious—and creative—and at this stage in thelearningprocess,people shouldhavea rootedwillingness toconsiderdifferentideas,toseekoutcompetingtheories.Whenitcomestoindividuals,muchofthetake-homeadviceisthingswe’ve

discussed:Asklotsofwhyquestionsinordertomakeconnections.Makesuretoapply what you know so you have a keen sense of the material and itscomplexity.Tryandteachmasterytootherssoyoureallyknowwhatyouknow.Alsodon’thesitatetoargueapoint—you’lllearnalotmorebydevelopingyourreasoning.Asistrueofsomanyideasineducation,it’seasytogotoofar,andI’mnot

sayingthateveryquestionhasmultipleanswers.Theanswerto75plus962willalways equal 1,037. Nor can we easily develop these sort of thinking skillsoutsideofaspecificdomain.Inotherwords,theKnowledgeEffectstillrules.

But we have to acknowledge that learning runs on difficult questions. Itrequiresan insurrectionistattitude.ThisapproachranstronginPollock,andasart historian Deborah Solomon argues, the artist eventually rebelled againsteverymentorthatheeverhad,fromThomasBentontoClementGreenberg.Asa learner, it turnsout,RichardFeynmanwasnodifferent.Hesometimes

wouldfakehisknowledgeofItalian,simplymakingupwords,especiallywhendrivers tried to cut him off riding his bike. “You have to have absoluteconfidence,”Feynmanadvised.Thebest tip, though,might come fromMilesDavis,whooncewrote: “The

thingtojudgeinanyjazzartistis,doesthemanprojectanddoeshehaveideas.”When it comes to learning, we should have similar estimations—and try toextend what we know. To paraphrase Davis, then, the thing to judge in anylearneris,doesheorsheexpandandhavenewideas.

Chapter5

RELATE

Alberteinsteinwouldoftenengageinthoughtexperiments.PerhapstheearliestonedatesbacktoEinstein’steens.Itwasaround1895,andEinsteinwaslivingin Switzerland.Hewas a youngmanwith a slim, handsome face and a thickheadofhair.Enrolledinalocalhighschool,Einsteintookphysicsandchemistryclassesandoftenspenthiseveningsdeepinhistextbooks.As part of his thought experiment, Einstein imagined a light beammoving

through space like a wave, with regular crests and dips, much like a wavemovingthroughtheocean.ThenEinstein imaginedhimselfspeedingalongsidethebeamoflight.Inhismind,Einsteinwouldbemovingatthesamespeedasthebeamoflight,travelingattheexactsamerate.Ifthathappened—ifEinsteinwas right next to the beam—he realized that the wave of light would appearstationary,likeitwasnotmovingatall.ForadifferentexampleofEinstein’srealization,imagineforamomentyou’re

drivingyourcaratexactlysixtymilesperhour.Ifyoulookoveratanothercar,thesecondcarwouldseemlikeit’smotionless.Sincethesecondcarisgoingtheexactsamespeedasyourcar,itwouldappeartobestationarylikeatreeorrock.Immediately,Einstein realized that something did not add up.The speed of

lightwassupposedtobeaconstant.But inhismind,Einsteincouldimagineascenarioinwhichthespeedoflightdidn’tseemtomove,atleasttothepersonwhowasmovingnexttothebeamoflight.Thesetwothingsshouldnotbetrueatthesametime,anditproduced“allsortsofnervousconflicts,”Einsteinlaterwrote.Asalearningexercise, thoughtexperimentsdatebacktotheancientGreeks,

andgenerally,theyareawayofthinkinganideathough.They’resomethingthatpushespeopletounderstandhowaskillorbitofexpertisecomestogetherasasystem, and in this chapter, we’re going to lookmore closely at howwe canlearnbylookingforrelationshipswithinafieldofexpertise.Understandingatopic’sunderlyingconnectionsisoftenthehardestpartofthe

learning process, yet in the end, it’s also why we learn. It’s how we createmastery. In fact,Einstein credited his thought experiment as the trigger of histheoryofspecialrelativity.AsEinsteinlaterwrote,“Oneseesinthisparadoxthegermofthespecialrelativitytheoryisalreadycontained.”

POPQUIZ#18

POPQUIZ#18

Trueorfalse:Highlightersareagoodlearningtool.

Someoftheearlyresearchonsystemsthinkingoccurredaroundthesametimethat Einstein published his theory of relativity. The study took place at theUniversityofChicago,andaspartoftheproject,psychologistCharlesJuddhadtwogroupsofsubjectsfiredartsatatargetsubmergedunderwater.The first groupof subjects simplypracticed theprocedure, repeatedly firing

darts at the underwater target some four inches away. The second groupexecuted the same procedure, but they also learned about the notion ofrefraction,orthewaythatlightshiftswhenit’sunderwater.Then Juddmoved the underwater target to a spot twelve inches away, and

whilebothgroupsdidequallywellathitting the targetat four inches,only thesecondgroupcouldhitthetargetwithanyaccuracyattwelveinches.The students who understood the relationship between light and water, it

seemed,werebetterable tohit the target inadifferentsetting.Theycouldusetheir learning in a new context.Because their knowledgewas part of a richersystemofthought,theirknowledgewasmoreflexible.CognitivescientistLindseyRichlandhaswrittenalotaboutthisideainrecent

years, and in a landmark paper, she argued that to build concepts, to solveproblems,toengageinanysortofcriticalthought,peopleneedtograpplewithpatternswithinanareaofexpertise.Richland developed this idea after spending years hunting through a wide

body of academic fields—frommath to history—and showing thatmastery isultimately defined by a sense of how knowledge structures connect to eachother.“Theunderpinningsoftheabilitytodohigher-orderthinkingreallycomesdowntoreasoningaboutrelationships,”RichlandtoldmewhenIvisitedherattheUniversityofChicago.Expertsengageinthistypeofsystemsthinkingalot.Intheirfields,dedicated

specialistsunderstandhowthingscometogether,andsotheycanlookpastchaosandcomplexityanduncovertheessenceofanidea.PabloPicassoisfamousforoncehavingsketchedabullusingjustsevenlines.GreatlawyerslikeThurgoodMarshallhavesimilarskillsandcaneasilyfindthekeyargumentinajumbleoflegaldetails.Foranotherillustration,justthinkofthepurifiedeleganceofapopsongby theBeatles:Thebandmade themusicallycomplicatedseemperfectlyuncomplicated.What’s more, Richland showed that if people relate what they know, they

developsharperreasoningskills.So,forinstance,ifsomeonelearnsmoreabout

relationshipsandsystemswithinmath,theyhavedeepermathreasoningskills.Ifsomeone finds out more about the way that historical details couple to eachother, they have a richer historical understanding. “Effective learning comesdowntothinkingaboutrelationships,”Richlandargues.As an example, take learning about the ocean. Richland argues that some

peoplemightdwellonastand-alonefactlikethetemperatureofthewaterorthevolume of the ocean. But to develop reasoning skills, to create a systemsunderstanding,peopleshouldexaminequestionslike:Whathappenstotheoceanif the level of salt goes up?What’s the difference between oceans and lakes?Howdoreefsimpactoceancurrents?These sorts of questions do a lot to push people to develop their thinking

about a field—and fully understand an idea or topic or skill. “You don’t justwant to bememorizing awhole bunch of stuff,”Richland toldme. “To learneffectively, people should be finding causes, finding analogues, findingdifferences.”Richland developed her theory based on academic fields like physics and

math, and after speakingwithher, Iwas intrigued.So I thought I’d see if herargumentextendedtosomethingalittlelessscholarlyandsignedupforaclasson,yes,wine.Thereare,ofcourse,anumberofwaysforpeople tohone theirviniculture skills. Someone could globe-trot though vineyards or attendworkshoporevenjustsamplealotofwine.ButgivenRichland’swork,Islippedintoaclassonhowtomatchwineswith

foods. I wanted to know:Would thinking about relationships give me richerinsights,abetterwaytopolishmyknowledge?WineexpertAmandaWeaver-Page taught theclassona rainyFridaynight.

Dressed in an all-white chef’s outfit, Weaver-Page started the class byexplaining somewine basics. She spoke about issues of acidity, detailing theideaoftannins,whichgiveredwinestheirsharpflavor.Texturewascrucial,too.“Thinkofalight-bodiedwineascomparabletoskimmilk,”Weaver-Pagesaid.“Andafull-bodiedwineismorelikewholemilk.”Weaver-Pagearguedthatthematchingofawinewasaboutcomplements.The

food,inotherwords,shouldsupportthewine,whilethewinesupportsthefood—a typeofnourishmentying-yang.That’swhy lighterwinesoftengosowellwith lighter meals like fruit, while heavy red wines support something like agrilled rib eye: “Pair a light-bodiedwinewith something texturally heavy likesteak,andit’sgoingtooverwhelmthewine.”At first, I was generously skeptical of some ofWeaver-Page’s points. Like

people talking about high-end art or fancy cars, there’s a hefty dose ofexhibitionismthatcomeswithwinetalk.Butthencamethefirstpairing.Agoat

cheesesaladwasmatchedwithaSpanishAlbariñowine,and the relationshipsbetweenthetwowereclear,givingmeaninsightintothenatureofwinethatIhadneverexperiencedbefore.Thewine’sessence—softandlime-like—seemedbeyondquestion.Thencamethenextwine—anAustralianShiraz.Weaver-Pagepaireditwith

grilledlambwithmintpesto,andagain:Thewine’sflavorwascrystalline—rich,almostlewd,likesomethingfromamedievalcarnival.WhenIposedRichland’stheorytoWeaver-Page,shenoddedinagreement.“Pairingsgivepeopleagoodintroductiontothewaythatwineworks,”shetoldme.In fact, Weaver-Page had a similar experience during her early years of

culinary school.An instructor had given her a tannin-filledwine,whichmadeher lipspucker likeagrade schoolkiss.Then the instructorgaveherabiteofcheddar.“Thefatsmoothedoutthetannins.Ittastedtotallydifferent,”shesaid.When I left the class some two hours later, there were still gaps in my

knowledge.Weaver-Pagehadputalotofthoughtintothepairings,andifIhadpicked up a bottle of plonk andmatched it upwith someMcDonald’s fries, Iwouldhavehadaverydifferentexperience.ButIcouldalsosaywithcertaintythatmythinkingaboutwinehadchanged.Ihadaglimpseofwhatitwasliketothinklikeawineexpert,toseetheworldofwineinamoresystemicway.

POPQUIZ#19

Ayoung child solvesabasicmathproblem,writing “3+ 3=6.” Thechild’sparentswanttoseeifthechildalsounderstandstheunderlyingadditionprinciple.Whatshouldtheynotask?

A. Do you know anotherway of adding two numbers so that theyequalthenumber6?

B. Canyouelaborateonyouranswer?C. Whyisthatthecorrectanswer?D. Isyouranswercorrect?

Perhapsoneofthemostimportantthingsaboutlookingforrelationshipswithinanareaofexpertise is that itprovides insights intoa field’sdeeperstructure. Ilearned this aspect of the learning processmyself in an awkward sort ofwaywhenImetupwithpsychologistRobGoldstone.A professor at Indiana University, Bloomington, Goldstone is tall and bald

withawrysmile.WemetupatacoffeeshopindowntownWashington.“Youseemlikeasmartguy,”Goldstonesaidafterwe’dbeentalkingforabit.

“CanIputyouonthespot?”“Sure,”Isaid,nervouslyfingeringmynotepad.Goldstonethenpresentedmewithaversionofthefollowingproblem:

Anagingkingplanstodividehiskingdomamonghisdaughters.Eachcountrywithinthekingdomwillbeassignedtooneofhisdaughters.(Itispossibleformultiple countries to be assigned to the same daughter.) In how manydifferentways can the countriesbeassigned, if thereare five countriesandsevendaughters?

AfterGoldstonefinished,Iwrotedownsomeofthekeypoints,notingthefivecountries and seven daughters. Then I started to draw the provinces.Would arepresentationofthesituationhelpmefigureouttheanswer?“Does it have something to do with factorials? That somehow seems

familiar?”Isaid.Goldstonescratchedhisneck.“You’regettingcloser.”Ikeptworkingattheproblem.“CanIgiveyouahint?”Goldstonesaid.“If thekinggivesGermany toone

daughter,hecanstillgiveFrancetothesamedaughter.”I nodded but still struggled, and eventually Goldstone just explained the

answer:“Iftherearesevenoptions,ordaughters,foreachofthefivethings,orkingdoms,thatneedtobeassignedtoanoption,therewouldbe7×7×7×7×7or75possibilities,”heexplained.Goldstone explained that the problem hinged on a math concept known as

samplingwithreplacement.Thetopicwastypicallytaughtinmiddleschoolandcouldbeboileddowntoformula:“Thenumberofoptionsraisedtothepowerofthenumberofselections.”SowhydidIgettheanswerwrong?Toanswerthatquestion,it’simportantto

first understand the nature of problems. Psychologists likeGoldstone describeproblemsashavingbothsurfaceanddeepfeatures.Surfacefeaturesaretypicallythe concrete or superficial elements. In the king problem, for instance, thesurfacefeatureswerethelandsandthechildrenandtheageoftheking.Thedeepfeaturestendtobeconceptsorskills,andinthekingproblem,the

deepfeatureswere“thenotionofsamplingwithreplacement,theconceptofanoption, and the concept of a selection event,” according to Goldstone. In mycase,Icouldn’tseethedeepfeature.Thesuperficialelementsdistractedme.Aswesatnexttothecoffeeshopwindow,Goldstonearguedthatpeopleoften

get distracted by the shallow details of a problem. He calls it “the greatestcognitivedifficulty.”Takealookatthisproblemforanotherexample:

Ahomeownerisgoingtorepaintseveralroomsinherhouse.Shechoosesonecolorofpaintforthelivingroom,oneforthediningroom,oneforthefamilyroom, and so on. (It is possible formultiple rooms to be painted the samecoloror fora colornever tobeused.) Inhowmanydifferentways can shepainttherooms,ifthereare8roomsand3colors?

TheproblemalsocomesfromGoldstone’sstudy.Butunlessyou’vehadsomeexperience in sampling with replacement, it’s not immediately clear that theproblemisalsogettingatthesameissueofsamplingwithreplacement.Inotherwords, it’shard tograsp that theproblemhasdifferent superficial featuresbutgetsatthesamedeeperfeatures.“Toseethisconnectionyouneedtoseetherolethat daughters and colors play in their respective scenarios—they arealternatives,”Goldstoneargues.Sohowdopeopleseethedeepfeatureinaproblemorareaofexpertise?Well,

oneoftheeasiestwaysgoesbacktothenotionofsystems,ofrelationships,anditoftenpays tomixupour learning.Whenpeople seemultipleexampleswithdifferent surface details, they’re far more likely to understand the underlyingsystem.Goldstonehasseenthisinhislab:Ifpeoplecomeacrossavarietyofdifferent

samplingwithreplacementproblemswithdifferentsurfacefeatures,they’refarmore likely to understand the core idea. They get amuch richer sense of thedeepersystem.Alibraryofresearchprovidesfurthersupportforthevalueofmixingupour

learning. In one study from the 1990s, someyoungwomen learned to fire offfoul shots. Some practiced only foul shots. Others took more of a jumbled,mixed-up approach—they practiced foul shots as well as eight-and fifteen-footers.Theresultswereremarkable:Thejumbled-shotgroupperformedmuchbetter,withadeepersenseoftheunderlyingskill.The same is true in more academic fields, frommemory tests to problem-

solving skills: By mixing up practice, by interweaving different examples,people have a better sense of the underlying relationships. They get a keenersenseofthesystemwithoutcomessometimesasmuchas40percenthigher.Therearesomeprettyclearpracticalapplicationsofthisresearch,andpeople

should vary their practice—and avoid repetition. “The ultimate crime ispracticing the same thing multiple times in a row. Avoid it like the plague,”psychologistNateKornell toldme. Instead,“practice fora longchunkof time

butdon’trepeatanything.”For example, let’s take someonewhowants to learnmore about American

history,andthey’resupposedtoreadtwoarticlesabouttheRevolutionaryWar,two articles about the Civil War, and two articles about the Cold War. Theresearchmakesclear that thepersonwouldhavedeeper insightsbymixingupthetexts:SofirstaRevolutionaryWararticle,thenaCivilWararticle,andthenaColdWar article, and then repeating the process.Why?Becausemixing thearticleshelpspeopleidentifylinksacrossthedifferenttopicareas.Granted, peoplewill do this on their own. In skiing, for instance, someone

might try to gain experience in different environments—twisty mountains,mogul-filledhills—alongwithdifferentsnowconditions,frompowdertoicy.Inwoodworking, people will try different tools and practice on various sorts ofwood,oak,pine,orfir.Butpeopledon’t typicallyvarytheirpractice—orexamples—nearlyenough.

To spot deep connections, we need a lot of examples. In Goldstone’sexperiment, for instance, people really learned the deeper structure only afterdoingahalf-dozenproblems.Moreimportant,weneedtomixupthoseinstancesinaverydirectway.The

contrasts between the examples need to be immediate—and explicit. In theskiingexample,forinstance,it’snotenoughtoskiapowderyslopeoneyearandanicyhillthenextyear.Thebenefitsofamorejumbledformoflearningcomefromhavingtheexperiencedirectlyaftereachother.So,then,findanicyhilltoshootdownrightafterskiingthepowderyone.Theotherthingtokeepinmindhereisthatrelationshipscanbeslippery.It’s

oftenhardtofindsystems,toseethedeeperstructure.PsychologistBrianRossrecommends, for instance, that people be explicit about the deep structurethey’veidentified.Inhisresearch,Rosshasfoundthatpeoplesolveproblemsalotmoreeasilyiftheywritethenameoftheconcept—ordeepstructure—nexttotheissue.Soifsomeonecomesacrossaquestionlikethis:

Askateboarder entersa curved rampmovingpretty quickly, flyingalongataboutaspeedof6.5milespersecond.Thentheskateboarderleavestherampinajump,slowingdownslightlyto4milespersecond.Theskateboarderandtheskateboardhaveacombinedmassof55kilograms.What’s theheightoftheramp?

The person should be clear about the principle andwrite down the conceptalongsideofit.Inthiscase,somethingalongthelinesof:Thetotalmechanical

energy is the same in the first and final state. Similarly, I shouldwrite downsampling with replacement if I come across another problem featuring amonarchwithsevendaughtersandfivelands.

There’sanotherwaytofindrelationshipswithinafieldofexpertise,andthat’sspeculating.As a tool for understanding, as an aspect of the learning process,conjectureisaprettyoldpractice.It’scertainlyasoldastheBible,andtheGoodBookislitteredwithdifferenttypesofhypotheticals.“Whatiftherearefiftyrighteouspeopleinthecity?”Abrahamasksbeforethe

destruction of the city of Gomorrah. Later in the Old Testament,Moses asksGod, “What if people don’t believe me?” Jesus of Nazareth also frequentlyreliedontherhetoricaldevice.“WhatifyouseetheSonofManascendtowherehewasbefore?”heonceaskedhisdisciples.Atleastinthisregard,theBibleisn’tprophetic.TheQuranalsoreliesonall

sorts of hypotheticals. So do theAnalects ofConfucius. For ancientwriters—and most modern ones—the purpose of speculative queries is to push us toconsider how ideas come together as awhole.Hypotheticalsmake us grapplewithsystems.Consider,forinstance,thequestion:Whatwouldhappenifyoucouldnottalk

fortherestofyourlife?There’snotasimpleyesornoanswertothequery,andifyouspendany time thinkingaboutyouranswer,you’d thinkabout systems,noodling over how you communicate with friends, how you network withcolleagues,howyouultimatelyengagewithanypersonthatyoumeet.Speculation forces a type of reasoning, a manner of thinking. Recall, for

another example, Einstein’s thought experiment that we discussed at thebeginningofthischapter.Inmanyways,theexercisewaslittlemorethanasetof hypotheticals:What if Einsteinwasmoving at the speed of light?What iflightappearedtobenotmovingatall?Einstein continued to use hypotheticals through his career, using much the

same approach to discover the theory of general relativity. In that instance,Einsteinaskedhimself:What if someonewas falling froma roof?What if thepersonfallinghadatoolboxthatfellnexttothem?Later,Einsteincalledthisbitofconjecture“hishappiestthought”inlargepartbecauseitunleashedawaveofnewunderstanding.Therearemorerecentexamples,too.ApplecofounderSteveJobsunderstood

the value of the approach, and he would ask speculative questions when hewantedtograpplefullywithanidea.WhenJobsreturnedtoAppleasCEOinthelate1990s,forinstance,hewantedtogetabetterhandleonthecompany.Sohe

pulledinmanagers,pepperingthemwithquerieslike“Ifmoneywerenoobject,whatwouldyoudo?”and“Ifyouhadtocuthalfofyourproducts,howwouldyoudoit?”Wecandothisourselves.Ifyou’reworkingonatoughproblem,askyourself

“what if”questions.What ifwehadmore time?What ifwehadmorepeople?What ifwe hadmore resources? The answers are often provocative and shedlightonhowaproblemcomestogetherasasystem.Interestingly,thepowerofthissortofhypotheticalthinkinggoesbacktoour

childhood,orbacktosomeoneaboutasdifferentasSteveJobsaspossible:youraveragetoddler.Ifyouspendmuchtimewithkids,youknowthatitdoesn’ttakemuchforthemtoengageinpretendplay.Mostchildrencanclockhoursplayingschool or they’ll convince themselves that they’re Superman, leaping off acouch,armsoutstretched,screaming:Totherescue!What’s important here is that pretend play is a type of hypothetical.When

kidsengageinimaginationgameslikepretendingtobeacapedcrusader,they’reengaginginspeculation.AndforresearcherslikeAllisonGopnick,thisactivitygoesalongwaytodevelopingrobustthinkingskills.“Pretendplay,inparticular,isrelatedtoaveryspecificbutveryimportanttypeoflearningandreasoning—namely the kind of counterfactual reasoning that is intimately involved withcausalknowledgeandlearning,”writesGopnickandacolleague.Asadults,wecan’tpretendtobeSuperman,atleastnotatwork.Butthereare

otherways todevelopsystemsthinkinginanarea, tofindanunderstandingoftherelationshipsthatmatter.One approach is the scientific process.Most people probably remember the

basics—it’s a strategy of understanding the world through a process ofexperimentation.Thestepsareasfollows:

1. Lookattheevidence.2. Developatheory.3. Testthetheory.4. Cometoaconclusion.

What’s interesting is that the scientific process isn’t all that different than a“what if” question. It’s a speculative process that relies on data, and bothmethods require people to think in a more related way, to develop a moresystemicformofexpertise.What’smore,thescientificmethodof“theorize,test,repeat”canbeappliedin

just about any discipline, helping people understand everything fromphotographytoShakespeareplays.Thinkoftheapproachasamatteroflearning

throughdedicatedproblemsolving.Peopleproposedifferenthypothesis,developtheories,andthenreasontheirwaytoaconclusion.So ifpeoplewant toknowmore interiordesign, theymightask themselves:

HowwouldIdesignabathroomifmyclientwaswealthyandlovedgold?HowwouldIdesignabathroomifmyclientwasyounganddisabled?HowwouldIdesignabathroomwithanauticalmotif?Take any bit of literature, as another example. People can gain a lot by

discussing the implications of hypotheticals.Want to better understandRomeoand Juliet?Then considerwhatwouldhavehappened if the young lovers hadnotdied.WouldtheCapuletsandMontagueshavecontinuedtheirfeud?Wouldthelovershavegottenmarried?Perhaps themost convincing example of the power of this approachmight

come from illustrator Steve Brodner. In all likelihood, you know Brodner’swork.HissketchesrunregularlyinmagazinesliketheNewYorkerandRollingStone.Brodnerhasatrademarkswirl-infused,burlesquestylethat’shalfcartoon,halfH.L.Mencken.He is oftenhailed asoneof thenation’smost successfulillustrators.For decades, Brodner has been teaching an illustration class, using the

scientificmethodtohelppeopleunderstand illustration. InBrodner’sclass, thetheorize,test,repeatapproachstartsbeforestudentsactuallyevenillustrateabitof text. He recommends that people write a one-sentence summary of theirdrawingbeforetheyevenputcharcoalpentopaper.Thisisthe“theory”oftheillustration.“Studentsneedtoaskthemselves,‘WhatisitthatIwanttosayaboutthis?’”Brodnertoldme.Then,aspeoplebegintosketch,there’sa“test”phase,andBrodnerwillhave

students try to refine their illustration. He wants people to experiment withdifferentangles,withvarious frames,withunusualcompositions.ForBrodner,illustrators should be constantly asking themselves questions: What if thisfeaturecameforward?Whatifthatdetailmovedback?WhileBrodneradvocatesatypeoffocusedexperimentation,hewillalsooffer

alotofhow-toadvice.He’lldiscussthevalueofforegroundsorshowexamplesofoldNormanRockwellsketches.Healsospinshisowntheoriesonillustration,arguinghoweverythingneedstocometogetherinasketch.Brodnercalledthisidea his “unified theory” of composition: “If you move one thing in anillustration,thenitaffectseverythingelse,”hetoldme.ThesuccessofBrodner’sapproachcanbemeasuredbyhisgraduates.Many

are now professional illustrators themselves. More than that, there’s Brodnerhimself, and he learned illustration in thisway.As a kid, hewould study hisfavorite illustrations looking for patterns, hunting for models, trying to

understand how other artists put together sketches and illustrations, askinghimself,What if I took theirapproach?Howwouldmy sketch turnout?Whatwouldbedifferent?Itwaslearningbyexperiment.

POPQUIZ#20

What’s the most effective approach to learning something new fromsometext?

A. Circlekeypointsinthetext.B. Rereadrelevantportionsinthetext.C. Takeaninformalquizbasedonthematerialinthetext.D. Highlightthecrucialideasinthetext.

Whenitcomestotherelatingphaseoflearning,dedicatedexperimentationisapowerfulway to understand the system that underlies an area of expertise, solet’sexamineonemoreexample—hacking.Now, this is different than hacking as a crime. It’s hacking as a learning

method, a matter of using the scientific process to develop a skill. Whenprogrammers want to learn more about a bit of code or a specific program,they’ll often just start to tinker. As programmer Eric Raymond argues, thehackingcredoisto“make,test,debug,anddocumentyourchange.”At least in tech circles, hacking has become a pretty popular approach, and

there are now hacker-thons and hacker classrooms and hacker conferences.Manyhackerspacesarelittlemorethanoldgarages.Butsomeareprettyformal;Ioncevisitedahackerspacethatfeltalotlikeahigh-endchildren’smuseum.Likesomuchinlearning,processiskey.Honingaskilloftenrequiresatype

ofawareness,andwithoutmuchbackgroundknowledgeanddedicatedsupport,hacking is like unguided, unplanned learning: People don’t gain much at all.Withoutdeepknowledgealongwithagoodamountofpriorpractice,peoplewillbecome lost in the details. Cognitive load is overwhelmed, and outcomes areprettylow.Butrootedincontent—andthoughtfulguidance—hackingcanhoneskills.It’s

apracticalversionofathoughtexperiment.It’sawayofapplyingthescientificmethod to a slice of mastery—and making relationships within a body ofknowledgemoreclear.Tobetterunderstandtheapproach,takeFacebook,whichrecentlydevelopeda

hackingprogramforitsnewengineers.Thegoalofthesix-weekprogramistogetpeopletinkeringwiththecompany’ssoftwareassoonaspossible,andwithina day or two of the start of the course, engineers start polishing the socialnetwork’ssoftware.The new hires are encouraged to find bugs, to build new apps, to develop

bettersoftware.Everyoneworksonlivecode,andifsomethinggoeswrong,theentiresocialnetworkcangooffline,acrashofupdatesandfriendrequests.Thishappenedduringonebootcamp—anewemployeebroughtdowntheserviceformillions.Today,thestoryisheraldedwithinthecompanyasanexampleofhowmuchFacebooksupportslearningthroughfocusedexperimentation.Tobeclear,bootcampdoesn’tteachpeoplehowtogainthegeneralskillof

programming. Most of the boot campers arrive with significant softwareexperience.Instead,it’samatterofpolishingprogrammingskillsonFacebook’sspecific code—and learning the ways in which the company approachesproblems.“Iwoulddescribe [bootcamp]asaway forus toeducateourengineersnot

only on how we code and how we do our systems, but also how to thinkculturallyabouthowtoattackchallenges,”Facebook’sJoelSeligsteinoncetoldareporter.Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg has pushed other ways to integrate

hacking into the company’s culture. The firm now has a “testing framework”thatallowsemployeestoexperimentwiththecompany’scodewithoutbringingdown the social network. A few times a year, there’s a hackathon at thecompany.Oneofthecompany’smottoes,Zuckerbergargues,is“movefastandbreakthings,”andforpeoplewhohavesomebackgroundskills,it’savaluablewaytounderstandtheunderlyingsysteminanareaofexpertise.

POPQUIZ#21

Towhichofthefollowingshouldyoutailoryourlearning?

A. Learningstyles(visual,auditory,etc.)B. PreviousknowledgeC. InterestsD. AbilityE. Rightandleftbraindominance

There’sanotherwaytolearnasystemwithinanareaofexpertise:visually.Inmanyways,thiswasthelastingcontributionofJohnVenn.Aprofessorat

Cambridge during the late nineteenth century, Venn was fastidious, fond ofdetailedlistsandrigorousdesigns.Anamateurengineer,Venncreatedoneofthefirstmachinesthatcould“pitch”acricketballandmightbetheonlyphilosophertostrikeoutmembersoftheAustraliannationalcricketteam.Vennwasfascinatedbytheintricaciesoflogic,whichoftenrevolvesaround

syllogisms.Theclassicsyllogismis,ofcourse,thisone:

Allmenaremortal.Socratesisaman.Thus,Socratesismortal.

Inabookpublishedin1881,Vennaddedanimportanttwisttothesyllogism,arguingforavisualapproach.Soinsteadofusingtexttodescribeabitoflogic,Vennproposedusingcircles.Peopleneeded“visualaids,”Vennargued,andfortheprevioussyllogism,thediagramwouldlooklikethis:

When it comes to learning,Venn’sdiagramsunderscorean importantpoint:Peoplegainalotbyseeingavisualrepresentationofasystemofmastery.Whenweengagewith somegraphical formof relational expertise,weoftendevelopimportantinsights.Conceptmapsareahelpfulexample.AcousinoftheVenndiagram,aconcept

mapprovidesagraphicalwaytograpplewithabitofknowledge.Togetasenseofhowconceptmapswork—andhowtheypromoteasystemsunderstanding—let’sgobacktoJohnVennhimself.SofirstreadthisshortbiographyoftheBritishphilosopher.

BornonAugust4,1834,JohnVennisbestrememberedforinventingtheVenndiagram.Earlyinhiscareer,VennhelpedpopularizeGeorgeBoole’sworkonlogic, which became the basis for computer programming. A University ofCambridgelecturer,Vennalsodevelopedatheoryofprobability—calledthefrequencytheory.Today,justabouteverystatisticianreliesontheapproach.VenndiedonApril4,1923,andin2014,techfirmGooglepostedaversionofa Venn diagram on the company’s home page to honor the Britishphilosopher.

