ISSN-0971-8400 - Sociology Optional With SociologyIAS

ISSN-0971-8400

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za IKaAmrit Mahotsav

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When out ofthe sapphire sea, ~ , somewhere thou art awful, burning in desert dry,Thou rose 0 India! My Country! ~~ ~~ esolate, rugged and dreary, dazzling the eye.What a jubilant cry burst out in the world ..~*Delhi *'~"Elsewhere thou art smiling, full of tender green,What an exultation and ecstasy! Scattering crops to the world, benign and serene.A day of days it was as thine lustre brightBrought a radiant dawn on this benighted Earth,And this they sang in adoration-" Victory to thee!o Mother! 0 Goddess! Giver of Glory! II

Ah, blest is this Orb,At the touch of thy lotus-feet;Hail! India, Nurse of Nations!Thee we greet!

Just-bathed thou art it seems, with robes all drenched,Thy lovely tresses, bedewed with briny spray;Hallowed is thy brow; and with a smile sereneAll shining and pure appears the visage gay!Up, they dance injoy round the firmament vast,The sun, the moon, the stars with music divine,And down it foams, and shimmers, a spell-bound sea,Rumbling incessant a hymn sublime.

~On thy head tho};!wearest a superb, snow-white crown,A wavy, foamy sea round thy feet doth lie;Upon the bosom swings many a string of pearls,The Indus, Jamuna, Ganges that merrily sparkle by.

Above, blows the tempest, loud and shrill,In the sky's vast void, it roars unstopped;And suddenly with the melodious coos of many a cuckoo,How it drops to kiss thy feet, gentle and soft!Aloft, the dark clouds surge, the thunders crash and clap,The rains of the deluge, in torrents they pour;Lo! Down at thy feet they bedeck many a bower,And wake the fragrance grand at thy door!

Mother! What peace untold on thy bosom doth lie!What deathless assurance in thy message sweet!Sustenance to all thou givest, freely with thy handAnd verily salvation is secured at thy feet!Mother! For thy children's sake in the recess of thy heartWhat joy doth throb! What agony mute!Protector, Nourisher, Saviour, Giver of bliss!Thee we salute!

(Translated by Umanath Bhattacharyafrom Bengali)Reproducedfrom Yojana, December 14,1958About the poet: One of the master playwrights ofBengali literature, Dwijendra Lal Ray (1863-1913) alsocomposed some of the sweetest patriotic songs.

ISSN-0971-8400SPECIAL ISSUE

EDITORSHUCHITA CHATURVEDI

PRODUCTION OFFICEROK C HRUDHAINATH

COVER DESIGNBINDU VERMA

OUR REPRESENTATIVESAhmedabad: Janhavi Patel, Bengaluru: BK Kiranmai,Bhubaneswar: ltishree SinghRathaur,Chennai:SanjayGhosh, Guwahati: Ramanikant Sharma, Hyderabad:Krishna Vandana P, Jalandhar: Gagandeep KaurDevgan, Kolkata: Rama Mandai, Mumbai: UmeshUjgare: Thiruvananthapuram: RoyChacko.

Vojana (English): Room No. 647, Soochna Bhawan,CGO Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110 003.E-mail (Editorial): [email protected]

YO)ANA, a development monthly published since19S7, is a theme-based journal providing in-depthanalyses and views on socia-economic issues inthe broader framework of government policies.Although published by the Ministry of Informationand Broadcasting, VOIANA is not restricted toexpressing the official point of view.

DISCLAIMER• The views expressed in various articles are

those of the authors and they do not necessarilyreflect the views of the Government or theorganisation/s they work for.

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Let noble thoughts come to us from all sides.Rig Veda

IN THIS ISSUE

THE GIANT LEAP

INDIA AS A SPACE POWERDr K Sivan and ISRO Team 9

INDIAN ARMED FORCES

Sujan R Chinoy 15

SELF-RELIANCE

SWADESHI ENTREPRENEURSHIPAnindya Sengupta 23

GLOBAL AGRICULTURALPOWERHOUSEDr Jagdeep Saxena 29

DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATIONManoj Pant .35

INFRASTRUCTURE: HISTORY &CHALLENGESSameera Saurabh .39

PEOPLE & SOCIETY

VOYAGE OF INDIAN CINEMAPrakash Magdum 43

ROLE OF MEDIAProf Sanjay Dwivedi .47

RE'FORMING' CASTE IN NEWINDIAAmita Bhide .51

PREPARING FUTURE LEADERSAarushi Aggarwal. 55

ARCHITECTURE IN INDIAJaya sasera., , ,.,.,', ,.59

Number of pages: 68

Details of the Sales Outlets of the Publications Division on Page 20

YOJANA is published in Assamese, Bengali, English, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam,Marathi, Odia, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu.

cJn/;()x

-'---- [email protected]======================================

Enriching InformationI have been reading this knowledge enriching

magazine 'Yojana' since 2019. This is the best magazineto read about the frequent developments in the field ofscience, agriculture, technology and much more. Fromevery discipline of life, this magazine picks up everysingle initiative which is directly associated with growth.Thank you team Yojana for such service towards thenation at such an affordable price. I read this magazinefor awareness and to provide my family and siblingswith fruitful information that can help them grab betteropportunities in their lives.

In this rapidly changing world, where market isflooded with loads of content to read, it is very hard tofind honest and true information. Yojana magazine servesthis purpose superbly.

- Dimple WadhawanKanpur, UP

Enhancing Thought ProcessYojana Team, I would like to express my

gratitude towards bringing such an intellectual,analytical, logical, and to-the-point explanation ofevery issue of national importance which has helpedme in developing my analytical ability and a clearunderstanding of the issues, which has become a partof my thought process. As a civil service aspirant,Yojana magazine has immensely helped me inbroadening my perspective and understanding overallproblems of the nation.

- Abhishek YardiRajkot, Gujarat

Holistic AnalysisI am a regular reader ofYojana magazine. It is one of

the best magazines in the country. Each and every editionanalyses a certain topic from different point of view.My request to you is that if the upcoming edition of thismagazine includes the topic of cyber security entirely,

4

- Nilabja Sekhar Panda

Panchayati RajI am very much delighted to see the November

issue of Yojana magazine which covered the topicof 'Panchayati Raj' in a wider perspective. It hascomprehensively disclosed varied stages and serviceswherein both Union and State Governments are evolvingplans and involving the people to make the system morevibrant. Thanks to the 'Yojana' team for enlightening uswith such knowledgeable articles.

- Sudershan Reddy KattaHyderabad, Telangana

Police ReformsYojana magazine is highly useful in our civil

services preparation. It is my request to include adetailed issue on Indian police and its reforms. There isa need for public to know about the work of police andthere structure and their other functions. This wouldremove the wrong perception of police in public mind.As police is also an important pillar in our society. So Ihumbly request the editor to please come up with theseissues.

- Krunal BorichaAhmedabad, Gujarat

Suggested TopicsI have been reading 'Yojana' for three years now.

This is the perfect magazine to read and make ourselvesaware about positive developments that are happeningin our society. From Public Schemes to Private Startups,this magazine covers every single initiative which is

YOJANA January 2022

directly associated with the life of the common people.Not only for UPSC CSE aspirants, this magazineholds importance for every citizen who wants to beaware and alerts with all changes that are happeningin various fields from time to time. Thank you teamYojana for such service in making us aware. I wantto suggest the topics to be covered in your upcomingeditions. Please do cover Gati Shakti scheme, futureof crypto currency in India and Importance of NewCentral Vista in strengthening Democracy of India in21 st century and beyond.

Production QualityDear Yojana team, I am reading the magazine since

August 2020. I was reading the November 2021 issueof Yojana. I was quite surprised. I must tell you thatyou have solved the problem unknowingly that I ~asfacing. The previous magazine pages were glossy whichwere causing problem while reading under light. I foundthe current quality of print easy to read without anyproblem.

[email protected]

eliable Source of Knowledge-0

I h~"J' een following Yojana from two years andT . I A ti I ~ found . 10:" ry useful for CSE preparation. For mainsopica r IC es ~. . . d

. . .~* .. ~ view, Yojana IS an authentic source anI am one of your regular readers. Readmg Yojana 1 0 *. es in-depth knowledge of topics, for example,

always intellectual and keeps me updated, connectmg the dynamics of civil services topic of August 2021 showsrespective ~opics ~ith facts a~d figures ..I sug?~st y?U t? deep analysis of functioning of bureaucra~y in Indi~.come up WIth the Issue about Reforms m Judiciary as It Each topic provides way forward too, which helps mis the need of the hour. mains answer writing.

