Journalists in the Age of ICTs: Work Demands and Educational Needs
Transcript of Journalists in the Age of ICTs: Work Demands and Educational Needs
Journalists in the age of ICTs: Work demands and
Educational needs
Abstract: This paper discusses in detail the issue of journalists’ usage of Information
Communication Technologies (ICTs). More precisely it proposes a model describing the
information space available for journalists. It also describes thoroughly the necessary
ICT skills that a journalist must posse in order to cope successfully with the work
demands. A survey concerning ICT usage by professional journalists is also presented.
The results of the survey indicate a lack of knowledge in certain areas of ICTs. The
reasons behind this lack of ICT skills are discussed and a solution to this problem is
proposed that is based on continuous training programs that can foster the adoption of
novel ICT tools and services by professional journalists.
Keywords: Journalists, Information Communication Technologies, Continues Education
Introduction
In the last thirty years we have witnessed a tremendous growth in Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs). These technological developments have affected
almost all aspects of human activities. The journalism profession has been transformed
considerably. The digitalization of the work process as well as the introduction of the
internet along with its services has had a major influence in the journalism profession1,2
.
In now days the journalist is expected to have the ability to exploit many tools and
services in order to be informed about the current events. He must also be capable to use
a variety of tools and platforms in order to prepare and deliver news. The 24 cycle of
producing news does not exist anymore. News stories are produced 24 hours per day and
they are made available at once in many alternative publishing channels3,4
. They are also
updated continuously in order to include all the latest developments5.
Journalism has always considered to be close related with technology. Radio, television
and, in the last decade of the 20th
century, ICTs have expanded their influence and also
created new opportunities in receiving and consuming, but also in creating and
disseminating news6. ICTs are the latest challenge which journalists have to face.
The journalist today is expected to be able to use many different tools and services which
are stand alone software packages (for example word processing, spreadsheet,
presentation, etc) or internet services (for example, e-mail, social networks, etc). Also in
many cases due to the lack of dedicated ICT experts in the media companies, journalists
are expected to cope with more complicated ICT tasks, relate to image processing, video
editing, desktop publishing (QuarkXpress, Indesing, etc), and web publishing with the
help of content management systems (Wordpress, Joomla!, Drupal, or other commercial
software packages)6. All the above work demands mean that the journalist must possess a
variety of ICT skills and he must also be able to adapt to new ICT requirements.
This paper examines the issue of journalists’ ICT usage. In the following section we
propose a model for the information space available for journalists. Then we discuss the
necessary ICT skills that journalists should have in order to cope with the needs of their
profession. Next we present the findings of a study concerning ICT skills that greek
professional journalists possess. More precisely we evaluate the existing ICT knowledge
as well as the possible lack of skills in certain areas and we attempt to identify the
parameters that influence them. Discussion of the findings and solution to the educational
needs of the journalists are included in the next section. Conclusions and future extension
of this work are presented in the penultimate section.
Modelling the information space for journalists
Obtaining news information in order to create news items can be defined as a structured
process that extends for a certain time period7. The news process is consisted of two
fundamental stages: news discovery and news reporting8. Reich
9 suggested that news
discovery stage is preceded by another stage, namely news gathering. During the
gathering stage the journalist obtains further data from various sources and cross-checks
information.
In all stages of creating news the journalist employs ICT tools. These tools include
software applications, and internet tools and services that can be described as the
information space for journalists. If we attempt to model the information space of the
journalists we can propose four stages, namely: Information Acquisition, Information
Validation, Information Processing, and Information Presentation and Dissemination. The
above model is represented in figure 1. Next we briefly discuss the processes that are
involved in each stage.
Figure 1: Modelling information space for journalists.
Information Acquisition: This stage involves the discovery of information in raw form10
.
As far as ICT tools and services are concerned the journalist employs various internet
services and tools, such as WWW, e-mail, search engines, RSS feeds, etc. The journalist
interacts with various internet sources as well as people that are involved or can express
opinions about the news subject.
Information Validation: In this stage the journalist cross-checks his original data and
obtains further data from sources in order to enrich the available information. During this
process he also employs all the tools and services mentioned in the previous stage.
Information Processing: In this stage the news story begins to shape up to its final form.
If it is required, data visualization techniques are employed in order for data that is
meaning information to be abstracted in some schematic form, including attributes or
variables for the units of information11
. In most cases media organizations relay on
experienced web developers to produce data visualizations12
. But in some cases
journalists may employ, on their own, special software application to prepare the
appropriate data visualization of the news. This task can also be accomplished more
easily by using free cloud computing applications (like Google Docs)13
. Also word-
processing applications are employed in order to write the news story.