Then take a look at the same material represented in a concept map, asfollows:

Compare the two approaches to understanding Venn’s biography, and it’sclear that the concept map helps people better understand relationships. Theconcept map suggests, for instance, that the fields of logic and computerprogramminghavesimilarhistoricalroots.Theconceptmapalsomakesiteasyto see thatVennwasnotaone-hit academicwonder.Hiswritingsalsohelpedpioneerthefieldofcomputerscience.Inthebiographicaltext,however,theselinksarelessclear.Thelinearnature

ofthetextmakesithardtoseethesesortsofinterwovenrelationships.Certainly,

IbarelynoticedthemwhenIreadtheencyclopediatextforthefirsttime.ResearcherKenKiewrahasbeenstudyingdifferenttypesofconceptmapsfor

years,andheargues thatoneof themainbenefitsofgraphicorganizers is thatthey show deeper associations within an area of knowledge. “Graphicsorganizershelppeopleputthepiecestogether,”Kierwatoldme.Inhisownlife,Kierwausesthelearningtoolsallthetime.Atwork,heuses

graphicorganizersforanysortofwritingorresearchproject.Athome,Kiewraoftenrelieson themtomake importantdecisions,andherecentlyhauledoutaversionofaconceptmaptohelphissonsortoutsomedecisionsaboutcollege.“Thingswilljustpopout,”hetoldme.Whenitcomestographicalrepresentationslikeconceptmaps,technologycan

helpalot.Thetechnicaldevicesthatcauseinformationoverloadcanoftenhelpusmapourwayoutofthatoverload.TheAtlantic’sJamesFallowsprovidesusefuladviceonthispoint.Oneofthe

nation’s most well-respected journalists, Fallows often reviews informationmanagement software, and he has long sworn by a concept-mapping softwareknown as Tinderbox. The tool helps organize files in a way that draws linksacross fields and topics, and Fallows describes it simply as a “software-for-thinking”program.Similarly, writer Steven Johnson is a proponent of a conceptmapping tool

calledDEVONthink.Hearguesthatthesoftwareoffers“connectivepower,”andit helps him spot relationships that he would not have uncovered otherwise.When Johnson uses DEVONthink, “larger idea takes shape inmy head, builtuponthetrailofassociationsthemachinehasassembledforme.”For my part, I’ve become a devotee of the writing software known as

Scrivener.Forme,it’ssoftwareforwritingbecauseittakesmoreofaconcept-mapping approach, offering a virtual corkboard and a more networkedmanagement system.Not surprisingly, both Fallows and Johnson also rely onScrivener, and at least like Fallows, I tend to use the software only for largeprojects like books. In other words, there has to be a lot of text tomake thesoftwareworthwhile.Thislastpoint is important.Becauseifwehavelotsofdata,weneedrobust

toolstosortourwaythroughthatdata.Ifwehavealotoftrees,we’regoingtoneedsomedevicetouncovertheconnectingforest.Thisiswhyweneedtolearnrelationships,too.They’reultimatelywhathelpuslearn.

POPQUIZ#22

Trueorfalse:Youngstudentslearnmoreifthey“trace”amathproblem

withtheirfinger.

TheValueofAnalogyIn this chapter, we’ve been pretty focused on relationships, studying ways toimprove learning by looking for deeper systems. We’ve examined ways toimprovelearningbymixingupourpracticeandglimpsedthewaysthatactivitieslikehackingcanprovideatypeofunderstanding.Thisisall important.Butwe’remissingsomething.Morespecifically,we’re

missing away to understand how exactly skills and knowledge relate to eachother, and it’s that idea that brings us to analogies, or the way that we learnthrough comparison. Put differently, relational thinking has a driver, and thatdriverisanalogicalthought.Granted, analogies can seem like an esoteric thing. They often spark

memoriesofIQtests(Nestistobird,asdoghouseisto__________)orbizarreturnsofphraseliketheterm“thepeckingorder.”Butanalogiesareattheheartof understanding relationships, of grapplingwith systemsof thought, and theycanhelpussolveaneworenduringissue.As an example, let’s consider Tom and RayMagliozzi. For years, the two

brothershadaradioshowonWBURinBostoninwhichtheytalkedaboutcarrepair.CalledCarTalk,theshowtypicallyfeaturedthetwobrothersjawingliketwo teens in the back of math class—cracking bad jokes, teasing each other,throwingoutdoubleoreventripleentendres.“Don’tdrivelikemybrother,”Tomwouldsay.“No,don’tdrivelikemybrother,”Raywouldsay.Inbetweentheslapstickhumorandgoofyjokes,thebrotherswouldsolvecar

problems.Oneday,forinstance,awomannamedMaryGordonSpencephonedtheMagliozzis.FromherhomeinTexas,SpenceexplainedthateverytimethatshetappedonthebrakesofherMazdaTribute,there’dbealoudsqueak.It’s“ahigh-pitched,one-notesound,”Spencetoldthebrothers.The brothers listened and then declared:There’s a problemwith the power

brakes’vacuumbooster.This is impressive. To review the facts again: The brothers had never seen

Spence’scar.Theydidn’tknowifSpence’sMazdawasleakingoilorhadanoldtimingbeltoriftherewasrustintheradiator.Butstill,theMagliozzismanagedtosolvetheproblem.So what happened? What, mental trick did the brothers use to crack the

problem?

Well, a lot of the answer goes back to analogy. Since the brothers couldn’tphysically evaluate the Mazda, they made a comparison in their mind. TheythoughtaboutotherexperiencesinwhichtheyhadasqueakybrakeissuewithaMazda or comparable car. In the simplest of terms, the brothers thought of aparallel.Toanyonewholistenedcarefullytotheshow,thisapproachwasaconstant.

WhentheMagliozzishelpedawomanwithrustonheroldSubaru,theytalkedaboutrustontheiroldcars.Whensomeonecalled infromAfrica, thebrothersdiscussedtheirownvisitstoAfrica.Andwhenaman’selectricwinchdied,theMagliozzis began describing a similar problem that they had come across,declaring“everythingyousayfits.”Toadegree,analogiescanseemlikejustanothertypeofrelationalthinking.

Butwhenitcomestolearning,theapproachgoesdeeperthanthat.Attheheartofananalogyisacomparison.Moreexactly,analogiesmakeusfindsimilaritiesanddifferences.Theyhelpusunderstandthingsthatarenewordifferent,whichmakesthemverypowerfullearningtools,aswewillsee.

Togetabettersenseofhowanalogieshelppeoplelearn,let’sconsiderthiswell-studied problem: Imagine, for a moment, that you’re a doctor, and a patientcomes inonemorningwithadeadly tumor inherstomach.There’snoway tooperate—the patient will suffer too much blood loss. Luckily, one of yourcolleagues recently created a tumor-killing ray—let’s call it theVapor3000—andwithjustonelongblast,thetumorwillbegone.There’sacrucialhitch,though.Ifyoufirethetumor-killingraysatfullblast,

everything around the stomach—intestines, liver, colon—will also becomevaporized.Inotherwords,youcan’tshootonehugeblasttosolvetheproblem.Butthenagain,ifyoufireaweakblastfromtheVapor3000,nothinghappenstothetumor.Justonelow-powershotjustisn’tenough.Sowhatdoyoudo?Over the past forty years, psychologist Keith Holyoak has presented this

problem to hundreds of different people. The riddle has come to define hiscareer, in fact, and the answer rests on a concept known as convergence.Specifically,thebestsolutionistofireshortblastsofraysfromtheVapor3000atthetumorfromvariousangles.Thereareanumberofwaystohelppeoplearriveat thisanswer,andpeople

withabackgroundinengineeringhaveaneasiertime.It’stheKnowledgeEffectall over again. Not surprisingly, advice helps a lot, too, and if someone likeHolyoakgivessomeoneatip,they’remuchlikelytofindtheanswer.

ButwhatHolyoakhasshownoverthedecadesisthatanalogiesprovideoneofthe best ways to help people learn. Giving people a likeness of the answerdramatically improves their ability to crack the riddle. Holyoak firstdemonstrated this fact some four decades ago using the tumor problem—andevidenceforhisargumenthasgrownfarmorerobustovertime.Most recently,Holyoak showed some subjects an animation that depicts an

analogoussolution to the tumorproblem. Imaginemultiplecannons inacirclefiring on a castle, and after seeing the video, people were far more likely toprovidetherightsolution.“Thecontinuousrepresentationforcedpeopletothinkmore in terms of the analogue,” Holyoak toldmewhen I reached him in hisofficeatUCLA.Partof thebenefitofanalogiesis that theyhelpusunderstandnewconcepts

and ideas. They give people a way to understand something that they’re notparticularlyfamiliarwith,andpeoplecanuseanalogiestogettheirheadsaroundsomethingnewin thesameway thatwecanuseLatin tounderstandItalianoruseSpanishtograpplewithPortuguese.Companiesknowthis,andmanystart-upswilluseUberasananalog,awayto

help them explain a new product or service. The company Blue Apron haspresented itself as the Uber for high-end cooking. The dry-cleaning companyDRYVhas been described asUber but for dry cleaning. There’s also now anUberforhaircutsandforshuttlingkidsaround.Marketingeffortsareoftensimilar.TheinsurancefirmStateFarmhasrelied

onthejingle:Likeagoodneighbor,StateFarmis there.Politiciansdothisallthe time, too, and policymakers sold the notion of a “three strikes” crime lawbased on a baseball analogy, as writer John Pollack argued in his wonderfulbookShortcut.Youcanalsothinkofanalogyastherightfulmotherofinvention.It’saway

forustocreateunexpectedlinks,anditturnsoutthatthehistoryofcreativityislitteredwith analogical twists. JohannesGutenberg invented the printing pressafterseeingawinepress.TheWrightbrothersstudiedbirdsinordertobuildtheworld’sfirstairplane.Twitterishalftextmessaging,halfsocialmedia.In this regard, analogies serve as a bridge between two ideas or concepts.

MostpeoplearefamiliarwithRomeoandJuliet,forinstance,andsoananalogymakes it easier to explain themusicalWest Side Story: Just think of a 1950sversionofRomeoandJulietsetinNewYorkCity.Another example is the C. S. Lewis novel The Lion, the Witch and the

Wardrobe.Oneeasyway to explain theplot is to reference theBible, and thebook is a fantasy-novel version of the New Testament. The filmThelma andLouise? Actress Susan Sarandon starred in the 1980s blockbuster, and she

describesitwell:It’sa“cowboymoviewithwomeninsteadofguys.”As a way to promote understanding, analogies require some attention.

Holyoak recommends, for instance, that people rely on a source analogy thattheyknowwell.Theidiom“itcutslikeaknife,”forinstance,worksasanidiombecausepeopleareprettyfamiliarwithknives.Whenusingananalogytounderstandsomething,peopleshouldalsobesure

to outline the exact similarities between the two things or ideas. In the tumorproblem, example, people solve the problemmore easily if the analogues arepresentednexttoeachother,ifnotsidebyside,accordingtoHolyoak.Granted, analogies don’t always work. Sometimes there’s not much of a

similarity. It’s hard to make a robust link between, say, the president of theUnitedStatesandasetofcarkeys,oragoldfishandMountKilimanjaro.Yetevenweakanalogieshavetheirownsortofpower,andsomecomedians

likeStevenWrightbuilttheircareersoutoftoyingwithanalogies.“It’sasmallworld,butIwouldn’twanttopaintit,”Wrightoncesaid.JerrySeinfeldwasn’tall thatdifferent.“Iwasthebestmanatthewedding,”

heonceremarked.“IfI’mthebestman,whyisshemarryinghim?”Samefor theMagliozzibrothers,andnot longafter the firstcall fromMary

Gordon Spence about the Mazda, the two brothers reached out again to heragain.ThebrotherswantedtomaketheysurethattheyprovidedSpencewiththecorrectanswertohercarproblem.“Sowasitthevacuumbrakebooster?”oneofthebrothersasked.“You know, I would not have called y’all,” Spence said, “unless youwere

goingtotellthetruth,andyouwererighton.Sorighton.”Spencedidhaveone complaint, though.Without thenoise from thebrakes,

shecouldn’ttapoutsongsanymorelikeJingleBells.“Igetsoboreddownnowdrivingdownthestreet.”Thebrotherslaughed,andthentheythoughtofananalogy,anewtwistonthe

problem.“I’mgoingtosuggestthatyoutakeuptheharmonica.”

POPQUIZ#23

Trueorfalse:Learningshouldbespacedoutovertime.

Asa learning tool, analogiesworkbecause theymakeus ask a specific set ofquestions:Howare these thingssimilar?Whatmakes themdifferent?Howaretheycomparable?

Inotherwords,analogieshelpusunderstandcategories.Theymakeusthinkabout groups and what constitutes a group.When people say that apples andoranges are both fruits, for instance, they’re relying on a type of analogicalthinking.They’rematchingup theattributesofapplesandoranges—bothhaveseeds,comefromtrees,haveatypeofflesh—todeclarethemtobefruits.Anotherexampleisdogs.Whileafurrymalamuteandafive-poundpuglook

almost nothing alike,wehavenoproblemcalling thembothdogsbecauseweunderstand the analogue that connects them.We understand that both animalshavecertainthingsincommon—theyaresocialmammalswithnoses,tails,legs,andsharpteeth.We’vecomeacross thevalueofsimilaritiesanddifferencesbeforewhenwe

discussedRobGoldstone’swork,andoneofthereasonsthatpeopleshouldmixuptheirlearningisthatitpushespeopletothinkincommonalties.Specifically,weget abetter senseof thecategoryof fruit ifwecomeacrossvarious fruits.Likewise,webetterunderstand thecategoryofdog ifwecomeacrossvariousdogs.Analogies can help, and they can sharpen the distinction between different

ideasorthings.Theyprovideacompare-and-contrastapproachtolearning.Takethe radio showCar Talk again. At first glance, the show might seem prettyrevolutionary, at least for NPR, given the goofy jokes and practical subjectmatter.Butmakeacomparison,andCarTalkwasaprettynormaloutgrowthofNPR’sprogramminghistory.BeforeCarTalk,forinstance,therewasGarrisonKeillor’sPrairieHomeCompanion,whichwasalsopartvaudeville,partsocialcommentary.AnotherexampleisEinstein,whomwediscussedatthestartofthischapter.

We can learn a lot by comparing him with other great physicists. By seeingsimilaritiesanddifferences,peoplegetakeenersenseofthedeepfeaturesofafactorconcept.Relativetoothertopphysicists,forinstance,Einsteinwasmuchless of a dedicated mathematician. Einstein’s contemporary Paul Dirac hadequationsnamedafterhim.ButEinstein,notsomuch.Einsteinwasalsomuchmoreinterestedinsocialjusticeissuesthanmanyofhispeers—andmuchmoreofarisktaker.Stilldoubtfulofthevalueofcompareandcontrast?Takeastudythatoccurred

some years ago at a business training sessionwhen a group ofmanagers andaspiringmanagersallpiledintoaroom.Asistrueofsomanybusinesstrainingseminars,therewasatrainingpacketwithsomesamplecases,andthegroupwassupposedtoreadthecases.The managers were going to learn about contingent contracts, which are

generallyprettyhelpfulinnegotiations.Whenacontractisconditionaloncertain

actionsoroutcomes,bothpartiestypicallyhavemoreflexibility.Butforallsortsof reasons, people tend not to use contingent contracts in actual negotiations.Peoplearenotawareofthem—ortheyjustdon’tunderstandthem.Thistrainingaimed to address that issue, and all of the individuals had to read the trainingpacketbeforetheybegantorole-playtheirnegotiation.Afewpsychologistsoversawthe training,and theyslippedonesmall tweak

into the session. One half of the consultants would just “describe” the casestudies.Theotherhalfhadto“thinkaboutthesimilarities”ofthecases.Itwasn’tmuchofadifference,onlya fewwords, really.But theuseof the

moreanalogicalprompthadadramaticeffect.Itpushedacompare-and-contrastapproach, and the second group was almost twice as likely to use contingentcontracts.Theyalsounderstoodtheunderlyingideaalotbetter.DedreGentnerwasoneof thepsychologistswhoworkedon thenegotiation

trainingstudy,andImetupwithherrecentlyinthehallwayofadrabconferencehotel.Wewerebothgettingcoffee.WhenIindicatedaninterestinanalogies,Gentnerpointedatmeexcitedly.“If

weseethesamethingoverandover,that’sagoodwaytogetstarted.Butifyoudon’tseemoredissimilarthings,basically,you’dbetterstayinsamevillageyourwholelife.”“Butanalogiesarehard,”Icountered.Gentnernodded.“Butanalogiesarewhatallowyoutotakeknowledgeonthe

road.”

There’s one final thing to keep in mind about analogies when it comes tolearning:Theycanhelpusengageinadeeperformofreasoning.It was Dartmouth College professor Pamela Crossley who helped me

understand this idea. Inherclasses,Crossley likes toassignbooksandarticlesthat are wrong. She’ll hand out articles that brimwith wild ideas and absurdconcepts. Students in her class will watch documentaries that argue that theplanet Venus once nearly slammed into Earth, or they’ll have to read journalarticlesthatarguethat theearlyEgyptianswerebehindmuchof thesuccessofancientGreece.This can all seem a little absurd. Certainly, it felt that way to me when I

enrolledinCrossley’sclasssomeyearsago.Iwasinmyearlytwenties,aseniorincollege,andaspartoftheclass,CrossleyassignedabookcalledHolyBlood,HolyGrail.Writteninthe1980s,thebookarguesthatthedescendantsofJesusaimed to control Europe through a network of secretive groups including amodern-dayversionoftheKnightsTemplar.

Butwecouldn’tsimplydismissthebookasafreakconspiracytheory,andaspartoftheclass,Crossleypushedustofigureoutwhatthebookgotright—andwrong.Inotherwords,shewantedpeopletoreasontheirwaythroughthebook’sclaims,and it turnedout that someaspectsof thebookwere, in fact,accurate.TheKnightsTemplardidexist—andthekingofFranceeventuallyoutlawedthegroup,burningitsleadersatthestake.But we also had to showwhat the book got wrong, andHoly Blood, Holy

Grailbrimmedwithtenuouslogic.Inthebook,theauthorsargued,forinstance,that if Jesus and Mary Magdalene knew each other, then, ergo, they hadchildren. But there’s no evidence that suggests that the two individuals weremarried.Moreover,there’snotashredofsupport—reallynothingatall—forthenotion that the descendants of Jesus and Mary are still alive today, forgetplanningtotakeovertheworld.Forme,Crossley’sapproachtoteaching—andlearning—waswildlydifferent.

In my previous courses, things were right or wrong, true or false. But inCrossley’sview,theworldwasn’tquitelikethat.Norwaslearning,andstudentshadtobuildexplanations.Shewantedustostudyhowweinferredourwaytoananswer, to compare lines of thinking, to engage in analogical thought.“Reasoning is thecourse. It’sabout lookingat themethodsof reasoningasanobjectofstudy,”Crossleytoldmerecently.Inmanyways, the seedsof this bookwereplanted inCrossley’s class.The

coursesparkedafascinationwithhowpeoplegaineffectivethinkingskills.Butmoreimportant,theclassunderscoresoneofthefinalbenefitofanalogies,anditturnsout thatanalogiesare thedriverof reason.Bybeingat thecenterofanysort of concept, comparisons foster logic. As cognitive scientist DouglasHofstadterargues,analogyservesasthe“fuelandfireofthinking.”Wecangetbetteratthissortofreasoning,andanalogicalthoughtcanhelpus

learn about the nature of errors. Take overgeneralization, ormaking sweepingconclusionsbasedon littleevidence.Overgeneralization isacommonmistake,basicallyacaseof takingananalogy too far. Ifyoudon’tdriveacertain roadbecause you once had an accident there, that’s an overgeneralization—and aweakanalogy.Similarly, we need to consider assumptions. We will often ask leading

questionsorreasonfromaweakpremise.Lotsofideas—andanalogies—sufferfromthisproblem.Peopleargue,forinstance,thatsinceit’scoldoutside,globalwarmingisamyth.Theweakassumptionhereisthatambienttemperatureisagoodjudgeofglobalwarming.And then there’s theweighingof facts.Thiswasoneof themainproblems

withthebookHolyBlood,HolyGrail—andreallymostconspiracytheories.In

Holy Blood, Holy Grail, for instance, the authors argue that since Jesus andMary Magdalene knew each other, they must have gotten married and hadchildren.But that argument conflates two very different activities—acquaintance and

marriage—and when it comes to developing conclusions, to creating robustanalogies,weneedtobecarefulnottogivesomethingstoomuchweight.Likejustabouteverythinginlearning,theKnowledgeEffectplaysarole,and

as researcherDanWillinghamandmanyothers have argued, it’s very hard toteachthesesortsofreasoningskillsoutsideofatopicarea.Inlearning,contentcomesbeforeconnections.Butintheend,ifwedon’tlearnthinkingskillswithinatopic,wehaven’treallylearned.

POPQUIZ#24

Aparentpraisesa student for solvingamathproblem.Whichpraisewill be the most effective in motivating the student to work throughdifficultproblemsinthefuture?

A. Youmustbereallysmart.B. Youmusthaveworkedreallyhard.C. You’vegotabrainformath.D. Mathmustcomeeasytoyou.

TheSkillofProblemSolvingWe’vebeentalkinga lot in thisbookabout thewaysthatproblemsolvingcanhelp us learn. In the previous chapter, we discussed schools like High TechHigh,where students use problems to learnmath and science. In this chapter,we’ve been looking at the scientific process as a way to hone our skill andexamined SteveBrodner’s illustration class— and Facebook’s hackathon bootcamp.Yetthere’ssomethingimportantthatwehavenotaddressed.It’sanideathat

goesbacktotakingamoreconnectedapproachtolearning,torelatingwhatweknow—that’stheactualskillofproblemsolving.Thisisimportantfortworeasons.First,problemsolvingitselfmatters,andwe

often learnskills to resolve issues.Second,we’rebetterat solvingproblems ifwehavearelationalformofexpertise.Understandingsystemshelpspeopleusetheir knowledge in different contexts—and ultimately problem solving boils

downtoatypeofanalogicalreasoning.GurpreetDhaliwalprovidesacasestudyofthisidea.Anemergencymedicine

doctor, Dhaliwal has been dubbed a “superstar” of medical problem solving.Academicjournalsoftencallonhimtomodelhisdiagnosticthinkingskills.Heteaches thepracticeof clinical reasoningatoneof thenation’smost esteemedmedicalschools.ImetupwithDhaliwalnotlongagointhecornerofahotellobby,andhehas

a remarkable mental Rolodex of illnesses. From his decades of practice,DhaliwalknowstheclassicsignsofSjögren’ssyndrome—asawdust-drymouth.If someonehas aknife-likepain in their side,Dhaliwalwill look for commonillnesses—appendicitis, kidney stones—but he’ll also consider amore obscureillnesslikealossofbloodtothekidney.Still, knowledge isn’t enough for the simple reason that symptoms don’t

alwaysmatch upwith an illness. Textbook cases, it seems, are found only intextbooks.Dizziness, for instance, can be the signal of something serious—ormightbe thesymptomofa lackofsleep.Thesamewithfatigueorchestpain.Theymightbesignsofapressingheartissue—ortheresultofnail-bitingstress.“What is tricky is to figureoutwhat’ssignalandwhat’snoise,”Dhaliwal toldme.Contextplaysabigrole.Sodoesthehistoryofthepatient.Whenitcomesto

adults,acomplaintaboutbackpainisprobablynothingserious.Butinchildren,backpaincouldbethesignofadeadlyillnesslikecancer.Foranotherexample:If someone owns a pet parrot and comes into the ER, the list of potentialdiagnosesisverydifferentbecausethebirdsoftentransmitlungdiseases.What’s central, then, ismatching the symptomswith adiagnosis, creatinga

linkbetween thediseaseand the symptomsof thedisease.This isperhaps themost importantskill inmedicine,Dhaliwalargues,andthepracticeboilsdownto a hunt for a connection, a recognition of patterns. “Diagnosis is often amatchingexercise,”heargues.To get a better sense of how this works, I once watched Dhaliwal solve a

perplexingcase,tryingtodiagnosethecaseofanoldermanwhowashackingupblood. Itwas at amedical conference,withDhaliwal standing at a dais at thefrontofaroom.Anotherdoctor,JosephCoffman,providedthespecifics.Basically,amancameintotheERoneday—let’scallhimAndreas—andhe

could not breathe verywell.Andreas also had a slight fever and had recentlyshedalotofweight.At the start of the diagnosis process, in the early steps of the approach,

Dhaliwal recommends developing a one-sentence description of the problem.“It’s like a good Google search,” he said. “You want a relevant and concise

summary,”andinthiscase,itwassixty-eight-year-oldmanwithhemoptysis,orcoughingupblood.Dhaliwal also aims to make a few tentative generalizations early in the

processtohelpguidehisthinking.InthecaseofAndreas,Dhaliwalthoughtthatmaybethemanhadalunginfection?Ormaybeanautoimmuneproblem?Therewasn’tenoughdatatoofferanysortofreliableconclusion,though,and

reallyDhaliwalwasjustgatheringinformation.ThencameimagesfromachestX-ray, the results from an HIV test, and as each bit of evidence rolled in,Dhaliwaltalkedaboutvariousscenarios,assemblingthedataindifferentwaystosee if itmight fitdifferentpotential theoriesof thecase.“Todiagnose,wearesometimestryingtounify,andsometimestryingtosplit,toslice,”hesaid.Dhaliwal’seyesflashed, for instance,whenitbecameapparent thatAndreas

hadvisitedGhana. Itmeant thatAndreascouldpotentiallyhaveanuncommondisease like Ebola. Dhaliwal then discovered that Andreas had worked infactories that dealt in fertilizer and lead batteries. Again, Dhaliwal’s mindaccelerated through different scenarios. The factory detailmeant thatAndreaswas exposed to noxious chemicals, and for a while, it seemed that a toxicsubstancelikeleadmightbeattherootofAndreas’sillness.Dhaliwal had a few strong pieces of evidence that supported the lead

poisoningtheory,includingsomeodd-lookingredbloodcellsthatcameuponalabtest.ButDhaliwalwasn’tcomfortablewiththedepthoftheproof.Itseemedinsufficient,givenallthesymptoms.“I’mlikeanattorneypresentinginacourtoflaw,”Dhaliwaltoldme.“Iwantevidence.”As the case progressed—and Andreas got sicker—Dhaliwal came across a

newdetail:Therewasagrowthintheheart.Thisshiftedthepotentialdiagnosisin a different direction. It knocked out the toxic chemical angle because leadpoisoningdoesn’tsparkgrowthsontheheart.Eventually,sometimelater,Dhaliwaluncoveredarobustpattern,aneffective

analoguebetweenAndreas’ssymptomsandDhaliwal’sknowledgeof illnesses,andDhaliwalsettledonacardiacangiosarcoma,orheartcancer.Itexplainedthered blood count, themass in the heart, the hawking up of blood. “Diagnosingoftencomesdowntheabilitytopullthingstogether,”heargued.Then,finally,therewasanautopsyoftheheart,andDhaliwal’sdiagnosiswas

provencorrect.Adozenotherdoctorsflockedtohimaftertheeventwithfollow-up questions. “You don’t think about he had hemoglobin in the lung?” onedoctorasked.Aftersomeminutes,thecrowdfaded,andthenDhaliwalthoughthowtogetto

the airport.Would he take anUber?Or should he grab a cab? Itwas anotherissuetosolve,andhedecidedonanUber.Itwaslikelytobecheaperandequally

comfortable—itwasthesolutionthatbestmatchedtheproblem.

POPQUIZ#25

Trueorfalse:Toreally learnasubject,youneedtoknowthefacts inthatsubject.

Muchlikelearningitself,problemsolvingisaprocess,amethod,anapproach.Itwas George Pólya who first put forth this idea. A Hungarian mathematician,PólyawasoneofthoseimportantbutobscureEuropeansfromtheearlypartofthelastcentury.Withhistwinklyeyesandheavyglasses,Pólyahadthelookofaneccentricacademic.Hehadthepersonalityofone,too,andauniversityoncekickedPólyaoutforhittinganotherstudent.Asayoungmathematician,Pólyarevolutionizedthefieldofprobabilitywitha

series of groundbreaking papers. Numerical theory became another expertise,and Pólya established one of the field’s organizing theories. Over the years,Pólya also developed important papers about polynomials and combinatorics.Eventually, he had some five different theorems named after him, and manyconsiderPólyatobeoneofthegreatestmathematiciansofthetwentiethcentury.In his late sixties, while teaching at Stanford University, Pólya turned his

focus to themethods of problem solving.Hewanted tomapout “themotivesand procedures of the solution” to any sort of problem, and eventually Pólyadetailedasystemicapproachwithfourdistinctphases:

Thefirstphasewas“understanding.”Inthisphase,peopleshouldlooktofindthecoreideaornatureoftheproblem.“Youhavetounderstandtheproblem,”Pólyaargued.“Whatistheunknown?Whatarethedata?”

Thesecondphasewas“devisingaplan,”inwhichpeoplemappedouthowthey’daddresstheproblem.“Findtheconnectionbetweenthedataandtheunknown,”Pólyacounseled.

Thethirdphaseofproblemsolvingwas“carryingouttheplan.”Thiswasamatterofdoing—andvetting:“Canyouprovethatitiscorrect?”

Thefinalphasewas“lookingback,”orlearningfromthesolutions:By“reexaminingtheresultandthepaththatledtoit,[people]couldconsolidatetheirknowledgeanddeveloptheirabilitytosolveproblems.”

Pólya’s approachwas pioneering.No one had studied the issue of problemsolving before, at least in any sort of dedicatedway.Not theGreeks, not the

Romans,notearlyphilosophers likeHobbesorConfucius,andalmostahalfadozen publishers simply rejected Pólya’s out-of-left-field manuscript, penninglettersalongthelinesofthanksbutnothanks.TitledHow to Solve It, the book eventually found a publisher, sellingmore

thanamillioncopies,andPólya’stechniquesoonfilteredintofieldsfarbeyondmath. In fields like medicine, the process has become just about universal.GurpreetDhaliwal, for instance,more or less followedPólya’smethod on thedaythathediagnosedAndreaswithheartcancer.Dhaliwal’s“Googlesearchterm”analogy,for instance, ismuchlikePólya’s

phase two. And much like Pólya’s phase three, Dhaliwal recommends thatdoctors read up on an illness to double-check details. “It’s like visiting theWikipediapage,”Dhaliwaltoldme.“Youwanttorefreshyourknowledge.”Inareas likeengineering,Pólya’sstrategyevolved intosomethingknownas

design thinking,and theapproachhasmoreofasocial sciencesbent.Stanfordprofessor Bernard Roth specializes in design thinking, and when it comes toproblemsolving,hearguesthatpeopleshouldputthemselvesintheroleofthepersonwhohastheproblemandaskthemselves:“WhatwoulditdoifIsolvedthisproblem?”These approaches to problem solving provide surprising benefits. A health

writerfortheNewYorkTimes,TaraParker-Popeisgenerallyprettyjaded,takingaharsheyetothelatestmedicaltrends.Inherwork,Parker-Popehasdebunkedvarious fads and bits of accepted pop sciencewisdom, showing, for instance,thatsomemarriageswillbenefitfromarguments.Butwhen Parker-Pope decided to apply design thinking to her ownweight

problem,shesawclearimpact.Aspartoftheproblem-solvingprocess,Parker-Pope first aimed to understand the issue (Pólya’s phase one). Eventually, shecametotheconclusionthatsocialconnections—alongwithsleepanddietissues—weretoblame.“Weightlosswasreallynotmyproblem,”Parker-Popeargued.“Instead,Ineededtofocusonmyfriendships,boostingmyenergy,andgettingbettersleep.”Parker-Popetargetedthesespecificissuesandthenplannedouthersolutions

(Pólya’sphasestwoandthree).Sheatelesswheat-basedproducts,whichhadledto an afternoon “carb crash.” She focused on gettingmore sleep. Friends alsobecame a priority, and Parker-Pope managed to slough off some 25 pounds.Eventually,shealsowroteanarticle reflectingonherexperiencefor thepaper(Polya’sphasefour).When it comes to problem solving, there are other important techniques.

