Journalists in the age of ICTs: Work demands and

Educational needs

Abstract: This paper discusses in detail the issue of journalists’ usage of Information

Communication Technologies (ICTs). More precisely it proposes a model describing the

information space available for journalists. It also describes thoroughly the necessary

ICT skills that a journalist must posse in order to cope successfully with the work

demands. A survey concerning ICT usage by professional journalists is also presented.

The results of the survey indicate a lack of knowledge in certain areas of ICTs. The

reasons behind this lack of ICT skills are discussed and a solution to this problem is

proposed that is based on continuous training programs that can foster the adoption of

novel ICT tools and services by professional journalists.

Keywords: Journalists, Information Communication Technologies, Continues Education

Introduction

In the last thirty years we have witnessed a tremendous growth in Information and

Communication Technologies (ICTs). These technological developments have affected

almost all aspects of human activities. The journalism profession has been transformed

considerably. The digitalization of the work process as well as the introduction of the

internet along with its services has had a major influence in the journalism profession1,2

.

In now days the journalist is expected to have the ability to exploit many tools and

services in order to be informed about the current events. He must also be capable to use

a variety of tools and platforms in order to prepare and deliver news. The 24 cycle of

producing news does not exist anymore. News stories are produced 24 hours per day and

they are made available at once in many alternative publishing channels3,4

. They are also

updated continuously in order to include all the latest developments5.

Journalism has always considered to be close related with technology. Radio, television

and, in the last decade of the 20th

century, ICTs have expanded their influence and also

created new opportunities in receiving and consuming, but also in creating and

disseminating news6. ICTs are the latest challenge which journalists have to face.

The journalist today is expected to be able to use many different tools and services which

are stand alone software packages (for example word processing, spreadsheet,

presentation, etc) or internet services (for example, e-mail, social networks, etc). Also in

many cases due to the lack of dedicated ICT experts in the media companies, journalists

are expected to cope with more complicated ICT tasks, relate to image processing, video

editing, desktop publishing (QuarkXpress, Indesing, etc), and web publishing with the

help of content management systems (Wordpress, Joomla!, Drupal, or other commercial

software packages)6. All the above work demands mean that the journalist must possess a

variety of ICT skills and he must also be able to adapt to new ICT requirements.

This paper examines the issue of journalists’ ICT usage. In the following section we

propose a model for the information space available for journalists. Then we discuss the

necessary ICT skills that journalists should have in order to cope with the needs of their

profession. Next we present the findings of a study concerning ICT skills that greek

professional journalists possess. More precisely we evaluate the existing ICT knowledge

as well as the possible lack of skills in certain areas and we attempt to identify the

parameters that influence them. Discussion of the findings and solution to the educational

needs of the journalists are included in the next section. Conclusions and future extension

of this work are presented in the penultimate section.

Modelling the information space for journalists

Obtaining news information in order to create news items can be defined as a structured

process that extends for a certain time period7. The news process is consisted of two

fundamental stages: news discovery and news reporting8. Reich

9 suggested that news

discovery stage is preceded by another stage, namely news gathering. During the

gathering stage the journalist obtains further data from various sources and cross-checks

information.

In all stages of creating news the journalist employs ICT tools. These tools include

software applications, and internet tools and services that can be described as the

information space for journalists. If we attempt to model the information space of the

journalists we can propose four stages, namely: Information Acquisition, Information

Validation, Information Processing, and Information Presentation and Dissemination. The

above model is represented in figure 1. Next we briefly discuss the processes that are

involved in each stage.

Figure 1: Modelling information space for journalists.

Information Acquisition: This stage involves the discovery of information in raw form10

.

As far as ICT tools and services are concerned the journalist employs various internet

services and tools, such as WWW, e-mail, search engines, RSS feeds, etc. The journalist

interacts with various internet sources as well as people that are involved or can express

opinions about the news subject.

Information Validation: In this stage the journalist cross-checks his original data and

obtains further data from sources in order to enrich the available information. During this

process he also employs all the tools and services mentioned in the previous stage.