- Pankaj Kumar BagbelLucknow, UP

[email protected]

IMlnlltryorlnformatlonand BroadcaatlngGovernment of Indio....:...~

O/@publicationsdivision C)/OPO _India

YOJANA January 2022 5

YOJANA January 2022

Igniting Minds

Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav is an initiative tocommemorate 75 years of free India. It celebrates IR YOJANAthe glorious history of its people, culture, and SP'CIALISSU'

achievements. This Mahotsav is dedicated to the peopleof India who have been instrumental in bringing India thisfar in its evolutionary journey. Despite many odds andchallenges, India scripted an incredible success story toevolve as a strong, prosperous, and self-reliant nation. It isan embodiment of all that we are proud of about India'ssocio-cultural, political, and economic identity. This is anintensive, country-wide initiative, that focuses on citizenparticipation, Jan Bhagidari, where small changes at thelocal level, will add up to significant national gains fuelledby the spirit of Atmanirbhar Bharat.

This land is a witness to stupendous moments in ..freedom struggle like the first war for Indian independencein 1857, the Satyagraha movement, the call for Poorna Swaraj by Lokmanya Tilak, the DelhiMarch ofAzad Hind Fauj led by Netaji, and countless movements led by inspiring lives across thelength and breadth of the country. While the freedom fighters were taking stride at the forefront,a league of spiritual leaders was reigniting this flame of freedom through their teachings, andstrengthening the society. The rural population of the country, tribals, women, and even thechildren played their role in getting freedom.

Post-independence, the foundation 'e ~rt:a ent was led by the stronghold principleslaid out in the Constitution and plan ~ e 0 ~'n each sector. Today, our nation standscourageous as the largest democracy ~ e world, as . onstitution continues to shine forth asthe guiding light for legislation, gov ~ nee, administ fili n, and welfare of all.

<.> <0

Yojana, in this collectible issue, icIes the j y of various sectors and areas in these....•years of trials, tribulations, and triump to our authors for essaying these storiesthrough the lens of what India has achieve and giving a perspective on what lies aheadin the coming years. The inspiring stories of a farm-deficit to export-surplus nation, from poorhealthcare to one of the leading suppliers of medicines and vaccines in the pandemic times, fromeducating elites to reaching the last mile, and many more, are documented in Yojana from time-to-time. In this issue, you will also find a few glimpses of this very glorious history in making,through the set of treasured sepia pages from our archives.

Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav is intended towards making conscious efforts to preservethis history, in every State and every region, and inspire future generations. Today, it is theresponsibility of each of us to take India towards greater goals of self-reliance and creatingequal opportunities for all. The years that lie ahead will shape the destiny of the world and notjust India. The post-pandemic world, whenever that happens, will have a new order. India willhave to step-up to the occasion and showcase its capabilities, scope of synergy, and leadershipavenues in each sphere. Quoting Netaji Sub has Chandra Bose, who said, "One individual maydie for an idea, but that idea will, after his death, incarnate itself in a thousand lives." That idea,the vision of our great leaders for the India of their dreams, must continue to ignite minds, andtheir ideals should inspire us to do great deeds for the generations to come. 0

7

LEAP

gconic gma!les from

YOJANA ARCHIVES

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

India as a Space Power

With its humble originsin 1960s, the IndianSpace programme,over the span of sixdecades, has grown fromstrength to strength.Administered by theDepartment of Space(DOS) and primarilyexecuted by its R&Darm- the Indian SpaceResearch Organization(lSRO), the country todayis widely recognised asa global space powerhaving developed end-to-end capabilitiescutting across variousdomains viz. spacetransportation systems,space infrastructure, andspace applications suchas Earth Observation,Communication,Navigation,Meteorology, SpaceScience, and the like.

Dr K Sivan and ISRO Team

The beginnings of the Indian Space Programme resonated stronglywith its founding father Dr Vikram Sarabhai's vision, that we mustbe 'second to none in the application of advanced technologiesfor the benefit of society.' It was with the formation of the Indian

National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) in 1962, followed by thefirst sounding rocket launch from Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station(TERLS) in 1963 that the space programme formally took off.

Dr Sarabhai, the architect of the Indian Space Programme, initiatedthe creation of dedicated clusters. So, while Trivandrum became the hub forsounding rockets, solid propellants, etc., with the setting up of Space Science& Technology Centre [SSTC, present-day VSSC (Vikram Sarabhai SpaceCentre)], the cornerstone for payload development and related electronics was atAhmedabad in the form of Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station[ESCES, present-day SAC (Space Applications Centre)]. The Indian SpaceResearch Organization (ISRO) was formed in 1969, superseding INCOSPAR.Today, with a total workforce of over 18,000, ISRO's establishments arefunctioning in many parts of the country with each concentrating on a specificspecialised domain. The country's public as well as private sector industriesare playing a crucial role in our Space Programme. Besides, various academicinstitutions have also c the Indian space endeavour.

With the establi t of c#3 ce Commission and the Department ofSpace (DOS) in 19 f. SRO was b.... ht under DOS and the structured spaceprogramme was no ~ oised to soar _. er the leadership of Dr Satish Dhawan.The 70s were the I ing phase . g which several experimental satelliteswere built, includin· . , ~ lite Aryabhata, which was launched on19 April 1975, from ala * Ib~· IIIthe former Soviet Union. Aryabhata laid afirm foundation for the later immensely successful Indian Satellite Programme.Bhaskara-I and II, the two experimental earth observation satellites, providedthe rich experience and the confidence to build complex operational remotesensing satellites. Today, India is world leader in the satellite-based remotesensing area.

Additionally, APPLE- Ariane Passenger PayLoad Experiment, India'sfirst experimental communication satellite, although launched by the EuropeanAriane rocket, reached its final geosynchronous orbital home in June 1981, withthe help of a rocket motor developed in India. Aryabhata, the two Bhaskaras,as well as APPLE were launched free-of-cost, which reflects India's successfulinternational space cooperation policy. In the recent past, India has not onlyflown foreign scientific instruments on-board Indian spacecraft but has alsolaunched them.

Two further significant satellite communication experiments that deservea mention here for their ingenuity and spirit of cooperation are SITE-Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (1975-76) and STEP- SatelliteTelecommunication Experimental Project (1977 -79), comprehensively

Dr K Sivan is Chairman, ISRO and Secretary, DOS. Correspondence Email: [email protected]


establishing the usage of satellites for communicationand broadcasting and providing hands-on experience forthe same, paving the way for INSAT (Indian NationalSATellite) series of satellites.

In the space transportation domain, it was thecommissioning of the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 (SLV-3)project in the early 1970s, the first indigenous experimentalsatellite launch vehicle, that served as the beginning of anenduring partnership between ISRO and Indian industries.An all solid, four-stage launch vehicle, the SLV-3 wasdesigned for placing satellites weighing 40 kg in LowEarth Orbit. The SLV-3 had its successful launch on18 July 1980, thrusting India into theselect league of six countries with thecapability to launch satellites on theirown.

On the heels of SLV-3, wascommissioned the ASLV- AugmentedSatellite Launch Vehicle projectin the early 1980s, the next step ofevolution in launch vehicle technology.The two launch vehicles, SLV-3 andASLV, validated the critical launchvehicle technologies and gave ISROthe confidence to reach the nextlevel with the Polar Satellite Launch

10

Vehicle (PSLV) project, commissioned in mid-1980s.During the same period, INSAT-lB, India's first

multipurpose operational satellite was launched in1983, demonstrating its ability to bring about a rapidand major revolution in India's telecommunications,television broadcasting, and weather-forecasting domains.India's ability to design, build, and maintain a complexremote sensing satellite was demonstrated in 1988 whenIRS-l A, the first operational satellite built in India, startedimaging the earth. The images sent by that satellite circlingthe Earth 900 krn high polar orbit were utilised

~ s such as agriculture, groundwater~ g, minera ~. ey, forestry, etc.

ing the 199 ~, ISRO began building INSAT-2seri multipurpos tellites indigenously. At the sametime," matic us ....•.fimagery from our remote sensingsatellit ~ . I crop yield estimation, groundwaterand minera specting, forest survey, urban sprawlmonitoring, and wasteland classification and fisheriesdevelopment began. The optimal usage of onboardcapabilities of INSAT and remote sensing satellites wascoordinated using inter-ministerial mechanisms suchas INSAT Coordination Committee (ICC) and NationalNatural Resources Management System (NNRMS).

Today, India has a fleet of advanced remote sensingsatellites equipped with high resolution and multispectralcameras dedicated to the themes of cartography, resourcesurvey, and ocean and atmospheric applications. TheINSAT system with over 300 transponders in the C-band,Extended C-band, Ku-band, Ka/Ku band, and S-bandprovides services to telecommunications, televisionbroadcasting, radio networking, satellite newsgathering,societal applications, weather forecasting, disaster warning,and Search and Rescue operations. High ThroughputSatellites (HTS) such as GSAT-ll, GSAT-29, andGSAT-19 are supporting the Digital India campaignby boosting the broadband connectivity to the ruraland inaccessible Gram Panchayats in the country. Thetransponders on these satellites will bridge the digitaldivide of users including those in Jammu & Kashmir andthe North-Eastern regions of India.