Studiessuggestthatpeoplewhoaskthemselvesquestionsaremoreeffectiveatproblem solving than people who don’t. For instance, ask yourself: Is there

enough evidence?What’s the counterargument? Likewise, we need to reasonaboutourreasoning.Havewefallenforanyweaklogic?Arewesusceptibletoanybias?Prioritizationisimportant,too,andinmanyfieldslikemedicineorcarrepair,

someproblemsaremorepressing thanothers. Ifsomeone is trying tosolveanissueduringamilitarybattle,thefirstthingtodoistocheckontheirownsafety.Thisalsoexplainswhyflightattendantstellflierstoputtheirownoxygenmaskonfirstinthecaseofanemergency:It’shardtohelpothersifwecan’tbreatheourselves.When I reached out to Stanford psychologistDan Schwartz, he argued that

peoplealsoneedtorecognizewhenapproachesarefailing—andtrysomethingnew.Goodproblemsolversknowwhensomethingisn’tworkingoutandwilltryadifferentstrategy.“Wehavetoself-generatefeedback,”Schwartzargued.Successful problem solving also relies on many of the things that we’ve

alreadyseeninthisbook,andpeopleneedtosetgoalsanddevelopplans.Theyneedtobeengagedanddevelopbackgroundknowledgeandthentakesstepstoexecute those plans. People also should stress-test different ideas, looking forrelationshipsandanalogies,anduseplannerslikeconceptmapstocomeupwithpatternsandsystems.Forhispart,Pólyaalsorecommendedthevalueofreviewing,oflookingback,

ofreconsideringsolutions.ThisideaisattheheartofPólya’sphasefour,andit’stheissuethatwewillturntonextinthisbook.

Chapter6

RETHINK

Daniel Kahneman is one of the most important psychologists of our time.Becauseofhispioneeringresearchonthebiasesofthehumanmind,Kahnemanwon the Nobel Prize a few years ago. Together with his colleague AmosTversky, Kahneman basically created the field of behavioral economics. Ifyou’vereadabooklikePredictablyIrrationalorNudgeorevenMoneyball,theyalldependinsomewayonKahneman’swork.A few years ago, a reporter from the Guardian newspaper interviewed

Kahneman.Theywere sitting in aLondonhotel, tucked in a side roomof thehotellobby.Inhiseighties,Kahnemanwasmuted,hisvoicebarelylouderthanamurmur. The reportermust have asked him something along the lines ofhowcanhumansbecomebetterthinkers?“What would I eliminate if I had a magic wand?” Kahneman asked

rhetorically.“Overconfidence.”The simplicity ofKahneman’s comment belies its importance, and all of us

sufferfromoverconfidence.Wethinkweknowalotmorethanwedo,andjustabout everyone thinks that they’re smarter, prettier, and more skilled thanaverage. In work settings, we think we’re more productive than the typicalperson sitting next to us. At parties, we think we’re more charming than theusualpeopleintheroom.Thissortofoverconfidencecantripupjustaboutanyone.Inpolitics,exhibit

Amightbethe“MissionAccomplished”bannerthathungonabattleshipduringawar in Iraq thatwas far from over. In business circles, only brimming self-confidencecanexplaintheimplosionthatwastheAOL–TimeWarnermerger—orthecollapseofLehmanBrothersinthehousingcrisis.Insports,there’sboxerLennox Lewis. After winning the heavyweight championship, Lewis gotknockedoutbyaguywhobasicallycameinoffthestreet.Overconfidence goes a long way to preventing effective learning. When

peopleareoverconfident,theydon’tstudy.Theydon’tpractice.Theydon’taskthemselves questions. Overconfidence is particularly harmful to engaging inmore challenging forms of learning. If we think we know something, we’resimplynotgoing to take thehardstepsof relating ideasorextendingwhatweknow.Theissueismorethanamatterofmonitoringorevenmetacognition.Wealso

simply don’t do enough to deliberate, to reflect, to make sure that we haveinternalizedwhatwe’velearned.Andit’sthisideathatbringsustothelaststageofthelearningprocess:thewaysinwhichweneedtorethinkwhatweknow.

POPQUIZ#26

Trueorfalse:Studentsaregoodevaluatorsofeducatorquality.

Doyouknowhowa toilet bowlworks? I’mgoing to assume so.Youuse thetoilet every day.Most of us do, and at one point or another, you’ve probablyopenedupthecisternthatsitsbehindthebowl,maybetocheckthestopper?Orjigglethehandle?Sothenanswerthisquestion:From1to10,ratehowwellyouunderstandthe

functioningofatoiletbowl?

1. Notatall.Ihavenoideahowatoiletworks.5. Medium.Ihaveabasicunderstandingoftheworkingsofatoilet.10. Expert.Ihaveeveninstalledafewtoilets.

I’m going to guess you’d give yourself probably a 5 or 6—you’re a littlebetterthanaveragebutnohandyman.At first glance, psychologist ArtMarkmanwas pretty sure he knew how a

toiletworked, too.Markmanspenta lotof time tinkeringwith toiletswhenhewas a kid, as he describes in hiswonderful bookSmart Thinking.Markman’sparentswould often yell at him to stop fiddlingwith the plumbing.All in all,Markmanwouldhavemostlikelyratedhimselfatleasta5ora6whenitcametohavinganunderstandingofhowatoiletworks.But then, one day, Markman began asking himself some questions about

toilets. How did thewater flow out of the toilet?Whatwas that bump at thebottomoftheoutsideofthebowl?Didheevenknowhowthewaterflowedintothe bowl? Itwas then thatMarkman realized that his explanation of the toiletdidn’t domuch.He didn’t actually have a systemic understanding of how thedeviceactuallyworked.Markman’sunderstandingofthetoiletwasasleightofmind.Hethoughtthat

he understood. He believed that he could explain. But in reality, Markmancouldn’tdescribehowthedeviceactuallycametogetherormakeanyrealsenseoutofit.Hecertainlycouldn’ttakeatoiletapartandputitbacktogetheragain.The problemwasn’t time. Like the rest of us,Markman has had plenty of

hourstocontemplateplumbingtechnology.Hedoesn’tlacktalent,either,andhewasoncetheexecutivedirectoroftheCognitiveScienceSociety.Butintheend,Markmansimplyoverestimatedhisability.“ForallofthetimeIspentwatchingthewaterleavethetoilettank,”Markmanwrites,“Idon’tknowthemechanismthatcarriesthewaterfromthetanktothebowlanddistributesit.”Thisbringsustoatypeoflearningcatch-22:Themoreweknow,themorewe

thinkweknow.Inthissense,alittlebitofknowledgeismorethanfigurativelydangerous. It actually confuses us. Psychologists have studied this idea fordecades,andthey’vecomeupwithallsortsofsnappynames—theexpertblindspot,thefluencyheuristic,theillusionofexplanatorydepth.Allofthesefancynamesboildowntothesameessentialidea:Weoftenthink

weknowmore thanwedo.Weoverestimateour skills.Wedon’t realizehowmuchwedon’tknow.Soyoumightrankyourselfasa6onyourknowledgeoftoilets.Butallinall,you’reprobablya4.This brings us to the first lesson of rethinkingwhat you know:Be humble.

I’veseentheneedforthishumilityinmyownresearch,andaspartofasurvey,Ionce asked people to estimate how good they were at identifying greatinstructional practices. If people had a good sense of their skills, there shouldhavebeenanequaldistribution:50percentbelow,50percentabove.But therewasn’t,andalmost90percentofpeoplesaid that theywereat leastaverageatidentifyinggreatteaching.Admittedly, this sort of brashness has its benefits. Without some

overconfidence,noonewouldwriteabookorpublishastudy.Confidencecanalsogiveatypeofmotivation.CollegestudentswhoexaggeratedtheirGPAininterviews, for instance, later showed more improvement in their grades thanstudentswhoweremorehonest.Asoneoftheresearchersonthestudyexplainedtome,theexaggeratorshad“highergoalsforachievement.”It’s also just embarrassing to give the I’ve-got-no-idea shrug, and I am

chagrined toadmit theoccasions that I’vebeenoverconfident.Over theyears,I’velostmoneytostreethustlers—andshownupforaflightonthewrongday.Someyearsago,IgaveapresentationtotheCaliforniaStateLegislaturethatwassooffmessagethatoneofthelegislatorshalf-jokedthathewantedtochallengemetoafistfight.One driver of overconfidence in learning is familiarity. If an idea or fact

comes easily to us—or we’ve just come across it a lot—people are far morelikelytothinkthatweknowsomethingaboutit,evenifwedon’t.Thisexplainswhypeople are overconfident about toilets—they’re around them all the time.This also explainswhy people are overconfident in their ability identify greatteachers—they’veseenalotofinstruction.

Weoverestimateourability inotherways.For example, if something lookssimpleorcommon, then itseemsa loteasier to learn. Ifpeoplereadanarticlewith large images, they’re more likely to think that they will understand thecontent.Ifsomeonewatchesaprofessorenthrallaclass,they’llbelievethattheywilllearnmorefromthatprofessor,eveniftheydon’t.WhenIreachedArtMarkmanathisofficeoftheUniversityofTexas,Austin,

hegaveanotherexample:TEDTalks.TheiPadofthelecturecircuit,TEDTalksare highly polished speeches on everything from juggling tomorality.There’slotsofstorytellinganddramaticmoments,brightklieglightsandsharpcameraangles.Manyofthevideoshavebeenviewedmorethantenmilliontimes.ButforMarkman,TEDTalkscandomoreharmthangoodwhenitcomesto

learning.“Myproblemisn’twiththetalks,”Markmantoldme.“It’sthewayweconsumethem.Wehearthisfluentlypresentedtopicfor15minutes,andthenwemove on to the next thing.” Put differently, TED Talks might seem like alearningexperience.There’sanexpertlecturingonawell-litstage,afterall.Butbecausethematerialissoeasilylearned,it’salsoeasilyforgotten.Alone, thismight not be a big deal. Sowhat if a TEDTalk takes a highly

polished approach to a topic?Who cares if the videos are slickly produced?Ironically, however, this sort of polish can keep us from learning. Somepsychologistscallitthe“doublecurse”oflearning:Ifyoudon’tknowifyou’reright, thenyoudon’tknowifyou’rewrong,andnotsurprisingly,peoplestudylessifsomethingseemseasy.Theyputinlesseffortifsomethingappearssimpleandeasy-to-know.Thereis, then,asecondveryimportantdriverofoverconfidenceinlearning,

and that’s past performance. Prior experience often shapes our learningjudgments.Ifwealwaysaceourchemistrytests,we’remuchlesslikelytostudyforachemistrytest,evenif thenextexammightbefarmoredifficult thanthepreviousones.IfweareconstantlydevelopingPowerPointpresentations,we’regoing todo lesspreparing for apresentation, even if theupcomingmeeting ismuchdifferentthanearlierones.Themilitarycalls thisVictoryDisease. Ifgeneralswina lotofbattles, they

becomebig-headed.Theybelievetoomuchintheirability.Custer’sLastStandistheclassicexample.BeforetheBattleoftheLittleBighorninthesummerof1876,Lt.Col.GeorgeArmstrongCusterhadshotuptheranksoftheArmy.HeplayedheroicrolesinmajorCivilWarbattleslikeGettysburg.WhenRobertE.LeesurrenderedatthecourthouseinAppomattox,Custerwasintheroom,justafewstepsbehindUlyssesS.Grant.ItseemsthattheexperiencemadeCusterbelievethathecouldneverlose,and

despite all sorts of evidence and endlessly clear signs, Custer dramatically

underestimatedhowmanyNativeAmericanwarriorshewouldencounterintheBattle of the Little Bighorn.He never thought that the group of Siouxwouldplan to cut off any route of escape—and ignored suggestions that SittingBullmighthaveafightingforcefivetimeslargerthanhisgroupoftiredsoldiers.SoCuster didn’t plan aheadordevelop a contingency strategyor evengive

particularly specific orders. More than a thousand Native Americans wouldeventuallykillCusterandhis200soldiers,yet,accordingtolegend,Custer’slastwordswere“Hurrah,boys,we’vegot’em!”

POPQUIZ#27

True or false: Right-brained people learn differently from left-brainedpeople.

The need to rethink our learning goes deeper than issues of overconfidence.People also often don’t pay attention. In this sense, we need to review ourlearningbecausewe’reoftenmorerobotthanhuman,moredroidthandeliberate.Theissueisnotthatwemisjudgesomething;it’sthatwedon’tevenjudgeinthefirstplace.When I was a kid, for instance, a picture of the Virgin Mary hung right

outside of my bedroom door. The picture was a reproduction of a medievalcanvas,anelegantpaintingofMaryembracingbabyJesus,aglimmeringwhiteshawlhangingoverherhead.Asmallwoodframeenclosedthepainting,andIprobablypassedtheartworkahalf-dozentimeseachday.Whathappenednextisabitoffamilylore,oneofthosestoriesthathasbeen

toldsomanytimesthatit’samixofmemoryandcautionaryfable.Thenarrativestartswithmymotherrushingintothekitchenoneday.ShedemandedtoknowwhohadscrawledamustacheontheVirginMary,makingthemotherofJesuslooklikeGrouchoMarx.Whohasdonesuchathing?shedemandedtoknow.Whohasvandalizedthe

paintingoftheVirginMary?Whohasputtheblackmustacheonher?Atfirstmymotherfingeredmybrotherasthemostlikelyoffender.Hewasa

teenager—andundoubtedlymischievous.Didheknowanythingaboutthis?shesaid.Hadhetakenamarkertothepainting?Didheknowhowseriousthiswas?Mybrotherdeniedeverything.Thenmysistercameunderfire.HadshedrawnonMary?Wasthissomesort

ofjoke?mymotherasked.My sister also denied everything. She protested and declared innocence.

DefacingtheVirginMary?She’dneverdosuchathing.I was young, maybe six or seven at the time—too young to be the likely

culprit. Yet, according to some versions of the story, I also received aninterrogation.Doyouknowanythingaboutthis?Didyouputamustacheonthepaintings?Atsomepoint,maybeat the timeof theaccusations—or later thatday—my

fathergavea chuckle.Daysearlier,maybeevenweeksearlier, hehad takenamarkeranddrawnthemustacheon thepainting.The image,myfatherargued,wasunderappreciated.Quietlyelegant,amomentofpoeticbeauty, theartworkshouldplayabiggerroleinourlives,heargued.“Therevengeofthemustache”ishowmyfatherlatercalledtheincident.There’s a pretty simple explanation for what happened, as Kahneman has

shown,anditturnsoutthatweallhavetwodifferenttypesofthinking.There’sour instinctive brain, which is automatic and fast. In contrast, there’s ourdeliberativebrain,whichisslowandponderous.Moreoftenthannot,werelyonourinstinctivebrain,andgenerally, theapproachservesusprettywell.It takeslesstime—andeffort—andwe’drathernotspendenergytotakementalstock.But thismeans thatweoftenmissdetails.Wewill readabitof textbutnot

reallyunderstandit.Wewillwatchsomeoneteachingaskill,butwewon’treallylearn it. Every day for weeks, we will pass the Virgin Mary with a largemustacheandnotevennoticeit.Research on the instinctive brain is extensive—and often a little eerie.One

studyaskedpeopleiftheyknewthelocationoftheclosestfireextinguisher,andwhilemany of the subjects hadworked in the building formore than decade,onlyaboutquartercouldindicatethelocationofthenearestfireextinguisher.Inanotherstudy,subjectsranpastabrawlthathadbeensetupbyagroupof

psychologists.Yetonlyaround50percentof thesubjectsnoticed thefight.Torepeat, twomenwere pummeling each other amid groans and screams on thesideof the street, butonly abouthalf of the subjects spotted the incident.Theresearcherstitledthepaper“YouDoNotTalkaboutFightClubIfYouDoNotNoticeFightClub.”Ononeside,itmightseemthatwe’resimplylazy,andcognitivelyspeaking,

that’s certainly true.We don’twant to pay attention. It takes energy to reallyfocus.Butevenwhenwedopayattention,ourinstinctivebrainalsoplaysarole.Evenwhenwe’retryingtobedeliberate,ourinstinctivebrainjumpsintoaction.Beforeweevenhavehadachancetoreallyconsiderthefacts,weoftenengageinatypeofmental“Itoldyouso.”Inmyownlife,thishappensalotwhenI’mshopping.I’llwanttobuyagas

grill, for instance,andI’lldrumupallsortsofevidence that thenewgrillwill

savemetimeandmoney.Inordertoconvincemyselftobuytheitem,I’llgatherinmymindalonglistofself-servingexplanations:Ican’tusemycharcoalgrillintherain.I’lleathealthierwithanewgrill.It’llbeeasiertobuycanistersofgasthantofindcharcoal.Thisone’sonsale.Andthen—click!—there’soneinthemail,whichnowsitsunusedinmybackyard.Nooneisimmunetothesesortsofcognitivebiases.Expertsfallforthemjust

asmuchasamateurs,masterscangetsnaggedasmuchasapprentices.Itdoesn’tmatterifthere’slotsofmoneyontheline—orhowmuchsmartsisintheroom.CharlesDarwinmadepredictionsaboutgeneticsthatneverpannedout.ThomasEdisonthoughtthatalternatingcurrentwouldneverworkatscale.Andfrankly,if you lived inmy house growing up, youwould also havemissed the blackmustacheontheVirginMary.Next,wewilltakealookatwhatwecandoaboutit.

TheNeedtoEvaluateOnthemorningofmyfortiethbirthday,soonafterIhadopenedafewgifts,anemail popped intomy inbox: “Trying to reachUlrichBoserASAP.” Itwas amessagefromtheBillandMelindaGatesFoundation.TheywantedtosetupameetingbetweenBillGatesandmetodiscusseducationfunding.CouldIgivethefoundationacallassoonaspossible?AtfirstIthoughttheemailmightbeahoax.Itseemedlikeagoofytrickthat

mybrothermightpull,abitoffortiethbirthdaytomfoolery.MywifethoughtthesamethingwhenI toldherabout themissive,andshefiredoffaglanceatmethatsaid:Comeon.BillGatesdoesnotwanttomeetwithyou.The request was authentic, though, and some weeks later, I stepped into a

large conference room. Books lined the back walls. The conference tablegleamed like a mirror. In the distance, a harbor, some boats, a glimmeringYarrowBay,andinthefarcorner,theworld’srichestmanchatteredawaywithacolleague.In the days before themeeting, the staff of the foundation and I hadpulled

togetheramemoonfundingandeducationaloutcomes.Thedocumentwassomefortypages long and included eight different appendices.ThememohadbeensenttoGatesshortlybeforethemeeting,andjustasthediscussionbegan,witheveryone sitting around the conference table, Gates asked a very detailedquestionaboutsomeofthefiguresthatwehadprovided.Sowhat’sthisissuewiththeexpendituresdifferingbetweentheappendixand

thetextofthememo?Gatesasked.

Itwasanobscureissue,thefootnoteofafootnote,likeconsideringtheweightofneutrinosonMarsorthenameofthefirstAmericantowinagoldmedalinshotput.AtfirstIthoughtthatmaybeImisheard.Butafteramoment,Ispokeup,explainingthedetail.Intheappendix,Isaid,weincludedtotalcosts,whichincluded capital expenditures. In the body of the memo, we included currentcosts,whichdidnotincludespendingonbuildings.IthelpedthatIhadknewthatGatesmightaskthissortofquestion.BeforeI

flewouttoSeattle,colleaguestoldmethatGatesoftenstartedoffmeetingswithhighly detailed queries—often revolving around a very specific data point.“Gateswantstomakesurehe’splayingvolleyballwithsomeonewhocankeepaballupintheair,”Harvard’sTomKanetoldme.From a management perspective, one might argue that Gates has a good

bullshitdetector.Heaskedanobscurequestionbecausehewantedtoseeifthepeople in the meeting deeply understood the material. In cognitive sciencecircles,peopletendtobealittlemorepolitethaninmanagementones,andGateswasengagedinaformofevaluation:Weretheexpertsintheroomtrulyexperts?Howwell did the individuals know the issue? Did the person in themeetingreallyunderstandthedifferencebetweencapitalandcurrentexpenditures?Idon’tknowforsurewhyGatestookthisapproach.Butthere’snoquestion

that people likeGates need to closely track the information that comes acrosstheir desk. First, there’s the “yes, of course” approach to managing up—andpeoplewill often tell a bosswhatever that bosswants tohear.Second, peoplewill be overconfident—as we’ve seen—and individuals will think that theyknowsomethingwhentheydon’tactuallyknowanythingatall.Whenitcomestolearning,Gatesmodeledsomethingimportant:Weneedto

reviewwhatwe’ve learned.Toavoidbias, to steer clearofoverconfidence, toreally master a field, we need to examine our thinking—and the thinking ofthosearoundus.We’vecomeacrossversionsofthisideaafewtimesinthisbookalready,but

in this phase of learning, the final phase, this sort of dedicated rethinking iscentral.When it comes to gaining a specific skill, we need to ask ourselves:Doesanythingseemconfusing?What’sunclear?HowdoIknowwhatIknow?InherclassesatCarnegieMellon,MarshaLovettwilloftengivestudentsone

or twowritten questions after they finish a lecture. Lovett calls the questions“wrappers.”Aspartoftheactivity,studentsaskthemselvesquestions:WhatdidIlearn?Whatwashardtounderstand?Whatseemsunclear?For Lovett, a lot of the benefit of wrappers is that they focus a student’s

thinkingonmisunderstandingsaswellas“howthestudentscouldimprovetheirlearning,” she says.Lovett often recommends that students focus on the areas

that give them the most difficulty. By focusing on what Lovett calls the“muddiestpoint,”studentsgetmoreoutof their learning.“It’saboutgettinginthathabitofmindof thinking: ‘Okay.HowwelldoIknowthis?’”Lovett toldme.“‘WhereamIfeelingconfused?’”Slight changes in context also make a difference. When we change the

medium, itmakes iteasier forus to find issues.Thisexplainswhyyoushouldread emails out loudbefore hitting send: Itmakes it simpler to find gaffs andgrammaticalerrors.Thisalsohelpsusunderstandwhyprintingoutamemoandreviewingitonpapercanhelpuncover typos.Whenweseesomethingprintedout—insteadofonascreen—itprovidesadifferentperspectiveonthematerial,andmistakesbecomemoreapparent.Perhaps the most important thing when it comes to this sort of review is

attitude, and while I was working on this book, I realized that I had becomecomplacentwithmyperformanceinsomekeyaspectsofmylife.IwouldwritedocumentsorgivetalksbutnotreallythinkabouthowIcouldimprove.IwouldparentmykidsandmanagepeoplewithoutdwellingonhowIcouldgetbetter.Blame my middle-aged ways—or a hectic work life—but I simply wasn’t

evaluatingmyownperformanceinanysortofsystemicway,eveninthingsthatI cared a lot about, like parenting. I decided to push back against this bit oflaziness.Nothingbig.Justsomepostperformanceevaluation.Sometimes I felt flat-footed giving talks, for instance. Iwouldmumble and

stutter—my thoughts stumbling out ofmymouth like a late-night drunk. So Iwouldwatchrecordingsofmyselfgivingpresentationsandlookforcertaintics.I also once sat with a public speaking coach, and for a few hours, the coachadvisedmeandahandfulofcolleaguesonwaystoimprove.Samewithwriting:IknewIcoulddobetter,andI trackeddownafreelance

editorsothatIcouldgetsomededicatedcriticism,toidentifysomeweakspotsinmysentencesandparagraphs.Inthisregard,Ialsobegantoseetherapyinanew lightand regularlyvisitedacounselornot far frommyhousewhohelpedmefocusonwaystoimprovemymindfulness,tobettercontrolmythoughts.In all of these efforts, the goal was to evaluate my expertise a little more

closely,reviewingmysuccessesandfailures.Inotherwords,IgavetasksabitmoreMonday-morning quarterbacking. Thiswasn’t learning in any traditionalsense—Ididn’ttakeclasses.Nolecturesorexams,novideosortexts.Ijusttriedtoreviewmyperformanceinamorededicatedway,andeventhatwasenoughtohelpmeimprove.Intheend,it’seasytoforgetthatdevelopingexpertiseoftenrunsonawilled

typeofawareness.Weallneed toaskourselves:Howdid Iknow?Whatdo Iknow?Have I checked forwhat I know?BillGates himself once argued that

“yourmostunhappycustomersareyourgreatestsourceoflearning,”andwithinaneconomiccontext,thatmakessense.There’snoreasontolimitthesentiment,though,andI’darguethatoftenthe

most important driver of learning might actually be a simple willingness toreview, to figure what you actually know, tomake your unhappy errors yourgreatestsourceoflearning.

When it comes to rethinking our learning,we need external checks.After all,people often fib to themselves. Like con artists, we believe our own lies,especiallyaboutlearning,andmostofusthinkthatweknowalotmorethanwedo. This is why we need outside reviews and external responses, pointedquestionsanddedicatedfeedback.The Value of Educators plays a key role here. When it came to public

speaking,forinstance,ithelpedthataninstructorgavemetipsandfeedback.Mywriting improved because I landed outside help and dedicated evaluation. Foranother example, recallmy basketball trainerDwane Samuels?He helpedmeunderstandwhatIdid—anddidnot—understandaboutshootingjumpers.Anothersourceofpowerfulfeedbackarepeers.Ourcolleaguescanbedeeply

helpfulinevaluatingourexpertise.IntheAirForce,there’sacommonapproachtomakingsurethatpeoplegainfocusedcriticism,andafteratrainingflightonan F-16 fighter, a team will gather with the pilot to discuss lessons learned.Other organizations have similar efforts. In political circles, group reviewsessionsareknownaspostmortems.Inhospitals,they’recalleddebriefs.Inaway,we’retalkingagainabouttheideaoffeedback,andevenpeopleat

thehighestlevelsoftheirprofessiongainbyknowingifthey’reright—orwrong.It takes a lot, for instance, to become an umpire in Major League Baseball.UmpireTomHallionstartedhiscareermore than thirtyyearsagoandclockedyearsintheminorleaguesbeforehefinallygotcalledupintothemajors,whereheisnowknownfordramatic,spinningstrikeoutcalls.Hallion’s job isunquestionablydifficult.Apitch thrownbyamajor leaguer

easilyhitsspeedsof100milesperhour,andthere’salmostnotimeatallfortheumpire tomake the decision—strike or ball.Errant throwshave also smackedHallion in his mask, while jeering and taunts are constant. Manager DonMattinglyoncetoldHallionto“wakethefuckup.”(HallionthrewMattinglyoutofthegameforthecomment.)Forhispart,Hallionreadilyadmitsthathemakeserrors.Maybehemissesa

strike ormisjudges awide curveball or doesn’t see exactly how a pitch cameover the plate. “We like to get every play right,”Hallion once told a reporter

duringapostgameinterview.But,“we’rehumanbeingsandsometimeswegetthemwrong.”TohelpmakeumpireslikeHallionalittlelesswrong,MajorLeagueBaseball

rolledoutanewtechnologysomeyearsago thatshowed ifanumpirecalledastrike correctly. Using sophisticated cameras and various motion trackingdevices, the software showed if a ballwas really a ball, basically helping theumpiresevaluatetheirperformance.The effort resulted in better umpires, and the data suggested that umpires

begancallingstrikesinamoreconsistentmanner.What’smore,thetechnologywas particularly helpful to younger umpires,whoused the software as part oftheir training. Indeed, many of the younger umpires now arrive at theMajorLeagueswithskillssimilartosomeonehighlyexperiencedlikeHallion.The point is that even among specialists, people learnmore if they closely

trackwhat they know and don’t know.Like any sort of feedback, this sort ofevaluation needs to be immediate. One benefit of theMajor League Baseballdataonstrikeouts,forinstance,isthatit’sprocessedalmostimmediately.Asoneumpire,DustyDellinger, explained after studying his strike-zone data: “Iwasabletoquicklymakeadjustmentsbasedonhavingthatinformation,whichwashugetome.”Quizzingisyetanotherformofevaluation—itprovidesawaytoknowwhat

youknow.ExpertsinlearninglikepsychologistReganGurungremindstudentsofthisfactallthetime,tellingthem:Testyourself,answerthequestionsinthebackofthetextbook,takepracticeexams,doasmuchquizzingasyoucan.Theeffectsareimmediate,accordingtoGurung.“Thegradesofthepeopletakingthequizzesjustshootsup,”hetoldme.To get a better, concrete sense of this type of test-based review, I once

droppedintoaphysicsclassroomattheUniversityofMaryland,CollegePark.AjuniornamedBrandonFishwassittinginoneofthemiddlerows,andIsatnearhiminoneofthenarrow,blueplasticmoldedchairs.Likemostofthehundredorsostudentsintheclass,Fishhadbroughtaclicker

with him. The device looks like a small TV remote control, and it allowsstudentslikeFishtoanswersimplequizquestionsviaradiowaves.Itwasthefirstdayafterspringbreak,andtheprofessor,BenDreyfus,began

byaskingajokeofaclickerquestionthatwaspostedonthelargescreenatthefrontoftheclassroom:“Howwasspringbreak?”Then,aftersomemutedlaughter,camefourlow-stakesquestions.Thequeries

revolvedaroundhowelectricchargesspreadacrosscapacitors. Idrewablank.Therewasnounderstandingformetoevaluate.ButFishfiredoffhisanswersbypressingalittleblackbutton.

Thiswasn’tastressfulexperience.Eachquestionwasn’tworthmuch—justafewpoints.Fishsawitasawaytotrackwhathehadlearned.Afterthequizwasover,achartappeareduponthescreen.Itshowedthecorrectanswerstothequizquestionsaswellaswhatpercentofstudentsgottheitemscorrect.Overall,theresultsweren’tgood.Itseemedthatmanystudentshadforgotten

thematerialoverspringbreak,andonafewitems,halftheclassgavethewrongresponse.Inotherwords,Dreyfushelpedthestudentsevaluatetheirlearning—andthestudentsfoundthattheyhadn’tretainedalotofmaterial.Dreyfusthenbasicallyspenttherestoftheclassreviewingthekeyideas—and

givingmoreclickerquestions.WhenIspoketoFishaftertheclass,hetoldmethat the quiz-focused approach was helpful. The questions signaled what heneededtolearn—andwhathehadmastered.“Inthisclass,theyreallyemphasizewhat’s important. I find it a really effectiveway to teach kids,”Fish toldme.“It’smorehelpfultoknowwhatyoudon’tknow.”FishandItalkedforalittlewhilelonger.Hetoldmeaboutwhathewantedto

do after graduation—hewanted to “become a population researcher.” I askedhimifhehadanyissueswiththequiz-basedapproach.“Therecanbeawkwardpauses,ifpeopledon’twanttoanswerquestions,”hesaid.It seemed, too, that Fish had internalized this type of evaluation. He

understoodthepoweroffindingoutwhathehadn’tfullylearned,andbytheendofourinterview,FishtoldmesomethingthatIthoughtthatI’dneverhearfromacollegestudent:“Ilikethequizzes.”