Information Processing: In this stage the news story begins to shape up to its final form.

If it is required, data visualization techniques are employed in order for data that is

meaning information to be abstracted in some schematic form, including attributes or

variables for the units of information11

. In most cases media organizations relay on

experienced web developers to produce data visualizations12

. But in some cases

journalists may employ, on their own, special software application to prepare the

appropriate data visualization of the news. This task can also be accomplished more

easily by using free cloud computing applications (like Google Docs)13

. Also word-

processing applications are employed in order to write the news story.

Information Presentation and Dissemination: In this stage a decision must be taken

concerning the publishing channels that will be used in order to present and disseminate

the news article. During the last twenty years the fast convergence of ICTs has produced

various channels that can deliver news. This has resulted in a tendency for the larger

media organizations and companies to have several publishing channels at their

disposal14,15,16

. That resulted in the rapid expansion of news output from many

broadcasters covering a wide range of media platforms17

. Thus the special characteristic

of each publishing channels must be taken into account in the presentation of the news.

Of course some publishing channels, for example WWW can incorporate various forms

of information, like text, image, sound, video, flash animation etc. Whereas others, like

RSS or Twitter, are limited to a single form of information (text)18

.

Journalist's ICT skills

Based on the model presented in the previous section we can describe in detail the

necessary ICT skills that a journalist must possess in order to cope successfully with the

challenges in his everyday work.

Journalists today often seek information on the Web and by e-mail. Also writing news

articles, constructing diagrams via spreadsheet applications, communication via e-mail,

visualizing data with the help of various applications, publishing material on the WWW

are examples of skills that journalists need to have19

. And most important all the previous

mentioned skills must be sustained via adopting new tools, services and applications as

they become available.

Journalist's ICT skills can be grouped into the following categories:

a) Basic skills: the journalist has the ability to work efficiently with office automation

suites (that include word processing, spreadsheet, presentation, database), and with the

basic internet services (WWW, e-mail). These skills are considered to be necessary for

every office worker.

The journalist is expected to be able to perform basic functions in a spreadsheet and have

at least a general understanding of how journalists use data to support news stories. He

must also be able to use relational database programs to cross-check those data files to

find various information20

. As far as word processing is concerned, basic typing and

formatting skills is believed to be standard for every office employee.

b) Web publishing skills: in this case basic knowledge of HTML is considered to be

prerequisite as well as the ability to use Content Management Systems (WordPress,

Drupal, Joomla!, etc). A Content Management System (CMS) is a computer program

running on a web server that allows publishing, editing and modifying content on a web

site. More precisely the journalist must have an understanding of the basic concepts of

HTML and CSS (Cascading Styling Sheet)21

. Such knowledge can be proven extremely

helpful when working with modern CMSs. He ought to be familiar in working in the

most popular CMSs, since the majority of today’s media companies incorporate one of

them in order to facilitate their web presence.

c) Web 2.0 skills: these tools include blogs (accessing and owning), RSS, wikis, social

bookmarking, social networking (Facebook, Google+, Twitter)22

. The journalist must

possess the skills to update the media’s profile on social networks, and also to interact

with the audience through various Web 2.0 tools and services, like blogs and wikis. He

must also be able to use Web 2.0 tools like RSS, and social bookmarking, in order to stay

informed about news that relate to his work.

d) Webcasting skills: they include the ability to create and publish podcasts and

videocasts. The journalist must be able to record the audio of an interview, perform

simple editing on the audio recording of that interview and upload it to the WWW, in

order for the audience to have access to the podcast23,24

. Podcasts are considered to be an

effective way to use audio to tell news stories. They are easy to create and their size is

relatively small in comparison to other multimedia files (for example video).

Videocasts on the other hand are more powerful tools to convey news. Of course they are

more difficult to create and their size is quite large. But there is always the option of

reducing their quality in order to decrease the file size. Thus the journalist must be

capable to make at least a short video story even if it’s shot with a FlipCam or a cellphone

camera. He must have the skills of using entry-level non-linear video editing software, to

move scenes around, in order to create a basic news video25,26

.

