Karst in Mariovo – extension, characteristics and importance

Symposium with international participation „Problems and perspectives of hilly-mountain areas“ Ohrid 12-15.IX.2013

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Karst in Mariovo – extension, characteristics and importance

Marjan Temovski Doctorate student, University of Nova Gorica, Slovenia,

Vlado Stojanoski 37a, Prilep, Macedonia, [email protected]

Abstract This paper will present the general characteristics of karst in Mariovo, a hilly mountainous area in the southern part of Republic of Macedonia, its extension, surface morphology as well as speleogenesis and karst waters. Previous results will be combined with new research on surface karst, caves and karst waters in this area. Karst rocks present 16% of Mariovo area, where due to complex geological and geomorphological characteristic some specific karst features developed. Number of caves has been explored in the past few years, most of which have been studied, giving new insight in to the general karst development. Also new karst springs were documented, such as Gugjakovski Izvori (the largest spring along the river course of Crna Reka), which give further insight to the karst hydrogeology of the area. The importance of karst areas in Mariovo is mostly due to a number of specific karst features, mostly connected to thermal speleogenesis, such as Provalata Cave where sulfuric acid was involved in its formation. This cave is also the first dated cave in Macedonia, and only the second 40Ar/39Ar dated sulfuric acid cave in Europe. Mariovo, especially the eastern part (where karst is found) is now mostly depopulated area, leaving karst to have no immediate impact on people today, although some agriculture is still present. Nevertheless, projected future dam Galište is covering karst areas along Crna Reka valley, and proper understanding of karst in this area will be important for future management of this artificial reservoir. Also, given the scarce water resources in Mariovo, large springs such as Gugjakovski Izvori are an important resource. Keywords: Mariovo, karst, caves, karst springs 1. INTRODUCTION

Mariovo is a geographical and historical region in the southern part of Republic of Macedonia (Stojmilov, 1984). It is hilly to mountainous area, with a long and complex geomorphological and geological evolution. Most of the area is part of one large morphological unit – Mariovo Basin, while the eastern border is located further to the east along Blašnica River and along mountain ridges in the eastern part of Dren Mountain. Karst areas in Mariovo occupy 16% of the area mostly located in the central and eastern parts. Previous studies on karst terrains in this area have been very scarce, mostly due to the generally harsh, hardly accessible and depopulated terrains. Small notes on the karst in Mariovo are given by Manakovik & Andonovski (1984) as part of the geomorphology of Mariovo. They only address the extension of carbonate rocks, and describe some karst surface features such as karren and dry valleys. Kolčakovski et al. (2004) published first results about cave Provalata (named Gulabinka in the paper), giving morphometric information and noting the presence of gypsum deposits. Although contributing the presence of gypsum to dissolution of the marble by hydrothermal waters enriched with H2S, they consider the cave as fossil ponor cave. Speleological exploration in this area was also carried by cavers, locating and mapping generally caves which were previously known to the local population. In the western part caving clubs SK Zlatovrv from Prilep and Ursus Speleos from Skopje have explored Pešti Cave and caves Melnička Peštera 1 & 2, while SD Peoni from Skopje has explored Provalata Cave and cave Živovska Propast (Propast Provala). In the eastern part, cavers from PSD Orle from Kavadarci have also documented some caves, mostly in the 1960s and 1970s, describing location, general size and also mapping some of them.


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During the last couple of years detailed karst studies were carried out in the area as part of a research on the karst evolution in the lower part of Crna Reka river basin, taking mainly speleogenetic approach to understand karst evolution, considering the scarce karst surface features. Some of the results were already published by Temovski (2013) and Temovski et al. (2013). This paper aims to given an overview of the general characteristics of karst and caves in Mariovo, and stress the importance of karst features.

Figure 1. Map of karst in Mariovo

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

As was noted, due to lack of surface information, the approach used to understand the evolution of the karst is trough the evolution of the caves in the area. This generally includes morphological analyses based on cave maps and field observations, combined with sediment analyses and in some cases dating of cave sediments. Detailed cave maps of known caves, as well as newly found passages and caves were produced by detailed in-scale field mapping in 1:100 scale. Field data (sketches, measurements) were later processed in Therion cave mapping software (Budaj & Mudrak, 2008), to produce cave maps in plan, profile and 3D projection. Distribution and stratigraphy of cave sediments and deposits were described. Samples from characteristic sediments and deposits were collected for X-ray analysis. Alunite and jarosite from Provalata Cave were dated by 40Ar/39Ar method. Also stable isotope