POPQUIZ#28

You’relearninghowtothrowdartsfortheveryfirsttime.Whatpracticewillbethemosteffective?

A. Emphasizing the learning process (e.g., reflecting onperformance,knowinghowtoholdthedarts)

B. Focusing on the learning outcome (e.g., hitting the target,focusingongettingabull’s-eye)

C. Introducingtheskillinvariouslearningstyles(e.g.,visual,kinetic,etc.)

D. Discoveringhowtothrowdarts(juststartthrowingandseehowitgoes)

We all forget. It might take a few days—or just a fewminutes. But learningoftenleavesassoonasitarrives.Whenitcomestomemories,thebrainisalotlike a sieve. Many recollections will vanish after just a few moments. Stillworse,eventhedetailsthatdostayoftendisappearwithtime.Thishappens inschoolsall the time,evenafterdedicatedboutsofstudying.

Medicalstudents,forinstance,sometimesfailtoremembermorethan50percentofwhatthey’velearnedwithinafewmonths,accordingonestudy.SowhileanaspiringdoctormightaceananatomytestduringherfirstyearatMedU.,she’slikelytobombthesameexamlessthanayearlater.Granted,wewanttobelievethatwewillremembereverythingthatweseeor

doorexperience.It’spainfultothinkthatwewon’trememberkeymemories—abiggraduation,aclosefriend,ourfirstkiss.Butwhencognitivescientistsstudyforgetting in the lab, theyfind thatourmemoriesseemtocomewitha typeoftimer.If thetimerrings—andwehavenotre-engagedthatmemoryagain—thememoryisforgotten.Researcherscallittheforgettingcurve.While the research onmemory and forgetting has been around for decades,

it’sgenerallylivedindustyresearchjournals,obscurebookswrittenbybeardedacademics.AtleastuntilRogerCraigcamealong.EversinceCraigwasakid,hehas lovedplayinggames.Chess,Scrabble,poker,baseball—he’sbeendevotedtothemall.“I’mverycompetitive,”Craigtoldme.“Iliketowin.”Soingradschool,CraigdecidedtocompeteatJeopardy!Asakid,Craighad

watched thegamea lotwithhisgrandparents. Ingraduate school, someofhisbuddieshadtriedtogetontheshow,too.CraigalsothoughtthathemighthaveanedgeaftercomingacrossaWiredmagazinearticlethatdetailedthevalueofspacinglearningoutovertime.“Allstudentshavebeenwarnednottocram,”theWiredarticleargued.“But

theefficienciescreatedbyprecisespacingaresolarge,andtheimprovementinperformance so predictable, that from nearly the moment [a researcher]describedthespacingeffect,psychologistshavebeenurgingeducatorstouseittoacceleratehumanprogress.”CraighadasensethattheWiredarticlemightprovideanimportantadvantage.

WhenCraigwould study for tests in college atVirginiaTech, hewouldoftenrevisit ideas so that hewouldn’t forget them.Heevenwrote a short computerprogram to help him space out his learning so that he would revisit ideas atregularintervals.ButtheWiredmagazinearticlepromisedamuchdeeperapproachtospacing

outlearning,andCraigsoondownloadedabitofsoftwarecalledAnki.Usingahighly developed algorithm, the software relied on the principles of spacedlearning,anditwouldquizpeopleattheveryedgesoftheirmemory.Orasthe

software’s website argues, “Only practice the material that you’re about toforget.”ArmedwithadatabaseofpastJeopardy!questions,Craigstartedtohonehis

game-showskills,andhewouldreviewfacts—detailsaboutpresidents,namesofoldmovies—thatalignedwithhisrateofforgetting.SoifCraiggotafactwrong,Ankiwouldaskhimabout thefactagaininafewminutes.IfCraiglandedthefactcorrect,thenthequestionmightnotreappearagainforafewdays.IfCraiglandedthefactcorrectasecondtime,thefactwouldnotappearagainforafewmonths.Amorevisualwayto thinkabout thisapproachis toconsiderachartof the

forgettingcurve. It showshow longyou remember something thatyou’ve justlearned, and it suggests that after a few days—or even a few minutes—oflearningsomething,you’veprobablyforgottenit.Soifyoumeetsomeoneataparty,andhesayshisnameisTerry,that’sthe

solid line. It shows thatyou’reunlikely to rememberTerry’snameaftera fewdays.Ifyouremindyourselfafewminuteslaterabouthisname,that’sthedottedline.Itsuggeststhatremindingyourselfafewminuteslaterhelpsmemory,butitdoesn’thelpbymuch:Afterafewweeks,you’llhaveforgottenTerry’sname.

ButyouifreviewTerry’snameagainafewdaysaftertheparty—hisnameisTerry,hisnameisTerry—thenthedottedlineshiftsabitfartherdownthegraph,andnowrememberinglooksmorelikethis:

Ifyou reviewTerry’snameagain someweeks later—hisname isTerry,hisnameisTerry—therateofforgettingnowlookslikemorelikethis:

Again,thekeythingisthedottedline.That’sthesignoflearning.That’sthesignofremembrance.Andthat’swhatRogerCraigdidwithasmanyJeopardy!answersashepossiblycould.CraiglandedontheshowforthefirsttimeinSeptember2010,andinasmall

roomwithAlexTrebekandhis twocompetitors,Craigbasicallydidn’tmissaquestion.Hedestroyedhis twocompetitors.Hebanged thoughJeopardy! itemafter item,eventuallysettinga record for themostamountofmoneywon inasingle game, blowing away the record that Ken Jennings had set some yearsearlier.WhenCraiggotbacktohisLosAngeleshotelthatnight,hewasalmostmore

surprisedthanexcited.Heknewthathewoulddowellatthegame;theeffectof

spacingoutpracticewasrootedinsomeveryrobustscience.ButCraigjustdidnotthinkthathewoulddothatwell—hegavesuchadominantperformancethathethought,Ohwow,maybeitworkedtoowell.Craig had a hard time sleeping on that night.Would Jeopardy! invite him

back?Would Trebek think that he had somehow cheated? Craig hadn’t doneanythingwrong—he had simply relied on basicmemory research to hone hisskills. In the end,Jeopardy! did askCraig to return, andhewon a half-dozenmoregamesduringhisfirstappearanceandalsoeventuallyacedtheTournamentofChampions,whichpitsthegame’sall-starsagainsteachother.Today,CraiglivesinNewYorkCity.Heworksasadatascientist.Heoften

uses Anki for work—and different games. As for spacing out learning, Craigarguesthatit’ssimplyabetterwaytograpplewithknowledge.Itensuresthatwedon’tforget.“Everybodythatwantstosucceedatagameisgoingtopracticeatthegame,”CraigoncetoldanNPRreporter.“Youcanpracticehaphazardly,oryoucanpracticeefficiently.Andthat’swhatIdid.”

POPQUIZ#29

True or false: When studying, students should alternate betweenlearning things that they don’t know and things that they’ve recentlylearned.

Roger Craig’s call to end “haphazard learning” has not gone unanswered. Atleast a half-dozen software programsnowpromise to help people spread theirlearning out over days, weeks, months, or even years. SuperMemo is thegrandfather of the field, perhaps the oldest program. More recently, VocAppallowsusers to includepictures to their spaced learning.DuoLingo’sapproachfocusesexclusivelyonforeignlanguages,allowingpeopletospreadthelearningoftheirSpanishlanguagewordsoutovertime.Thespacingapproachhasspreadtootherfields,too.Somecorporatetraining

programshavetriedtotakeamoredistributedapproachtolearning.Verizon,forinstance,willnowsendfollow-uptrainingmaterial toanemployee’scomputerto help keep theirmemories fresh. SomeofThomsonReuters’s learning toolsusetheapproachtokeepstrategies“top-of-mind.”Yetforthemostpart, learningremainsconcentrated.Aspacedapproachhas

notcaughton,andinwaysbigandsmall,peoplestillcram.Insteadofspreadingtheir practice out over time, people will try and learn everything in oneafternoon, or they won’t revisit important ideas or details. Most people, for

instance,don’tknowthenameofthelastbattleoftheRevolutionaryWar?(Hint:Itwasn’tinLexington.)Why?I’darguethatit’sbecausetheyhavenotrevisitedthematerial.For their part, schools often encourage cramming. With the exception of

perhaps a “review” session at the start of the year, there’s little revisiting ofmaterial.Cumulativetests—whichencouragemorespacedlearning—arelimitedtotheendofthesemester.Manytextbooksalsofailtoincludededicatedreviewsessions,exceptformaybeaquestionortwoatthecloseofeachchapter.Yeteventheslightestamountofspacingcanimproveoutcomes.Whenpeople

take small steps to spread out their learning, they often see dramaticimprovements.Withoutquestion,myfavoriteexampleof this ideacomesfromNate Kornell. While Kornell was landing his post-doc at the University ofCalifornia,LosAngeles, henoticed something curious about how the studentsapproachedtheirschoolwork.AsKornellwanderedthecampus,hefoundthatsomeoftheundergradswould

quizthemselveswithasmallpileofflashcards,usingahalf-dozenorsocardstotesttheirunderstandingofaspecificideaordetail.Withjustafewcardsineachpile,thestudentswouldquicklyflipthroughthesmallbatchesandthentucktheflashcardsaway,feelinglikethematerialwaswelllearned.Other students on the campus who used flash cards took a very different

approach.Theywouldcreatealargepileofflashcards.Insomeinstances,thesestacksofcardswerebig—aninchortwothick—andsothestudentslearnedthematerialinamoredistributed,spaced-outsortofway.Moreexactly,there’dbelongerintervalsoftimebetweentherevisitingofaflashcard,withstudentsmorelikelytocomeacrossacardthattheymighthaveforgotten.Kornell knew the students themselves didn’t dwellmuch on the difference.

Buthethoughtthatthesizeofthestacksmightshiftwhat’sbeinglearned.Sohedrew up a quick experiment. In the lab, one group of subjectswould practicelearningvocabularywordsusingalargepileofflashcards.ThenKornellhadasecondgroup,wholearnedthesamematerialusingfoursmallerpilesofcards.All of the students needed to know themeaning of thewords, and theywerehigh-level words that they had not heard before, words like “effulgent” and“abrogate.”Anotherway to think aboutKornell’s experiment is to imagine that you’re

preparingforatalk.Maybeyou’regivingapresentationtoaclient—orperhapsyouhaveaspeechtogiveatsomefamilyevent.Thequestionis:Areyoubetteroffpracticingthefullspeechonceadayforfiveminutesoverafour-dayperiod(like the studentswith one large stack of flashcards)?Or should you split thespeech into four smaller sections and focus on one section each day for five

minutes(likethestudentswithfoursmallerstacksofflashcards)?For their part, the subjects in the study voted for the smaller piles. They

wantedtobatchtheirstudyinginordertoconcentratetheirlearning,andbeforethe experiment began, just about all of the students indicated that theywouldlearnmoreif theyusedfoursmallheapsofcards.Inotherwords,mostpeoplethinkthat thebestwaytoprepareforaspeechisbysplittingthetalkintofourshortsections.But Kornell found the exact opposite, and the results of more spacing—of

distributingthepractice—weredramatic.Intheexperiment,justaboutallofthestudentswhopracticedusingonelargestackofflashcardsscoredhigher,evenifthe amount of time spent learning was the same. What’s more, many of thestudentswhostudiedwithonelargepileofcardslearnedaboutathirdmore.Foranyonewhowantstolearnanything,thetakeawayisclear:Anythingwe

candotodistributeourlearningovertimepaysoff,andpeopleshouldspaceoutthedevelopmentofaskill. Ifyou’repracticingtheviolin,don’t justrehearseamelodyforafewhours;returntothemelodyperiodicallysothatitstaysburnedinyourmemory.Wanttoaceahigh-stakesexam?Startearlysothelearningcanbespreadout

over time, and re-quiz yourself every fewweeks to ensure that you know thematerial. Inmyhouse,we’ve starteddoing less homeworkonweeknights andmoreontheweekendsforthesimplereasonthatitspacesoutlearning.Today,KornellisaprofessoratWilliamsCollege.Hestilloftenseesstudents

quizzingthemselveswithsmallstacksofcards—andshakeshisheadeverytimethatheseesit.“Spacingdoesn’trequireanymoretime.Noextraresources.Youdon’thavetobuyaniPad,”hetoldme.“It’skindoflikeagift—youlearnalotmoreandit’sfree.”

TheNeedforReflectionRethinkingourlearningisnotjustamatterofevaluation.Wealsoneedtolookfor a deeper senseof understanding.Weneed todeliberate onknowledge andskills.As a society, we’re not inclined toward this sort of rumination. Our world

placesalotofemphasisonaction.Thinkingisoftenasignofweakness.Peoplewhospendalotoftimenoodlingoverdecisionscanseemlazy.FormerpresidentGeorgeW.Bushcalledhimselfthedeciderinchief,notthedeliberatorinchief.Foranotherexample, take soccergoalies.Duringapenalty shot, it typically

paysforagoalkeepertostayinthemiddleofthegoalratherthandivingforthe

posts.Byasmallbutmeasurablemargin,mostpenaltyshotsareaimedtowardthecenter,andthegoalieshaveabetterchanceatstoppingtheballiftheystayinthemiddleofthegoal.But generally soccer goalies dive to the left or right. Why? According to

GiadiaDiStefanoandhercolleagues,“it looksandfeelsbettertohavemissedthe ball” by doing something rather than doing nothing. In other words, thegoaliewantstolookpurposefulandengagedanddecisive,andsotheyjumptotheleftorright,despitethefactthatthey’reactuallylesslikelytopreventagoal.Foraneducation-relatedexample,takesomethinglikechanginganansweron

atest.Shouldyouswitchtheanswer?Orgowithyourrawinstincts?Talktoafewpeople,andmostbelievethatthefirstansweronatestisthebestanswer.Inotherwords,generallypeoplewanttogowiththeirgut.Likethesoccergoalie,theydon’twanttoseemlikethey’rewafflingorbroodingoroverlypensive.Buta solid body of evidence suggests otherwise: Fixes to test items usually boostscores.Bythinkingthroughanansweronemoretime,wegenerallyimproveourperformance.It turnsout thatdeliberation isacrucialpartof learning.Tounderstandany

sortofskillorknowledge,wehavetoreflectonthatskillorbitofknowledge.Thisisdifferentthansimplycheckingonthedetails.It’samatterofdwellingontheexperience.Expertsdothisall thetime.“It’smoreimportant to thinkaboutwhatyou’re

doing than it is to do it,” was the quote thatCar Talk’s Ray Magliozzi hadhangingabovehisdesk.SamewithNewEnglandPatriotscoachBillBelichick,who will spend hours mulling over previous games, looking for missedopportunities, figuring out ways for his team to get better, contemplatingapproachestoimprovement.The best example, though,might be guitarist PatMetheny. In theworld of

jazzguitar,Methenyisasuperstar.He’slandedsometwentydifferentGrammys,playingwitheveryonefromB.B.KingtoDavidBowie.ButMethenycontinuestoreflectonwhatheknows,settingasidetimetofigureoutwaysthathecangetbetter.Aftereachshow,he’llwriteuphalfadozenpagesabouttheexperience.Theshortessayreflectsonhowheperformed,detailingmusicalsuccessesandfailures,describingwhathethoughtworked—anddidn’twork.It’s no accident that Metheny writes down his reflections. As a medium,

writing slows our thoughts. It pushes deliberation, and one way to improvelearningis touseadiary.Thinkof itasa learningjournal, inwhichyouwritedowneverythingthatwentwellduringclassorpractice.Thethoughtsdon’thavetobeprofound.“Inhockeyclasstoday,Idiscovered

thatIneedtousemyhipsmore.”Or,“MyactinginstructortoldmethatIneedto

project my voice more.” Yet even these sort of mundane scribblings can beenoughtosparkaricherformoflearning.Talking out loud can help a lot, too. It’s another way to slow down the

thinking process, and after an experience—or even during an experience—peoplecanimprovetheirlearningiftheytalktothemselvesinwaysthatpromotereflection:“SowhatdoIdonext?”or“WhatamIsolvingforagain?”Tofindoutmoreabouttheroleofreflectioninlearning,Ioncemetupwith

SusanAmbrose.Acognitivescientist,AmbrosewrotetheimportantbookHowLearningWorksandisnowtheseniorviceprovostofNortheasternUniversityinBoston. We met up in Ambrose’s office, which was tucked away among aburrowofwell-appointedroomsinthecollege’scentralbuilding.Ambrosearguedthatpeopleoftensimplyassumethatreflectionhappens.Put

content in front of someone, and they’ll transform thatmaterial into learning.“Youseethisinalotofcollegecourses,”Ambroseargued.“Facultylovetheirsubject,andsotheygivestudentsasmuchmaterialaspossible.”That’snothowlearningworks, though.Peopleneed time to think througha

skill or bit of knowledge in some sort of focusedway.AsAmbrose toldme,“The more knowledge that you get, the more you need to make thoseconnections.Butyouneedtobeintentionalaboutit.”AtNortheastern,Ambrose has rolled out various initiatives to help students

engageinmoreofthissortofreflection.Intheschool’sinternshipprogram,forinstance,studentsnowregularlyanswerquestionsonwhatit’slikeworkingforacompanyornonprofit.KaraMorganwasoneofthestudentswhoparticipatedinthecollege’srevampedinternshipprogram,workingfor theCambodianCenterforHumanRightsinPhnomPenh.ForMorgan, the experienceof living inCambodiawas exhilarating.Anew

country,anewlanguage,anewjob,andthewritingassignmentservedacrucialpurpose, encouragingMorgan tomake sense of her experiences, to reflect onwhatshelearned.“ItmademeconsiderwhatelseIwantedtoaccomplishwhileIwasthere,”shetoldme.“Theessaysforcedmetotakeastepbackandthink,”andinmanyways,thatwasthepoint.

ThetypeofreflectionthatI’vebeentalkingaboutusuallyrequiresamomentofcalm.Maybewe’requietlywritinganessay—ortalkingtoourselvesaswe’reinthe shower. But it usually takes a bit of cognitive quiet, a moment of silentintrospection,forustoengageinanysortoffocuseddeliberation.There is, then,somethingofacontradiction in learning,andit turnsout that

weneedtoletgoofourthinkinginordertounderstandourthinking.Whenwe

step away from a problem, we often learn more about a problem. Read asoftware manual, for instance, and a good amount of the comprehension cancomeafteryoushutthepages.Getintoadiscussionwithacolleagueatwork—andthebestargumentarriveswhileyou’rewashingthedishesthatevening.Reflecting,then,doesmorethangiveusachancetoreconsiderourlearning.It

alsoprovides itsownformofschooling.Sleep isafascinatingexampleof thisidea,anditturnsoutthatwesleepinordertomakesenseofourthoughts.Whenwetakeanap,we’retidyingupourknowledge.Sleep shows some pretty remarkable outcomes. It works to make us better

humans.Moreshut-eyeequalsbiggerincomes,andanother60minutesofsleepeach night boosts salaries. Sleep also makes it easier to lose weight. Or takesports: People are much better sprinters—and have far better hand-eyecoordination—after getting more sleep, according to one study of collegeathletes.When it comes to learning, sleepplays aparticularly important role.Toput

thisresearchinperspective,IworkedwithmycolleaguesCatherineBrownandPerpetualBaffour,andweshowedthatifthenation’smiddleschoolsopenedonehourlater,testscoresaroundthecountrywouldjumpbyalmostagradelevel.Inotherwords,openingschool laterby60minuteswouldhelpastudentgofromproducing7thgraderesultstoalmostproducing8thgraderesults.Theneed for cognitive quiet also helps explainwhy it’s so difficult to gain

skillswhenwe’restressedorangryorlonely.Whenfeelingssurgethroughourbrain,wecan’tengage.Wecan’tdeliberate.Sure,insomesortofdramatichigh-stakes situations, we might be able to learn something basic like a phonenumber.Butforus togainanysortofunderstanding, thereneeds tobementaltranquility.I got a very concrete sense of this idea when I met up with neuroscientist

Mary Helen Immordino-Yang, who has done some important work on theemotional nature of learning. A professor at the University of SouthernCalifornia,Immordino-YangwasinWashingtonforanevent,andsheaskedmeifIcouldpickherupfromtheairportforourinterview.It was a Thursday evening, and as we drove away from the terminal,

Immordino-Yang’ssuitcasestashedinmytrunk,Ibegantoaskafewquestions.But while Immordino-Yang provided nuanced explanations, I found myselfstrugglingtounderstand.BecauseIwasnervousaboutthetrafficandthedrivingandthedirections,mymindcouldnotreallyengagewithherremarks.Imergedonto thehighway,half listening toher talk, recognizingwordsbut

not grapplingwith any sort ofmeaning. Immordino-Yang explained that “thebrain’s default mode is not just a kind of resting state. It’s an active

consolidationmechanism.”IanxiouslywonderedaboutthebestwaytodrivetoImmordino-Yang’shotel,

navigating streets and stoplights, while Immordino-Yang continued. “Studentsneedtohavetimeandopportunitiesandskillandencouragementtobeabletogoinsideandkindofinternallyreflect,”shesaid.“Dynamiclearningisaprocessofmovingbetweenthoughtfulreflectionandakindofsimulationinyourhead.”Immordino-Yangarguedthatpeopleoftendon’t takeenoughtimetoengage

in reflection.Maybe theperson isdrivingacar—orchecking their email—butthey’renotfullyengaged.They’redistracted,andsotheydon’thavethefeelingofemotionalcomposure,ofmentalquiet, thatsupportsmoremeaningfulformsof understanding. People, she argued, need to engage in “productive mindwandering.”Similar conclusionshavebeen filling researchpapers in recent years, and it

turns out that a serene walk in the woods can help people think throughproblems.Ifsomeoneplayswithsomeplasticbricksforawhile,theydobetteroncreativitytests.Daydreaminghasalsobeenshowntoboostcognition.Thesesorts of reflective activities matter a lot for metacognition, too. We’re muchbetteratthinkingaboutthinkingwhenwe’vehadsomequietmoments,andevenashortbreakcanimproveourmetacognitionskills.Practically speaking, people should consider their emotional state as they

learn.Theyneedtoensurethattheyfeelcalmandfocused,readyandcentered.For someone like Immordino-Yang, feelings of serenity and deeper forms oflearning run in lockstep,andwithout somesortofcognitivepeace, there isnocognitiveunderstanding.Some organizations have taken up the banner for increased rumination.

Technology is the target in some areas. A few universities have banned cellphones, while France has gone so far as to limit Wi-Fi in daycares. Otherorganizations have established “quiet” rooms, and in Baltimore, a marketingstart-up named Groove created a library with a “no-talking” rule. Same withGoogle. While the company is famous for its open floor plan, the tech firmencouragesemployeestobookaprivateofficeiftheyneedreallytofocus.Aftermy talkwith Immordino-Yang, I also experienced the benefits of this

sort of relaxed contemplation.After I dropping the scientist off at her hotel, Ibegan todrivehome, andmymind started todrift. I began to think aboutherargumentandhowitmightfitwitheverythingelsethatIknew.Asthecarpurredalongthestreets,asIsteeredmyHondatowardmyhouse,I

feltrelaxed—andIwasfinallyabletograpplewithwhatshemeantbythebrainbeing a “platform inwhichwe construct coherent understanding,” that peopleneedto“internallyreflectinordertolearn.”

POPQUIZ#30

Trueorfalse:Studentsshouldlearnhowtothinkabouttheirthinking.

Whatdoes Immordino-Yang’s research look like forsomeonewho is trying tolearn something? JuliusRobinson knows—and he still remembers the activityknownsimplyas“thefist.”Robinsonwasinhighschoolatthetime,afreshman,wearing the school uniform—blue shirt, khaki pants—and in an emptyclassroom,RobinsonstoodacrossfromaboynamedChristian.Robinson and Christian were friends, both talkative and outgoing, always

eagertovolunteerforthings.AtthefrontoftheroomstoodacounselorwithaprogramcalledBecomingaMan,orwhateveryonecallsBAM.“Christian, closeyour fist,” thecounselor saidon thatday, and soChristian

balleduphishand.ThenthecounselorturnedtoRobinson.“Now,canyouopenhisfist?”The first thought that rushed throughRobinson’sheadwas somethingalong

thelinesofRipitopen.SoRobinson stepped forward andbegan to tugonChristian’shand, pulling

and yanking. Christian laughed and kept his fist closed. The two men good-naturedly tussled for abit,withChristianputtinghishandhigher in the air soRobinsoncouldn’treachit.The grappling, the jerking and prying, continued for a fewmoremoments.

Then,thecounselorsteppedinandsimplyaskedChristian,“Canyouopenyourfistforme,please?”SoChristianopenedhishand,extendinghisfingers,andRobinsonthoughtto

himself,Ah,Igot it. Ishouldhaveaskedhimthequestion insteadofwrestlinghim.Asresearchers likeSaraHellerhavepointedout,“the fist”activitysumsup

the purpose of theBAMprogram:By stopping and thinking, people aremorelikely to getwhat theywant. InBAM, this activity is knownmorebroadly as“slowthinking,”andinmanyways, it’samatterofputtingImmordino-Yang’sresearch into action. By learning to be more deliberate, by checking ouremotions, by beingmore calm, peoplemake better decisions—and learn a lotmore.ThisapproachwasnewforRobinson.Hegrewupinoneofthedeadliestareas

of Chicago. Robinson’s brother and father had both been gang members—Gangster Disciples. In his South Side neighborhood, murders occurred aboutonce amonth. Just about every day, someonewas assaulted. Two partsWild

West,onepartwarzone,itwasaworldthatprizedinstinctandrawautomaticity.ABAM counselor, PeterAgostino led “the fist” activitywith Robinson on

thatday,andAgostinosoonbecameoneofRobinson’smentors.Hewouldmeetwith Robinson and the other BAM students each week, and they would talkaboutfriendsandfamilies.Theywoulddiscussschoolandgirlfriends.Agostinotaught the students relaxation techniques like meditation and deep breathing.“Thegoal is tohelp thestudents to thinkmoresoundlyandclearly,”Agostinotoldme.Inhisownlife,Robinsonstartedusingthe“slowthinking”toolsallthetime.

IfRobinsonarguedwithhisfather,forinstance,hewouldtryandslowhimselfdown.Ifheneededtogetsomeschoolworkdone,he’dcountdownusingdeepbreaths:One,inhale,exhale.Two,inhale,exhale.WhenIspoketoRobinson,hehadrecentlygottenintoanargumentwithhisbrotherandtoavoidanescalationin the exchange: “I just sat down in front of the TV and did my breathingexercises,”hetoldme.Because of BAM’s emotional management techniques, Robinson got better

grades in school. He could concentratemore easily during stressfulmoments.Likeeveryteen,Robinsonhaddifficultmoments,andinhighschool,helandedasuspensionforditchingclass.ButeventuallyRobinsonwalkedacrossthestageandgothishighschooldiploma.Henowhasajob—andhopestogotocollege.Labstudiesgiveadditionalsupporttothisapproach.Agroupofinternational

researchersledbyGiadaDiStefanooncegaveagroupofsubjectsabrainteaserandthenprovidedthemwithsometrainingonit.Thenthesubjectshadachoice:Didtheywanttopracticetheteasermore?Ordidtheywanttoreflect?Overwhelmingly, the subjects inDiStefano’s study chose to practicemore,

butitturnedoutthatthegroupthatchoseto“thinkandwrite”hadmuchhigherrates of learning. In other words, reflection had more impact than additionalpractice. “The bias for action,” the researchers concluded, is “ultimatelydetrimentaltoourlearning.”Itdoesn’t takemuch toengage inmoreslowthinking.Beforeengaging ina

learningtaskthattakesalotofconcentration,peopleshouldworktopushasideanxiousthoughts.TheBAMprogramgivessomehelpfuladvice,recommendingthat people simply count their breaths, much like Robinson did:One, inhale,exhale.Two,inhale,exhale.Similarly,considermeditation.Itcanalsohelpslowourthinking,andthere’s

now a long and surprising list of meditation devotees. There’s actor ClintEastwoodandCongressmanTimRyan.Insports,SeattleSeahawksquarterbackRussellWilsonhas a “mental conditioning coach,”whilebusiness leaders likeSalesforceCEOMarcBenioffandmusicmogulRussellSimmonsallswearby

thepractice.Solitude isalsohelpful.Byspending timealone,wedialdown thespeedof

ourthinking,andsowecancontemplatedifferentangles,improveourreasoning,orjustthinkaboutourthinking.Inmuchthesameway,visualizationscanhelpus improve outcomes, and we can engage in slower forms of thought byimagininghowwemightperforminagivensituation.Whateverthespecificapproach,timeiscrucial.Toengageinmorereflective

thought,weneedlonguninterruptedmomentstothinkorwriteorjustdeliberate,asGeorgetowncomputerscienceprofessorCalNewportargues.Inordertowritea business plan—or study for an important exam—people should swear offdistractions. That means no Snapchat, no Facebook, for at least a few hours.“Deepwork”ishowNewportreferstotheconcept.The approach of former Homeland Security secretary Janet Napolitano

provides an example of “deepwork,” and she has gone so far as to swear offemail.Withoutthetechnology,Napolitanoarguesthatshe’salotmoreeffectiveatwork,and ifNapolitanoneedssomething fromsomeone immediately, she’llpickup thephone.AsNapolitanoonceexplained to reporters,notusingemail“allows me to focus on where I need to focus.” In other words, it allowsNapolitanotothinkslowly.

POPQUIZ#31

Trueorfalse:Rereadingisahighlyeffectiveapproachtolearning.