The space transportation domain,with the successful advent of the PolarSatellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) in1994, witnessed a quantum jump inthe indigenous launch capabilities. Thevehicle has proven to be a workhorseof ISRO, logging over 50 successfulmissions, launching national as wellas foreign satellites. On 15 February2017, PSLV created a world recordby successfully placing 104 satell itesin orbit during a single launch. Well,as numbers go, it was undoubtedlya record at the time, but the real

The 70S were the learningphase during which severalexperimental satellites werebuilt, including India's first

satellite Aryabhata, which waslaunched on 19 April 1975.

Aryabhata laid a firm foundationfor the later immensely

successful Indian satelliteprogramme.

YOJANA January 2022

significance of the achievement is was successfully recovered over thethe immense confidence reposed by The two launch vehicles, SLV-3 Bay of Bengal about 20 minutes afterforeign countries in the capability of and ASLV, validated the critical its launch. Subsequently, after twothe Launch Vehicle. launch vehicle technologies and successful developmental flights and

With the solid and liquid propulsion with the injection of Chandrayaan-2gave ISRO the confidence totechnologies perfected through SLV-3, into Earth Parking Orbit in July 2019,ASLV, and PSLV, the nation embarked reach the next level with the GSLV Mk III successfully entered intouponahighlychallenging questto master Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle its operational phase.the complex cryogenic technology. The (PSLV) project, commissioned Indian Space Programme hascommissioning of the Geosynchronous in mid-1980S. always focused on the developmentSatellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) in and utilisation of space technologiesthe 1990s was a step in this direction. The launch vehicle to achieve the overall development of the country.was designed with three stages (including the cryogenic Despite its emphasis on applications, ISRO has pursuedupper stage), with four liquid strap-ons. Cryogenic many space science projects to perform meaningfultechnology involves the storage of liquid hydrogen & exploration of space. India's first satellite Aryabhataliquid oxygen at very low temperatures. Materials used to a scientific satellite. After Aryabhata, ISRO enteredoperate at these very low temperatures, chilling processe \ti. to ealm of science missions again with a uniqueand interplay of engine parameters make the developm ~ missio 1. e Space Capsule Recovery Experiment-lof the cryogenic stage a very challenging and com (SRE-l). nched by PSLV in January 2007, SRE-l with

CDtask. With the successful qualification of the indigeno iI its scient experiments, orbited the Earth for 12 days anddeveloped Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) in the GSLV was su fully deorbited and recovered over the Bay offlight on 5 January 2014, ISRO demonstrated its mastery .~ * .~ is proved several technologies necessary forcryogenic rocket propulsion. Including the one in January e launch vehicles and human spaceflight.2014, the vehicle has had six successful flights over the The space science missions oflndia- Chandrayaan-l,past decade. Mars Orbiter Mission, AstroSat, and Chandrayaan-2- have

The next-generation launch vehicle of ISRO, with caught the attention of millions of Indians as well as thea capability for putting 4T payload in GTO, came in the outside world.form of GSLV-Mk III designed with two solid strap-ons, a Launched by PSLV on 22 October 2008, the 1380 kgcore liquid booster, and a cryogenic upper stage. LVM3- XI Chandrayaan-l spacecraft was successfully navigated toCARE Mission, the first experimental suborbital flight of the Moon in three weeks and was put into an orbit aroundGSLV Mk III, was on 18 December 2014 and launched the moon. On 14 November 2008, when a TV set sizedthe Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment 'Moon Impact Probe' separated from Chandrayaan-l(CARE). The CARE module began its return journey spacecraft and successfully impacted the surface of theand a little later, re-entered the earth's atmosphere. It moon, India became the fourth country to send a probe to


the lunar surface after the United States, HSFC is entrusted to implement thethe Soviet Union, and Japan. Later, Cryogenic technology involves Gaganyaan Programme and to actwhen Chandrayaan-l conclusively as the lead centre for sustained andthe storage of liquid hydrogendiscovered water molecules on the affordable human spaceflight activities.lunar surface, it was widely hailed as a & liquid oxygen at very low The Gaganyaan project has the statedpath-breaking discovery. temperatures. Materials used objective of demonstrating human

Uplifted by the success of to operate at these very space flight capability to Low-EarthChandrayaan-l, ISRO embarked low temperatures, chilling Orbit (LEO) for a defined duration andon the Mars Orbiter Mission, for processes, and interplay of safe recovery after the mission.demonstrating India's capability to engine parameters make the ISRO successfully proved abuild, launch, and navigate an unmanned crucial technology clement of Humanspacecraft to Mars. Launched by PSLV development of the cryogenic spaceflight in July 2018- The Pad Aborton 5 November 2013, the 1340 kg Mars stage a very challenging and Test (PAT), which is the first in the seriesOrbiter Spacecraft encountered Mars complex task. of tests to qualify the Crew Escapeon 24 September 2014. With this, ISRO System (CES). The Pad Abort Test flighthas become the fourth space agency to successfully send a was a demonstration of the capability ofCES to evacuate thespacecraft to Mars orbit. Crew in case of a contingency at the launch pad.

AstroSat, launched by PSLV in September 2015, is the Towards capacity building in human resources and tofirst dedicated Indian astronomy mission aimed at studying meet the growing demands of the Indian Space Programme,celestial sources in X-ray, optical, and UV spectral ~ Institute of Space Science and Technology (lIST),bands simultaneously. AstroSat recently made a maj ~:~ ee iversity, was established at Thiruvananthapurambreakthrough by discovering one of the earliest galaxies l\.. in 2007. . institute offers Bachelor's Degree in Spaceextreme-Ultraviolet light. :~, Technolo. --> ith specialisation in Aerospace Engineering

The Chandrayaan-2 Mission- India's second missi ii' and Ele v ics & Communication and a Masters~to the moon was successfully launched on 22 July 20 I ~ rogr. n the areas of Space Technology.Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter spacecraft was placed in its '~J* Del er, amidst the Covid-19 pandemic, the landmarkintended orbit. The eight instruments onboard the Orbiter space reforms initiated by the Government ofIndia in Juneare continuously providing useful science data which will 2020 mark a significant step forward in the evolution of theenrich our understanding of the moon's evolution and Indian Space ecosystem. The creation ofthe Indian Nationalmapping of the minerals and water molecules in Polar Space Promotion and Authorization Center (IN-SPACe)regions. to promote, handhold, and authorise Non-Government

ISRO has also successfully established and Private Entities (NGPEs) to undertake space activitiesoperationalised Navigation with Indian Constellation shall unleash the next wave of advancements in the sector.(NavIC) which provides highly accurate Position, This will enhance the diffusion of space technology andNavigation, and Time information to users in India and its boost the space economy within the country.surroundings. The Global Standards body- 3rd Generation Empowering the department PSU- NewSpace IndiaPartnership Project (3GPP), which develops protocols for Limited (NSIL) to 'own' the operational launch vehiclesmobile telephony, has approved NavIC and major mobile and space assets of ISRO, opens up a new chapter inchipset manufacturers have incorporated NavIC in their the management of space activities in the country.releases. Further, through GPS Aided GEO Augmented Further, the present supply-based model was changedNavigation (GAGAN), ISRO is providing Satellite-based to a demand-driven model, wherein NSIL shall act asNavigation services with accuracy and integrity required an aggregator of user requirements and simultaneouslyfor civil aviation applications and to provide better Air obtain commitments.Traffic Management over IndianAirspace.

In the recent past, the "GaganyaanProgramme" approved by theGovernment of India in 2018 marks apoint of inflexion in the Indian spacejourney, marking its entry into the newage of human space exploration. TheHuman Space Flight Centre (HSFC)was constituted in ISRO in January2019, for implementing the vision onthe human space flight programme.

12

ISRO has also successfullyestablished and operationalised

Navigation with IndianConstellation (NavlC) which

provides highly accuratePosition, Navigation, and Time

information to users in India andits surroundings.

With these structural adjustments,ISRO shall focus on advancing theR&D endeavours such as heavier andmore efficient satellites, advancedspace missions such as Chandrayaan-3,Aditya-Ll, and Mission to Venus tofurther explore the solar system andof course, the Gaganyaan Programme.The future of space activities in thecountry looks very promising indeedand shall cement India's position as a2151

-century space power. 0

YOJANA January 2022

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14 YOJANA January 2022

DEFENCE

Thejourney of the IndianArmed Forces over thelast hundred years hasin many ways mirroredthe momentous historyof the birth, struggles,and victories of India.It straddles a colonialperiod in which thearmed forces of Indiaowed allegiance toa foreign sovereignand could readily beused to fight an alienpower's wars andpromote its strategicobjectives. This did noterode the heroism andprofessionalism thatthe Indian Armed Forcescame to be known forover two centuries.