Information Presentation and Dissemination: In this stage a decision must be taken
concerning the publishing channels that will be used in order to present and disseminate
the news article. During the last twenty years the fast convergence of ICTs has produced
various channels that can deliver news. This has resulted in a tendency for the larger
media organizations and companies to have several publishing channels at their
disposal14,15,16
. That resulted in the rapid expansion of news output from many
broadcasters covering a wide range of media platforms17
. Thus the special characteristic
of each publishing channels must be taken into account in the presentation of the news.
Of course some publishing channels, for example WWW can incorporate various forms
of information, like text, image, sound, video, flash animation etc. Whereas others, like
RSS or Twitter, are limited to a single form of information (text)18
.
Journalist's ICT skills
Based on the model presented in the previous section we can describe in detail the
necessary ICT skills that a journalist must possess in order to cope successfully with the
challenges in his everyday work.
Journalists today often seek information on the Web and by e-mail. Also writing news
articles, constructing diagrams via spreadsheet applications, communication via e-mail,
visualizing data with the help of various applications, publishing material on the WWW
are examples of skills that journalists need to have19
. And most important all the previous
mentioned skills must be sustained via adopting new tools, services and applications as
they become available.
Journalist's ICT skills can be grouped into the following categories:
a) Basic skills: the journalist has the ability to work efficiently with office automation
suites (that include word processing, spreadsheet, presentation, database), and with the
basic internet services (WWW, e-mail). These skills are considered to be necessary for
every office worker.
The journalist is expected to be able to perform basic functions in a spreadsheet and have
at least a general understanding of how journalists use data to support news stories. He
must also be able to use relational database programs to cross-check those data files to
find various information20
. As far as word processing is concerned, basic typing and
formatting skills is believed to be standard for every office employee.
b) Web publishing skills: in this case basic knowledge of HTML is considered to be
prerequisite as well as the ability to use Content Management Systems (WordPress,
Drupal, Joomla!, etc). A Content Management System (CMS) is a computer program
running on a web server that allows publishing, editing and modifying content on a web
site. More precisely the journalist must have an understanding of the basic concepts of
HTML and CSS (Cascading Styling Sheet)21
. Such knowledge can be proven extremely
helpful when working with modern CMSs. He ought to be familiar in working in the
most popular CMSs, since the majority of today’s media companies incorporate one of
them in order to facilitate their web presence.
c) Web 2.0 skills: these tools include blogs (accessing and owning), RSS, wikis, social
bookmarking, social networking (Facebook, Google+, Twitter)22
. The journalist must
possess the skills to update the media’s profile on social networks, and also to interact
with the audience through various Web 2.0 tools and services, like blogs and wikis. He
must also be able to use Web 2.0 tools like RSS, and social bookmarking, in order to stay
informed about news that relate to his work.
d) Webcasting skills: they include the ability to create and publish podcasts and
videocasts. The journalist must be able to record the audio of an interview, perform
simple editing on the audio recording of that interview and upload it to the WWW, in
order for the audience to have access to the podcast23,24
. Podcasts are considered to be an
effective way to use audio to tell news stories. They are easy to create and their size is
relatively small in comparison to other multimedia files (for example video).
Videocasts on the other hand are more powerful tools to convey news. Of course they are
more difficult to create and their size is quite large. But there is always the option of
reducing their quality in order to decrease the file size. Thus the journalist must be
capable to make at least a short video story even if it’s shot with a FlipCam or a cellphone
camera. He must have the skills of using entry-level non-linear video editing software, to
move scenes around, in order to create a basic news video25,26
.
Research questions
In the previous sections we have described and discussed the ICT skills that a journalist
must possess. The question that naturally arises is whether professional journalists do
have the previously described ICT skills. Thus in order to thoroughly investigate this
matter certain research question must be investigated. More precisely:
RQ1: How technology-literate are professional journalists?
RQ2: Which are the ICT skills that professional journalists lack?
RQ3: Which parameters relate to the level of ICT skills of professional journalists?
Method
Data in this study came from a survey which evaluated, among other things, computer
knowledge of professional journalists. The survey was conducted in a four month period
(May -July 2011) using questionnaires. A random sample of 300 journalists from the
Journalists' Union of Macedonia-Thrace (the second biggest union in Greece) database
consisting approximately of 700 members, were selected. 112 journalists responded
(37.3% response rate). The questionnaires were both handed out in person and posted on
a website created for that cause. Statistical analysis of the data collected using
Cronbach’salpha coefficient, demonstrated high reliability coefficient (0,928). It is worth
noting that part of this survey was published in early 201227
.