Research questions

In the previous sections we have described and discussed the ICT skills that a journalist

must possess. The question that naturally arises is whether professional journalists do

have the previously described ICT skills. Thus in order to thoroughly investigate this

matter certain research question must be investigated. More precisely:

RQ1: How technology-literate are professional journalists?

RQ2: Which are the ICT skills that professional journalists lack?

RQ3: Which parameters relate to the level of ICT skills of professional journalists?

Method

Data in this study came from a survey which evaluated, among other things, computer

knowledge of professional journalists. The survey was conducted in a four month period

(May -July 2011) using questionnaires. A random sample of 300 journalists from the

Journalists' Union of Macedonia-Thrace (the second biggest union in Greece) database

consisting approximately of 700 members, were selected. 112 journalists responded

(37.3% response rate). The questionnaires were both handed out in person and posted on

a website created for that cause. Statistical analysis of the data collected using

Cronbach’salpha coefficient, demonstrated high reliability coefficient (0,928). It is worth

noting that part of this survey was published in early 201227

.

Results

Next we present the results from the survey among professional journalists. 26,8 percent

of the journalists use desktop PC and laptop, 20,5 percent employ desktop PC, laptop and

smartphone, 16,1 percent only laptop and 13,4 percent desktop PC, laptop, and mobile

phone. As far as the time they spend online, more than half of the sample claim that they

work on the internet for more than 5 hours, 27,7 percent for 3-5 hours and 18,8 percent 1-

3 hours every day. 30,4 percent of the journalists believe that they have very good

knowledge as far as PC and internet usage is concerned, 49,1 percent good, 17 percent

average and only 0,9 percent inadequate knowledge.

RQ1: It is obvious that greek journalists employ quite extensively ICTs and stay for

considerable time period online every day. The above finding suggests a certain

(presumably medium-high) level of ICT skills. As far as the ICT level of knowledge they

possess, 79,5 percent of the sample believe that they have very good or good ICT skills.

Next we examine more thoroughly the actual level of ICT skills the greek journalists

possess.

One part of the survey included questions through which journalists were asked to

determine their knowledge level regarding specific internet services, tools and software.

Almost all participants (99,1 percent of the sample) believe that they have good or very

good knowledge on Windows operating system, 94,4 percent believe the same for

Microsoft Word, 66,3 percent for Microsoft Excel spreadsheet application. Other more

specialized applications (like QuarkXpress, Photoshop, Audition) received lower

percentages (26-33%) for good or very good knowledge. As far as Internet services and

tools are concerned, the majority (99%) of the journalists claim they know to use good or

very good WWW and e-mail. Lower percentages (50-80%) of good or very good

knowledge reported journalists for chat, social media, blogging, and Twitter. Overall,

greek journalists prove more acquainted with internet related tools and social networks in

comparison to various types of software, yet the general impression of the results points

to significant knowledge gaps.

RQ2: The results of the survey indicated that the ability to use Windows and text writing

software is substantially high. But if we move to more specialized application the skills

reported by the journalists are quite low. Basic internet services and tools such as web

navigation and email also demonstrate high familiarity levels. Also greek journalists are

pretty acquainted with social networks and blogs, but the findings about podcasts and

Twitter demonstrate great insufficiency.

Table 1: Spearman's rho rank -order correlation coefficient for ICT usage, time spend

online and possession of ICT skills .

gender Age Education

Place of work

Years of profession

ICT usage Pearson Correlation

.020 -.086 -.045 .191* -.138

Sig. (2-tailed) .836 .377 .643 .047 .165

N 108 108 109 108 103

Time spend online

Pearson Correlation

-.045 -.218* -.036 -.006 -.147

Sig. (2-tailed) .640 .023 .713 .949 .136

N 109 109 110 109 104

Possession of ICT skills

Pearson Correlation

-.040 .579** -.273

** -.051 .513

**

Sig. (2-tailed) .683 .000 .004 .606 .000

N 106 106 107 106 101

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

RQ3: Which parameters relate to the level of ICT skills of professional journalists?