Indian Armed ForcesSujan R Chinoy

From the Afghan Wars to the Battle of Saragarhi where a small

band of Sikh soldiers wreaked havoc during a siege mounted bya numerically superior adversary to the two great wars, and innumerous British campaigns across Asia and Africa, the Indian

sepoys set the highest standards in val our. Even the apostle of peace andnon-violence, Mahatma Gandhi, had served as a sergeant major of a medicalambulance corps that he had helped raise during the Second Boer War in 1899-1902 and Zulu War in 1906. There came a darker side too when the Britishused Gorkha and Baluchi troops against innocent civilians in the JallianwalaBagh massacre in 19r9~

Phase - I

In a sense, the first phase of t orces journey commencedimmediately after the independen Kashmir (1947-48), andterminated with the debacle of t 62 India- ? a war. This period sawrelatively young and inexperienc dian officers -i g catapulted overnightinto mid-level and senior positi in the a ~ forces. The doctrines,training, and experience that gui ';l em .' during WWII was ill-suited to either the advent of com i 'People's War' advocatedby China, or to Jawaharlal Nehru's worldview which was predicated onIndia's moral and not military power. Participation in the Korean War byoffering medical assistance and sending the 60th Parachute Field Ambulance

The author, a forrner Ambassador of the 1981 batch of the Indian Foreign Service, is currently the Director General of the ManoharParrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, New Delhi. Email: [email protected]


Platoon, a mobile army surgical hospital with doctors China, leading to contention.and dentists, did little to address the real problems faced Yet another lesson was that an army must be well-by a strong colonial military force that was now without equipped with the latest weaponry to protect India'sthe same energy and objectives. A. politi~al leadership territorial integrity and that summer uniforms, canvaswedded to ahimsa, that had achieved IDdependenc~ shoes, and outdated .303 Lee Enfield rifles were nothrough the. mantra of n?n-violence, c~uld ~~atitJn<f atch against Chinese hordes armed with relativelytruly appreciated the gravity of the security enges /" ern automatic weapons. Perhaps even greater wasevolving on India's periphery. ~ t -- esson that the Order of Battle (ORB AT) and chain

A decade of budgetary cuts that folio '0 further ommand in any army are sacrosanct. Even thoughroo.compounded the problem; . leaving the In ~ rmy . ~ is too important a matter to be left to the Generals,without adequate weapons or manpower whe .~~\\\ *~ lis did not justify the frequent changes in command incame to a head with China in the late 1950s. In act, NEFA, whether at the Brigade, Division, or Corps levelsthe Indian Army was kept away from India's borders, even as the crisis was unfolding. Even more egregiouswhether in Ladakh or in North-East Frontier Agency a lesson was the realisation of the damage that can be(NEFA) , till the Government's hand was forced by the caused to the direction and morale of an army when theChinese attack and occupation of an Assam Rifles post military chain of command is trifled with, as was the caseat Longju in August 1959 and an equally bloody ambush in 1962 when Lt Gen B M Kaul, the hastily appointedof an Indian police party at Konka La, eastern Ladakh in IV Corps Commander in the NorthEast, had the ear ofOctober of the same year. the political leadership, with even the then Chief of Army

Staff (COAS) side-lined; or that a Defence Minister VK Krishna Menon could dull the martial instincts of asplendid army by repeatedly underplaying the China

threat despite professional assessmentsto the contrary.

It was also decided that the IndianAir Force would not be deployedduring the war in any offensive role,thereby, negating the advantage thatcould have been created. Braveryby individuals and some unitsnotwithstanding the shock of the ill-planned retreat and humiliating defeatin 1962 led to a fundamental change inthe structure, training, equipping, anddisposition of the armed forces for thebetter.

Lessons Learnt

One of the greatest lessons of theperhaps was the realisation that withregard to territory the old adage heldtrue, that possession was nine-tenths ofthe law! China's entry first into Tibetin 1950, and later its creeping presencein Aksai Chin over the followingdecade also taught the Indian ArmedForces, and the new political masters,to think in terms of precise borders,not just frontiers. The text and contextof the 1954 Treaty between India andthe Tibet Region of China are fineexamples of how passes on the borderare interpreted differently by covetous

1962 conflict

The Order of Battle (ORBA T)and chain of command in any

army are sacrosanct. Eventhough war is too important

a matter to be left to theGenerals, this did not justify thefrequent changes in command inNEFA, whether at the Brigade,Division, or Corps levels even as

the crisis was unfolding.


Phase - II

With this commenced the second phase of thejourney of the armed forces which lasted until 1988.The period after the 1962 war not only saw the size ofthe army increase from about 5,50,000 to approximately8,25,000 troops, but, over time, it also witnessedstructural, training, and doctrinal shifts. Even as thesepreparations were underway, Pakistan attempted to seizethe opportunity created by the 1962 defeat, the politicalvoid after the death of Prime Minister Nehru in 1964 andprevailing conditions in Jammu and Kashmir. After afailed attempt to push in raiders by Pakistan, PresidentAyub Khan unleashed a war in the mistaken notion thatthe opportunity was ripe to force a defeat upon India.However, despite structural issues and limitations ofequipment that still posed a challenge, India respondedresolutely under the leadership of Prime Minister LalBahadur Shastri and Defence Minister Y B Chavan toblunt the aggression.

armed forces undertook a lightening campaign whichled to Pakistan's defeat and ushered in the finest hour inIndia's post-independence military history.

The layered military strategy adopted by India in the1991 War saw a nuanced approach that dealt with eachtheatre and sector according to its round reality. Whilethe western front along Pa .s:t{ttlll' sed "offensive

\\ - ~defence". being employe ~ care lso taken toensure that the threat fr China rem containedin the north. On the eas '" front, an 0 :. ve strategywas adopted along with tenets of manoeuvre'7.. •warfare to bypass major . ation centresto create an opening that bro cca within reachin less than two weeks of the war. The campaign wasbacked by the East Pakistan population and supported bythe Mukti Bahini. Innovation on the part of the armedforces, complete cohesion between different constituentsof the government, including the three services, and useof psychological warfare against the adversary ensuredthe collapse of Pakistan's military. The surrender of90,000 soldiers from Pakistan, a record of its kind sinceWWII, was accompanied by the birth of Bangladesh. The

Prisoners of War (POws) were treatedwell and despatched in due courseback to Pakistan with dignity, thanksto the high standards of the ArmedForces ofIndia.

The war ended in a stalemate, with Pakistan's initialadvantage having been neutralised by the resurgentarmed forces of India, backed by an equally determinedpublic sentiment. Peace with Pakistan, -----------however, was short-lived. In 1971,the Pakistani state unleashed one ofthe worst genocides upon its ownBengali population in East Pakistan.The Pakistani Army was used asan instrument of repression of themost horrendous nature. This led toten million refugees entering India.India endeavoured to seek a peacefulsolution to the humanitarian crisis thatarose. However, having failed, andin the face of Pakistan's declarationof war on 3 December 1971, India's

The surrender of 90,000soldiers from Pakistan, a record

of its kind since WWII, wasaccompanied by the birth ofBangladesh. The Prisoners of

War (POWs) were treated welland despatched in due courseback to Pakistan with dignity,

thanks to the high standards ofthe Armed Forces of India.

Even though India's armed forceshad delivered an unqualified victory,the path that followed was not freeof challenges. The world was rapidlychanging. Sino-US rapprochementin 1972, the third Arab-Israel warin 1973 and the oil crisis, the end ofthe long-drawn war in Vietnam in1975, the failed Chinese invasion of


Vietnam in 1979, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistanthe same year, and the Iran-Iraq war in 1980 togethercreated an environment that demanded adjustments inIndia's military preparedness. Pakistan and China hadcome even closer together and Pakis . the backingof the Organisation of the Isla ca (OIC)and the West for services rendeAfghanistan. The nature of th eat from Pak waschanging. The western advers ~ had new su linesof finance and armaments. The . tan ar ~ s moreIslamist than before, and nurturin'7, , '" ,ill could beused against India as well.

The realities of the evolving military preparationson the Pakistani side, which included the creation ofextensive battlefield obstacle systems,demanded a shift on the Indian sideto mobile fast-paced warfare on landwith the ability to undertake deepstrikes in the open terrain of thedeserts. This, and the need to cut theteeth-to-tail ratio, led to emphasis onmechanisation of the Indian Army andupgradation of the other two servicesas well. The eighties saw this processunderway, with the armed forcesgaining substantially in capabilityduring that period.

willingness to venture beyond India's borders in supportfor calls from neighbours for assistance. While thepeacekeeping mission in Sri Lanka spearheaded by theIndian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) led to questionablestrategic gains despite heavy losses to men and material,Operation Cactus launched in Maldives against anattempted coup produced appreciable results in 1988.