Results
Next we present the results from the survey among professional journalists. 26,8 percent
of the journalists use desktop PC and laptop, 20,5 percent employ desktop PC, laptop and
smartphone, 16,1 percent only laptop and 13,4 percent desktop PC, laptop, and mobile
phone. As far as the time they spend online, more than half of the sample claim that they
work on the internet for more than 5 hours, 27,7 percent for 3-5 hours and 18,8 percent 1-
3 hours every day. 30,4 percent of the journalists believe that they have very good
knowledge as far as PC and internet usage is concerned, 49,1 percent good, 17 percent
average and only 0,9 percent inadequate knowledge.
RQ1: It is obvious that greek journalists employ quite extensively ICTs and stay for
considerable time period online every day. The above finding suggests a certain
(presumably medium-high) level of ICT skills. As far as the ICT level of knowledge they
possess, 79,5 percent of the sample believe that they have very good or good ICT skills.
Next we examine more thoroughly the actual level of ICT skills the greek journalists
possess.
One part of the survey included questions through which journalists were asked to
determine their knowledge level regarding specific internet services, tools and software.
Almost all participants (99,1 percent of the sample) believe that they have good or very
good knowledge on Windows operating system, 94,4 percent believe the same for
Microsoft Word, 66,3 percent for Microsoft Excel spreadsheet application. Other more
specialized applications (like QuarkXpress, Photoshop, Audition) received lower
percentages (26-33%) for good or very good knowledge. As far as Internet services and
tools are concerned, the majority (99%) of the journalists claim they know to use good or
very good WWW and e-mail. Lower percentages (50-80%) of good or very good
knowledge reported journalists for chat, social media, blogging, and Twitter. Overall,
greek journalists prove more acquainted with internet related tools and social networks in
comparison to various types of software, yet the general impression of the results points
to significant knowledge gaps.
RQ2: The results of the survey indicated that the ability to use Windows and text writing
software is substantially high. But if we move to more specialized application the skills
reported by the journalists are quite low. Basic internet services and tools such as web
navigation and email also demonstrate high familiarity levels. Also greek journalists are
pretty acquainted with social networks and blogs, but the findings about podcasts and
Twitter demonstrate great insufficiency.
Table 1: Spearman's rho rank -order correlation coefficient for ICT usage, time spend
online and possession of ICT skills .
gender Age Education
Place of work
Years of profession
ICT usage Pearson Correlation
.020 -.086 -.045 .191* -.138
Sig. (2-tailed) .836 .377 .643 .047 .165
N 108 108 109 108 103
Time spend online
Pearson Correlation
-.045 -.218* -.036 -.006 -.147
Sig. (2-tailed) .640 .023 .713 .949 .136
N 109 109 110 109 104
Possession of ICT skills
Pearson Correlation
-.040 .579** -.273
** -.051 .513
**
Sig. (2-tailed) .683 .000 .004 .606 .000
N 106 106 107 106 101
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
RQ3: Which parameters relate to the level of ICT skills of professional journalists?
In order to answer RQ3 we examined correlations between various variables. Based on
the findings we can conclude that various parameters that relate to ICT skills, namely ICT
usage, time spend online, possession of ICT skills correlate with age, education level,
place of work and years of profession (see tables 1, 2, and 3). More precisely place of
work appears to be a significant factor in ICT usage (p=.191, p<.05). Also it appears to be
a correlation between time spend online and age (p=.218, p<.05). Finally the possession
of ICT skills is strong related with age (p=.579, p<.01), education (p=-.273, p<.01), and
years of profession (p=.513, p<.01). On the other hand gender does not appear to be a
significant parameter in ICT usage.
Table 2: Spearman's rho rank -order correlation coefficient for skills on various software
packages .