There’sanoddthingaboutrethinkingourlearning:Itmakeslearningatypeofendlessprocess.Ifwe’realwaysreassessingwhatweknow,we’renevergoingtostopdeliberating.We’renevergoingtostopreflecting.Thisideaturnsouttobeattheheartofthelearningprocess—andincreasingly

themodernworld.After all, expertise itself is constantlyevolving.Skillshavestopped being static. I’m in this ever-churning boat alongwith everyone else,andwithin days of this book being released, a study—or even a Tweet—willmakesomeaspectoutdated.Abigresearchprojectwillhitthewires.Somenewdatawill be released, and then, despite allmy efforts, a passagewithin thesepagesmayseemmorepastthanpresent.There’ssomegoodnewshere,andtechnologycanhelpusreconsider.Blogs

might have done asmuch for reading and writing as the Gutenberg press, asCliveThompsonarguesinhisexcellentbookSmarterThanYouThink.SiteslikeWikipedia have pushed a powerful democratization of knowledge, while

communicationappslikeTwitterhavesparkedpublicdebatesasfierceasthosein ancient Rome. “Today’s tools make it easier for us to find connections—between ideas, pictures, people, bits of news—thatwere previously invisible,”Thompsonargues.I’vetouchedonthisthemeafewtimes.Mind-mappingtoolscanhelpusthink

andseerelationships.Computersimulationscanhelpuspracticeandapplywhatweknow.SomesoftwareprogramslikeAnkicanhelpslowourforgettingwaysby spacingoutour learning.Technologycanevenhelpus teach,or just recallDavid Rönnqvist, who would spend days on Stack Overflow, answeringquestionsinanefforttolearnnewcodingtechniques.Like every technology, learning applications have trade-offs. Connected

devices don’t generally foster sustained attention, for one. In classes withunfettered Internet access, students often post lower scores. Even the “merepresence”ofacellphoneturnsouttoreducetheabilitytoconcentrate.Inotherwords,justseeingyouriPhoneonatablemakesyoulessfocusedonatask.Atthesametime,learningdevicesarepronetotechno-sizzle,loadedupwith

unnecessary bells and distractingwhistles. Psychologist RichMayer has donesomepowerfulresearchinthisarea,andwhenitcomestotechnology-enhancedlearning, less isoftenmore.Indeed,anumberofstudiesshowthatpeopleposthigher outcomeswhen they engagewith simpler representations of an idea orskill.For all the debate over technology, one thingwill not change, and learning

willalwaysrequireslearning.Nomatterwhatthedevice,understandingreliesonadedicatedsearchforsignificance.It’safocusedhuntformeaning.Afewyearsago, writer Atul Gawande wrote a book called The Checklist Manifesto. Hearguedthatwhenitcametosophisticatedactivitieslikemedicineorengineeringor piloting a plane, people needed checklists to help them reduce errors—andimproveperformance.Butitturnsoutthatevenchecklistshaveclearlimits.Whilethememorytool

increasesproductivity,it’ssubjecttoveryhumanfoibles.Whenautomechanicsrely on checklists, for instance, they often ignore the bottom of the checklist,reviewingonlytheitemsatthetop.Soifsomethinglike“checkblinkerlights”appearsatthestartofachecklist,a

mechanicwillgivetheblinkerlightsmoreattentionthanthethingsthatappearatthe bottom, like brake lines.This happens despite the fact that brake lines areclearlyimportantthanblinkerlights.Nobodydeniesthevalueofchecklists—insomecaseslikecarrepair,theycan

growrevenueby20percent.Butwhether it’s fixingaHondaorengineeringabridge, there’s somethingmore important:meaning. In this regard,wehave to

worktomakesenseofthings,tofocusourskills,tohoneourabilities.Afterall,eventhesimplestmemory-enhancingtechnologylikeachecklistcanbecomeamindlesscrutchifwe’renotengagingintheactivityinsomemeaningfulway.Thedebateover technology, then,underscoresone lastpoint:Look to learn.

Be a sense maker. Always aim to develop—and reflect—on skills andknowledge.Weseethisdriveinmostsuccessfulindividuals.It’strueinpolitics,andwhilemostAmericansreadaroundfivebooksayear,forinstance,PresidentBarackObamacruisedthroughmorethantwicethatamount.It’strueinsports,and after losing a big game in the 2016 NBA finals, LeBron James almostimmediatelybeganreviewingthetapeofthegame.“I’llfigureoutwaysIcanbebetter,startingassoonasIleavethispodium,”Jamessaid.It’s true in business, too. AT&T CEO Randall Stephenson recently told a

reporterthatifsomeonedoesnotclockatleastahalfadozenhourseachweeklearning something new, they’llmake themselves “obsolete.” Stephenson seesconstant learning as aminimum, like knowing how to type or knowing basicmath.“Thereisaneedtoretoolyourself,andyoushouldnotexpecttostop.”

EPILOGUE

The stakes runpretty high for airline pilots.When a captain of a 747 steers aplane into the sky, hundreds of lives hang in the balance. Up until recently,though,manypilotslackedacrucialbitoftraining—andthestoryofhowpilotsdevelopedthisexpertisegivesusafewfinalinsightsintothelearningprocess.Let’s start, though, with flight Northwest 255. It was supposed to take off

fromDetroit’sWayneCountyAirporton theeveningofAugust16,1987.ThedestinationwasPhoenix.Inthecockpitweretwoexperiencedpilots,JohnMausandDavidDodds.Eachseatontheflightwasfilled.Almost150peoplewereonboard.College

kids, newlyweds, a player for the Phoenix Suns. An engineer with a tightmustache and the nickname “Captain Crunch.” A California teen who had asweatshirtwith her boyfriend’s name emblazoned on it. Four-year-oldCeciliasatnearhermotherandbrother.Astheplanepushedawayfromthegate,thetwopilotswereinalightmood.

Jokes,abitofsinging,somehumming.Thepilotswentthroughthesafetychecklist.Brakes?Check.Pumps?Check.

Circuit breakers? Check. During the procedure, there were distractions—achange in the runway, a debate over the plane’sweight, some back and forthwiththecontroller.Eventually,Mausspedtheplanedowntherunway.Hementionedthethrottle.

It“won’tstayon,”hesaid.“Won’tgoon?”Doddssaid.“Okay,power’snormal,”Maussaid.“TCIwasunset.”Theplane roaredpast ahundredmilesperhour.Then thewheels liftedoff.

The plane was in the air, and it immediately became unsteady—shaky,wobbling,yawning.From theoutside, it lookedmore likeakite thana40-tonaircraft.Inside thecockpit, the stallwarning systembegan to ring.Awing slammed

into a building, before the fuselage rocketed into the middle of a highway,becomingaskidding,metalinferno.Exceptforonesmallchild,everyoneontheplanedied.At first it appeared that an engine caught fire, a freakmechanical accident.

Anotherwhispered theorywas that therunwaywas tooshort,andso theplanedidn’tgainenoughspeed.Asinsomanyaccidents,badluckmadeavisit,andtheplane’sautomaticliftwarningsystemwasn’tworkingproperlyatthetime.

But in the end investigatorsdetermined thatMaus andDobbshadnever settheflapsonthewings.Atypeofairrudderthathangsontheedgeofthewings,theflapsprovidelift,andwithoutflaps,alargeplanesimplycannotfly.Manyexpertswereindisbeliefoverthediscovery.Settingtheflapsonaplane

is like opening the garage door before backing out. It’s obvious, and the twopilotshadallsortsofopportunitiestoaddresstheproblem,includingduringthetenorsominutesthattheyhadspenttaxiingtotherunway.Butevenastheplanerolledandshook,MausandDoddsdidn’tdiagnosethe

issue.Evenas theplanewobbled in the sky, thepilots seemedunaware.Theycouldn’t even categorize the difficulty. One National Transportation SafetyBoardmemberlaterwrotethatthecrashwasamatterof“blindness.”

ItwasMicaEndsleywhohelped futurepilots to see—and learn.She took theblindnessthatplaguedthetwoNorthwestpilotsandturneditintoatypeofsight.AtthetimeoftheNorthwestaccident,EndsleywaslivinginLosAngeles.She

wasstudyingforherPhDinsystemsengineeringattheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia. The Detroit crash occurred late on a Sunday night, and Endsleywould have heard about the incident on the news,with accounts like “Life orDeathTurnedonTwistsofFate”continuinginthepapersfordays.Inhergraduateschoolwork,Endsleyhadbeenthinkingalotaboutthecauses

of airline crashes, and Endsley believed that something called situationalawareness—atypeofambientperception—mightbetherootcauseoftheissue.Asaskill,situationalawarenesshasagoodamountofhistory,andatleastsinceWorldWarI,pilotshavebeendebatingthetruenatureoftheskillanditsroleinflying.Atthetimeofthecrash,situationalawarenesswasstillavagueconcept,often

understoodassomethinginnate,arolloftheDNAlottery.ButEndsleywasanengineer, not a pilot. She wanted data, not dramatic narratives. Starting ingraduateschool,sheconductedaseriesofexperimentsonsituationalawareness,showing thatsituationalawarenesswassomething thatpeoplecouldhoneovertime. Itwas a typeof expertise, something that couldbemasteredwith focus,practice,andreflection.Endsley found, for instance, that just about every pilot could misread a

problem if they didn’t have sufficient background knowledge. She also foundthatmetaskillslikeawarenessandmetacognitionwerecrucial,andpilotswithouttheseskillsweremorelikelytomakemajormistakes.Forthefirsttime,shealsodemonstrated that situational awareness required planning and developing aswell as a type of relational knowledge that allowed pilot to solve problems

duringstressfulmoments.Endsleysoonbegantakingherresearchtoairlinesandflightschools,helping

them develop better training programs. Endsley encouraged pilots to askthemselves “what if” questions to help them develop a more systemicunderstandingof flying:What if thisdidn’twork?What if thisdidn’thappen?Whatiftheenginesstoppedfunctioning?Endsley also pushed for the direct application of the skill of situational

awareness, of learning asmental doing, and she and her staffwould often sitwithpilotsinaflightsimulator,helpingthemdevelopamoreconcretesenseofhow situational awareness works. At the same time, Endsley underscored thevalue of thinking about thinking, and she recommended that pilots engage inself-talk, explaining situations to themselves, examining their patterns ofreasoning.Today, many programs—from Air Force basic training to medical school

programs—teachEndsley’sapproach,andwhilethere’snoclearwaytotracktheimpact of Endsley’s work, there’s little question that her efforts have helpedstaveoffairlineaccidents.At the time of theNorthwestwreck, 2,000 peoplewould die every year in

planecrashes.Nowit’slessthan500.Moreexactly,overthepastfourdecades,therehasnotbeena singlemajor crash in theUnitedStatesdue toapilotnotsettingtheflaps.

I’mhopingit’sprettyclearthattrainingforsituationalawarenessbearsalotofsimilarity to the type of learning that we’ve come across in this book. LikeEndsley,we’vebeentalkingalotabouttheneedforfocusedskillbuilding—andthe value of spotting relationships across different situations. Like Endsley,we’vebeendiscussing theneed formetacognition—andembracing real-worlduncertainty.AsEndsleytoldme,thegoaloflearning—anykindoflearning—is“toputinformationtogethertoformmeaning.”Inmanyways,thisisthescienceoflearning.Mathorreading,biochemistryor

gaming, playing the piano or knitting a sweater, there are proven ways toimproveourskillsandknowledge,andevensomethingthatseemsatfirstglanceasvagueandill-definedassituationalawarenesscanbedeveloped.Forherpart,Endsleyhasmappedoutthreestagesofsituationalawareness—

perception,comprehension,andprojection—andthestagesarenottoodifferentfromthestepsthatwe’vebeendiscussingthroughoutthisbook.Herearethestepsoflearningtolearnagain,andyou’llseethattargetingisn’t

that different from perception, that comprehension isn’t that different from

relating.Intheend,bothideasstriveforatypeofmastery.

Value.It’simpossibletolearnifwewon’twanttolearn.Togainexpertise,wehavetoseetheskillsandknowledgeasvaluable.What’smore,wehavetocreatemeaning.Learningisamatterofmakingsenseofsomething.

Target.Intheearlypartofgainingmastery,focusiskey.Weneedtofigureoutwhatexactlywhatwewanttolearnandsetgoalsandtargets.

Develop.Someformsofpracticemakepeoplemoreperfectthanothers.Inthisstageoflearning,peopleneedtohonetheirskillsandtakededicatedstepstoimproveperformance.

Extend.Atthispoint,wewanttogobeyondthebasics—andapplywhatweknow.Wewanttofleshoutourskillsandknowledgeandcreatemoremeaningfulformsofunderstanding.

Relate.Thisisthephasewhereweseehowitallfitstogether.Afterall,wedon’twanttoknowjustasingledetailorprocedure—wewanttoknowhowthatdetailorprocedureinteractswithotherfactsandprocedures.

Rethink.Whenitcomestolearning,it’seasytomakemistakes,tobeoverconfident,andweneedtoreviewourknowledge,toreconsiderourunderstanding,andlearnfromourlearning.

These steps don’t always occur sequentially. Sometimeswe need to simplyhoneourskills.Onotheroccasions,motivationisplain.Ifyou’restudyingforanexam—or checking your flaps—the rethinking stage is always going to becentral.Atthesametime,weoftengetaheadofourselves.Onereasonthathands-on

learningdoesn’twork inmany schools and colleges is because it’s introducedtoo early. Same with practice: Too often, people try to develop their skillswithoutknowingwhatexactly they’redeveloping,withoutanysortofgoalsortargets.This brings us to another idea we’ve come across before: Learning is a

process, amethod, a system, and in the end, people can get better at gainingexpertise.Onceweknowhowtolearn,wecanhoneexpertiseinjustaboutanyfield.Ifwe’rementallyengaged,ifwe’restrategicanddeliberate,ifwepracticeandextend,ifwerelateandrethink,wecandevelopmastery.Earlyinmyresearch,IvisitedwithBarryZimmerman,whohelpedkick-start

the field of learning to learn in the 1980s.A professor at theCityCollege ofNewYork,ZimmermanhadworkedwithAnastasiaKitsantasonthedartstudyintheall-girlsschoolinNewYorkCity,whichwediscussedinthefirstchapter,

theoneinwhichtheyoungwomenonTeamMethoddidsomuchbetterthantheonesonTeamPerformanceorTeamConventionalWisdom.WhenImetZimmerman,hehadretiredfromteaching.Hehadrecentlybeen

diagnosedwith Parkinson’s disease.Wemet in an empty room. In a strained,shakyvoice,hetalkedabouthisworkonlearning,howlearningrequiresatypeof“feedback”loop,inwhichpeopletracktheiroutcomes.Wediscussedsomeofhis major studies, which showed how a sense of self-efficacy was central toachievinganysortofmastery.Zimmermandiscussedhowpeopleneedto“selectandorganize”whattheywanttoknow.Butperhapsmostofall,Zimmermanstressedhowpeopleneedtodirecttheir

learning.Everyoneneedstobecome“mastersoftheirownlearningprocesses,”heargued,andthat,Ihope,iswhatI’veencouragedwiththisbook.

POPQUIZ#32

True or false: People often have difficulty figuring out if they reallyunderstandwhatthey’velearned.

Almosttenyearsago,theUSDepartmentofEducationreleasedadocumentthatshould have revolutionized how people learn. Some of the nation’s leadinglearningscientistsdevelopedthereport,andbehindeachrecommendation,therewasabookcaseworthofevidence,outliningthe“consensusonsomeofthemostimportant concrete and applicable principles to emerge from research onlearningandmemory.”The report’s conclusionswere dramatic, at least relative to the behaviors of

mostpeoplewhoaimtolearnanything.Thedocumentunderscoredthevalueofquizzing. It talkedabout thevalueofspacing learningoutover time. Itarguedfor more “explanatory questioning,” and the value of seeing “connections”acrossdifferentexamples.Likesomanygovernmentreports, thereweren’tmanydramaticexamplesor

interestinggraphics.Thetextwasdry,writteningovernmentese.Infact,justthetitle of the document could provoke an unhealthy stammer: “OrganizingInstructionandStudytoImproveStudentLearning.”Butall inall,what’s remarkable is that the reporthadso little impact.Most

teacher education programs ignored the document. Samewithmost schools—and corporate training programs. In the survey of the American public that Iconducted,fewpeoplehadheardofmanyofthekeyideas,despitethefactmostrespondentsdescribedthemselvesasknowledgeableabouteducation.Andifnot

for theadvocacyofafewexperts likeBrorSaxberg, thedocumentmighthaveevenlessvisibilitythanitalreadydoes.Inrecentyears,thenewscienceoflearninghaspickedupsteam.Scholarslike

Susan Ambrose, Dan Willingham, and Rich Mayer have been importantevangelizers.PeoplelikeHenryRoediger,MarkMcDaniel,BenedictCarey,andBarbaraOakleyhavealsowrittenimportantbooksonthetopic.Insomepolicycircles,there’salsobeenastrongpushbyexpertslikeBenRileytoensurethatthenation’ssystemofschoolingisgroundedinhigh-qualityresearch.Yetstill,learningmethodshavenotchanged.Thisissurprising,ifonlyforthe

factthatsmalltweaksinlearningcanmakeanenormousdifference.Someyearsago, researcher Louis Deslauriers and some colleagues decided to roll out asimple intervention in an introductory college science class. If a student didpoorlyonthefirstexam,Deslauriersoroneofhiscolleagueswouldmeetwiththestudentsforaround20minutesandprovidesomeresearch-backedadvice.We’vealreadycoveredalotofwhattheresearcherstoldthestudents,andthey

underscored the importance of mental doing. “Do not simply reread,”Deslaurierswould explain. “Attempt to ‘do’ each learning goal by generatingyourownexplanations.”Aspartof themeetingwitheachstudent,Deslauriersalso talked about developing plans and goals, advising people to learn “in atargetedmanner,toimproveyourabilitywithaspecificlearninggoal.”Finally,Deslaurierswouldtellstudentstotakevariousapproachestoengaginganidea,tomakesurethattheycouldexplainaconceptinvariousways.The effect of the advicewas impressive.Most students saw their outcomes

skyrocket,withtestsscoresjumpingbymorethan20percentagepoints,orabouttwograde levels.What’smore, the students inDeslauriers’sclassdidn’t studyany longer.The new approaches didn’t take any additional time.The studentssimplystudiedbetter.Giventhissortofresearch,mostschoolsanduniversitiesoftenseemstuckin

theMiddleAges.Stanford’sJoBoalerrecentlyputoutaguideforparentsthatarguedthatadultsshould“nevertellkidstheyarewrong”inmath.(It’snotclearhow the students would ever know that they’re right.) My own daughter’steacheraskedmeaboutmychild’s“learningstyle.”(Againnoresearchonthisidea.)Relativelyweakapproaches likeunderliningkeypointsof text remainacommonpracticeinmanyclassrooms.(Thepracticedoesn’taddmuch.)At the office, people often use highlighters (generally, not a great learning

tool).Jeopardy!championRogerCraigtoldmethathesometimesspotsstudentsstudyingflashcardswithdozensofwordsonthem.“Iwanttotellthem‘you’redoing it wrong!’” (Just use one word per card.) People often prepare for apresentationbyrereadingthetextofthespeech.(Unlessyoudon’tknowthetext

at all, you’remuch better practicingwithout notes.) “If educationwere in thesame realm as medicine, we would still be doing bloodletting with leeches,”cognitivescientistKatherineRawsontoldme.Theeffectsofbetterformsoflearningareaboutalotmorethanatestscore.

Improved educational outcomes might be the single best investment in oureconomicfuture.Better learningpredictshigherincome—andallsortsofotherbenefits like less smoking. Indeed, people who learn more also have longer,happierlives.Thinkoflearningtolearn,then,astheplasticsofthetwenty-firstcentury—theonethingthatnoonecandowithout.Ifyou’reastudentoraparentorapolicymaker,there’sashorthow-toguide

foryouattheendofthisbook.Inthosetoolkits,youcanfindtailoredadviceonhow to learn—and how to support other learners. I discusswhat families andcompanies and governments should—and should not—do to help improvelearningforall.This effort is going to requiremore than advice, though. It’s going to take

morethanabookoraguideorevenamomentortwoofpractice.Becauseweallhavetomasterthelearningprocess—weallhavetolearntolearn.

TOOLKITS

StrategiesforLearners

Learningisaprocess,amethod,anareaofmastery,andwitheffort,focus,andpractice,wecangetalotbetteratgainingexpertise.Belowaresomeofthekeystepsinthelearningmethod,fromsettinggoalstoreviewingkeyideas.Find value. It’s impossible to learn if we don’t want to learn, and to gain

expertise, people have to see skills and knowledge as valuable. So look forrelevanceinyourlearningandfindwaystomakeexpertisemeaningfultoyou.Ifyou’re learning math and love gymnastics, for instance, then work on mathproblemsinvolvingrotations. Ifyou’re learningknitting,createasweaterforaclosefriend.Atthesametime,uncovermeaningintheareaofexpertise.Learningisoften

amatterofmakingknowledgeandskillssignificantinsomeway.Sodon’tusemorepassive formsof learning like rereadingor highlighting. Instead, rely onmoreactivelearningstrategieslikeself-quizzingorself-explaining.Ifyoureallywant to learn a text, act it out. If you hope to really understand a concept,describeitinyourownwords.For a different example, consider something known as “repeat backs.” The

next timeapersongivesyoua setofdetailed instructions, take time to repeatbacktheinstructionsinyourownwords.Whenyousummarizetheinstructions,you’re taking steps to generate knowledge, and you’ll be more likely toremembertheinformation.Create targets. In the early part of learning, focus is key. People need to

figureoutexactlywhatskillsthattheywanttolearn.Thinkoflearning,then,asatypeofknowledgemanagement,andtosucceed,weneedgoals,deadlines,andstrategies.Indeed,hundredsofstudieshaveshownthatpeoplewithcleargoalsoutperformpeoplewithvagueaspirationslike“doagoodjob.”However,learninggoalsshouldnotbevagueaims.Overlyambitiouslearning

targetscanbackfirebecausetheyseemedtoodistant.Theyignoreouremotionalside.Instead,peoplearemorelikelytosucceediftheyhaveeasy-to-accomplishbenchmarks.Soinsteadofagoal likelearningtowaltz,peopleshoulddevelopsmaller targets, like attendingwaltz lessons once a week, which are easier toaccomplish.Whenitcomestotargetingyourlearning,rigormattersalot,too.Sotryand

make things a little more difficult than you’re used to. If you’re learning arthistory, for instance,mostpeoplewould startby reviewingsomeof the thingsthat they already fairly familiar with—Rembrandt was a Dutch painter, VanGoghwasaPostimpressionist,etc.But learning happens when people are pushed just a bit past their comfort

zone, when they struggle with ideas just beyond their reach. So the moreeffectivequestionsforthepersonlearningaboutarthistorymightbe:WhowasAlbertoGiacometti?WhywasLouiseNevelsonsuchanimportantartist?WhyisDegasconsideredthefirstmodernistpainter?Developknowledgeandskills.Inthisstageoflearning,peopleneedtohone

their abilities and take steps to improve performance. In short, people need topractice,settingasidetimetodevelopanareaofmastery.Some forms of practicemake peoplemore perfect than others, though, and

peopleshouldbesuretopracticeretrievingtheirknowledge.Inonewell-knownstudy,agroupofsubjectswhopracticedrecallingapassagelearnedalotmorethanpeoplewhosimplyreread thepassage.Moreconcretely,you’d learna lotmoreifyouaskyourselfquestionsafterreadingthistextthansimplyrereadingit.What’salsodeeplyimportantisfeedback.Weneedtoknowwhatwe’redoing

right—and wrong—and even simply monitoring performance can boostoutcomes.Inthisregard,somepeopleswearbylearningdiaries.Othersbelieveinvideos.Helpful feedback also provides guidance. Let’s say, for example, that you

thought that theSpanishwordforroosterwaspollo.Aweakformoffeedbackwouldhavejustgivenyoutheanswer.(“Yougotthatwrong;thecorrectanswerisgallo.”)Or, itmightnotprovideanyfeedbackatall. (“Pleasegoto thenextquestion.”)Thebestfeedbackmixesanobservationwithastructuredwaytoproducethe

properoutcome.Intheroosterexample,forinstance,themosteffectivefeedbackwouldindicatethattheanswerwaswrong—andthenwouldprovidesomeslighthints. (“ThecorrectSpanishwordforroosterstartswithag.”)Ifsomeonestilldoesn’t provide the correct answer, thenperhaps another tip (“thinkga”) untilthecorrectanswer(gallo).Extendexpertise.Atthispointinthelearningprocess,wewanttogobeyond

the basics and apply what we know. We want to flesh out our skills andknowledge,andpeoplecangainalotbyexpandingonaskill.Wanttogetbetterat public speaking, for instance? Domore public speaking of all kinds, fromlecturestomediainterviews.People can also learn a lot by explaining ideas to themselves, by asking

themselves:Doesthismakesense?Howdoesthiswork?Inmuchthesameway,peoplewill learna lotwhen theyexplainan ideaor skill toothers.Thishelpsgiveasenseofwhygroupworkisoftensoeffective:Byprovidinginstructiontotheirpeers,individualsgainmore.Admittedly,alltheseapproachestolearningrequirescognitivestruggle.They

taketime,effort,andhardwork,andweshouldbesuretosupportouremotionalside.Thismeansmeasuringprogressandcelebratingaccomplishments,howeversmall.Relateskills.Thisisthephasewhereweseehowitallfitstogether.Afterall,

wedon’twanttoknowjustasingledetailorprocedure—wewanttoknowhowthatdetailorprocedureinteractswithotherdetailsandprocedures.Inshort,wewanttounderstandtheunderlyingsystemofanareaofexpertise.So look beyond facts and see how things hang together. Ask yourself

questions that examine relationships within an area of expertise: What’s thesystem that existswithin this areaofmastery?What’s thenatureof causeandeffect?Whataresomeanalogies?HowcanImakethisinformationvaluabletome?Oneeffectivetechniqueinthisregardishypotheticals,andifyou’relearning

biology,forexample,considerwhatwouldhappeniflivingthingsdidn’tevolveover time.Samewith reading literature.Want tobetterunderstandRomeoandJuliet? Then considerwhatwould have happened if the young lovers had notdied in the Shakespeare play. Would the Capulets and Montagues havecontinuedtheirfeud?Conceptmapsareanotherpowerfulwaytouncoverconnectionsinabodyof

expertise. When we graphically map relationships between knowledge andskills,wegaina lotmore.Alsobe sure tomix itup.Wegetabetter senseofrelationshipswhenourpractice isvaried.Want to teachyourself tobuildWebsites?ThenmixabitofDrupaleditingwithlearningWordPress.Rethink understanding. When it comes to learning, it’s easy to make

mistakes, to be overconfident, and we need to review our knowledge, toreconsiderourunderstanding.Sopeopleshouldaskthemselvesastheylearn:DoIreallyknowwhatIthinkthatIknow?Other people can help a lot here, and we often learn better when we’re

exposedtodiversewaysofthinking.AspoliticalscientistScottPagehasshown,teamsaremore likely tosucceed if theyhavepeoplewithdiverseexperiences.So if you’re aiming to crack a pressing issue, ask someone with a differentbackground to help. Want to solve a problem in your company? Invite yourjanitorintothebrainstormingmeeting.At the same time, we need to reflect, and people should think about what

they’velearned.Specifically,askyourself:Howhasmythinkingchanged?Howdoes thismaterial all come together?What did I learn, andwhat do I need tolearnnext?Intheend,welearnsomethingsothatwecanlearnthesystemofthoughtthat

makes up that field. So, if we study microeconomics, we’re learning how tothink like microeconomic experts. If we learn biochemistry, we learn how tothink likebiochemistryexperts.Aseducationalpsychologists argue, “Thinkoflearningasfiguringoutpartsofanorganizedandintelligiblesystem.”

StrategiesforParents,Teachers,andManagers

Youngorold,experiencedoramateur, learnersneedsupport.BelowImapoutsomeways for parents, teachers, andmanagers to help people gain an area ofexpertise.Set expectations. There’s no getting around it: Learning is hard. Gaining

expertise requiresstruggle.Forparent, teachers,andmanagers, thismeans thatlearnersneedsupportandencouragement,andsoyoushouldofferlotsofpraiseandsocialencouragementtothepeoplelearningsomething.Be sure, however, to focus on process, not outcomes, so people remain

motivated.Morespecifically,stopusingtheword“smart.”Peoplewhoaretoldthey are “smart” often become complacent, performing under their ability,accordingtoworkbyCarolDweck.Sopraisemethods,notperformance:“Greatjobworkingsohard.”“Thisisgoingtobehard.”“Keepitup.”Teachers—andparents—shouldalsocommunicaterigorousnormsandgoals.

Tell people what you expect. Even more important, be sure to model thisbehavior to others and show effectiveways tomanage struggle and overcomefailures.Ifyoumakemistakes,tellyourselfandothers:Whatagreatopportunitytolearn.Breakitup.Weallforget.Itmighttakeafewdays—orjustafewminutes.

But learningoftenleavesassoonas itarrives.Indeed,weoftenforgetmostofwhatwe’velearnedwithinafewhours.Weneedtoaccountforthisforgetting.Soencouragepeopletospaceouttheir

learning over weeks or months so that they relearn any material that they’veforgotten.It’salotmoreeffective,forinstance,forpeopletostudyonelargepileof flash cards rather than lots of smaller piles of cards because the large pilehelps people revisitmaterial. Samewith homework: It’s farmore effective tospreaditoutovertimeratherthandoitallinoneeveningorweekend.Employers should take this approach, too, and instead of one-time training

programs, organizations should spread out the learning out for employees. Sorather than just train new employees on their first day, be sure to revisit keymaterialperiodically.Promote focus. It’s easy to get distracted. It’s even easier to get distracted

whilelearning.Socreatespaceswherepeoplecanfocusontheirlearning.Thismeans spaceswithoutmusic or television or loud talking.Many organizations

havecaughtontothistrendandaredoingawaywithdistractingenvironments.WhileGoogle is known for its open floor plan, the tech firmnowencouragesemployeestobookaprivateofficeiftheyneedtoreallyfocus.Likewise, less is oftenmore when it comes to the presentation of ideas. If

there’s toomuch information, people’sworkingmemory becomes overloaded.So when you’re putting together a PowerPoint presentation, don’t crowd theslides with graphics. Just have a single message on each slide. Or, if you’regivingatalk,makesureyou’reclearaboutyourcoremessage,repeatingitoftenincasetheaudienceisdistracted.Supportmistakes.Foralongtime,failurewasadirtywordforlearners.But

today,weknowthatstudentsneedtofailinordertosucceed.Partofthereasonis that failurehelpsusunderstandwhereour thinkingwentwrong.Plus,errorsoftenpromotelearning,helpingustoremember.Teachers, parents, and managers can encourage failure by praising failure.

One example is the company SurePayroll, which offers an award for errors.SurePayroll’s former presidentMichaelAlter started the practice, offering theBestNewMistakeaward,givingafewhundreddollarstothewinnereachyear.To support mistakes, teachers and parents should also not give answers to

students.Letpeoplestruggle.“Whatparentsneedtodoisallowtheirkidstobeokaywithbeinguncomfortable, tobeokaywithoutknowingtheanswer,”saysresearcher Lisa Son. “People need to do learning on their own for long-termmaximumlearningpower.”Useanalogies.AnalogiesoftensparkmemoriesofIQtests.(Nestistobird,as

doghouseisto_____.)Butanalogiesoftenserveastruemothersofinvention.JohannesGutenberginventedtheprintingpressafterseeingawinepress,whileTwitterishalftextmessaging,halfsocialmedia.People can use analogies to help explain new ideas. Smart marketing

companiesknowthis,andtheyarefamousforusinganalogiestointroducenewproducts. The insurance firm State Farm, for instance, has long relied on thejingle,“Likeagoodneighbor,StateFarmisthere.”Analogiescanalsopromoteinnovation.Consider,forinstance,howstart-ups

will often referenceUber todescribe their services.The companyBlueApronhaspresenteditselfastheUberforhigh-endcooking.Thedry-cleaningcompanyDRYVhasbeendescribedasUberfordrycleaning.Promotereview.We’realloverconfident.Sometimesthisisagoodthing.No

onewouldleadacompanyorkeepupablogwithoutsomestreakofbrashness.Butwhenitcomesto learning,weoftenthinkthatweknowmorethanwedo,and teachers, managers, and parents should help others review what they’velearned.