However, both forays by India did bring homeimportant lessons not only for the armed forces butalso for policymakers. These related to the need tohone capabilities, including expeditionary, according toemerging threats and challenges, as also, to fill the criticalvoids that became evident during both these operations.These included gaps in coordination, equipment

deficiencies, weaknesses in jointstructures, and readiness to operatebeyond the Indian shores.

While India had managed tokeep in check sub-conventionalthreats such as insurgencies inthe North-East of the countryand terrorism in Punjab, thethreats to the nation were

magnified by the adversitiesencountered in the deploymentin Operation Pawan in Sri Lankaand the spike in Pak-sponsored

cross-border terrorism inKashmir.

Phase - III

A new phase in the journey ofthe Indian Armed Forces commencedin the mid-1980s. The Chinesechallenge in Sumdorong Chu wasmet by transporting an entire brigadeby helicopters. This was also the timewhen the People's Liberation Army(PLA) was acquiring new weaponssystems, including US-made Sikorskyhelicopters to be used in mountainousareas. For the Indian Armed Forces,

The modernisation of the armedforces was also accompanied by a


the scope and scale of challenges had multipliedfurther. While India had managed to keep in check sub-conventional threats such as insurgencies in the North-East of the country and terrorism in Punjab, the threats tothe nation were magnified by the adversities encounteredin the deployment in Operation Pawan in Sri Lanka andthe spike in Pak-sponsored cross-border terrorism inKashmir.

Indian Coast Guard and the Indian Navy acting in tandemwith state police. A second front had opened up vis-a-visPakistan's malevolence, all along India's coastline.

Phase - IV

The Government undertook major course correctionin 2014. A proactive approach was adopted to enhancethe budget for all three wings of the armed forces. TheIndian Navy and the Indian Coast Guard in particular,

The involvement of Pakistan became more received generous funding to meet emerging maritimepronounced in Kashmir, as terrorism emerged as its threats, both traditional and non-traditional. Apart fromprimary instrument in the low-intensity hybrid waragainst India. The armed forces were stretched to the preventing sea-mounted terrorist attacks, thwarting

piracy, and smuggling of drugs and arms, India's maritimeextreme and the simultaneity of the threats demanded security must now factor in the growing presence of thelocal understanding of each challenge and calibration of Chinese PLA Navy in the Indian Ocean.the effort accordingly. Winning hearts and minds becameas important as taking a bead on terrorists through a A policy of zero tolerance was adopted in regard torifle-sight. A people-centric approach also meant that terrorism-from across the border. This resulted in a cross-the armed forces would take higher casualties. This, the LoC strike against terrorist camps in 2016 after an attackarmed forces did without demur, despite a large number of at an armycamp at Uri. In 2019, after a deadly suicidesoldiers laying down their lives to protect the sovereignty bombing against CRPF troopers at Pulwama, offensiveand territorial integrity ofIndia. For an entirely voluntary airpower was employed for the first time against terroristmilitary, the commitment and dedication to duty of targets in Balakot, deep inside the Khyber Pakhtunkhwathe Indian Armed Forces is truly ....:p_r_o_v_in_c_e_of_Pakistan. These actions changed the strategyexemplary. adopted by the armed forces against

Bravery by individuals and some terrorism d by Pakistan.Pakistan's frustration at not being units notwithstanding the shock F . IOI).:~

able to achieve a major breakthrough or on ~ ,vvp replaced by a. of the ill-planned retreat and proac approach a -t~was Pakistanin Kashmir, eventually led to its Q) ~

misadventure at Kargil in 1999. humiliating defeat in 1962 led: that forced to as e a reactiveWhat followed was one of the most to a fundamental change ln the postu 1i against In 'l~ actions. Itlaudable and awe-inspiring efforts on structure, training, equipping, also strat ~ dia's abilitypart of the armed forces. They had and disposition of the armed to unde *' ,/h~~· \\ ntional militaryone hand tied behind their backs as forces for the better. action against Pakistan under a nuclear

overhang.they successfully fought, inch-by-inchwith the support of the Indian Air Force, to beat back the In recent years, the armed forces have also undertakenincursions along the Line of Control without crossing a tough stance against border violations by China alongit. The Kargil experience raised questions, akin to those the LAC. Both in 2017 and 2020, Chinese attempts atraised in the 1950s in Aksai Chin in the run-up to the altering status quo were not only challenged, but also1962 conflict, about the effectiveness of intelligence blunted through immediate action by India. These actionsgathering, and the need for regular patrolling of India's displayed India's resolute and firm stance in the face ofborder regions. The Kargil episode also questioned about provocations. It also proved that the armed forces deliverstructures and institutions, to develop more effective better when the political leadership is resolute and givesand timely responses to future challenges based on the military leaders the resources and independence to

undertake initiatives as well as counter measures basedrecommendations of the Kargil Review Committee(KRC) and Group of Ministers (GoM). on their professional military assessment. In the aftermath

of the Chinese aggression in Galwan in eastern LadakhSome early measures undertaken thereafter included in June 2020, the Government left no stone unturned to

the appointment of a full-time National Security Adviser, equip the armed forces with modem weapons, equipment,creation of Multi-Agency Centre, the establishment of a and logistics needed to mirror the Chinese deployments.tri-services command in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Today, the armed forces are also leading the way inand NTRO. The 2008 dastardly terror attacks in Mumbai support of Atmanirbhar Bharat- a call for self-relianceoccasioned the revamping of the National Security Guard given by the Prime Minister. A wide-ranging set of(NSG) and beefing-up of maritime security through the measures have been undertaken to give a fillip to Make


in India through a tandem between thepublic and private sector. Entrepreneursrepresenting the small and mediumsectors have been provided supportand opportunities to contribute tothis endeavour. They have also beengranted access to testing facilities ofDRDO to support their attempts atmanufacturing in India as part of theAtmanirbhar Bharat initiative.

well as jomtness down the chain ofcommand. Steps are already underwayto bring about much needed integrationwithin the training and logisticsestablishments as well.

The last seventy years havebeen both a challenge and anopportunity. An outstandingand consistent feature of theIndian Armed Forces remains

their secular tradition as well asapolitical professionalism under

civilian governments.

Simultaneously, there is anunprecedented emphasis on makingthe armed forces technology-centric,taking into account the advent ofArtificial Intelligence (AI), Internet of

Things (loT), and modern advances in stand-off weaponsand surveillance techniques. This is aimed at enhancingthe capability of the armed forces to fight modern dayconflicts across the entire spectrum.

The focus on indigenisation is not aimed at creatingabsolute autarky in defence manufacturing. Currentpolicies leave enough space for foreign OriginalEquipment Manufacturers (OEMs) to participate in jointventures and Transfer of Technology (ToT). Conclusion

The armed forces have also witnessed a number The last seventy years have been both a challengeof institutional changes. Gender equality is a laudable and an opportunity for the armed forces. This accountachievement. Unlike in the past when women were seeks to suggest that many tough challenges have beenrestricted to representation in a few branches of the armed . h '1' bv Indi 'A d F hc. h h M di I d Ed . C d met wit great rest ience y n ia s rme orces. T eyrorces sue as tee tea an ucation orps, nowa ays ..

t wi f th d c. h th _~ have used several opportumties to adapt and improvemos wmgs 0 e arme rorces ave seen e e IJ4'IOn.p"I dditi t t commissionsz'ev "<l g every yardstick in military performance. Anwomen. n a 1 IOn 0 permanen commisston w. en /' '" .

are also flying combat aircraft, deploying on na esse Is, S ndmg .and c~nslstent feat~r~ of the Indian ~~edand will soon be permitted to train alongside ir male s remams their secular tradition as well as apoliticalcounterparts at the prestigious National Defence p sionalism under civilian governments.r-;

On 15 August 2019, the Prime Minister an . *~ Going by their record, there is little doubt that the,"\\ d c '11' . de" d I"the path-breaking decision of the Government to cr-ea...-....::.....--arme rorces Wl continue to remam stea last m ea mg

the post of Chief of Defence Staff and the Department robustly against external threats and simultaneouslyof Military Affairs. This met a long-standing demand supporting the government's actions to improvein strategic circles. These institutional changes have internal security. This will increasingly be done throughushered in earnest major defence reforms at the highest improved structures and a technologically-drivenechelons. The process is being further strengthened with organisation, supported by the clear vision of resolutereforms aimed at integration at the level of theatres as political leadership. 0

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YoJANA ARCHIVES

FINANCIAL FREEDOM

Swadeshi EntrepreneurshipAnindya Sengupta

Emergence of Mahatma Gandhi with his credo of non-violence and the idea of trusteeship founddeep resonance with the Indian business elite. With rising nationalism, there was a definitechange in consumer culture too. Irrespective of whether they were actively participating inpolitical movements or not, people wanted to use India-made/local products as a badge of theirpatriotism. This also led to the emergence of a swadeshi retail network.