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analyses were carried on calcite crust (δ13C, δ18O) and gypsum deposits (δ34S) from Provalata Cave. Basic physical and chemical analysis of karst waters was done at the Center for Public Health in Prilep. For detailed descriptions of the analytical methods see Temovski et al. (2013). Morphometric analyses on karst surface were done on Aster GDEM data, version 2 (Meyer et al., 2012) using Spatial Analyst tool in ESRI ArcGIS 10.1. 3. KARST EXTENSION

Karst rocks in Mariovo occupy 16% of the total area (Tab.1), which is more than the 12% area that karst rocks cover in Republic of Macedonia (Temovski, 2012. They are located on both sides of the border between the Pelagonian Massif and the Vardar Zone, two major tectonic units in Macedonia, and are generally distributed in two stripes with NNW-SSE direction, one along the eastern edge of the Pelagonian Massif, and the other in the western part of the Vardar Zone. Table 1. Extension of karst rock outcrops in Mariovo (Geological data after Dumurdžanov et al., 1976)

Age Rock type Area (km2) % of total karst area

Precambrian Dolomitic marble 37.6 22.3 Precambrian Calcitic marble 2.1 1.2 Cambrian Calcitic marble 7.3 4.4 Triassic Marbly limestone and dolomite 71.3 42.4 Cretaceous (Turonian) Limestone 0.3 0.2 Cretaceous (Senonian) Limestone 32.6 19.4 Quaternary (Pleistocene) Travertine + carbonate conglomerates 16.9 10.1

TOTAL AREA of karst rocks 168.2 100.0

MARIOVO area (km2) 1053.4 Karst rocks in MARIOVO (%) 16.0

Karst rocks include Precambrian dolomitic and calcitic marbles; Cambrian calcitic marbles; Triassic marbly limestones and dolomites; Cretaceous (Turonian and Senonian) limestones; and Pleistocene travertines (Dumurdžanov et al., 1976). Triassic limestones and dolomites have the largest surface extension (42.4%), located in the eastern part on Dren, Kozjak and Kožuf mountains, deeply incised by the valleys of Crna Reka and Blašnica River with its tributaries. Precambrian dolomitic marbles are the second largest karst rock outcrop (22.3%), located in a continuous stripe along the eastern edge of the Pelagonian Massif. To the east they are covered by Precambrian calcitic marbles, then Cambrian calcitic marbles, and are separated from the overlying large Senonian limestone series (19.4%) with clastic rocks (also Senonian). This thick carbonate section (Precambrian, Cambrian and Senonian), generally dipping to the ENE which has some impermeable layers (Cambrian schists; Senonian sandstones, shales and conglomerates) continues further to the south in Greece and to the north in the neighbor Raec Basin. The youngest karst rocks are Pleistocene travertine deposits (10.1%), part of Mariovo Basin deposits (Mariovo Formation; Dumurdžanov et al., 2003, 2004). They are mostly located as a large outcrop between Manastir and Bešište villages, but travertine deposits can also be found along Crna Reka valley between Vrpsko and Gugjakovo villages. The travertine deposits are mostly composed of tufaceous limestones and tufa, at places overlying carbonate breccia-conglomerates composed of marble and limestone fragments. Also small outcrops of Turonian limestones are found as lenses in the clastic Turonian series on Kožuf Mountain.


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The real extension of karst rocks in the area is larger than the surface extension, with some areas buried by pyroclastic deposits from Kožuf/Kozjak volcanism, and others also covered by older sediments (ex. Turonian clastic deposits overthrusted onto Senonian limestones). 4. KARST SURFACE

Karst terrains in Mariovo have mainly fluviokarst surface morphology, with deep allogenic through valleys, steep dry valleys on valley sides and lack of dolines or bigger karst depressions as a general characteristic. Ford & Williams (2007) indicate three main factors which prevent doline development: 1) very high vertical conductivity through-out the vadose zone; 2) spatially uniform and dense vertical permeability; and steep (>20°) hillsides. The lack of doline development in Mariovo is a result of a combination of these factors. Morphometric analysis of terrain slope on karst terrains gave average slope value of 22.8°, with most of the small slopes (<20°) and also flat areas (<5°) connected to the Manastir-Bešište travertine Plateau (in the lower elevations) or mountain ridges (in the higher elevations). Most of the karst areas have slopes higher than 20°, characteristic for the valley sides (Fig.3).