Gender age education
Place of work
Years in the profession
Windows skills
Pearson Correlation .051 .352** -.132 -.109 .345**
Sig. (2-tailed) .601 .000 .173 .263 .000
N 108 108 109 108 103
Word skills Pearson Correlation -.017 .302** -.108 .046 .197*
Sig. (2-tailed) .863 .002 .268 .639 .048
N 106 106 107 106 101
Excel skills Pearson Correlation .088 .299** -.275** .018 .334**
Sig. (2-tailed) .379 .002 .005 .860 .001
N 103 103 103 102 97
Quark Xpress skills
Pearson Correlation .069 .303** -.289** -.125 .342**
Sig. (2-tailed) .504 .003 .004 .227 .001
N 97 97 97 95 91
Photoshop skills
Pearson Correlation .177 .212* -.123 .097 .180
Sig. (2-tailed) .085 .038 .234 .352 .090
N 96 96 96 94 90
Audition skills Pearson Correlation .183 .300** -.174 .048 .199
Sig. (2-tailed) .074 .003 .090 .649 .060
N 96 96 96 94 90
CMS skills Pearson Correlation .012 .151 -.265** .168 .012
Sig. (2-tailed) .905 .139 .008 .102 .907
N 98 98 98 96 92
Premier skills Pearson Correlation .149 .340** -.105 .042 .214
Sig. (2-tailed) .188 .002 .355 .714 .061
N 80 80 80 78 77
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The above results are also confirmed by studying skills for various software packages for
which data were collected as well during the survey. Table 2 includes Spearman’s rho
rank-order correlation coefficient for various software packages (Windows, Word, Excel,
QuarkXpress, Photoshop, etc.). Specifically age appears to be a significant factor in
Windows, Word, Excel, QuarkXpress, Photoshop, Audition and Premier skills. On the
other hand education appears to correlate with Excel, QuarkXpress, and CMS skills.
Finally years in the profession correlates only with Windows, Word, Excel and
QuarkXpress skills.
Table 3: Spearman's rho rank -order correlation coefficient for skills on various internet
tools and services.
Gender age education
Place of work
Years in the profession
WWW Pearson Correlation -,141 ,372** -,138 -,153 ,275**
Sig. (2-tailed) ,154 ,000 ,163 ,126 ,006
N 103 103 104 102 98
e-mail Pearson Correlation -,104 ,395** -,148 -,135 ,359**
Sig. (2-tailed) ,281 ,000 ,124 ,161 ,000
N 109 109 110 109 104
Chat Pearson Correlation -,120 ,354** -,318** -,086 ,363**
Sig. (2-tailed) ,236 ,000 ,001 ,399 ,000
N 99 99 99 98 94
Social Media Pearson Correlation -,211* ,434** -,323** -,063 ,309**
Sig. (2-tailed) ,030 ,000 ,001 ,523 ,002
N 105 105 106 105 100
Blogs Pearson Correlation -,143 ,301** -,293** -,106 ,243*
Sig. (2-tailed) ,143 ,002 ,002 ,275 ,014
N 107 107 108 107 102
Twitter Pearson Correlation -,016 ,273** -,305** ,031 ,191
Sig. (2-tailed) ,875 ,006 ,002 ,763 ,064
N 101 101 101 100 95
Podcasting Pearson Correlation ,115 ,173 -,267** -,079 ,147
Sig. (2-tailed) ,258 ,089 ,008 ,439 ,160
N 98 98 98 97 93
YouTube Pearson Correlation -,032 ,223* -,195 -,130 ,249*
Sig. (2-tailed) ,750 ,026 ,051 ,197 ,015
N 100 100 101 100 95
Web radio Pearson Correlation -,098 ,176 -,197* -,281** ,229*
Sig. (2-tailed) ,326 ,076 ,046 ,004 ,023
N 103 103 103 102 98
WebTV Pearson Correlation -,131 ,190 -,241* -,259** ,246*
Sig. (2-tailed) ,191 ,055 ,015 ,009 ,016
N 102 102 102 101 96
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Finally in table 3 we study the skills on various internet tools and services (WWW, e-
mail, chat, social media, blogs, Twitter, podcasting, Youtube, Web radio, Web TV). Age
education and years in profession appear to be significant factors for the majority of the
internet tools and services under study. Place of work is found to be related only with
web radio and web TV skills, and gender seems to be significant only in the case of social
media skills.
The above correlations are in agreement with Rogers’ diffusion of innovation theory28,29
.
According to this theory three sets of variables, technology ownership, adopters’
characteristics, and innovation attributes, have enduring impacts on the adoption of new
technologies30
.
Discussion
The results of the survey indicate that greek journalists use extensively ICT tools and
they possess the basic ICT skills needed for their profession. But they seem to fall behind
when it comes to more advance ICT skills, concerning sound and video editing and web
and desktop publishing. Similar is the situation as far as internet tools and services are
concerned. The majority of the journalists are acquainted with basic internet services
(WWW, e-mail) but the percentages of use deteriorate when we move to blogs, Twitter
and other social networks. This lack of ICT skills can have a significant impact on their
profession, since it will be difficult to adapt to the continuously changing working
environment. In this context it is worth noting the crucial role that education can play in
the acquisition of ICT skills. The problem is that although Journalism Departments
educate future journalists, by the time they become professional journalists things in ICTs
are expected to have changed considerably. Few years developments of ICTs usually
include dramatic changes in services and tools. Thus certain actions must be taken in
order to guarantee the continuous update of their ICTs skills. The ongoing development
of new tools and services related to journalism is forcing the journalists to constantly
refresh and update their knowledge on ICTs. Thus the journalists’ education must be
continuous and must be focused on learning to learn and adapting to new tools and
platforms. Based on the above Journalism Departments must change their approach in
teaching ICTs. There is no need to teach the use of specific tools when it is almost
inevitable that by the time that the future journalists will have to use these tools in their
profession, these tools will have been replaced with newer versions with added or altered
features, or tools from other vendors with new interfaces.