In order to answer RQ3 we examined correlations between various variables. Based on

the findings we can conclude that various parameters that relate to ICT skills, namely ICT

usage, time spend online, possession of ICT skills correlate with age, education level,

place of work and years of profession (see tables 1, 2, and 3). More precisely place of

work appears to be a significant factor in ICT usage (p=.191, p<.05). Also it appears to be

a correlation between time spend online and age (p=.218, p<.05). Finally the possession

of ICT skills is strong related with age (p=.579, p<.01), education (p=-.273, p<.01), and

years of profession (p=.513, p<.01). On the other hand gender does not appear to be a

significant parameter in ICT usage.

Table 2: Spearman's rho rank -order correlation coefficient for skills on various software

packages .

Gender age education

Place of work

Years in the profession

Windows skills

Pearson Correlation .051 .352** -.132 -.109 .345**

Sig. (2-tailed) .601 .000 .173 .263 .000

N 108 108 109 108 103

Word skills Pearson Correlation -.017 .302** -.108 .046 .197*

Sig. (2-tailed) .863 .002 .268 .639 .048

N 106 106 107 106 101

Excel skills Pearson Correlation .088 .299** -.275** .018 .334**

Sig. (2-tailed) .379 .002 .005 .860 .001

N 103 103 103 102 97

Quark Xpress skills

Pearson Correlation .069 .303** -.289** -.125 .342**

Sig. (2-tailed) .504 .003 .004 .227 .001

N 97 97 97 95 91

Photoshop skills

Pearson Correlation .177 .212* -.123 .097 .180

Sig. (2-tailed) .085 .038 .234 .352 .090

N 96 96 96 94 90

Audition skills Pearson Correlation .183 .300** -.174 .048 .199

Sig. (2-tailed) .074 .003 .090 .649 .060

N 96 96 96 94 90

CMS skills Pearson Correlation .012 .151 -.265** .168 .012

Sig. (2-tailed) .905 .139 .008 .102 .907

N 98 98 98 96 92

Premier skills Pearson Correlation .149 .340** -.105 .042 .214

Sig. (2-tailed) .188 .002 .355 .714 .061

N 80 80 80 78 77

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The above results are also confirmed by studying skills for various software packages for

which data were collected as well during the survey. Table 2 includes Spearman’s rho

rank-order correlation coefficient for various software packages (Windows, Word, Excel,

QuarkXpress, Photoshop, etc.). Specifically age appears to be a significant factor in

Windows, Word, Excel, QuarkXpress, Photoshop, Audition and Premier skills. On the

other hand education appears to correlate with Excel, QuarkXpress, and CMS skills.

Finally years in the profession correlates only with Windows, Word, Excel and

QuarkXpress skills.

Table 3: Spearman's rho rank -order correlation coefficient for skills on various internet

tools and services.

Gender age education

Place of work

Years in the profession

WWW Pearson Correlation -,141 ,372** -,138 -,153 ,275**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,154 ,000 ,163 ,126 ,006

N 103 103 104 102 98

e-mail Pearson Correlation -,104 ,395** -,148 -,135 ,359**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,281 ,000 ,124 ,161 ,000

N 109 109 110 109 104

Chat Pearson Correlation -,120 ,354** -,318** -,086 ,363**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,236 ,000 ,001 ,399 ,000