Figure 2. Karst surface on low slope terrains: A – View to the north of Trite Stragi-Četiri Buki mountain ridge; B

– view to the south of the same ridge on A; C – view to the south of Gola Skrka – Cucul mountain ridge; D – view to Manastir – Bešište Plateau from Pantelejmon. Photos by M. Temovski

While on valley sides steep slopes would prevent development of dolines, on the mountain ridges which have much smaller slope, dolines should develop. Nevertheless this is not the case in Mariovo karst, with dolines generally absent even on larger flat areas. The reason why dolines are not developing here may be the high conductivity in the epikarst due to thick, well developed vadose zone as a result of a long period of vadose development due to the incision of river valleys. In the evolution of the valleys in Mariovo there were two phases of incision: pre-Pliocene incision of valleys (which were partly of completely filled with sediments during Pliocene) and Quaternary incision after the draining of Mariovo Lake. Even if the Pliocene


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deposition filled the lower part of Crna Reka valley and some of the tributaries, the mountain ridges were not covered by sediments, and maintained continuous vadose development.

Figure 3. Distribution of slopes in karst terrains

In the large travertine deposits on Manastir-Bešište Plateau, which have the largest flat areas, as small slopes were present since the exposure of the rocks after the draining of the Mariovo Lake (primary - depositional low slopes), development of dolines would be expected. Nevertheless this is not the case, with only (spatially) large and very shallow, hardly detectable, depressions developed on them. Although slopes are favorable for doline development, the reason for the lack of doline development may be the high primary porosity of the travertines. This created high vertical conductivity in the vadose zone (after the incision of Bututica and Crna Reka) preventing development of depressions in the epikarst water table, and with that preventing focused flow and dissolution necessary for development of dolines. 5. CAVES

In Mariovo karst 18 caves have been documented (Fig.1; Tab.2), with the longest (Melnička Peštera 1) having more than 600m of explored passages, developed in Pleistocene carbonate conglomerates, and more than half of the caves being longer than 100m. The deepest cave is Živovska Propast (-115m), a complex system of shafts developed along three sets of fractures. From the studied caves, both hypogenic and epigenic speleogenesis were identified. Hypogenic speleogenesis was documented in three areas: Melnica (Buturica River), Podot (Crna Reka) and Kožuf karst areas. Caves were developed by dissolution of carbonate rocks due to cooling effect of rising thermal waters (Dublyansky, 2000). Deeply circulating meteoric waters were heated as a result of increased geothermal gradient likely connected to Kožuf-Kozjak volcanism. This hydrothermal hypogenic speleogenesis, due to lithological or


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geochemical factors, locally is accompanied with specific processes such as ghost-rock weathering (Quinif, 1999) in the Precambrian dolomitic marbles of Melnica and Podot localities, as well as Triassic dolomites in Allchar ore deposit (Kožuf), and sulfuric acid speleogenesis (Egemeier, 1981; Palmer, 2013) as a second phase in Provalata Cave, Melnica. Table 2. Caves in Mariovo karst