The idea of 'economic swadeshi' emerged bythe second half of the 19th century. Thanks tothe writings of R C Dutt, Dadabhai Naoroji,and M GRanade, the new western-educated

middle class was well aware of the colonial economicexploitation. Gopal Hari Deshmukh was one of the firststo advocate economic swadeshi in 1849. But the credit fortranslating it to a call to action goes to the 'college faction'oftheArya Samajists in Punjab.

Pre-Swadeshi Movement

with mechanised locks and founded Godrej & Boyce in1897.

Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray (1861-1944), apioneering chemist, founder of Bengal Chemicals (India'sfirst pharmaceuticals co and a devoted nationalistspent his entire liD ~ 'cf vings) in promotingeducation and s c resea and in advocatingknowledge-based ustries to a (fi ss India's poverty.~For people like h entrepreneur based on scientificknowledge was an 'table ste rds nation-building .

.~ ---";"'"'"In Bengal, at lea ~ , when some membersof the Tagore family helpe abagopal Mitra to organisea fair to promote swadeshi enterprises, there had been

regular calls for self-reliance or atmasakti (includingpromotion of education, particularly technical

education, the boycott of foreign goods, andindigenous production and distribution).

Two families took lead in this -first, the Roy family of Bhagyakul,who developed a flourishing tradein rice and jute, and were the chieforganisers of the Bengal NationalChamber of Commerce (1887);second, the Tagore family, especiallyJyotirindranath, launched a majorventure in 1884 with his Inland River

Steam Navigation Service.

A group of middle-class, western-educated Punjabis-prominent among them were Lala Lajpat Rai, LalaHarkishan Lal, and Sir Dayal Singh Majithia cametogether to found the Punjab National Bank (1894).This was the first major Indian-owned bank.Lala Harkishan Lal, who soon emerged asthe moving force behind this venture,went on to found a series of joint-stock companies. These includedinsurance firms (Bharat Insurancewas the first major Indian-ownedinsurance company), flour mills, aspinning and weaving mill, a cottonpress company, an oil pressing, anda timber works concern, a matchfactory, soap factories, brick kilns,sawmills, ice factories, etc.

In Bombay, a Parsi lawyer ArdeshirBurjorji Sorabji Godrej (1868-1936) cameto realise the importance of indigenousmanufacturing. After failing in a seriesof ventures, he tasted business success

Even Bengal Chemicals (1892)preceded the Swadeshi Movementthough it received a massive boostduring the swadeshi days.

The author is a public policy analyst and a student of economic history. Email: [email protected]


Swadeshi EnterprisesThe announcement of the Partition of

unleashed a surge of nationalism and re "entrepreneurial spirit. Members of t scincluding Rabindranath; Satish CMDawn Society, and many others were rSwadeshi fairs, setting up shops to sel eshi(Rabindranath's Swadeshi Bhandar in ~De~Chandra Chaudhuri's Indian Stores in 1901, Sara a ebi'sLaksmir Bhandar in 1903), and working for the revival ofthe traditional crafts.

Bengal's leading landlords, businessmen, and politicalleaders came together to launch the most high-profileswadeshi venture - Banga Luxmi Cotton Mill (1906).Two years later, Mohinimohan Chakraborti, landlord andretired Deputy Magistrate, launched a smaller Mohini Millin East Bengal. Both did well and successfully challengedthe monopoly of the only British cotton mill in Bengal.The biggest beneficiary of the boycott of Manchestercloths turned out to be Bombay and Ahmedabad, where 39mills came up between 1904 and 1910 to cater to swadeshidemands.

Landlords and professionals came together to foundthe short-lived Bengal National Bank (1908). Calcuttaalso saw a spate of insurance ventures, especially theNational Insurance Company (1906)and the famous Hindustan CooperativeInsurance (1907)"

The real achievement of the Bengali swadeshientrepreneurs was to venture into new industries basedon their technical knowledge. Manufacturing a number of

household products, key medicines, andbasic acids, P C Ray's Bengal Chemicalsshowed the way. This example wasfollowed by Calcutta Chemicals and anumber of manufacturers of Ayurvedicand/or allopathic drugs, cosmetics, andchemical products. Chrome tanning(National Tannery, Utkal Tannery),production of glazed potteries (Calcuttaand Bengal Potteries), electric lamps(Bengal Lamp), safety matches(Oriental and Bande Mataram Matchfactories), and a number of consumeritems attracted their interests. Givingexpressions to the new nationalist

British dominance of shippinglines was a matter of deep discontent,especially in riverine East Bengal.Despite the collapse ofJyotirindranath'sventure, swadeshi days saw renewedinterest in launching shipping ventures.But they were unable to withstandbrutalrate war unleashed by the Englishshipping lines, where as many astwenty Indian shipping companiesfailed between 1905 and 1930.

The announcement of thePartition of Bengal (1905)

unleashed a surge of nationalismand rekindled the Bengali

entrepreneurial spirit. Membersof the Tagore family, includingRablndranath: Satish Chandra

Mukherjee's Dawn Society, andmany others were regularly

organising Swadeshi fairs, settingup shops to sell swadeshi goods.


sentiments, Anandabazar and Jugantoremerged as two successful mediacompanies.

India, he appealed to his fellow Indiansand received an incredible response. Injust three weeks, the Tatas could collecta huge 16.30 lakh pounds. At theheight of the Swadeshi Movement, ashundreds of ordinary Indian investorsqueued up to buy TISCO shares, theTatas conceived this as a truly nationalproject. The first Governing Board ofTISCO had all the luminaries of theIndian business world, representing allmajor communities.

In Madras, firebrand nationalist leader V 0 ChidambaramPillai launched his Swadeshi Steam Navigation Companyfrom Tuticorin (1906), to challenge the British monopoliesbut had a short life. The other important venture set up inMadras was the United India Life Assurance.

A large number of Indian bankswere founded between 1900 andthe First World War (1914-1919)and helped to extend modern

banking facilities to Indiancustomers, but due to the lackof managerial experience, most

of them failed.

Most of these ventures ended infailure. They were built on the limitedfinances of petty landlords and thesavings of professionals. They had thetechnical knowledge but not always thebusiness acumen to deal with supplybottlenecks or distribution challenges.They were often more focused ondeveloping technical knowledge, replacing foreign goods,and contributing to nation-building. An archetype of aswadeshi entrepreneur was someone like Dr NilratanSarkar - one of the most renowned doctors of Calcutta, whospent his fortune in setting up one swadeshi venture afteranother, sinking into debts and again rising from there, orH Bose, a successful businessman selling Kuntalin hair oiland Delkhosh perfumes, pioneered colour photography inIndia, first manufactured gramophone records in India, andtried to promote new mechanical innovations throughouthis life.

One of the great contributions of the swadeshi periodwas the promotion of science. Meritorious studentswere sent to Japan, Germany, and the USA for technicaleducation. Some of them came back to set up successfulbusinesses like Calcutta Chemicals, Calcutta Potteries, andBengal Waterproof. The National Education Movement(1905-1938) helped set up colleges and schools, and oneof the institutions associated with it metamorphosed intoJadavpur University. A rejuvenated nation took great pridein the achievements of scientists like P C Ray and J CBose, with a leading magazine calling Jagadish Chandra'splant response experiment, 'the greatest swadeshi event of1906'.

In Bombay, a chemistry professor, TribhuvandasKalyandas Gajjar (1863-1920) set up two small factoriesto produce a range of chemical products. He was soonjoined by B D Amin, a rich Baroda landlord. Thus beganthe journey of Alembic, Western India's first chemicalcompany (1907). The other great visionary was LaxmanraoKirloskar (1869-1956), founder of the Kirloskar businessempire, who started his career as a teacher of mechanicaldrawings at Bombay's Victoria Jubilee Technical Institute.A self-taught technical expert, Laxmanrao began to producesmall mechanical implements and set up his independentbusiness by 1910 with support from the ruler of Aundh.

But as business historian Dwijendra Tripathysuggested, the biggest beneficiary of the prevailingswadeshi sentiment was the Tatas. By 1904-05, they wereon the verge ofrealising Jamshedji's dream of setting up amodem steel factory in India. But Dorabji Tata's efforts toraise money in London were not successful. Returning to

YOJANA January 2022

Emergence of Modern Banking

In the wake of the swadeshi spirit, different groupsof people across the country came to the same conclusionas that of the Arya Samajists in Punjab and what thinkerslike Bholanath Chandra advocated in Bengal earlier- thecentral role of finance in creating an indigenous businessecosystem.