InherclassesatCarnegieMellon,MarshaLovettwilloftengivestudentsoneor two written questions after they finish a lecture to help them from beingoverconfident. Lovett calls the questions “wrappers.” As part of the activity,students ask themselves questions: What did I learn? What was hard tounderstand?Whatseemsunclear?For Lovett, a lot of the benefit of wrappers is that they focus a student’s

thinkingonmisunderstandingsaswellas“howthestudentscouldimprovetheirlearning,” she says.Lovett often recommends that students focus on the areasthat give them the most difficulty. By focusing on what Lovett calls the“muddiestpoint,”studentsgetmoreoutof their learning.“It’saboutgettinginthathabitofmindof thinking: ‘Okay.HowwelldoIknowthis?’”Lovett toldme.“‘WhereamIfeelingconfused?’”

StrategiesforPolicymakers

Learninghasbecomeaconstantforjustabouteveryone.Belowaresomewaysforpolicymakerstohelpindividualsgainbetterlearningmethodsandstrategies—andimprovethenation’ssystemofschooling.

Promote learning to learn. Students should learn how to learn, andpolicymakersshouldconsiderthefollowing:

• Encourageschoolstoteachstudentslearningstrategieslikegoalsetting,self-quizzing,andthinkingaboutthinking.

• Improveschoolsofeducationsothatthey’refocusedongivingeducatorspracticalteachingskillsbasedonthescienceoflearning.

• Fundtrainingprogramsthatgiveeducatorsabetterunderstandingofhowstudentsgainnewskillsandknowledge.

Improve curriculum. The nation’s education system needs betterinstructional materials that support richer forms of learning. There are someclearsolutions,andpolicymakersshoulddothefollowing:

• Fundprogramsandinitiativesthatmakelearningmoreactiveandengaging,liketheuseofclickers.

• Promotebettertextbooksandotherinstructionalmaterialsthatsupporteffectivestudentlearning,suchasspacingoutlearningovertime.

• Makeprogramsofstudymorepersonalizedandrelevanttostudentinterests,allowingstudentstolearnattheirownpace.

Promote smart technology use. While technology can go a long way topromotemoreeffectivewaystolearn,italsocandistract,reducingourabilitytogainnewexpertise.Whenitcomestolearning,policymakersshoulddomoretoinvestingoodpractice,includingthefollowing:

• Encouragelearningtechnologythatprovidesclearacademicbenefitslikecomputer-basedsimulations.

• Requireinstitutionstotrackoutcomessothatthepublichasabettersenseofwhatworks.

• Ensurethatallstudentshavereliableaccesstohigh-speedInterneteitherathomeoratschool.

Supporttheemotionalsideofeducation.Studentscan’tlearniftheydon’tfeel emotionally ready to learn. Policymakers can help bymaking classroomsmoreemotionallysupportive,includingthefollowing:

• FundprogramsthatgivestudentstheskillstomanagetheiremotionsliketheBecomingaManprogram.

• Supporteffortsthattakeamoreholisticapproachtolearningandhelpschoolsofferfreedentalorchildcare.

• Promotebetterschoolclimateanddomoretomakeschoolssafeandwelcoming.

Embracesociallearning.Learningisoftenjustasemotionalasitisrational,andpolicymakersneedtodomoretosupportthesocialaspectofschooling,suchas:

• Encouragemorediversityinschoolsandexaminehousingpoliciesthatcontributetosocialisolation.

• Promotebetterschoolculture,includingthegreateruseofsupportstafflikeguidancecounselors.

• Encouragemoreparentalinvolvementandprovideparentswithbettertoolstohelptheirstudentsathome.

Redesignlearningenvironments.Mostclassroomslookthesameastheydidin the Middle Ages: a lot of passive lecturing, not so much mental doing.Policymakers should do more to spark more innovation in this space,redesigning classrooms based on the science of learning, including thefollowing:

• Encourage—andfund—educational“start-ups,”whichtakemoreinnovativeapproachestoteachingandlearning.

• Measurelearningoutcomes,notprocesses,toencouragemoreexperimentation.

• Providestudentswithmoreopportunitiestohavereal-worldexperienceslikeinternshipsandexternships.

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Benavides,Francisco,HannaDumont,andDavidInstance,ed.TheNatureofLearning:UsingResearchtoInspirePractice.Paris:OECDPublishing,2010.

Bourne,LyleE.TrainYourMindforPeakPerformance:AScience-BasedApproachforAchievingYourGoals.Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,2013.

Bourne,LyleE.,andAliceF.Healy.TrainingCognition:OptimizingEfficiency,Durability,andGeneralizability.Hove,UK:PsychologyPress,2012.

Bransford,JohnD.,AnnL.Brown,andRodneyR.Cocking,eds.HowPeopleLearn:Brain,Mind,ExperienceandSchool.Washington,DC:NationalAcademiesPress,2000.

Brown,PeterC.,HenryL.RoedigerIII,andMarkA.McDaniel.MakeItStick.Kindleedition.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2014.

Carey,Benedict.HowWeLearn:TheSurprisingTruthaboutWhen,Where,andWhyItHappens.NewYork:RandomHouse,2014.

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DeansforImpact.TheScienceofLearning.Austin,TX:DeansforImpact,2015.http://deansforimpact.org/the_science_of_learning.html

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Elder,Linda,andRichardPaul.TheThinker’sGuideforStudentsonHowtoStudyandLearnaDiscipline:UsingCriticalThinkingConceptsandTools.Tomales,CA:FoundationforCriticalThinking,2002.

Ericsson,AndersK.,andRobertPoole.Peak:SecretsfromtheNewScienceofExpertise.NewYork:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2016.

Hattie,John.VisibleLearning:ASynthesisofOver800Meta-AnalysesRelatingtoAchievement.London:Routledge,2008.

Healy,AliceF.,andLyleE.BourneJr.,eds.TrainingCognition:OptimizingEfficiency,Durability,andGeneralizability.1sted.NewYork:PsychologyPress,2012.

Hoffman,RobertR.,PaulWard,PaulJ.Feltovich,LiaDiBello,StephenM.Fiore,andDeeH.Andrews.AcceleratedExpertise:TrainingforHighProficiencyinaComplexWorld.Expertise:ResearchandApplicationsSeries.Abingdon,UK:Taylor&Francis,2014.

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Lemov,Doug,andNormanAtkins.TeachLikeaChampion:49TechniquesThatPutStudentsonthePathtoCollege.1sted.SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2010.

Levy,Frank.TheNewDivisionofLabor:HowComputersAreCreatingtheNextJobMarket.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2005.

Levy,Frank,andRichardJ.Murnane.TeachingtheNewBasicSkills:PrinciplesforEducatingChildrentoThriveinaChangingEconomy.NewYork:FreePress,1996.

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Mayer,RichardE.,andLoganFiorella.LearningasaGenerativeActivity:EightLearningStrategiesThatPromoteUnderstanding.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2015.

McDaniel,Mark,andCynthiaWooldridge.“TheScienceofLearningandItsApplications.”EffectiveCollegeandUniversityTeaching:StrategiesandTacticsfortheNewProfessoriate,eds.WilliamBuskistandVictorA.Benassi,49–60.NewYork:SAGEPublications,2012.

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Nilson,Linda,andBarryJ.Zimmerman.CreatingSelf-RegulatedLearners:StrategiestoStrengthenStudents’Self-AwarenessandLearningSkills.Sterling,VA:Stylus,2013.

Nisbett,RichardE.Mindware:ToolsforSmartThinking.NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2015.

Nisbett,RichardE.IntelligenceandHowtoGetIt:WhySchoolsandCulturesCount.NewYork:W.W.Norton,2010.

Oakley,Barbara.AMindforNumbers:HowtoExcelatMathandScience(EvenIfYouFlunkedAlgebra).NewYork:TarcherPerigee,2014.

Pashler,H.,P.Bain,B.Bottge,A.Graesser,K.Koedinger,M.McDaniel,andJanetMetcalfe.OrganizingInstructionandStudytoImproveStudentLearning(NCER2007–2004).Washington,DC:NationalCenterforEducationResearch,2007.Retrievedfromhttp://ncer.ed.gov

Schwartz,BennettL.Memory:FoundationsandApplications.2nded.ThousandOaks,CA:SAGEPublications,2013.

Schwartz,BennettL.,LisaK.Son,NateKornell,andBridgetFinn.“FourPrinciplesofMemoryImprovement:AGuidetoImprovingLearningEfficiency.”InternationalJournalofCreativityandProblemSolving21,vol.1(2011):7–15.

Stigler,JamesW.,andJamesHiebert.TheTeachingGap:BestIdeasfromtheWorld’sTeachersforImprovingEducationintheClassroom.NewYork:FreePress,1999.

Wiggins,Grant,JanMcTighe,andJayMcTighe.UnderstandingbyDesign.Alexandria,VA:AssociationforSupervision&CurriculumDevelopment,1998.

Willingham,DanielT.Cognition:TheThinkingAnimal.3rded.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Pearson,2006.

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NOTESIn the notes below, I outline sources formymaterial aswell as provide someadditionalcontext.IfIinterviewedsomeone,Imadethatclearinthetextanddidnot provide an additional source. If a quote comes from an outside source, Inotedbelow.

Introduction

ThedetailsfromthedartstudyonpagexivcomefrominterviewsandfromBarryJ.ZimmermanandAnastasiaKitsantas,“DevelopmentalPhasesinSelf-Regulation:ShiftingfromProcessGoalstoOutcomeGoals,”JournalofEducationalPsychology89,no.1(1997):29.

Forstudiesonthelearningprocessonpagexv,orwhat’softencalled“self-regulatedlearning,”seeHesterdeBoeretal.,EffectiveStrategiesforSelf-

RegulatedLearning:AMeta-Analysis(Gronigen:GION/RUG,2013).AlsoseeKiruthigaNandagopalandK.AndersEricsson,“AnExpertPerformanceApproachtotheStudyofIndividualDifferencesinSelf-RegulatedLearningActivitiesinUpper-LevelCollegeStudents,”LearningandIndividualDifferences22,no.5(2012):597–609.

MentionedonpagexviisAnastasiaKitsantasandBarryJ.Zimmerman,“ComparingSelf-RegulatoryProcessesAmongNovice,Non-Expert,andExpertVolleyballPlayers:AMicroAnalyticStudy,”JournalofAppliedSportPsychology14,no.2(2002):91–105;BarryJ.ZimmermanandAnastasiaKitsantas,“AcquiringWritingRevisionSkill:ShiftingfromProcesstoOutcomeSelf-RegulatoryGoals,”JournalofEducationalPsychology91,no.2(1999):241.AlsoseeMarkC.FoxandNeilCharness,“HowtoGainElevenIQPointsinTenMinutes:ThinkingAloudImprovesRaven’sMatricesPerformanceinOlderAdults,”Aging,Neuropsychology,andCognition17,no.2(2010):191–204.

Forthesurveyresultsonpagexvii,seeUlrichBoser,“DoesthePublicKnowWhatGreatTeachingandLearningLookLike?”CenterforAmericanProgress,forthcoming.Notethatthesurveywasaconveniencesample,whichweweightedtoreflectthenationasawhole.ThedocumentwillbeavailableonmyWebsiteandtheCenter’sWebsite.

Ondiscoverylearning,pagexvii,seeLouisAlfierietal.,“DoesDiscovery-BasedInstructionEnhanceLearning?”JournalofEducationalPsychology103,no.1(2011):1–18.AlsoRichardE.Mayer,“ShouldThereBeaThree-StrikesRuleAgainstPureDiscoveryLearning?”AmericanPsychologist59,no.1(2004):14–19.

Forresearchonlearningstylesonpagexvii,seeHaroldPashleretal.,“PsychologicalScienceinthePublicInterest,”LearningStyles:ConceptsandEvidence9,no.3(2008):105–19.AlsoseeThomasK.FaganandDanielT.Willingham,“DoVisual,Auditory,andKinestheticLearnersNeedVisual,Auditory,andKinestheticInstruction?”AmericanEducator(Summer2005):31–35.

IfirstcameacrosstheBetsySparrowresearchonpagexviiinthisarticle:KatherineHobson,“GoogleontheBrain:HowtheInternetHasChangedWhatWeRemember,”WallStreetJournal,July15,2011.ThefullstudyisBetsySparrow,JennyLui,andDanielM.Wegner,“GoogleEffectsonMemory:CognitiveConsequencesofHavingInformationatOurFingertips,”Science333,no.6043(2011):776–78.

AlsocitedonpagexviiiisLindaA.Henkel,“PointandShootMemories:TheInfluenceofTakingPhotosonMemoryforaMuseumTour,”PsychologicalScience25,no.2(2014):396–402.Forthequoteaboutthebrainonpagexviii,IreliedonJamesGleick,“AutoCorrectThis!”NewYorkTimes,August4,2012.http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/05/opinion/sunday/auto-correct-this.html

MuchhasbeenwrittenaboutÖtzi.Forthetextonpagexvii,IreliedonBrendaFowler,Iceman:UncoveringtheLifeandTimesofaPrehistoricManFoundinanAlpineGlacier,1sted.(NewYork:RandomHouse,2000).AlsohelpfulwasBobCullen,“TestimonyfromtheIceman,”Smithsonian,http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/testimony-from-the-iceman-75198998/(accessedSeptember13,2016)andtheWebsiteoftheSouthTyrolMuseumofArchaeology,http://iceman.it/en/(accessedSeptember20,2016).

Forthequotefromeducationalpsychologistsonpagexx,seeRichardPaulandLindaElder’sTheThinker’sGuideforStudentsonHowtoStudyandLearnaDiscipline:UsingCriticalThinkingConcepts&Tools,FoundationforCriticalThinking(2003).AlsohelpfulwasLindseyEngleRichlandandNinaSimms,“Analogy,HigherOrderThinking,andEducation,”WileyInterdisciplinaryReviews:CognitiveScience6,no.2(March2015):177–92.

FormoreonLevyandMurnane’sworkonpagexx,seeFrankLevyandRichardJ.Murnane,TheNewDivisionofLabor:HowComputersAreChangingtheWayWeWork(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2004).TedDintersmithfirstmadethepointtomeaboutLevyandMurnane’sself-drivingcarprediction.Foramorerecenttakeontheissue,seeDerekThompson,“WhatJobsWilltheRobotsTake?”TheAtlantic,January23,2014.http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2014/01/what-jobs-will-the-robots-take/283239/

ThereportmentionedonpagexxiiwasUlrichBoser,“ReturnonEducationalInvestment:ADistrict-by-DistrictEvaluationofUSEducationalProductivity,”CenterforAmericanProgress,January2011.The50percentfigureonpagexxiicomesfromScottFreeman,SarahL.Eddy,MilesMcDonough,MichelleK.Smith,NnadozieOkoroafor,HannahJordt,andMaryPatWenderoth,“ActiveLearningIncreasesStudentPerformanceinScience,Engineering,andMathematics,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences111,no.23(2014):8410–415;publishedaheadofprintMay12,2014,doi:10.1073/pnas.1319030111.NotethattheFreemananalysislookedonlyatSTEMclasses.

Forthetestingyourselfstudyonpagexxii,seeJ.D.KarpickeandJ.R.Blunt,“RetrievalPracticeProducesMoreLearningthanElaborativeStudyingwithConceptMapping,”Science331,no.6018(2011).

Whenitcomestotheideaofthinkingoflearningasaprocessonpagexxiv,I’mindebtedtowriterBruceSchneier,whohasmadeasimilarargumentwhenitcomestosecurity.Whenitcomestothespecificstepsoutlined,Icreditthemanywho’vedescribeddifferentlearningphases,includingBarryZimmerman,BrachaKramarski,RuthClark,JohnFlavell,andKennethA.Kiewra.ThequoteaboutlearningasasurvivaltoolonpagexxiicomesfromRobertA.Bjork,JohnDunlosky,andNateKornell,“Self-RegulatedLearning:Beliefs,Techniques,andIllusions,”AnnualReviewofPsychology64,no.1(January3,2013):417–44,doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143823

Alsocited

Dunlosky,John,etal.“ImprovingStudents’LearningwithEffectiveLearningTechniques:PromisingDirectionsfromCognitiveandEducationalPsychology.”PsychologicalScienceinthePublicInterest14,no.1(2013):4–58.

Jairam,Dharma,andKennethA.Kiewra.“AnInvestigationoftheSOARStudyMethod.”JournalofAdvancedAcademics20,no.4(2009):602–29.

Kitsantas,Anastasia,AdamWinsler,andFayeHuie.“Self-RegulationandAbilityPredictorsofAcademicSuccessduringCollege:APredictiveValidityStudy.”JournalofAdvancedAcademics20,no.1(2008):42–68.

Kramarski,Bracha.“PromotingTeachers’AlgebraicReasoningandSelf-RegulationwithMetacognitiveGuidance.”MetacognitionandLearning3,no.2(2008):83.

Kramarski,Bracha,andTaliRevach.“TheChallengeofSelf-RegulatedLearninginMathematicsTeachers’ProfessionalTraining.”EducationalStudiesinMathematics72,no.3(2009):379–99.

Murnane,RichardJ.,andFrankLevy.TeachingtheNewBasicSkills:PrinciplesforEducatingChildrentoThriveinaChangingEconomy.NewYork:FreePress,1996.

Plant,E.Ashby,K.AndersEricsson,LenHill,andKiaAsberg.“WhyStudyTimeDoesNotPredictGradePointAverageAcrossCollegeStudents:ImplicationsofDeliberatePracticeforAcademicPerformance.”ContemporaryEducationalPsychology30,no.1(2005):96–116.

Yan,Veronica.LearningConceptsandCategoriesfromExamples:HowLearners’BeliefsMatchandMismatchtheEmpiricalEvidence.UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles:ProQuestDissertationsPublishing,2014.

Zimmerman,BarryJ.“Self-RegulatedLearning,anOverview.”EducationalPsychologist25,no.1(1990):3–17.

Chapter1

Muchhasbeenwrittenontheideaofframing,whichismentionedonpage3.Myfavoritestudy—citedhere—isAaronC.Kayetal.,“MaterialPriming:TheInfluenceofMundanePhysicalObjectsonSituationalConstrualandCompetitiveBehavioralChoice,”OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanDecisionProcesses95,no.1(2004):83–96.

Forcitationsonpage4forrelevanceinlearningandwhat’sknownas“utility-valueinterventions,”seeChrisS.HullemanandJudithM.Harackiewicz,“MakingEducationRelevant:IncreasingInterestandPerformanceinHighSchoolScienceClasses,”Science326,no.598(2009):1410–12.AlsoseeJudithM.Harackiewiczetal.,“HelpingParentstoMotivateAdolescentsinMathematicsandScience:AnExperimentalTestofaUtility-ValueIntervention,”PsychologicalScience28,no.8(2012):899–906.

OnMinecraftonpage8,seeRyanMac,DavidM.Ewalt,andMaxJedeur-Palmgren,“InsidethePost-MinecraftLifeofBillionaireGamerGodMarkusPersson,”Forbes(March2015),http://www.forbes.com/sites/ryanmac/2015/03/03/minecraft-markus-persson-life-after-microsoft-sale/(accessedOctober27,2016);TracyMcVeigh,“Minecraft:HowaGamewithNoRulesChangedtheRulesoftheGameForever,”Guardian,November16,2013,http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/nov/16/minecraft-game-no-rules-changed-gaming;andNickStatt,“Markus‘Notch’Persson:TheMindbehindMinecraft(Q&A),”CNET(November2013),https://www.cnet.com/news/markus-notch-persson-the-mind-behind-minecraft-q-a/(accessedOctober27,2016).Thequoteonpage8fromthebiographerscamefromtheGuardianarticle.ThePerssonquotecamefromtheCNETarticle.

TheideafortheMinecraftpointonpage8camefromCliveThompson,“TheSims:SuburbanRhapsody,”PsychologyToday(November2003),http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200311/the-sims-suburban-rhapsody(accessedOctober27,2016).

IfirstcameacrosstheworkofAmyWrzesniewskionpage8inTomRath,AreYouFullyCharged?The3KeystoEnergizingYourWorkandLife,Kindleedition(Arlington,VA:MissionDayLLC,2015).ForWrzesniewski’squotesandthequotesfromthecleaningpeopleonpage9,IreliedonDavidZax,

“WanttoBeHappieratWork?LearnHowfromThese‘JobCrafters,’”FastCompany,June3,2013,https://www.fastcompany.com/3011081/innovation-agents/want-to-be-happier-at-work-learn-how-from-these-job-crafters(accessedSeptember18,2016).

AlsohelpfulwasAmyWrzesniewski,JustinM.Berg,andJustinDutton,“ManagingYourself:TurntheJobYouHaveintotheJobYouWant,”HarvardBusinessReview,June1,2010,https://hbr.org/2010/06/managing-yourself-turn-the-job-you-have-into-the-job-you-want(accessedSeptember18,2016).AlsoseeLoraKolodny,“TheLatestApproachtoEmployeeTraining,”WallStreetJournal,March14,2016,Businesssection,http://www.wsj.com/articles/the-latest-approach-to-employee-training-1457921560?tesla=y

Onthestudyofstudentchoiceonpage10,seeErikaA.Patall,HarrisCooper,andSusanR.Wynn,“TheEffectivenessandRelativeImportanceofChoiceintheClassroom,”JournalofEducationalPsychology102,no.4(2010):896.Notethattoomuchchoice,especiallyforpeopleearlyinthelearningprocess,showslimitedoutcomes.SeeRichardE.Clark,PaulA.Kirschner,andJohnSweller,“PuttingStudentsonthePathtoLearning:TheCaseforFullyGuidedInstruction,”AmericanEducator(Spring2012):7–11.

TheworkonseekingwaspioneeredbyJaakPanksepp.Hisquoteonpage12comesfromEmilyYoffe,“Seeking,”Slate(August12,2009),http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2009/08/seeking.html(accessedSeptember18,2016).

Forthediscussionofsituationalmotivationonpage13,IreliedonKennethE.BarronandChrisS.Hulleman,“IsThereaFormulatoHelpUnderstandandImproveStudentMotivation?”EssaysfromExcellenceinTeaching8(2006).AccessedAugust7,2006fromtheSocietyfortheTeachingofPsychology,http://list.kennesaw.edu/archives/psychteacher.html

AlsoveryhelpfulwasSuzanneHidiandK.AnnRenninger,“TheFour-PhaseModelofInterestDevelopment,”EducationalPsychologist41,no.2(2006):111–27.

WhenitcomestothePosseprogrammentionedonpage16,Ireliedonanumberofresources,includingAdamBryant,“DeborahBialofthePosseFoundation:SuccessIsn’tAlwaysaboutYou,”NewYorkTimes,October4,2014,http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/05/business/deborah-bial-of-the-possefoundation-success-isnt-always-about-you.html(accessedSeptember13,2016).

Alsohelpfulwas“QuickFacts,”ThePosseFoundation,http://www.possefoundation.org/quick-facts(accessedSeptember13,2016).

Forthestudyonnamesonpage17,seeDavidFiglio,“Names,Expectations,andtheBlack-WhiteTestScoreGap,”no.11195,NationalBureauofEconomicResearch(March2005).

Formoreontheimpactofsocialconnectionsonlearningonpage18,seeC.KiraboJackson,“CanHigher-AchievingPeersExplaintheBenefitstoAttendingSelectiveSchools?EvidencefromTrinidadandTobago,”JournalofPublicEconomicsElsevier108(December2013):63–77.AlsoseeVictorLavyandEdithSand,“TheFriendsFactor:HowStudents’SocialNetworksAffectTheirAcademicAchievementandWell-Being,”NationalBureauofEconomicResearch(NBER)WorkingPaperno.18430(October2012)and“TheEffectofSocialNetworksonStudents’AcademicandNon-CognitiveBehavioralOutcomes:EvidencefromConditionalRandomAssignmentofFriendsinSchool,”UniversityofWarwickandHebrewUniversityWorkingPaper(May2015).

Forsocialnetworksandtextanxietyonpage17,seeDaenaGoldsmithandTerranceAlbrecht,“TheImpactofSupportiveCommunicationNetworksonTestAnxietyandPerformance,”CommunicationEducation42,no.2(1993):142–58.

Forthecontagiousstudyonpage18,seeK.Desender,S.Beurms,andE.VandenBussche,“IsMentalEffortExertionContagious?”PsychonomicBulletin&Review23,no.2(2015):624–31,doi:10.3758/s13423-015-0923-3.Ifirstcameacrossitin“WhyCoffeeShopsBoostConcentration,”AssociationforPsychologicalScience,http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/minds-business/why-coffee-shops-boost-concentration.html(accessedSeptember26,2016).

Theenthusiasmquoteonpage19comesfrom“WamaLTC:Club,”WamaLTC,July7,2001,http://wamaltc.org/club.html(accessedSeptember11,2016).

Themathproblemonpage20isfromK.B.Givvin,J.W.Stigler,&B.Thompson(2011),“WhatCommunityCollegeDevelopmentalMathematicsStudentsUnderstandaboutMathematics,Part2:TheInterviews,”TheMathAMATYCEducator,vol.2,no.3,4–18.Reprintedwithpermissionfromtheauthors.

I’mindebtedtomysisterKatharinaBoserandMaxMcLurefortippingmeofftomentalabacus,discussedonpage23.Foracademicresearchonthepractice,seeMichaelC.FrankandDavidBarner,“RepresentingExactNumber

VisuallyUsingMentalAbacus,”JournalofExperimentalPsychology:General141,no.1(2012):134–49.AlsoseeJamesW.Stigler,LaurenceChalip,andKevinF.Miller,“ConsequencesofSkill:TheCaseofAbacusTraininginTaiwan,”AmericanJournalofEducation94,no.4(1986):447–79;andN.Brooks,D.Barner,M.Frank,andS.Goldin-Meadow(underreview),“TheRoleofGestureinSupportingMentalRepresentations:TheCaseofMentalAbacusArithmetic,”2016.

IquotedfromRichardE.Mayer,HowNottoBeaTerribleSchoolBoardMember:LessonsforSchoolAdministratorsandBoardMembers,Kindleedition(ThousandOaks,CA:Corwin,SAGEPublications,2011).AlsoseeRichardE.MayerandLoganFiorella,LearningasaGenerativeActivity:EightLearningStrategiesthatPromoteUnderstanding(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2015).

Forcitationsonlearningasdoingonpage25,seeJohnDunloskyetal.,“ImprovingStudents’LearningwithEffectiveLearningTechniques:PromisingDirectionsfromCognitiveandEducationalPsychology,”PsychologicalScienceinthePublicInterest14,no.1(2013):4–58.Notethatthegenerationeffectisnotallthatdifferentfromthetestingeffect,whichisexploredmostrecentlyinPeterC.Brown,HenryL.RoedigerIII,andMarkA.McDaniel,MakeItStick(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2014)andBenedictCarey,HowWeLearn(NewYork:PenguinRandomHouse,2015).

Formoreonthegenerationeffectandrememberingwordslike“maison”onpage25,seePatriciaAnnDeWinstanleyandElizabethL.Bjork,“ProcessingStrategiesandtheGenerationEffect:ImplicationsforMakingaBetterReader,”MemoryandCognition32,no.6(2004):945–55.

Whenitcomeslearningasdoingandhigherorderthinking,asonpage25,seeJamieL.Jensenetal.,“TeachingtotheTest...orTestingtoTeach:ExamsRequiringHigherOrderThinkingSkillsEncourageGreaterConceptualUnderstanding,”EducationalPsychologyReview26,no.2(2014):307–29,andLukeG.EglingtonandSeanH.K.Kang,“RetrievalPracticeBenefitsDeductiveInference,”EducationalPsychologyReview(2016):1–14.

RegardingtheUniversityofWashingtononpage26,I’vewrittenabouttheprogrambefore.SeeUlrichBoser,“Don’tHateTests,”USNews&WorldReport,September23,2015,http://www.usnews.com/opinion/knowledge-bank/2015/09/23/testing-plays-a-key-role-in-education-accountability(accessedSeptember15,2016),andIreusedsomeofthelanguagehere.

Regardinghandwritingonpage28,seePerriKlassM.D,“WhyHandwritingIsStillEssentialintheKeyboardAge,”NewYorkTimes,June20,2016.

Theideathatstudentsneedtobe“thinkinghardaboutknowledge”onpage29comesfromDylanWiliam’sintroductiontoDaisyChristodoulou,SevenMythsaboutEducation(London:Taylor&Francis,2013).

Formoreontheideaofmemoryasaseriesofroadsfrompage20,seeJillStammandPaulaSpencer,BrightfromtheStart:TheSimple,Science-BackedWaytoNurtureYourChild’sDevelopingMind,fromBirthtoAge3(NewYork:Penguin,2007).

Thequoteaboutconnectionsandlanguageattritiononpage30isfromMaureenEhrensberger-DowandChrisRicketts,“LanguageAttrition:MeasuringHow‘Wobbly’PeopleBecomeintheirL1[FirstLanguage],”(Baltmannsweiler:SchneiderVerlagHohengehren,2010):41–6.Alsohelpfulwas“LanguageAttrition,”Wikipedia,theFreeEncyclopedia,https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Language_attrition&oldid=737109836.

Detailsregardingthenewkneemuscleonpage31comefromK.Grobetal.,“ANewlyDiscoveredMuscle:TheTensoroftheVastusIntermedius,”ClinicalAnatomy29,no.2(2016):256–63.AlsohelpfulinthissectionwasEllenJ.Langer,ThePowerofMindfulLearning(Reading,MA:PerseusBooks,1990),whichprovidedthecitationforthe“meaningfulness”study.

FortheGatesstudyonpage34,IreliedonBillandMelindaGatesFoundation,“EnsuringFairandReliableMeasuresofEffectiveTeaching:CulminatingFindingsfromtheMETProject’sThree-YearStudy.PolicyandPracticeBrief.METProject,”ERIC(January2013),http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED540958(accessedSeptember18,2016).

TheBillGatesquoteonpage34comesfromJoeNocera,“GatesPutstheFocusonTeaching,”NewYorkTimes,May21,2012,http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/22/opinion/nocera-gates-puts-the-focus-on-teaching.html(accessedSeptember18,2016).

ForadditionaldetailsaboutGates’sinterest,IalsoreliedonStevenBrill,ClassWarfare:InsidetheFighttoFixAmerica’sSchools,reprintedition(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2012).NotethatI’vedonesomeworkdirectlyfortheGatesFoundationandsomeofmyworkattheCenterforAmericanProgressisfundedbythefoundation.

Alsocitedinthischapter

Berg,JustinM.,JaneE.Dutton,andAmyWrzesniewski.“WhatIsJobCraftingandWhyDoesItMatter?”CenterforPositiveOrganizationalScholarship,MichiganRossSchoolofBusiness(2008).

Bransford,JohnD.,andDanielL.Schwartz.“RethinkingTransfer:ASimpleProposalwithMultipleImplications.”ReviewofResearchinEducation24,no.1(1999):61–100.

Chi,MicheleneT.H.“Active-Constructive-Interactive:AConceptualFrameworkforDifferentiatingLearningActivities.”TopicsinCognitiveScience1,no.1(January2009):73–105.

Ferguson,RonaldF.,withCharlotteDanielson.“HowFrameworkforTeachingandTripod7CsEvidenceDistinguishKeyComponentsofEffectiveTeaching.”DesigningTeacherEvaluationSystems:NewGuidancefromtheMeasuresofEffectiveTeachingProject,eds.ThomasJ.Kane,KerriA.Kerr,andRobertC.Pianta.Hoboken,NJ:Jossey-Bass,2014.