No. Name Synonym Length Depth Rock age Rock type

1 Melnička Peštera 1 600+ +17 Pleistocene Carbonate conglomerates

2 Živovska Propast Propast Provala

-115 Senonian Limestone

3 Provalata Gulabinka 230 -24 Cambrian Marble

4 Vodna Peš 226+ -25 Triassic Marbly limestone

5 Pešti 202 -38 Senonian Limestone

6 Karši Podot

199 +12 Precambrian; Pleistocene

dolomitic marble; alluvium, tufaceous limestone

7 Pešterski Kamen Trlo 173+ +63 Triassic Marbly limestone

8 Gališka Peštera 120 -20 Triassic Marbly limestone

9 Vodena Peštera 106 -3 Triassic Marbly limestone

10 Podot 2 P14 103+ -18 Pleistocene Tufaceous limestone

11 Melnička Peštera 2 97 -8 Pleistocene Carbonate conglomerates

12 Podot 1 P13 64 -14 Pleistocene Tufaceous limestone

13 Marina Dupka 26 -11 Senonian Limestone

14 Boševa Peštera 19 Triassic Marbly limestone

15 Dupkite 1 14 Senonian Limestone

16 Stankova Peštera 11 Triassic Marbly limestone

17 Radina Dupka 8 -5 Senonian Limestone

18 Dupkite 2 4 Senonian Limestone

Provalata Cave is a 230m long, 24m deep cave, located in the superimposed valley of Buturica River in Melnica area. The cave has a ramiform passage pattern, with cupolas and solution pockets as most common morphological features. Based on characteristics and distribution of morphology and deposits, two distinct speleogenetic phases were identified in the cave (Temovski et al., 2013): the first by thermal CO2 rich waters; the second by sulfuric acid dissolution; separated by complete infilling of cave passages with pyroclastic-derived clays. In the first phase (Pliocene-Early Pleistocene?) phreatic morphologies (passages, cupolas) were formed by dissolution of marbles due to cooling of rising thermal carbonated waters; later covered with thick calcite crust after shift to shallower phreatic environment. These passages were then completely filled with clay deposits originating from the pyroclastic sediments of Mariovo Formation (Early Pleistocene). Incision of Buturica River after draining of Mariovo Lake lowered the water table and allowed removal of clay sediments. Introduction of H2S in the thermal waters (likely connected to the nearby coal basin) started the second (sulfuric acid) speleogenetic phase, with rapid dissolution of calcite crust and marble host rock due to condensation corrosion by sulfuric vapors and producing replacement gypsum deposits. At contact with clay deposits, sulfuric acid produced alunite, jarosite and natroalunite, which were dated with 40Ar/39Ar method to 1.6 Ma (alunite) and 1.46 Ma (jarosite). This allowed to fix the timing of the draining of Mariovo Lake, sometime between 1.8 Ma (last layers of tephra found in the travertine layers deposited in lacustrine environment


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as end part of Mariovo formation; and volcanic activity in Kozjak Mt. dated to 4.0 ± 0.2 to 1.8 ± 0.1 Ma, Kolios et al., 1999), and 1.6 Ma (maximum age of cave alunite formed after draining of Mariovo Lake and incision of Buturica River).

Figure 3. Speleogenetic phases in Provalata Cave (modified after Temovski et al., 2013)

Karši Podot Cave is 200m long horizontal cave, located in Karši Podot terrace (Podot locality in Crna Reka valley), developed in Precambrian dolomitic marbles and Pleistocene alluvial and travertine deposits. Its development is connected to ghost-rock weathering in the dolomitic marbles by slowly rising thermal waters, with backflooding of Crna Reka providing the necessary high energy waters removing the dolomitic sand alterite, with some redeposition of dolomitic sand with silicate sands and clays also inside the cave (Temovski, 2013). Melnička Peštera 1 is more than 600m long horizontal cave developed in carbonate conglomerates in Pešta Hill, Melnica. It has a branchwork plan pattern, with irregular passage outlines typical of a high porosity host rocks. Its widespread small scale morphology of cupolas and pockets, as wall as calcite (and aragonite) crust covering such morphologies in the upper parts of the cave and having overprinted secondary pockets, combined with the thermal karstification documented in the nearby Gumnište locality, as well as Provalata Cave, suggest possible origin due to hydrothermal speleogenesis accompanied with condensation corrosion. Hydrothermal speleogenesis is documented also in Kožuf area, with two thermal springs discharging at the contact of carbonate rocks with impermeable schist rocks. In the Allchar ore deposit, hydrothermal speleogenesis has played important role in creating porosity in the dolomite and limestone rocks which was later used as host for the deposition of ore minerals. In dolomite rocks this was accompanied with ghost-rock weathering (“sanding decalcification” as described by Percival & Radtke, 1994). Most of the karst terrains in the studied area have “normal” epigenic cave development, receiving allogenic or autogenic recharge from the adjacent surface. Epigenic speleogenesis in Mariovo karst is connected mostly to lowering of base level (per descensum speleogenesis)


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due to incision of Crna Reka and its tributaries in Pleistocene, following the draining of Mariovo Lake; with epigenic caves also developed due to rise of base level (per ascensum speleogenesis) connected to periods of river aggradation in Pleistocene and/or Pliocene filling of paleo-valleys.

Figure 6. Maps of some of the largest caves in Mariovo (SK Zlatovrv, 2011, 2013; SD Peoni, 2005)

Some examples include the cave levels in Podot 1 and 2 caves in the Podot terrace, located opposite of Karši Podot Cave in travertine deposits, developed due to base level control by the position of Crna Reka. They indicate the former position of the large springs Gugjakovski Izvori, located now at the contact with alluvial deposits in the riverbed of Crna Reka. Mixing of cold waters with the thermal waters may have also contributed to their development. Pešti Cave is an old cave, located high in the Crna Reka valley, with vadose morphology and paragenetic development due to clay deposition, covered by thick flowstone and dripstone speleothems. Vodna Peš is a fossil outlet (spring) cave located high in Crna Reka valley, with rising phreatic passages and widespread paragenetic morphology, with later vadose development. Its development is connected to base level rise due to aggradation in Crna Reka valley. Considering their (Vodna Peš, Pešti) position high in the valley, their development is likely connected to the Pliocene filling of the paleo Crna Reka valley. Živovska Propast is an interesting example of the continuous vadose development in the higher karst areas which were not covered by Pliocene or Pleistocene deposits. It is a complex system of shafts with total depth of -115m, developed along three sets of fractures with: NNW-SSE, N-S, and WSW-ENE direction.