N 99 99 99 98 94

Social Media Pearson Correlation -,211* ,434** -,323** -,063 ,309**

Sig. (2-tailed) ,030 ,000 ,001 ,523 ,002

N 105 105 106 105 100

Blogs Pearson Correlation -,143 ,301** -,293** -,106 ,243*

Sig. (2-tailed) ,143 ,002 ,002 ,275 ,014

N 107 107 108 107 102

Twitter Pearson Correlation -,016 ,273** -,305** ,031 ,191

Sig. (2-tailed) ,875 ,006 ,002 ,763 ,064

N 101 101 101 100 95

Podcasting Pearson Correlation ,115 ,173 -,267** -,079 ,147

Sig. (2-tailed) ,258 ,089 ,008 ,439 ,160

N 98 98 98 97 93

YouTube Pearson Correlation -,032 ,223* -,195 -,130 ,249*

Sig. (2-tailed) ,750 ,026 ,051 ,197 ,015

N 100 100 101 100 95

Web radio Pearson Correlation -,098 ,176 -,197* -,281** ,229*

Sig. (2-tailed) ,326 ,076 ,046 ,004 ,023

N 103 103 103 102 98

WebTV Pearson Correlation -,131 ,190 -,241* -,259** ,246*

Sig. (2-tailed) ,191 ,055 ,015 ,009 ,016

N 102 102 102 101 96

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Finally in table 3 we study the skills on various internet tools and services (WWW, e-

mail, chat, social media, blogs, Twitter, podcasting, Youtube, Web radio, Web TV). Age

education and years in profession appear to be significant factors for the majority of the

internet tools and services under study. Place of work is found to be related only with

web radio and web TV skills, and gender seems to be significant only in the case of social

media skills.

The above correlations are in agreement with Rogers’ diffusion of innovation theory28,29

.

According to this theory three sets of variables, technology ownership, adopters’

characteristics, and innovation attributes, have enduring impacts on the adoption of new

technologies30

.

Discussion

The results of the survey indicate that greek journalists use extensively ICT tools and

they possess the basic ICT skills needed for their profession. But they seem to fall behind

when it comes to more advance ICT skills, concerning sound and video editing and web

and desktop publishing. Similar is the situation as far as internet tools and services are

concerned. The majority of the journalists are acquainted with basic internet services

(WWW, e-mail) but the percentages of use deteriorate when we move to blogs, Twitter

and other social networks. This lack of ICT skills can have a significant impact on their

profession, since it will be difficult to adapt to the continuously changing working

environment. In this context it is worth noting the crucial role that education can play in

the acquisition of ICT skills. The problem is that although Journalism Departments

educate future journalists, by the time they become professional journalists things in ICTs

are expected to have changed considerably. Few years developments of ICTs usually

include dramatic changes in services and tools. Thus certain actions must be taken in

order to guarantee the continuous update of their ICTs skills. The ongoing development

of new tools and services related to journalism is forcing the journalists to constantly

refresh and update their knowledge on ICTs. Thus the journalists’ education must be

continuous and must be focused on learning to learn and adapting to new tools and

platforms. Based on the above Journalism Departments must change their approach in

teaching ICTs. There is no need to teach the use of specific tools when it is almost

inevitable that by the time that the future journalists will have to use these tools in their

profession, these tools will have been replaced with newer versions with added or altered

features, or tools from other vendors with new interfaces.

ICTs have also changed how educators teach the future journalists. The curriculums of

Journalism Departments include a bulk of courses that include the use of various ICTs31

.

But despite all these changes due to the adoption of ICTs, some researchers have

criticized the field as being slow to respond to respond to changes in the technology32

.

One other aspect it is worth noting is the lack (in most cases) of connection between

journalism educators and professional journalists9.

Journalism education today in general and especially in the field of ICTs presents a

number of possibilities that include video, audio, animations, and generally all the tools

and services offered by ICTs. It is worth noting the fact that all the above possibilities of

learning do not apply only in the case of university education, but can be included in long

life education which is considered to be vital in the continuous update of journalists’

skills on ICTs. We must not forget that there is a need for continues education of

journalists that are employed in a very demanding work process that leaves them with

very limited spare time. Also based on the study findings, age and education is the

parameters that relate with the possession of IST skills. Thus older journalists and

journalists that do not have a higher education degree will be most benefit by life long

training programs.