Freeman,Scott,etal.“ActiveLearningIncreasesStudentPerformanceinScience,Engineering,andMathematics.”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences111,no.23(2014):8410–15.

Haskell,RobertE.TransferofLearning,Volume:CognitionandInstruction.1sted.SanDiego,CA:AcademicPress,2000.

Hyde,ThomasS.,andJamesJ.Jenkins.“DifferentialEffectsofIncidentalTasksontheOrganizationofRecallofaListofHighlyAssociatedWords.”JournalofExperimentalPsychology82,no.3(1969):472.

Panksepp,Jaak.“AffectiveNeuroscienceoftheEmotionalBrainMind:EvolutionaryPerspectivesandImplicationsforUnderstandingDepression.”DialoguesinClinicalNeuroscience12,no.4(2010):533–45.

RossSchoolofBusiness.“JobCraftingExercise.”CenterforPositiveOrganizations.http://positiveorgs.bus.umich.edu/cpo-tools/job-crafting-exercise/(accessedSeptember14,2016)

Singley,MarkK.,andJohnRobertAnderson.TheTransferofCognitiveSkill.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1989.

Chapter2

DetailsaboutDillon’sturnaroundonpage37comefrom“SuccessStories:NothingLessThantheBest!”SuccessforAllFoundation(2015),http://www.successforall.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/SFA_SuccessStories_Dillon.pdf(accessedSeptember29,2016).AlsoveryhelpfulwasAlanRichard,“What’sHappenedintheRuralSchoolDistrictObamaFoughttoSave,”PBSNewsHour,http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/rural-school-district-obama-fought-save/(accessedOctober6,2016).

TheObamaquoteonpage37isfromJackKuenzie,“ObamaVisitsSchoolinSC‘CorridorofShame,’”WISTV,http://www.wistv.com/story/6975244/obama-visits-school-in-sc-corridor-of-shame(accessedDecember11,2016).

FormoreontheoutcomesofSuccessforAll,seeNickLemann,“Schoolwork,”NewYorker(2010),andWWCInterventionReport,“BeginningReading:SuccessforAll,”InstituteofEducationalSciences(August2009),http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/EvidenceSnapshot/496(accessedSeptember14,2016).

Forthepointaboutknowledgemanagementonpage39,seePaulKloosterman,“LearningtoLearninPracticeinNonformalEducation,”LearningtoLearn:InternationalPerspectivesfromTheoryandPractice(2014):271.Thebirdquoteonpage39comesfromDorothyV.Thomas,“LongtimeCityTeacher,”Baltimoresun.com,http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/obituaries/bs-md-ob-dorothy-thomas-20140616-story.html(accessedApril8,2015).

Onpage41,IreliedonJohnSweller,“StoryofaResearchProgram,”EducationReview:AMulti-LingualJournalofBookReviews23(2016).Thedetailonpage42abouttheinteractionofonlineinstructionwithbackgroundmusiccomesfromRuthC.Clark,BuildingExpertise:CognitiveMethodsforTrainingandPerformanceImprovement,3rded.,Kindleedition(location1414),Hoboken,NJ:Wiley,Pfeiffer,2008.

Formoreontheroleofknowledgeonpage47,seeDanielT.Willingham,WhyDon’tStudentsLikeSchool?ACognitiveScientistAnswersQuestionsaboutHowtheMindWorksandWhatItMeansfortheClassroom,Kindleedition(location235),SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass,2009.

Onpage46,IquotedfromDanielT.Willingham,“HowKnowledgeHelps:ItSpeedsandStrengthensReadingComprehension,Learning,andThinking,”

AmericanEducator30,no.1(2006):30.AlsoseeDaisyChristodoulou,SevenMythsaboutEducation(Abingdon,UK:Routledge,2014).

Forthematerialsciencetextonpage46,IquotedfromHemantS.Betrabet,OtmarH.Boser,RobertH.Kane,SusanMcGee,andThomasCaulfield,UnitedStatesPatentandTrademarkOffice,DispersionStrengthenedLead-TinAlloySolder,November19,1991,US5066544A.

Whenitcomestospeedreadingonpage48,seeJeffreyM.ZacksandRebeccaTreiman,“Sorry,YouCan’tSpeedRead,”NewYorkTimes,April15,2016,http://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/17/opinion/sunday/sorry-you-cant-speed-read.html(accessedSeptember30,2016).I’malsoindebtedtoRobertPondiscioforthepointonreadingandknowledge.

Thelanguageaboutthe“easiestmaterials”onpage49comesfromNateKornellandJanetMetcalfe,“StudyEfficacyandtheRegionofProximalLearningFramework,”JournalofExperimentalPsychology:Learning,Memory,andCognition32,no.3(2006):609–22.AlsoseeJanetMetcalfe,“DesirableDifficultiesandStudyingintheRegionofProximalLearning,”SuccessfulRememberingandSuccessfulForgetting:AFestschriftinHonorofRobertA.Bjork,ed.AaronS.Benjamin(NewYork:PsychologyPress,Francis&TaylorGroup,2011).AlsoseeMetcalfe’sWebsite,http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/metcalfe/RPL.html(accessedNovember12,2016).

RegardingBrorSaxbergonpage51,seeBrorSaxberg,“TEDxSF—DemystifyingtheHumanMind,”YouTube,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sEaQRzmV-xI(accessedNovember12,2016).AlsoseeFrederickM.HessandBrorSaxberg,BreakthroughLeadershipintheDigitalAge:UsingLearningSciencetoRebootSchooling(ThousandOaks,CA:CorwinPress,2013).

Forthesectiononorganizingknowledgeonpage54,IreliedonArthurC.GraesserandBrentA.Olde,“HowDoesOneKnowWhetheraPersonUnderstandsaDevice?TheQualityoftheQuestionsthePersonAsksWhentheDeviceBreaksDown,”JournalofEducationalPsychology95,no.3(2003):524.AlsoseeDanielT.Willingham,WhyDon’tStudentsLikeSchool?ACognitiveScientistAnswersQuestionsaboutHowtheMindWorksandWhatItMeansfortheClassroom(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2010).

TheKaplanstudyonpage53isLarryRudman,JohnSweller,andDavidNiemi,“UsingCognitiveLoadTheoryforImprovingLogicalReasoningfortheLSAT,”paperpresentedattheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociationConference,April2013.

Conference,April2013.IwroteaprofileofMatthewCarterandreusedsomeofthelanguageonpages54and55.SeeUlrichBoser,“AManofLetters,”USNews&WorldReport135,no.6(2016).

FormoreonClarkandcognitivetaskanalysisonpage55,seeRichardE.Clark,D.Feldon,JeroenJ.G.vanMerriënboer,KennethYates,andSeanEarly,“CognitiveTaskAnalysis,”HandbookofResearchonEducationalCommunicationsandTechnology3(2008):577–93.

Withregardtotheideaofwritingdownwhatyouknowbeforelearningonpage52,IreliedonRobertJ.Marzano,TheArtandScienceofTeaching:AComprehensiveFrameworkforEffectiveInstruction,1sted.(Alexandria,VA:AssociationforSupervision&CurriculumDevelopment,2007),andNatalieHardwick,“HowtoCookthePerfectSteak,”BBCGoodFood,http://www.bbcgoodfood.com/howto/guide/how-cook-perfect-steak(accessedSeptember14,2016).

Inthemetacognitionsectiononpage57,thetexton“there’sarightwayandawrongway”reliedonJohnD.BransfordandMarciaJohnson,“ContextualPrerequisitesforUnderstanding:SomeInvestigationsofComprehensionandRecall,”JournalofVerbalLearningandVerbalBehavior11(1972):717–26.

AlsoveryhelpfulinthissectionwereKimberlyD.Tanner,“PromotingStudentMetacognition,”CBELifeSciencesEducation11,no.2(2012):113–20,doi:10.1187/cbe.12-03-0033,andJ.Girash,“MetacognitionandInstruction,”ApplyingtheScienceofLearninginEducation:InfusingPsychologicalScienceintotheCurriculum,eds.VictorA.Benassi,C.E.Overson,andC.M.Hakala,152–68(Washington,DC:SocietyfortheTeachingofPsychology,2014),http://teachpsych.org/ebooks/asle2014/index.php

Forthedetailsonprequizzingonpage60,seeLindseyE.Richland,NateKornell,andLicheSeanKao,“ThePretestingEffect:DoUnsuccessfulRetrievalAttemptsEnhanceLearning?”JournalofExperimentalPsychology15,no.3(2009):243.

Fortheemotionalsideoflearningonpage61,IreliedonMaryHelenImmordino-Yang’swork,includingforthelanguagearoundemotionservingasa“bedrock”forlearning.See,forinstance,MaryHelenImmordino-YangandMatthiasFaeth,“TheRoleofEmotionandSkilledIntuitioninLearning,”Mind,Brain&Education,ed.DavidSousa(2010),andM.H.Immordino-Yang,J.A.Christodoulou,andV.Singh,“RestIsNotIdleness:ImplicationsoftheBrain’sDefaultModeforHumanDevelopmentandEducation,”

PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience7,no.4(2012):352–64,doi:10.1177/1745691612447308

ThedetailsaboutElliotonpage61comefromAntonioR.Damasio,Descartes’Error:Emotion,ReasonandtheHumanBrain(NewYork:RandomHouse,2006).

Forthestudiesontheconnectionbetweenbodyandmindonpage62,seeCarloFantoniandWalterGerbino,“BodyActionsChangetheAppearanceofFacialExpressions,”PloSOne9,no.9(2014):e108211;XueZheng,RyanFehr,KennethTai,JayanthNarayanan,andMicheleJ.Gelfand,“TheUnburdeningEffectsofForgiveness:EffectsonSlantPerceptionandJumpingHeight,”SocialPsychologicalandPersonalityScience6,no.4(2015):431–38;andJesseChandlerandNorbertSchwarz,“HowExtendingYourMiddleFingerAffectsYourPerceptionofOthers:LearnedMovementsInfluenceConceptAccessibility,”JournalofExperimentalSocialPsychology45,no.1(2009):123–28.

ForthedetailsonJimTayloronpage64,seeDr.JimTaylor,“MyStory:From4'9"toWorld-Ranked,”Dr.JimTaylor,2015,http://www.drjimtaylor.com/4.0/my-story/(accessedSeptember14,2016).AlsoseeDr.JimTaylor,“InsidetheSkiRacingMind:MentalImagery,SeeingandFeelingSuccessinYourMind’sEye,”SkiRacing,April18,2011,https://www.skiracing.com/stories/inside-ski-racing-mind-mental-imagery(accessedSeptember15,2016).

ForthediscussionofBandura’sworkandthenotionofself-efficacyonpage65,Ireliedon“AlbertBandura,”Wikipedia,theFreeEncyclopedia,September3,2016,https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albert_Bandura&oldid=737561009(accessedSeptember14,2016).Alsosee“AlbertBanduraBiographicalSketch,”http://stanford.edu/dept/psychology/bandura/bandura-bio-pajares/Albert%20_Bandura%20_Biographical_Sketch.html(accessedSeptember14,2016).I’mindebtedtoaprofileofBandura,whichprovidedtheideathatBanduraisamodelofself-efficacy,byChristineFoster,“ConfidenceMan,”StanfordAlumni,September/October2006,http://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=33332"(accessedSeptember14,2016).

Forthepointaboutprojectoversightonpage66,seePaulKloosterman,“LearningtoLearninPracticeinNonformalEducation,”LearningtoLearn:InternationalPerspectivesfromTheoryandPractice(2014):271.

Forthehundredsofstudiesongoalsettingonpage66,seeR.T.Golembiewski,HandbookofOrganizationalBehavior,2nded.,revisedandexpanded(NewYork:MarcelDekker,2001).AlsoseeThelmaS.Horn,AdvancesinSportPsychology(Champaign,IL:HumanKinetics,2008).

Thedetails—andquote—aboutthePomodoroTechniqueonpage66comefromFrancescoCirillo,ThePomodoroTechnique(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2014).

FormoreonSon’s“withholding”approachonpage68,seeLisaK.SonandNateKornell,“TheVirtuesofIgnorance,”BehaviouralProcesses83,no.2(February2010):207–12,doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2009.12.005

Fortheworkonteacherexpectationsonpage70,seeUlrichBoser,MeganWilhelm,andRobertHanna,“ThePowerofthePygmalionEffect:Teachers’ExpectationsStronglyPredictCollegeCompletion,”CenterforAmericanProgress(2014).

OnmyvisittoWindsorHillsonpage71,I’vediscussedtheexperiencebefore.SeeUlrichBoser,“SeparateandEconomicallyUnequal,”USNews&WorldReport,June17,2015,http://www.usnews.com/opinion/knowledge-bank/2015/06/17/separate-and-economically-unequal-why-schools-need-socioeconomic-diversity(accessedSeptember15,2016),andIreusedsomeofthelanguagehere.

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DeBoer,Harry,RoelJ.Bosker,andM.P.C.vanderWerf.“SustainabilityofTeacherExpectationBiasEffectsonLongTermStudentPerformance.”JournalofEducationalPsychology102,no.1(2010):168–79.

Dunlosky,John,andJanetMetcalfe.Metacognition.1sted.ThousandOaks,CA:SAGEPublications,2008.

Ginns,Paul,etal.“LearningbyTracingWorkedExamples.”AppliedCognitivePsychology30,no.2(2015).

Hacker,D.J.M.,C.Keener,andJ.C.Kircher.“WritingIsAppliedMetacognition.”HandbookofMetacognitioninEducation,eds.D.J.Hacker,J.Dunlosky,andA.C.Graesser(NewYork:Routledge,2009),154–72.

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inaComplexWorld(Expertise:ResearchandApplicationsSeries).Abingdon,UK:Taylor&Francis,2013.

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Sana,Faria,TinaWeston,andNicholasJ.Cepeda.“LaptopMultitaskingHindersClassroomLearningforBothUsersandNearbyPeers.”Computers&Education62(2013):24–31.

Veenman,MarcelV.J.,BernadetteH.A.M.VanHout-Wolters,andPeterAfflerbach.“MetacognitionandLearning:ConceptualandMethodologicalConsiderations.”MetacognitionandLearning1,no.1(2006):3–14.

Chapter3

There’salargebodyofliteratureshowingthatpracticedoesn’tmakeperfect.Fortherelevanttextonpage77,seeEunsookKimandSung-JaePak,“StudentsDoNotOvercomeConceptualDifficultiesafterSolving1000TraditionalProblems,”AmericanJournalofPhysics70,no.7(2002):759–765.AlsoseeE.Plantetal.,“WhyStudyTimeDoesNotPredictGradePointAverageacrossCollegeStudents:ImplicationsofDeliberatePracticeforAcademicPerformance,”ContemporaryEducationalPsychology30,no.1(January2005):96–116,doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.06.001

ForMarkBernstein’sstoryonpage79,IreliedonAndersEricsson,“AcquisitionandMaintenanceofMedicalExpertise:APerspectivefromtheExpert-PerformanceApproachwithDeliberatePractice,”AcademicMedicine90,no.11(2015):1471–86.AdditionaldetailscomefromAdetunjiOremakindeandMarkBernstein,“AReductioninErrorsIsAssociatedwithProspectivelyRecordingThem:ClinicalArticle,”JournalofNeurosurgery121,no.2(2014):297–304.

FortheBernsteindetailsandquoteonpage81,seeMarkBernstein,“TheDropAttack,”CanadianMedicalAssociationJournal172,no.5(March1,2005):668–69,doi:10.1503/cmaj.050076,andScelligStoneandMarkBernstein,“ProspectiveErrorRecordinginSurgery:AnAnalysisof1108ElectiveNeurosurgicalCases,”Neurosurgery60,no.6(2007):1075–82.

Onpage80,IquotedfromDanPompei,“InsideGruden’s‘Maniacal’Obsession

withFootball,”BleacherReport,May12,2016,http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2636358-inside-jon-grudens-maniacal-obsession-with-football(accessedSeptember28,2016).Similarly,IreliedonJuliaBelluz,“WeSpoketo20ExpertsaboutHowtoLoseWeightandKeepItOff.HereAreTheirSurprisinglySimpleTips,”Vox,May2,2016,http://www.vox.com/2014/11/27/7289565/weight-loss-diet-tips(accessedSeptember28,2016).

Regardingthediscussionoffeedbackonpage81,seeJohnHattie,VisibleLearning:ASynthesisofOver800Meta-AnalysesRelatingtoAchievement(Abingdon,UK:Routledge,Taylor&FrancisGroup,2009).TheroosterexamplecomesfromBridgidFinnandJanetMetcalfe,“ScaffoldingFeedbacktoMaximizeLongTermErrorCorrection,”Memory&Cognition38,no.7(2010):951–61,doi:10.3758/MC.38.7.951;alsohelpfulwasJohnHattieandHelenTimperley,“ThePowerofFeedback,”ReviewofEducationalResearch77,no.1(March1,2007):81–112,doi:10.3102/003465430298487

Regardingthediscussionofcurriculumonpage81,seeUlrichBoser,MatthewChingos,andChelseaStraus,“TheHiddenValueofCurriculumReform:DoStatesandDistrictsReceivetheMostBangforTheirCurriculumBuck?”CenterforAmericanProgress,October14,2015,https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/education/report/2015/10/14/122810/the-hidden-value-of-curriculum-reform/.TheGawandequoteisfromAtulGawande,“TheCoachintheOperatingRoom,”NewYorker,September26,2011,http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/10/03/personal-best(accessedSeptember28,2016).

FortheHattiequoteonpage86,IreliedonJohnHattie,VisibleLearning:ASynthesisofOver800Meta-AnalysesRelatingtoAchievement(Abingdon,UK:Routledge,Taylor&FrancisGroup,2009).

Onexplanationsandfeedbackonpage84,IreliedonAndrewC.Butler,NamrataGodbole,andElizabethMarsh,“ExplanationFeedbackIsBetterThanCorrectAnswerFeedbackforPromotingTransferofLearning,”JournalofEducationalPsychology105,no.2,(2013):290–98,andNateKornellandLisaK.Son,“Learners’ChoicesandBeliefsaboutSelf-Testing,”Memory17,no.5(July2009):493–501,doi:10.1080/09658210902832915

OnDragonboxonpage87,seeYanjinLongandVincentAleven,“GamificationofJointStudent/SystemControloverProblemSelectioninaLinearEquationTutor,”IntelligentTutoringSystems,378–87,eds.StefanTrausan-Matu,KristyElizabethBoyer,MarthaCrosby,andKittyPanourgia(NewYork:

SpringerInternationalPublishing,2014),http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-07221-0_47

TheWillinghamquoteonpage88comesfromDanielT.Willingham,WhyDon’tStudentsLikeSchool?ACognitiveScientistAnswersQuestionsaboutHowtheMindWorksandWhatItMeansfortheClassroom(SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass,2009).

Withregardtorepetitiononpage89,seeGrahamNuthall,TheHiddenLivesofLearners(Wellington,NZ:NZCERPress,2007).AlsoseeKatherineRawsonandJohnDunlosky,“BangfortheBuck:SupportingDurableandEfficientStudentLearningthroughSuccessiveRelearning,”IntegratingCognitiveSciencewithInnovativeTeachinginSTEMDisciplines(St.Louis,MO:WashingtonUniversityinSt.Louis,2014),doi:10.7936/K7F769GZ

Thewell-citedretrievalpracticestudyonpage91isfromHenryL.RoedigerandJeffreyD.Karpicke,“Test-EnhancedLearning:TakingMemoryTestsImprovesLongTermRetention,”PsychologicalScience17,no.3(2006):249–55.AlsocitedherewasJ.D.KarpickeandJ.R.Blunt,“RetrievalPracticeProducesMoreLearningThanElaborativeStudyingwithConceptMapping,”Science331,no.6018(2011):772–75,doi:10.1126/science.1199327

Alsocitedonpage91isMariaKonnikova,Mastermind:HowtoThinkLikeSherlockHolmes(NewYork:Penguin,2013).TheretrievalpracticeapproachregardingapileofcardscomesfromRachelAdragna,“BeYourOwnTeacher:HowtoStudywithFlashCards,”TheLearningScientists,February20,2016,http://www.learningscientists.org/blog/2016/2/20-1(accessedSeptember13,2016).

TheTarantinoquoteonpage90isfromHodaKotb,“FromVideoClerktoBoxOfficeIcon,”NBCNews,April26,2004,http://www.nbcnews.com/id/4817308/ns/dateline_nbc-newsmakers/t/video-clerk-box-office-icon/(accessedSeptember13,2016).

FormoredetailsonHu’sworkonpage93,seeYuzhengHuetal.,“EnhancedWhiteMatterTractsIntegrityinChildrenwithAbacusTraining,”HumanBrainMapping32,no.1(2011):10–21,doi:10.1002/hbm.20996

Lotshasbeenwrittenaboutbrainplasticityinrecentyears.AmongthemisS.Kühn,T.Gleich,R.C.Lorenz,U.Lindenberger,andJ.Gallinat,“PlayingSuperMarioInducesStructuralBrainPlasticity:GrayMatterChangesResultingfromTrainingwithaCommercialVideoGame,”MolecularPsychiatry19,no.2(February2014):265–71,doi:10.1038/mp.2013.120

Onpage94,IquotedfromMartinLövdénetal.,“ATheoreticalFrameworkfortheStudyofAdultCognitivePlasticity,”PsychologicalBulletin136,no.4(2010):659.AlsoseeEdwardTaub,“ForewordforNeuroplasticityandNeurorehabilitation,”FrontiersResearchTopics:NeuroplasticityandNeurorehabilitation8,no.544(2014):4–5.

BennettSchwartzprovidedmewiththeexamplerelatingtoAustraliaanditscapitalonpage95.Psychologistscallthisthe“hypercorrectioneffect.”Formoreinformation,seeJanetMetcalfeandDavidMiele,“HypercorrectionofHighConfidenceErrors:PriorTestingBothEnhancesDelayedPerformanceandBlockstheReturnoftheErrors,”JournalofAppliedResearchinMemoryandCognition3,no.3(2014):189–97.

FordetailsregardingJordanEllenberg’searlylifeonpage96,IreliedonAmyGoldstein,“ASineofaTrueGenius,”WashingtonPost,June7,1989,https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1989/06/07/a-sine-of-a-true-genius/a29172c8-d53f-45da-920c-4e2a407ce97e/(accessedSeptember13,2016).AlsoseeJordanEllenberg,HowNottoBeWrong:ThePowerofMathematicalThinking(NewYork:Penguin,2015).

OntheFlynneffectonpage97,seeLisaTrahan,KarlaK.Stuebing,MerrilK.Hiscock,andJackM.Fletcher,“TheFlynnEffect:AMeta-Analysis,”PsychologicalBulletin140,no.5(2014):1332–60,doi:10.1037/a0037173.Theerrorquotesonpage96arefromKathrynSchulz,BeingWrong:AdventuresintheMarginofError,Kindleedition(NewYork:HarperCollins,2010).

ForthefirstquotefromHerbBrooksonpage98,seeDaveKindred,“BorntoBePlayers,BorntotheMoment,”WashingtonPost,February23,1980,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/sports/longterm/olympics1998/history/memories/80-kindred.htm(accessedSeptember16,2016).There’ssomedebateovertheactualwordsused.SeeBillLittlefield,“HollywoodScoresa‘Miracle’withLockerRoomSpeech,”WBUR,June18,2016,http://www.wbur.org/onlyagame/2016/06/17/us-miracle-olympics-herb-brooks-origins(accessedSeptember16,2016).ForthesecondBrooksquoteonpage103,see“HerbBrooksQuotes,”HerbBrooksFoundation,http://www.herbbrooksfoundation.com/page/show/740804-herb-brooks-quotes(accessedSeptember16,2016).

Detailsaboutthemarshmallowtestonpage100comefromWalterMischel,TheMarshmallowTest:MasteringSelf-Control(Little,Brown,2014).Theself-

talkstudyonpage98isSandaDolcosandDoloresAlbarracin,“TheInnerSpeechofBehavioralRegulation:IntentionsandTaskPerformanceStrengthenWhenYouTalktoYourselfasaYou,”EuropeanJournalofSocialPsychology44,no.6(October1,2014):636–42,doi:10.1002/ejsp.2048

AlsocitedisAdamWinsler,LouisManfra,andRafaelM.Diaz,“‘ShouldILetThemTalk?’PrivateSpeechandTaskPerformanceAmongPreschoolChildrenwithandwithoutBehaviorProblems,”EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly22,no.2(2007):215–31.IcameacrossthestudyviaPyschnet.

FormoreonDweckfrompage101,seeCarolDweck,Mindset:TheNewPsychologyofSuccess,HowWeLearntoFulfillOurPotential,Kindleedition(NewYork:BallantineBooks,2008).ThepointaboutthesmallimpactofafewwordsintheDweckstudiescamefromBBC,“TheWordsThatCouldUnlockYourChild,”BBCNews,April19,2011,http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-13128701(accessedOctober4,2016).AlsocitedwasKylaHaimovitzandCarolS.Dweck,“WhatPredictsChildren’sFixedandGrowthIntelligenceMind-Sets?NotTheirParents’ViewsofIntelligencebutTheirParents’ViewsofFailure,”PsychologicalScience(2016):0956797616639727.

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Cheryan,Sapna,etal.“DesigningClassroomstoMaximizeStudentAchievement.”PolicyInsightsfromtheBehavioralandBrainSciences1,no.1(2014):4–12.

D’Mello,Sidney,etal.“ConfusionCanBeBeneficialforLearning.”LearningandInstruction29(2014):153–70.

Ellenberg,Jordan.“TheWrongWaytoTreatChildGeniuses.”WallStreetJournal,May30,2014.http://www.wsj.com/articles/the-wrong-way-to-treat-child-geniuses-1401484790(accessedOctober7,2016)

Ericsson,K.Anders.“TrainingHistory,DeliberatePracticeandEliteSportsPerformance:AnAnalysisinResponsetoTuckerandCollinsReview—WhatMakesChampions?”BritishJournalofSportsMedicine47,no.9(2013):533–35.

Huelser,BarbieJ.,andJanetMetcalfe.“MakingRelatedErrorsFacilitatesLearning,butLearnersDoNotKnowIt.”Memory&Cognition40,no.4(2012):514–27.

Klein,Gary.SeeingWhatOthersDon’t:TheRemarkableWaysWeGainInsights.Kindleedition.NewYork:PublicAffairs,PerseusBooks,2013.

Klein,Gary,NeilHintze,andDavidSaab.“ThinkingInsidetheBox:TheShadowBoxMethodforCognitiveSkillDevelopment.”Proceedingsofthe11thInternationalConferenceonNaturalisticDecisionMaking.Paris:ArpegeSciencePublishing,2013.

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Steele,ClaudeM.,andJoshuaAronson.“StereotypeThreatandtheIntellectualTestPerformanceofAfricanAmericans.”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology69,no.5(1995):797.

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Chapter4

WhenitcomestoJacksonPollock,Ireliedonanumberofbooks,includingHenryAdams,TomandJack:TheIntertwinedLivesofThomasHartBentonandJacksonPollock(NewYork:BloomsburyPress,2009),LeonhardEmmerling,JacksonPollock(Taschen:2003),andDeborahSolomon,JacksonPollock:ABiography(NewYork:CooperSquarePress,1987).

The“workerswork”quoteonpage111camefromCarolineA.Jones,“Eyesightalone:ClementGreenberg’smodernismandthebureaucratizationofthesenses,”UniversityofChicagoPress,2005.The“controlledaccident”quotecamefromtheEmmerlingbiography.The“grandthing”quoteonpage111camefromJacksonPollock,AmericanLetters:1927-1947(Polity,2011).

ForthequotesfromtheletterfromSiquerosonpage111,seeJacksonPollockandLeeKrasnerPapers,“DavidAlfaroSiqueirosLettertoJacksonPollock,SandyPollock,andHaroldLehman,1936Dec,”ArchivesofAmericanArt,SmithsonianInstitution,2016,http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/items/detail/david-alfaro-siqueiros-letter-to-jackson-pollock-sandy-pollock-and-harold-lehman-13785(accessedSeptember14,2016).TheLIFEmagazinearticleonpage112isAnonymous,“JacksonPollock;IsHetheGreatestLivingPainterintheUnitedStates?”LIFE,August8,1949.

The“genius”quoteonpage112camefromNaifehStevenandGregoryWhiteSmith,JacksonPollock:AnAmericanSaga(NewYork:CNPotter,1989).The“chaos”quoteonthesamepagecamefromtheSolomonbook.

FortheSmithquoteonpage113,seeRobertaSmith,“Review:Drips,Dropped:PollockandHisImpact,”NewYorkTimes,December31,2015.

FortheTaylorquoteonpage114,seeJenniferOuellette,“Pollock’sFractals,”Discover,November1,2011.

FormydescriptionsofthemakingofKindofBlueonpage114,IreliedonAshleyKahn,KindofBlue(London:GrantaPublications,2001).Onpage115,IalsoquotedandreliedonFredKaplan,“KindofBlue,”Slate,August17,2009,http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/music_box/2009/08/kind_of_blue.html(accessedSeptember14,2016).

Thesheetmusicquoteonpage115isfromKeithWaters,TheStudioRecordings

oftheMilesDavisQuintet,1965-68(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2011).

TheDavisbiographyquoteonpage115isfromMilesDavisandQuincyTroupe,Miles(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1990).

Tociteafewstudiesprovidingsupportforriffsonpage115,seeClaireE.Weinstein,“TrainingStudentstoUseElaborationLearningStrategies,”ContemporaryEducationalPsychology7,no.4(1982):301–11.AlsoseeMicheleneT.H.Chietal.,“Self-Explanations:HowStudentsStudyandUseExamplesinLearningtoSolveProblems,”CognitiveScience13,no.2(1989):145–82.

OnNisbett’sworkonpage119,seeRichardE.Nisbett,Mindware:ToolsforSmartThinking(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2015).

Forthe“stickyimages”detailsonpage128,seeBobHarris,PrisonerofTrebekistan:ADecadeinJeopardy!(NewYork:CrownPublishers,2006).I’mindebtedtoRogerCraigforthisidea.

Forthecitationonfingerdexterityonpage122,seeSianBeilock,HowtheBodyKnowsItsMind:TheSurprisingPowerofthePhysicalEnvironmenttoInfluenceHowYouThinkandFeel(NewYork:AtriaBooks,Simon&Schuster,2015).

Ondebateprogramsonpage118,seeBrianaMezuketal.,“ImpactofParticipatinginaPolicyDebateProgramonAcademicAchievement:EvidencefromtheChicagoUrbanDebateLeague,”EducationalResearchandReviews6,no.9(2011):622–35.

Forthe“youngstudents”studyonpage119,seeStephenGorard,NadiaSiddiqui,andBengHuat,PhilosophyforChildren:EvaluationReportandExecutiveSummary,July2015(London:EducationEndowmentFoundation,2015).Formoredetails—andtheslogan—fromHighTechHigh,seeBobPearlman,“EducationalLeadership,CustomizingOurSchools:ReinventingtheHighSchoolExperience,”ASCD,2016.AlsoseeTaraS.Behrendetal.,“GaryandJerri-AnnJacobsHighTechHigh:ACaseStudyofanInclusiveSTEM-FocusedHighSchoolinSanDiego,California,”OsPrlReport2014–03.