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6. IMPORTANCE

Mariovo karst although it is located in a depopulated, not easily accessible, hilly to mountainous area, it still represents a significant part of the area, having a great scientific importance, as well as representing a valuable natural heritage and yielding important water resources. Both hypogenic and epigenic karst features have great scientific importance. The close proximity of Provalata Cave to Mariovo coal deposits, which might be the potential source of H2S for the second (sulfuric acid) speleogenetic phase registered in the cave, presents an opportunity for further studies which might contribute to better understanding of the sulfuric acid speleogenesis and the possible various hypogenic speleogenetic environments that can occur. Also, the ghost-rock weathering process identified in the Precambrian dolomitic marbles, as well as in the Triassic dolomitic, here connected to hydrothermal speleogenesis, contributes further to the understanding of the ghost-rock weathering and phantom cave development in hypogenic settings. Especially the dolomitic marbles with the Karši Podot Cave present a possibility for more detail studies of this process and its importance on increasing porosity on otherwise less karstifiable rocks. Caves in the area can also be used for paleogeographic reconstructions of the Macedonian Neogene-Quaternary lake system, as was the case with the evolution of Provalata Cave, used to determine the possible timing of the draining of Mariovo Lake. Specific cave minerals such as alunite, jarosite, natroalunite documented in Provalata cave are first such minerals identified from Macedonian caves. Alunite and jarosite were also used for 40Ar/39Ar dating, the first dating of a cave in Republic of Macedonia, and the second 40Ar/39Ar dating of sulfuric cave in Europe, after Kraushöhle in Austria (Temovski et al., 2013). Together with the cave fauna, which is still not studied, they represent an important natural heritage. Considering that lack of water resources is one of Mariovo’s major problems, and most of the water resources in the area are connected to karst terrains, karst springs in Mariovo such as Gugjakovski Izvori, the largest spring along the river course of Crna Reka, represent a major water resource. Therefore further studies, protection and proper management of karst areas in Mariovo is necessary, especially connected to future revitalizations of the area, and construction of the artificial reservoir Galište. 7. CONCLUSIONS

Karst terrains represent 16% of the total surface area in Mariovo, and are characterized with mostly fluviokarst surface features, with developed karst underground. The fluviokarst surface is generally characterized with deep allogenic through valleys (Crna Reka, Blašnica, Buturica), steep dry valleys on valley sides and lack of dolines or bigger karst depressions. Karst evolution in the area has been strongly influenced by the incision of river valleys Pre-Pliocene, and in Pleistocene, while during the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene the lower areas were covered by lacustrine and fluvial deposits, as well as pyroclastic deposits connected to the Kozjak-Kožuf volcanism to the south. Epigenic cave development has been connected with the changes of base level due to incision or aggradation in the river valleys and Mariovo basin. Hypogenic caves were formed by hydrothermal speleogenesis due to cooling effect of rising deeply circulating meteoric waters, heated due to increased geothermal gradient likely connected to Kožuf-Kozjak volcanism. At places, due to lithological or geochemical factors,


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hydrothermal hypogenic speleogenesis is accompanied with specific processes, such as ghost-rock weathering in the Precambrian dolomitic marbles of Melnica and Podot localities, as well as Triassic dolomites in Allchar ore deposit (Kožuf), and sulfuric acid speleogenesis in Provalata Cave, Melnica. Mariovo karst has great scientific importance due to the specific processes, such as sulfuric acid speleogenesis and ghost-rock weathering, as well as possibilities to study the paleogeography of the Macedonian Neogene-Quaternary lake system, and the per-ascensum model of speleogenesis connected to the aggradations in river valleys. Specific minerals, such as alunite, jarosite, natroalunite in Provalata Cave, which is the first dated cave in Republic of Macedonia, as well as cave fauna yet to be studied, are a significant natural heritage, while karst waters represent an important water resource in an area with a general lack of water resources. REFERENCES 1. BUDAJ M., MUDRAK S. (2008): Therion – Digital Cave Maps. Proceedings of the IV European

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Karst in Mariovo – extension, characteristics and importance

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