The ideal candidate platform for the described educational challenge is the Virtual

Learning Environment (VLE). A VLE can be described as a learning environments

mediated by computers and digital technologies33

. In close conjunction with VLE, is the

electronic learning portfolio that is a collection of electronic material, which is

considered to be very helpful in the journalist’s learning process. VLE can be facilitated

in forms of distance education thus giving the opportunity to journalists who work in

rural and suburban areas to acquire ICT skills. It is worth noting that place of work

appears to be a considerable factor only in some occasions in our study (ICT usage, Web

radio, Web TV), nevertheless it cannot be ignored as an insignificant parameter.

What is very interesting is the fact that the bulk of ICT knowledge involves the

acquisition of skills of using various tools and services. Thus experiential learning

appears to be the best method to teach the above skills34

. Experiential learning is the

process of making meaning from direct experience35

. It can be defined as the learning

method where the educator has the role of the organizer and the facilitator of exercises

and projects that allow students to practice skills in a real-world fashion36

.

Experiential learning focuses on the learning process for the individual. Educational

theorist David Kolb claims that in order to gain genuine knowledge from an experience,

certain abilities are required37

: a) the learner must be willing to be actively involved in

the experience; b) the learner must be able to reflect on the experience; c) the learner

must possess and use analytical skills to conceptualize the experience; and d) the learner

must possess decision making and problem solving skills in order to use the new ideas

gained from the experience.

It is obvious that all the above abilities are considered to be a necessity for professional

journalists. The life-long training on ICTs is a program in which journalists are expected

to participate on their own will. The accumulative experience on using various ICTs tools

and services that already is possessed by journalists will help them considerably to cover

the prerequisites as stated by David Kolb38

.

Conclusions

This article discuses the issue of journalism education on ICTs. ICTs play a very

important role in the journalism profession. Thus the journalist is obliged to be up to date

as far as ICT is concerned in order to have a successful professional career. This goal can

be succeeded with the help of experiential learning, since the majority of the required

knowledge involves the acquisition of skills of using tools and services. Since this effort

is designed for journalists that usually have very demanding working schedule, the

logical choice is to employ some kind of distance learning tool. The proposed candidate

is VLE that can be supplemented by the use of Learning Portfolios by the journalist.

Future extension of this work will include the actual implementation of the proposed

educational program. It worth noting that the Media Informatics Lab and the Laboratory

of Electronic Media of the Department of Journalism & MC collaborate with Journalists'

Union of Macedonia and Thrace Daily Newspapers (http://www.esiemth.gr/) in order to

develop a life-long training program for the journalists. A survey that investigated the

needs of the journalists has been already contacted and the results have indicated the

topics that the program will cover39

. It is expected that the program will be implemented

in the beginning of 2013.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Journalists' Union of Macedonia-Thrace for allowing them to

access the member list for completing the survey related to journalists’ ICT skills.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,

authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication

of this article.

Notes

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Information Systems, Athens, Greece, (September 25-27 2009).

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in The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Global Online Journalism, edited by Eugenia

Siapera and Andreas Veglis, Blackwell Publishing (2012):209-230.

5. Andreas Veglis, “Modeling Cross Media Publishing in Radio and TV Stations,”

proceeding of the Second International Conferences on Advances in Multimedia

MMEDIA 2010.

6. Lia Paschalia Spyridou, Maria Matsiola, Andreas Veglis, George Kalliris, Charalampos

Dimoulas, “Journalism in a State of Flux: Changing Journalistic Practices in the Greek

Newsroom”. Accepted for publication in International Communication Gazette (volume

75, no. 1 – scheduled to appear in February 2013).

7. Zvie Reich, “The process Model of News Initiative: Sources lead first, reporters

thereafter,” Journalism Studies (Vol. 7, No 4, 2006): 497-514.

8. John Herbert McManus, Market Driven Journalism. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 1994.

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497-514.

10. Reich, “The process Model of News Initiative: Sources lead first, reporters

thereafter,” 497-514.

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Jul10.pdf (accessed August 6, 2012).

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visualization-basics/ (accessed August 6, 2012).

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