ICTs have also changed how educators teach the future journalists. The curriculums of
Journalism Departments include a bulk of courses that include the use of various ICTs31
.
But despite all these changes due to the adoption of ICTs, some researchers have
criticized the field as being slow to respond to respond to changes in the technology32
.
One other aspect it is worth noting is the lack (in most cases) of connection between
journalism educators and professional journalists9.
Journalism education today in general and especially in the field of ICTs presents a
number of possibilities that include video, audio, animations, and generally all the tools
and services offered by ICTs. It is worth noting the fact that all the above possibilities of
learning do not apply only in the case of university education, but can be included in long
life education which is considered to be vital in the continuous update of journalists’
skills on ICTs. We must not forget that there is a need for continues education of
journalists that are employed in a very demanding work process that leaves them with
very limited spare time. Also based on the study findings, age and education is the
parameters that relate with the possession of IST skills. Thus older journalists and
journalists that do not have a higher education degree will be most benefit by life long
training programs.
The ideal candidate platform for the described educational challenge is the Virtual
Learning Environment (VLE). A VLE can be described as a learning environments
mediated by computers and digital technologies33
. In close conjunction with VLE, is the
electronic learning portfolio that is a collection of electronic material, which is
considered to be very helpful in the journalist’s learning process. VLE can be facilitated
in forms of distance education thus giving the opportunity to journalists who work in
rural and suburban areas to acquire ICT skills. It is worth noting that place of work
appears to be a considerable factor only in some occasions in our study (ICT usage, Web
radio, Web TV), nevertheless it cannot be ignored as an insignificant parameter.
What is very interesting is the fact that the bulk of ICT knowledge involves the
acquisition of skills of using various tools and services. Thus experiential learning
appears to be the best method to teach the above skills34
. Experiential learning is the
process of making meaning from direct experience35
. It can be defined as the learning
method where the educator has the role of the organizer and the facilitator of exercises
and projects that allow students to practice skills in a real-world fashion36
.
Experiential learning focuses on the learning process for the individual. Educational
theorist David Kolb claims that in order to gain genuine knowledge from an experience,
certain abilities are required37
: a) the learner must be willing to be actively involved in
the experience; b) the learner must be able to reflect on the experience; c) the learner
must possess and use analytical skills to conceptualize the experience; and d) the learner
must possess decision making and problem solving skills in order to use the new ideas
gained from the experience.
It is obvious that all the above abilities are considered to be a necessity for professional
journalists. The life-long training on ICTs is a program in which journalists are expected
to participate on their own will. The accumulative experience on using various ICTs tools
and services that already is possessed by journalists will help them considerably to cover
the prerequisites as stated by David Kolb38
.
Conclusions
This article discuses the issue of journalism education on ICTs. ICTs play a very
important role in the journalism profession. Thus the journalist is obliged to be up to date
as far as ICT is concerned in order to have a successful professional career. This goal can
be succeeded with the help of experiential learning, since the majority of the required
knowledge involves the acquisition of skills of using tools and services. Since this effort
is designed for journalists that usually have very demanding working schedule, the
logical choice is to employ some kind of distance learning tool. The proposed candidate
is VLE that can be supplemented by the use of Learning Portfolios by the journalist.
Future extension of this work will include the actual implementation of the proposed
educational program. It worth noting that the Media Informatics Lab and the Laboratory
of Electronic Media of the Department of Journalism & MC collaborate with Journalists'
Union of Macedonia and Thrace Daily Newspapers (http://www.esiemth.gr/) in order to
develop a life-long training program for the journalists. A survey that investigated the
needs of the journalists has been already contacted and the results have indicated the
topics that the program will cover39
. It is expected that the program will be implemented
in the beginning of 2013.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Journalists' Union of Macedonia-Thrace for allowing them to
access the member list for completing the survey related to journalists’ ICT skills.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication
of this article.
Notes
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MMEDIA 2010.
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Newsroom”. Accepted for publication in International Communication Gazette (volume
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