In Madras, a group of eminent citizens and businessmencame together under the leadership of a lawyer (later on,High Court judge) d\W~ amy Iyer, to set up theIndian Bank in mon ther smaller venturesin the Madras sidency we ~ he Canara BankingCorporation of 'pi (later Co :::J ation Bank) and theCanara Hindu P Co). ent Fund Canara Bank).

.' OJ.

Similar group ~ i'fi.."unded two major banks- the Bank of India ( the Central Bank of India(1911, the first Chairman was Sir Pherozeshah Mehta). InBaroda, Maharaja Sayajirao II led the way to set up the firstmajor bank in a princely state - Bank of Baroda (1908).Business elites in Punjab set up the Punjab and Sind Bankin the same year.

A large number ofIndian banks were founded between1900 and the First World War (1914-1919), and helped toextend modem banking facilities to Indian customers, butdue to the lack of managerial experience, most of themfailed.

Swadeshi in Everyday Lives

Boycott of foreign goods and the use of India-madeproducts- the trend that started in Bengal in 1905, spreadto the rest of the country with Mahatma Gandhi and hisadvocacy of khadi. With rising nationalism, there was adefinite change in consumer culture too. Irrespectiveof whether they were actively participating in politicalmovements or not, people wanted to use India-made/localproducts as a badge of their patriotism. This also led to

25

the emergence of a swadeshi retailnetwork.

Business ventures also appealed topatriotic feelings or Indian sensibilities-Banga Luxmi proclaimed that theyoffered Bengali cloth, manufactured ina Bengali factory by Bengali workersand sold through shops owned byBengalis. Godrej promoted their soapas the first vegetable soap in the world(and it was endorsed by none other thanRabindranath Tagore). All Indian sugarcompanies insisted that their swadeshisugar was 'pure', meaning no chemicalhad been used.

Similarly, all drugs/cosmetic manufacturers insistedon the swadeshi/Ayurvedic roots of their medicines andoften directly or indirectly hinted at potential harms ofusing western medicines/chemical products.

Thus, production, distribution, advoc~~lQsuch products (even when of inferior qbecame an extension of one's patriotis Q) nd a way to,6contribute to nation-building. ~

Another wave of Swadeshi enterprise ~the 1930s. This time in response to Gandhijl orthe boycott of foreign goods, even rural India responded,leading to capacity expansion/setting up of new textilemills in Bombay and Ahmedabad.

Apart from a variety of otherexperiments, two major ventures stoodout:By the late 1930S, it was clear

that the days of the BritishRaj were numbered and the

nation-building had to be a jointexercise between the politicaland industrial leaderships. In

1944-45, 'Bombay Plan' outlinedthe strategy for doubling of theagricultural output and five-foldincrease in the industrial sector

within 15 years.

From Yojana Archives-...;._...a~"",,

26

Walchand Hirachand (1882-1953), who was greatly inspired as astudent by Dadabhai Naoroji and M GRanade, represented a more militantnationalist approach to business. HisScindia Steam Navigation Companyput up a brave fight for decades toresist the monopoly and discriminatorypolicies of the P&O and British IndiaShipping lines. Taking advantage ofthe opportunities presented by theSecond World War, he launched a

series of projects, including India's first modem shipyard(Hindustan Shipyard, Vishakhapatnam), first car factory(Premier Automobiles, near Bombay), and first aircraftfactory (Hindustan Aircrafts in Bangalore, today'sHindustan Aeronautics Limited or HAL).

Another remarkable venture was Chemical, Industrialand Pharmaceuticals Laboratories (Now Cipla), foundedin 1935 by a visionary scientist Khwaja Abdul Hamied,who had a doctorate in Chemistry from Germany. Hamiedwas a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi and a greatinstitution builder.

Convergence

After the First World War, a large number ofIndian businesses made the crossover from trading tomanufacturing.

The emergence of Mahatma Gandhi with his credoof non-violence and the idea of trusteeship found deepresonance with the Indian business elite. Earlier, it was analliance of interests but now it became a close personalbond and businessmen like G D Birla and Jamnalal Bajajemerged as Gandhiji's closest associates.

By the late 1930s, it was clear that the days of theBritish Raj were numbered and the nation-building hadto be a joint exercise between the political and industrialleaderships. There are two major landmarks in theevolution of this relationship:

In 1938, Congress President Subhas Chandra Boseset up a National Planning Commission under thechairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru. This Commission hadprominent industrialists like Purushottamdas Thakurdas,Walchand Hirachand, A D Shroff, and Ambalal Sarabhaias members, along with technocrat M Visvesvaraya andscientist Meghnad Saha.

In 1944-45, eight leading industrialists - J R D Tata,G D Birla, Ardeshir Dalal, Lala Shri Ram, KasturbhaiLalbhai, A D Shroff, Purushottamdas Thakurdas, and JohnMatthai came out with a blueprint for independent India's

YOJANA January 2022

economic development. This 'Bombay Plan' outlined thestrategy for doubling of the agricultural output and five-fold increase in the industrial sector within 15 years. Theyaccepted that without State support this would not bepossible. Though it was never officially accepted but thepost-independence economic planning did follow the samepath of State interventions and a mixed economy withlarge-scale public sector.

Legacy

Apart from the handful of material successes likeGodrej or Cipla or Alembic or (a much-diminished)Bengal Chemicals, and a clutch of PSU banks, what arethe legacies of swadeshi business enterprises?

Right from the late 19th century, the general trajectoryof Indian business has been a shift from trading tomanufacturing. Taking advantage of their accumulatedcapital, control of distribution and raw materials, largetraders belonging to traditional trading communitiesgradually shifted to entrepreneurship.

In contrast to this, Bengal during the Swadeshi dayssaw for the first time, a concerted effort by educatedmiddle-class entrepreneurs to build businesses based ontheir technical knowledge. Similarly, modem bankingin India developed due to the efforts of these Swadeshi-inspired entrepreneurs.

Since then, we have repeatedly seen this trend ofnew waves of entrepreneurs, creating disruptions basedon their technical knowledge. Acharya P C Ray wouldhave been proud today to see that India has emerged as aglobal pharmaceuticals giant and is making great strides inother knowledge-based industries, including InformationTechnology and speciality chemicals.

Evaluating Lala Harkishanlal's contribution,historian N Gerald Barrier wrote that all his venturesultimately failed but his real contribution was thetransformation of the Punjabi middle class- heshowed them the way to shift from traditionalcommerce to modern industrial and financial sectors.This could be said about the swadeshi phase of Indianentrepreneurial history in general. It expanded thesocial base of the Indian business class, showed theyouth a constructive way of contributing to nation-building, and provided tremendous inspiration forfuture generations. 0

EndnotesI. Dwijendra Tripathy, Oxford History ofIndian Business, OUP India,

2004

2. Sumit Sarkar, The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal 1903-1908,People's Publishing House, 1973

·:t Amit Bhattacharya, Swadeshi Enterprise in Bengal (1880-1920),Pu~)ished by Mita Bhattacharya, 1986.

"b

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~----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~~YOJANA January 2022 27

FOOD SECURITY

Global Agricultural PowerhouseDr Jagdeep Saxena

In agriculture and food sector, our country has attained sustainable food security for its largepopulation and also earned coveted tag of 'Global Agricultural Powerhouse: Moving beyondself-sufficiency, India is now a prominent exporter of agricultural products with:q sizable sharein the export of rice, cotton, soybean, and meat. During the unprecedented Covid-19 pandemic,India emerged as a global supplier of food and other agricultural products.

India is efficiently feeding and managingnearly 18% of the world population withonly 2.4% and 4% of global land and waterresources respectively. Consistent agricultural

and land reforms, progressive and inclusive policies, andapplication of 'Science and Technology' at the ground-level pushed-up productivity, production, and quality ofagricultural products at a remarkable pace. Consequently,India is now the largest producer of pulses, jute, and milk,and ranks as the second-largest producer of rice, wheat,sugarcane, cotton, and groundnuts in the world. It alsoholds the second position in global fruit and vegetableproduction with a high rank in the production of mango,banana, papaya, and lemon.