Onpage119,IquotedfromLaurenB.Resnick,EducationandLearningtoThink(Washington,DC:NationalAcademies,1987).

Forthe“holyplace”quoteonpage121,IreliedonEllenMaguire,“AtJacksonPollock’sHamptonsHouse,aLifeinSpatters,”NewYorkTimes,July14,

2006.Forthetextonsimulationsonpage125,IreliedandreusedtextfromUlrichBoser,“GamingtheSystem,OneClickataTime,”SpecialReport:Elearning,U.S.News&WorldReport,October28,2002.

Alsomentionedonpage126isKennethR.Koedingeretal.,“LearningIsNotaSpectatorSport:DoingIsBetterThanWatchingforLearningfromaMOOC,”ProceedingsoftheSecond(2015)ACMConferenceonLearning@Scale,NewYork:ACM(2015):111–120.

ThedetailsaboutFeynmanandteachingonpage126comefromDavidL.GoodsteinandJudithR.Goodstein,Feynman’sLostLecture:TheMotionofPlanetsAroundtheSun,vol.1(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1996).Forthedetailsonpage130,Ireliedon“RichardFeynman—SessionIV,”AmericanInstituteofPhysics,https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/5020-4(accessedSeptember16,2016).

FortheProtégéEffectonpage127,seeJ.F.Nestojkoetal.,“ExpectingtoTeachEnhancesLearningandOrganizationofKnowledgeinFreeRecallofTextPassages,”Memory&Cognition,42,no.7(2014):1038–48,doi:10.3758/s13421-014-0416-z.AlsoseeCatherineC.Chaseetal.,“TeachableAgentsandtheProtégéEffect:IncreasingtheEffortTowardLearning,”JournalofScienceEducationandTechnology18,no.4(2009):334–52.

Onthevalueofuncertaintyonpage130,seeMarleneSchomer,“EffectsofBeliefsabouttheNatureofKnowledgeonComprehension,”JournalofEducationalPsychology82,no.3(1990):498–504.Whenitcametothemilitaryonpage131,IreliedonpreviousreportingaswellasJamesGibson,“LeadersFirst:HowROTCIsChangingfortheBetter,”Military1,September30,2014.AlsoseeMarkHemingway,“FixingROTC:TheArmyIsMakingGreatStridesReformingROTC,andIt’saTaskTooImportanttoBeNeglected,”TheWeeklyStandard,September30,2014,http://www.weeklystandard.com/fixing-rotc/article/781475(accessedSeptember14,2016).Thequoteonpage131camefromRudyChinchilla,“ROTCCurriculumChangesWillReflectModernMilitaryConflicts,”DailyTitan,March25,2015,http://www.dailytitan.com/2015/03/rotc-curriculum-changes-will-reflect-modern-military-conflicts/(accessedSeptember16,2016).

IfirstcameacrossMarkRunco’swork,mentionedonpage131,inPoBronsonandAshleyMerryman,“ForgetBrainstorming,”Newsweek,July12,2010,http://www.newsweek.com/forget-brainstorming-74223(accessedSeptember

16,2016).AlsohelpfulinthissectionwasMarkRunco,“SevenCriticalComponentsofCreativity:FullResearchSummary,”CenterforChildhoodCreativity(2014):1–19.

FormoreonSawyer’sworkonpage133,seeKeithSawyer,ZigZag:TheSurprisingPathtoGreaterCreativity(SanFrancisco:Wiley,Jossey-Bass,2013).

Inregardtosourcingonthetulipcrashonpage133,seeA.MauritsvanderVeen,“TheDutchTulipMania:TheSocialPoliticsofaFinancialBubble,”JournalofPoliticalEconomy97,no.3(2012):535–60;ChristianC.Day,“IsThereaTulipinYourFuture?RuminationsonTulipManiaandtheInnovativeDutchFuturesMarkets,”JournaldesEconomistesetdesEtudesHumaines14,no.2(2004):151–70;andMikeDash,Tulipomania:TheStoryoftheWorld’sMostCovetedFlower&theExtraordinaryPassionsItAroused(NewYork:ThreeRiversPress,1999).

ForthedetailsaboutScottE.Pageonpage135,seeTheDifference:HowthePowerofDiversityCreatesBetterGroups,Firms,Schools,andSocieties(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2007).AlsohelpfulinframingthisspecificworkwasStevenJohnson,FuturePerfect:TheCaseforProgressinaNetworkedAge(NewYork:RiverheadBooks,2012).

RegardingLevine’sworkonpage136,seeSheenS.Levineetal.,“EthnicDiversityDeflatesPriceBubbles,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences111,no.52(2014):18524–29,doi:10.1073/pnas.1407301111.Levinealsopointedmetotheacademicstudythat’squotedonpage123:NancyDiTomaso,CorinnePost,andRochelleParks-Yancy,“WorkforceDiversityandInequality:Power,Status,andNumbers,”AnnualReviewofSociology33(2007):473–501.

Ontechnologyanddiversityonpage137,IfoundhelpfulChrisParis,“TheWonderful—YetMisunderstood—WorldofWikis,”Seminarium,April11,2014,http://seminariumblog.org/general/semtech/wonderful-yet-misunderstood-world-wikis(accessedSeptember16,2016).

ThequotesaboutPollock’spoorpaintingskillsonpage137comefromtheSolomonandAdamsbooks,respectively.

Forthedescriptionofthewheelstudyonpage139,seeDanielKahneman,Thinking,FastandSlow(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2011).

TheFeynmanquoteonpage139comesfromRichardP.Feynman,SurelyYou’reJoking,Mr.Feynman!AdventuresofaCuriousCharacter(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1997).TheDavisquoteonpage139isfromGeraldLynEarly,

MilesDavisandAmericanCulture(St.Louis:MissouriHistoryMuseum,2001).

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Chapter5

ForthematerialonAlbertEinsteinonpage141,IreliedonWalterIsaacson,Einstein:HisLifeandUniverse,1sted.(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2007),andIsaacson,“TheLight-BeamRider,”NewYorkTimes,October30,2015,http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/01/opinion/sunday/the-light-beam-rider.html(accessedSeptember14,2016).TheEinsteinquotesonpages142and150alsocomefromtheIsaacsonbook.

AlsoseeJohnD.Norton,“ChasingaBeamofLight:Einstein’sMostFamousThoughtExperiment,”UniversityofPittsburgh,April14,2005,http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/Goodies/Chasing_the_light/(accessedSeptember14,2016).

Forthedetailsontheunderwaterexperimentonpage142,IreliedonJohnD.Bransfordetal.,HowPeopleLearn:Brain,Mind,Experience,andSchool(Washington,DC:NationalAcademicsPress,2000).AlsocitedisLindseyEngleRichlandandNinaSimms,“Analogy,HigherOrderThinking,andEducation,”WileyInterdisciplinaryReviews:CognitiveScience6,no.2(March2015):177–92,doi:10.1002/wcs.1336

WithregardtotheGoldstonestudyonpage146,seeDavidW.BraithwaiteandRobertL.Goldstone,“EffectsofVariationandPriorKnowledgeonAbstractConceptLearning,”CognitionandInstruction33,no.3(2015):226–56.

Foralongerexplanationoftheanswertothekingproblem,Goldstoneexplains:“Everykingdomneedstobeassignedtoonedaughter.Thereare7possibledaughters.Iftherewereonlyonekingdom,therewouldbesevenpossibilities.Ifthereweretwokingdoms,thenforeveryoneofthe7waysofassigningthefirstkingdom,therewouldbe7waysofassigningthesecondkingdom(justbecauseGertrudeisassignedFrancedoesn’tmeanthatGermanycan’tbeassignedtohertoo),making7times7possibilities.Everyadditionalcountrythatneedstobeassignedtoadaughtermultipliesby7thenumberofpossiblearrangements.”

Notethatinterleavingdoesn’talwaysshowbenefits,atleastintheearlypartofthelearningprocess.Goldstoneagain:“DavidBraithwaiteandIfindthatvariationofproblemsthatexemplifythesamedeepprincipleisn’talwaysagoodthing.Inparticular,themoreyouknow,themoreyoucan‘withstand’variation.Peoplewithrelativelypoorinitialunderstandingsoftherelevantmathprinciplesbenefitmorefromtrainingwithsimilarproblemsthatdon’t

showmuchvariation.”Forstudiesonmixinguppracticeonpage149,seeDennisK.Landin,EdwardP.Hebert,andMalcolmFairweather,“TheEffectsofVariablePracticeonthePerformanceofaBasketballSkill,”ResearchQuarterlyforExerciseandSport64,no.2(1993):232–37,doi:10.1080/02701367.1993.10608803.AlsoseeGavinBreslinetal.,“ConstantorVariablePractice:RecreatingtheEspecialSkillEffect,”ActaPsychologica140,no.2(2012):154–57.

Thephysicsproblemonpage148isfromB.H.Ross,J.P.Mestre,andJ.L.Docktor,“UnderstandingHowtoTeachPhysicsUnderstanding,”IntegratingCognitiveSciencewithInnovativeTeachinginSTEMDisciplines,eds.M.McDaniel,R.Frey,S.Fitzpatrick,andH.L.Roediger(SaintLouis:WashingtonUniversityLibraries,2014),doi:10.7936/K79G5JR7

TheSteveJobsquotesonpage150arefromAlanDeutschman,TheSecondComingofSteveJobs(NewYork:CrownBusiness,2001).TheGopnikquoteonpage151isfromAlisonGopnikandCarenM.Walker,“ConsideringCounterfactuals:TheRelationshipbetweenCausalLearningandPretendPlay,”AmericanJournalofPlay6,no.1(2013):15.AlisonGopnik,AndrewN.Meltzoff,andPatriciaK.Kuhl,TheScientistintheCrib:Minds,Brains,andHowChildrenLearn(NewYork:WilliamMorrow,1999).

AlsohelpfuloncounterfactualsisRobertJ.Marzano,TheArtandScienceofTeaching:AComprehensiveFrameworkforEffectiveInstruction(ProfessionalDevelopment)(Alexandria,VA:AssociationforSupervision&CurriculumDevelopment,2007).

IfirstcameacrosstheideaofdiscussingtheinstructionofSteveBrodneronpage152inCynthiaCotts,“TopoftheClass:SomeofNYC’sLeadingProfessorsShareTheirSecrets,”ObserverNews&Politics,January21,2015,http://observer.com/2015/01/top-of-the-class-nycs-top-professors/(accessedSeptember26,2016).AlsoseeFrailFiend,“BigInterview—SteveBrodner,”FrailFiend,2013,http://frailfiend.tumblr.com/post/85526528060/big-interview-steve-brodner(accessedSeptember26,2016).

Onhacking,theRaymondquoteonpage153comesfromEricStevenRaymond,“HowtoLearnHacking,”2014,http://www.catb.org/esr/faqs/hacking-howto.html(accessedSeptember16,2016).

ForthedetailsonFacebookonpage154,IreliedonAndrewBosworth(Boz),“FacebookEngineeringBootcamp,”Facebook,November20,2009,https://www.facebook.com/notes/facebook-engineering/facebook-engineering-bootcamp/177577963919(accessedSeptember16,2016).Also

helpfulwasMikeSwift,“ALookInsideFacebook’s‘Bootcamp’forNewEmployees,”Thestar.com,April18,2012,https://www.thestar.com/business/2012/04/18/a_look_inside_facebooks_bootcamp_for_new_employees.html(accessedSeptember16,2016).TheSeligsteinquoteonpage154camefromthisTorontoStararticle.

AlsoseeJ.O’Dell,“Bootcamp!HowFacebookIndoctrinatesEveryNewEngineerItHires,”VentureBeat,March2,2013,http://venturebeat.com/2013/03/02/facebook-bootcamp/(accessedSeptember14,2016);MichalLev-Ram,“WhatILearnedatFacebook’sBigDataBootcamp,”Fortune,June13,2013,http://fortune.com/2013/06/13/what-i-learned-at-facebooks-big-data-bootcamp/(accessedSeptember16,2016);andRichardFeloni,“FacebookEngineeringDirectorDescribesWhatIt’sLiketoGothroughtheCompany’s6-WeekEngineerBootcamp,”BusinessInsider,March2,2016,http://www.businessinsider.com/inside-facebook-engineer-bootcamp-2016-3(accessedSeptember16,2016).

TheZuckerbergquoteonpage155comesfromEpicenterStaff,“MarkZuckerberg’sLettertoInvestors:‘TheHackerWay,’”WIRED,February1,2012,https://www.wired.com/2012/02/zuck-letter/(accessedSeptember16,2016).

ForthedetailsonJohnVennfrompage155,seeA.W.F.EdwardsandIanStewart,CogwheelsoftheMind:TheStoryofVennDiagrams,1sted.(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2004).Formyveryshortbiography,Ireliedon“JohnVenn,”Wikipedia,theFreeEncyclopedia,https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Venn&oldid=737661555(accessedSeptember4,2016).

Forthequoteonpage156about“visualaids,”seeJohnVenn,SymbolicLogic(Macmillan,1881).

IfirstcameacrosstheVenndiagramideainRichardE.Nisbett,Mindware:ToolsforSmartThinking(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2015).

Lotsofevidencesupportstheuseofconceptmaps,mentionedonpage157.See,forinstance,JackW.BerryandStephenL.Chew,“ImprovingLearningThroughInterventionsofStudent-GeneratedQuestionsandConceptMaps,”TeachingofPsychology35,no.4(October21,2008):305–12,doi:10.1080/00986280802373841

Forinformationonconcept-mapping-likesoftwareonpage158,seeJamesFallows,“InterestingSoftwareUpdate:TinderboxHow-To,Jerry’sBrain,”TheAtlantic,March9,2015,

http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/03/interesting-software-update-tinderbox-how-to-jerrys-brain/387181/(accessedSeptember16,2016).AlsoquotedisStevenJohnson,WhereGoodIdeasComeFrom,Kindleedition(NewYork:Penguin,2010),116.

FortheUberexampleonpage161,seeAaronSankin,“EveryCompanyThat’sLikeUberbutfor(Something),”TheDailyDot,August7,2014,http://www.dailydot.com/debug/its-like-uber-but-for/(accessedSeptember16,2016)andGeoffreyFowler,“There’sanUberforEverythingNow,”WallStreetJournal,May5,2015,http://www.wsj.com/articles/theres-an-uber-for-everything-now-1430845789(accessedNovember6,2016).

ThetextregardingMaryGordonSpenceonpage161comesfrom“StumptheChumps:DidTomandRayMaketheRightCall?WasaVacuumLeakCausingMaryGordon’sCartoSingThatHigh-PitchedNote?”April2,2011,Show201114,CarTalk,http://www.cartalk.com/content/stump-chumps(accessedSeptember16,2016).IalsointerviewedSpence.

Forthequoteabout“everythingyousay”onpage161,see“PikesPeakorBust,”Show1613,CarTalk,http://www.cartalk.com/content/1613-pikes-peak-or-bust(accessedOctober25,2016).

TheoriginalVapor3000studyonpage160isdescribedinMaryL.GickandKeithJ.Holyoak,“SchemaInductionandAnalogicalTransfer,”CognitivePsychology15,no.1(1983):1–38.ThemostrecentstudyisJamesR.Kubricht,HongjingLu,andKeithJ.Holyoak,“AnimationFacilitatesSourceUnderstandingandSpontaneousAnalogicalTransfer,”Proceedingsofthe37thAnnualConferenceoftheCognitiveScienceSociety(July2015).

Onpage166,IquotedfromDouglasHofstadterandEmmanuelSander,SurfacesandEssences:AnalogyastheFuelandFireofThinking(NewYork:BasicBooks,2013).Thebookwasalsoaveryhelpfulresource.

Forthe“threestrikes”mentiononpage162,seeJohnPollack,Shortcut:HowAnalogiesRevealConnections,SparkInnovation,andSellOurGreatestIdeas(NewYork:Penguin,2015).FortheSusanSarandonquoteonpage162,seeMikeMcPadden,“25YearsAgo,ThelmaandLouisePoppedCulturewithFeminism,”VH1News,May24,2016,http://www.vh1.com/news/262555/thelma-and-louise-pop-culture-feminism/(accessedOctober25,2016).

Thejokesonpage162comefromAmandaGreen,“20ofStevenWright’sFunniestJokesforHis59thBirthday,”MentalFloss,http://mentalfloss.com/article/60461/20-steven-wrights-funniest-jokes-his-

59th-birthday(accessedOctober25,2016),and“‘What’stheDealwith...’:15JokesfromJerrySeinfeldonHisBirthday,”WCBS,http://wcbsfm.cbslocal.com/2013/04/29/whats-the-deal-with-15-jokes-from-jerry-seinfeld-on-his-birthday/(accessedOctober25,2016).

Thecontractstudyonpage164comesfromJeffreyLoewenstein,LeighThompson,andDedreGentner,“AnalogicalLearninginNegotiationTeams:ComparingCasesPromotesLearningandTransfer,”AcademyofManagementLearning&Education2,no.2(2003):119–27.

RegardingHolyBlood,HolyGrailonpage195,seeMichaelBaigent,RichardLeigh,andHenryLincoln,HolyBlood,HolyGrail(NewYork:Dell,2007).

FormoreonGurpreetDhaliwalandthesuperstarquoteonpage168,seeKatieHafner,“ForSecondOpinion,ConsultaComputer?”NewYorkTimes,December3,2012,http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/04/health/quest-to-eliminate-diagnostic-lapses.html(accessedSeptember26,2016).

RegardingPólyaonpage170,seeG.PólyaandJohnH.Conway,HowtoSolveIt:ANewAspectofMathematicalMethod,2nded.(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2014).AlsoseeLeeDembart,“GeorgePólya,97,DeanofMathematicians,Dies,”LosAngelesTimes,September08,1985,http://articles.latimes.com/1985-09-08/news/mn-2892_1_polya-george-mathematician(accessedSeptember16,2016).

Onpage172,IreliedonBernardRoth,TheAchievementHabit:StopWishing,StartDoing,andTakeCommandofYourLife(NewYork:HarperCollins,2015),andTaraParker-Pope,“‘DesignThinking’foraBetterYou,”NewYorkTimes,Wellsection,January4,2016,http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/01/04/design-thinking-for-a-better-you/(accessedSeptember16,2016).

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Chapter6

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OnMarkmanonpage177,seeArtMarkman,SmartThinking:ThreeEssentialKeystoSolveProblems,Innovate,andGetThingsDone(NewYork:Penguin,2012).

Onfluencyonpage178,IreliedonShanaK.Carpenter,MikoM.Wilford,NateKornell,andKellieM.Mullaney,“AppearancesCanBeDeceiving:InstructorFluencyIncreasesPerceptionsofLearningwithoutIncreasingActualLearning,”PsychonomicBulletin&Review20,no.6(2013):1350–56.

Regardingthe“articlewithimages”andaprofessor“enthralling”aclassonpage178,seetheCarpenterstudyandMichaelJ.SerraandJohnDunlosky,“MetacomprehensionJudgementsReflecttheBeliefThatDiagramsImproveLearningfromText,”Memory(Hove,England)18,no.7(October2010):698–711.

RegardingVictoryDiseaseandCusteronpage179,seeMajorTimothyM.Karcher,UnderstandingtheVictoryDisease:FromtheLittleBighorntoMogadishuandBeyond(SanFrancisco:Squibd,PicklePartnersPublishing,2015).

Ontheissueofoverconfidenceonpage178,Ireliedonsometextfromapreviousarticle:UlrichBoser,“We’reAllLyingLiars:WhyPeopleTellLies,andWhyWhiteLiesCanBeOK,”USNews&WorldReport,May18,2009,http://health.usnews.com/health-news/family-health/brain-and-behavior/articles/2009/05/18/were-all-lying-liars-why-people-tell-lies-and-why-white-lies-can-be-ok(accessedSeptember14,2016).

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Alsocitedoninattentionalblindnessonpage182isChristopherF.Chabrisetal.,

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Fordetailsonumpiresandperformanceonpage187,seeBrianMills,TechnologicalInnovationsinMonitoringandEvaluation:EvidenceofPerformanceImpactsamongMajorLeagueBaseballUmpires,WorkingPaper,2015,andBenLindbergh,“RiseoftheMachines?”Grantland,November8,2013.http://grantland.com/features/ben-lindbergh-possibility-machines-replacing-umpires/(accessedOctober7,2016).FortheDellingerquoteonpage187,IreliedonNoahDavis,“UmpiresAreLessBlindThanTheyUsedtoBe,”FiveThirtyEight,August19,2015,http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/umpires-are-less-blind-than-they-used-to-be/(accessedOctober7,2016).

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http://www.npr.org/2011/11/20/142569472/how-one-man-played-moneyball-with-jeopardy(accessedSeptember19,2016).Alsoquotedonpage190wasGaryWolf,“WanttoRememberEverythingYou’llEverLearn?SurrendertoThisAlgorithm,”WIRED,November20,2011,https://www.wired.com/2008/04/ff-wozniak/(accessedSeptember19,2016).

OnforgettingandMedUonpage190,seeMarcelF.D’Eon,“KnowledgeLossofMedicalStudentsonFirstYearBasicScienceCoursesattheUniversityofSaskatchewan,”BMCMedicalEducation6(2006):5,doi:10.1186/1472-6920-6-5;alsoseeVickiLangendyk,“NotKnowingThatTheyDoNotKnow:Self-AssessmentAccuracyofThird-YearMedicalStudents,”MedicalEducation40,no.2(February2006):173–79,doi:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005.02372.x

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Formoreonforgettingonpage189,seeW.Thalheimer,HowMuchDoPeopleForget?(April2010).RetrievedOctober19,2011fromhttp://www.work-learning.com/catalog.html,andPaulSmolen,YiliZhang,andJohnH.Byrne,“TheRightTimetoLearn:MechanismsandOptimizationofSpacedLearning,”NatureReviewsNeuroscience17,no.2(February2016):77–88,doi:10.1038/nrn.2015.18

FordetailsonVerizonusingspacingonpage194,seethestaff-writtenarticle“Top10HallofFameOutstandingTrainingInitiatives,”TrainingMagazine,February4,2016,https://trainingmag.com/trgmag-article/top-10-hall-fame-outstanding-training-initiatives-janfeb-2016(accessedOctober7,2016).

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Onsleepandproductivityonpage199,seeMatthewGibsonandJeffreyShrader,“TimeUseandProductivity:TheWageReturnstoSleep”(July10,2014),http://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/091814sleep.pdf.IalsoreliedonCheriD.Mahetal.,“TheEffectsofSleepExtensionontheAthleticPerformanceofCollegiateBasketballPlayers,”Sleep34,no.7(2011):943–50.

Forsleepandlearningonpage199,seeStéphanieMazza,EmilieGerbier,Marie-PauleGustin,ZumrutKasikci,OlivierKoenig,ThomasC.Toppino,andMichelMagnin,“RelearnFasterandRetainLonger:AlongwithPractice,SleepMakesPerfect,”PsychologicalScience27,no.10(2016):1321–30.Regardingschoolopeningsandsleep,seeUlrichBoser,CatherineBrown,andPerpetualBaffour,“EarlySchoolStartTimesandStudentOutcomes,”CenterforAmericanProgress,forthcoming.

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Epilogue

Forthedescriptionoftheairlinecrash,includingthequotesonpage209,IreliedonNationalTransportationAircraftAccidentReport,NorthwestAirlines,Inc.McDonnellDouglasDC-9-82,N312RC,DetroitMetropolitanWayneCountyAirport,Romulus,Michigan,August16,1987.AlsoseeJohnLauber,“Northwest255atDTW:AnatomyofaHumanErrorAccident,”HumanFactors&AviationMedicine36,no.4(1989).Lauberwasalsothesourceoftheblindnessquoteonpage210.AlsoseetheNationalTransportationSafetyBoard,Washington,D.C.20594,SafetyRecommendation,A-88-64through-70,June27,1988.

Ialsoreliedonmediaaccountsfordetailsaboutthepassengersonpage209,includingBillPeterson,“TheFinalMomentsofaFlighttoDisaster,”WashingtonPost,August23,1987.AlsoseeStevenR.Churm,“Flight255:LifeorDeathTurnedonTwistsofFate:7WhoDiedinCrashSharedHopeforTheirFutureinOrangeCounty;3WhoMissedPlaneSavedbyLuck,”LosAngelesTimes,August23,1987,http://articles.latimes.com/1987-08-23/local/me-3108_1_orange-county(accessedSeptember26,2016).

MikeSakal,“SpiritsLiveon:ArizonaRemembersNorthwestFlight255Crash25YearsLater,”EastValleyTribune,August15,2012,http://www.eastvalleytribune.com/local/article_d74aac66-e66f-11e1-b0e0-0019bb2963f4.html(accessedSeptember26,2016).

Withregardtosituationalawarenessonpage210,seeMicaR.EndsleyandMichelleM.Robertson,“TrainingforSituationAwarenessinIndividualsandTeams,”inSituationAwarenessAnalysisandMeasurement,eds.MicaR.EndsleyandDanielJ.Garland(Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaum,2000):349–66.AlsoEndsleyandDanielJ.Garland,“PilotSituationAwarenessTraininginGeneralAviation,”ProceedingsoftheTriennalCongressoftheInternationalErgonomicsAssociationandHumanFactorsandErgonomicsSocietyAnnualMeeting44,no.11(2000):357–60.

Forthedataonplanecrashesonpage212,seeLisaMahapatra,“HowManyPlanesCrashEveryYear,andHowManyPeopleDieinPlaneCrashes?”InternationalBusinessTimes,March10,2014.

ForthequotefromBoaleronpage216,seeJoBoaler,“AdviceforParents,fromProfessorJoBoaler,”youcubed.org(accessedSeptember26,2016).

OntheIESguideonpage214,seeHaroldPashleretal.,“OrganizingInstructionandStudytoImproveStudentLearning.IESPracticeGuide.NCER2007-

2004,”NationalCenterforEducationResearch,2007,http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED498555

Forthephysicsstudyonpage215,seeLouisDeslauriers,EllenSchelew,andCarlWieman,“ImprovedLearninginaLarge-EnrollmentPhysicsClass,”Science332,no.6031(2011):862–64,doi:10.1126/science.1201783

Alsocitedinthischapter

Endsley,MicaR.“ExpertiseandSituationAwareness.”CambridgeHandbookofExpertiseandExpertPerformance,eds.K.A.Ericsson,N.Charness,P.J.Feltovich,andR.R.Hoffman.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2006,633–51.

Endsley,MicaR.andMichelleM.Robertson.“TeamSituationAwarenessinAviationMaintenance.”ProceedingsoftheHumanFactorsandErgonomicsSocietyAnnualMeeting40,no.21(1996):1077–81.

Mayer,Richard.MultimediaLearning.Cambridge,England:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001.

———.“SituationAwarenessinAircraftMaintenanceTeams.”InternationalJournalofIndustrialErgonomics26(2000):301–25.

ToolKits

Thetoolkitsdrawheavilyfromthemaintext,andbesidesthesourcesnamedabove,IalsoreliedonresourcesfromtheCarlWiemanScienceEducationInitiative.FordetailsonSurePayrollonpage224,seeLeighBuchanan,“RethinkingEmployeeAwards,”Inc.com,July5,2011,http://www.inc.com/magazine/201107/rethinking-employee-awards.html.ces

QuizAnswers

Herearetheanswerstothequizquestionsthroughoutthebook.

1.C2.F3.True4.C5.B6.True7.True8.False

8.False9.True10.C11.B12.C13.B14.True15.B16.False17.False18.False19.D20.C21.AandE22.True23.True24.B25.True26.True27.False28.A29.True30.True31.False32.True

Note that forsomeof thequizquestions, I reliedonPaulA.Howard-Jones,“Neuroscience and Education: Myths and Messages,” Nature ReviewsNeuroscience15 (2014):817–24.Formore information, also seeanupcomingpaper:UlrichBoser,“WhatthePublicKnowsabouttheScienceforLearning,”TheCenterforAmericanProgress,forthcoming.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In many ways, writing a book is a lot like learning. From the outside, bothactivitiesseemliketheeffortofaloneindividualhunkeredaloneinaroomforhours, reading books and articles, typing up notes and reminders.However, itturnsoutthatbothendeavorsareverymuchagroupeffort.In this regard,my first thanksgoes tomywife,Nora,whohas enduredyet

anotherbookprojectwithlovinggraceanddevotedpatience.Mychildren,LeilaandSonja,werealsodeeplysupportive,eventhoughtheyweresubjectedtoallsortsof“learningactivities,”fromabacustrainingtoDragonBox.Idedicatethisbooktomyparents,whohelpedinwaysbigandsmall.Ialsoowealot tomysiblings,Markus andKatharina, and their families for their support. Indeed, itwasKatharinawhotippedmeofftothepracticeofmentalabacus.Rodalewasanenormoushelp,thebestpublisherthatI’vehadtheopportunity

toworkwith.MarisaVigilanteprovidedthoughtfulfeedbackandgreatpatience,evenwhen Imisspelledher name.KathleenSchmidt understood thebook andremainedsupportive throughout.Aspecial thanks toIzzyHughes,AlyMostel,andKateBittmanforalltheirefforts.I’malsoindebtedtocopyeditorNancyN.Bailey,whosavedmefromcountlesserrors.I’mhugelygratefultothestaffattheCenterforAmericanProgress,including

NeeraTanden,CarmelMartin,andCatherineBrown.Ialsohadthesupportofanumber of researchers including Pamela Bopp, Max McClure, Jaime LianeDunaway, and Emma Zaballos. A number of colleagues read early drafts,including Carl Chancellor, Ken Stern, David Moldawer, and Rich Shea. AspecialthankstoJericAspillaga,whotranscribedmanyhoursoftape.Thereweremanypeoplewhoprovidedinsightsandinterviews,whosenames

arenotmentionedinthetextor,ifso,onlybriefly.TheyincludeJesseChandler,Dick Clark, Ken Knoedinger, David Daniel, Jim Stigler, David Miele, SteveFleming, PaulBruno,BenRiley,KarinChenowith,Craig Jerald,LisaHansel,MichaelFrank,EmilyDiehl,AmandnaVisek,ZehraPeynircioglu,BridgetFinn,RogerAzevedo,ChrisParis,JayHooper,JalMehta,JaneDutton,MikeMoser,Robert Pondiscio, David Trigaux, David Domenici, Angela Duckworth, JoeReddish,NickAntaris,SteveFlemming,JudithHarackiewicz,MarkMcDaniel,LoganFiorella,DavidYaeger,AnneMariePalincsar,DaleShunk,PhilWinnie,Thaddeus Griebel, Dimitri Christakis, Ira Winder, Ann Renninger, Mary-PatWenderoth, Susan Goldwin-Meadow, Fei-yan Chen, Paul Silvia, and DavidWhitebread.

IappreciatetheinputofthemanypeoplethatIspokewithatWindsorHills,the Urban Debate Club, WAMALUG, BrickFair, and Tom Sato’s Sorobanclasses. A devoted thanks, too, to my friends on the basketball court, whounwittinglytookpartinmylittleexperiment.Andfinally,I’dliketoexpressmygratitudetothelawlibraryatAmericanUniversity,whereIwrotemuchofthisbook.

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Internetaddressesandtelephonenumbersgiveninthisbookwereaccurateatthetimeitwenttopress.

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