With many feathers in its cap, the agriculture sector isnow a proud entity with global acclaim, but the situation atthe time of independence was quite deplorable. In additionto recurrent famines, the country lost major wheat and rice-growing areas to Pakistan due to partition. In 1950-51, Indiaproduced around 50 million tonnes of foodgrains, whichwas not enough to feed the population of 350 million. Tosave its growing population from hunger, India resortedto the import of foodgrains which ultimately led to 'shipto mouth' living. Meanwhile, Indian leadership realisingthe critical importance of agriculture in the NationalFood Security Act (NFSA), proclaimed 'everything canwait, but not agriculture'. Hence, a slew of measures wasinitiated mainly to improve and extend irrigation facilitiesand bring in a 'scientific temper' in agriculture and alliedsectors. Strengthening of the nationwide agriculturalR&D network was fast-tracked, along with the creation ofagricultural education facilities and extension services tofarmers. However, in our land of traditional agriculture, it

was first recognised as a 'subject of scientific improvement'in 1871 when British rulers established a 'Department ofRevenue and Agriculture and Commerce'. Although theDepartment had a Ii r agricultural development,it mainly focused '7& ct, British rulers did notintend to feed t ~ mine-ami ndia, rather desired todirect agricul Q) owards the p -' ction of raw materials.::Jfor British ind es, especiall <ef, r the textile industriesof Manchester. ver, so b earch institutions wereestablished at a v~ tsUeThPl.~"\ hich later emerged as thelight-house of agricu development in independentIndia. The Imperial Bacteriological Laboratory (1889)was the earliest institution established in Pune, whichlater evolved as the prestigious ICAR-Indian VeterinaryResearch Institute with headquarter at Izatnagar, Bareilly,UP. Similarly, the Imperial Agricultural Research Instituteestablished in 1905 in Pusa, Samastipur, later became thedistinguished ICAR-IndianAgricultural Research Institute(lAR!) at New Delhi; and the Imperial Institute of Animal

The author is Former Chief Editor, rCAR, New Delhi. Email: [email protected]


Husbandry and Dairying established in 1923 in Bangalore,later grew to become the eminent National Dairy ResearchInstitute in Kamal, Haryana.

The Royal Commission on Agriculture, appointedin 1926, recommended the setting up of an ImperialCouncil of Agricultural Research to endorse, direct,and organise agricultural veterinary research across thecountry. Thus, a central research coordination agencycame up in 1929 which later evolved and was renamedthe Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), soonafter independence. Meanwhile, basic research continuedat the provincial level under the respective departmentsof Agriculture and Animal Husbandry through theagricultural and veterinary colleges. Notable institutionsunder the Provinces were the Sugarcane Breeding Stationfounded in 1912 in Coimba ich later becameICAR-Sugarcane Breedin ~ it nd the RiceResearch Station establis n 1911. other hand,the Central Ministry of and Agricul '::) emphasisedon commercial crops, a di onstituted s <0 autonomousbodies or commodity co~ ittees to ~ ct research,:;,:specifically for improving t . . \ i e products. Thefirst such committee of cotton stablished in 1921,which led to the development of70 improved varieties andconsiderably improved fibre quality. Subsequently, thesecommittees were established for the overall improvementof lac, jute, sugarcane, coconut, tobacco, oilseeds, arecanut, cashew nut, and spices.

Towards Self-Reliance

After independence, Indian policy planners accordedtop priority to agricultural development with theultimate goal to make the country self-reliant in staplefoodgrains, i.e., wheat and rice. Accordingly, severalspecific initiatives were taken in the first Five Year Planto uplift agricultural growth along several verticals. Majorirrigation projects were launched and land titles were givento actual cultivators under land reforms. Co-operativecredit institutions got a boost due to better financing andan initiative was taken up to bring institutional changesin the agriculture support system. Consequently, Indiaharvested nearly 70 million tonnes of foodgrains (wheat,rice, coarse cereals, and pulses) during 1956-57, butdue to the growing population, it could not lessen thecountry's reliance on imports. In the Second Five YearPlan, agriculture was shifted downwards in the prioritylist to accommodate industrial development for boostingthe economy. During the 1960s, India continued with theescalation of imports, mainly from the USA under thePL-480 scheme. In and around 1965, the country sufferedthree major setbacks on the food front- severe drought, warwith Pakistan, and imposition of strict curbs by the USAon delivery of wheat. India somehow managed to avoid thesevere trap of famine and hunger by importing an all-timehigh, 10 million tonnes of foodgrains in 1966 from varioussources. In the Third Five Year Plan, the Governmentmade a strong commitment to making the country self-

They established their own specific research reliant in food grains production, mainly through scientificinstitutions to conduct advanced research, such as Cotton and technological interventions, and implementationTechnology Research laboratory at Bombay; Indian Lac of conductive policies at farm-level. The GovernmentResearch Institute at Ranchi; Jute Agricultural Research of India permitted trials of Mexican wheat varieties inLaboratory at Dhaka (later relocated to Calcutta in 1947); fields. These varieties, developed by renowned AmericanCentral Research Station at Kayankulam and Kasargod; Agronomist, Dr Norman E Borlaug (1914 to 2019), wereIndian Institute of Sugarcane Research at Lucknow; and dwarf/semi-dwarf, rust-resistant, and had already shownthe Central Tobacco Research Institute at Rajahmundry. potential to enhance yield manifold. Over 1,000 trials/

demonstrations were conducted in farmers' fields acrossOn the agricultural education front, the first the north Indian wheat belt under the mentorship of

Agricultural School was opened at Saidapet, Chennai eminent Plant Geneticist Dr M S Swaminathan. Farmersin 1868, which was later relocated to ----------- successfully harvested 4-5 tonnes perCoimbatore in 1906. Likewise, the The Imperial Bacteriological hectare yield in contrast to earlier one-Department for teaching agriculture Laboratory (1889) was the tonne hectare with Indian varieties.in the College of Science at Pune earliest institution established This was a quantum jump never(founded in 1989) was later developed in Pune, which later evolved imagined earlier. The clamour forinto a separate college of agriculture new high-yielding seeds grew rapidlyas the prestigious ICAR-in 1907. A series of agricultural across wheat-growing areas due to thecolleges were established at Kanpur, Indian Veterinary Research excellent performance of new wheatSabour, Nagpur, and Lyallpur (now in Institute with headquarter at varieties and personal motivation toPakistan) from 1901 to 1905. These Izatnagar, Barellly, UP. The first farmers by the great duo- Dr Borlaugcolleges were mainly devoted to Agricultural School was opened and Dr Swaminathan. Agricultureteaching, but research activities could at Saidapet, Chennai in 1868, departments and R&D institutionsnot be carried out due to the lack of which was later relocated to facilitated a regular supply of qualityscientific and technical manpower and seeds, fertilisers, machinery, irrigation

Coimbatore in 1906.facilities. facilities, and more importantly,


scientific advisories. In 1968, our nationreaped a bumper harvest of nearly17 million tonnes of wheat that was just11 million tonnes in 1966. This was thebiggest leap of wheat production everrecorded globally. This spectacularachievement was recognised as 'GreenRevolution' over the world.

the promotion of excellence in higheragricultural education by mentoring andproviding financial support to 71 StateAgricultural Universities. In additionto research and education, ICARalso supports technology assessment,demonstration, and capacitydevelopment activities through anetwork of 11 Agricultural TechnologyApplication Research Institutions and721 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs)across the country. KVKs are small

entities at the district level that perform frontline extensionactivities and are responsible for the implementation of'Lab to Land' programmes. The first KVK was opened inPondicherry in 1974 on the recommendation of an expertcommittee (1973), constituted to suggest ways for theinstitutionalisation of agricultural extension at a nationallevel.

Major irrigation projects werelaunched and land titles were

given to actual cultivators underland reforms. Co-operative

credit institutions got a boostdue to better financing and aninitiative was taken up to bring

institutional changes in theagriculture support system.

Acting almost on a similar pattern,the Government ofIndia indented seedsof dwarf and high-yielding rice varietyIR-8, developed by the InternationalRice Research Institute at Manila, Philippines. Its seedswere distributed among farmers, mainly in the southernand eastern regions. In comparison to merely 2 tonnes perhectare yield from local varieties, farmers could reap abumper harvest of 6-7 tonnes per hectare, and that too ina short duration of only 105 days. Farmers adopted thisvariety widely, and Indian rice breeders developed a seriesof 'IR' varieties with a yield potential up to 10 tonnes perhectare. Thus, an era of high-yielding varieties of cropsbegan with new dimensions such as multiple cropping,a package of good agricultural practices, an extensionof modem farm practices and irrigation facilities, anda newer approach towards post-harvest technologies.During the post-Green Revolution period, policy plannersfocussed more on research, extension, education,input supply, credit support, marketing, price support,and institution building. The new strategy has enabledthe country to increase the production of foodgrains by5.6 times, horticultural crops by 10.5 times, fish by 16.8times, milk by 10.4 times, and eggs by 52.9 times from 1950-51 to 2017-18. As per fourth advance estimates, for 2020-21, total foodgrain production in the country is estimated ata record 308.65 million tonnes. Horticulture production isexpected to reach a record level of 329.86 million tonnes in2020-21 (2nd advance estimates). Thus, India has travelled along journey from being a famine-afflicted and food-scarcenation to a proud food- surplus nation.

Building Networks

During the 1950s and 1960s, the Government of Indiadecided to build a public agricultural research system withICAR as an apex body to plan, coordinate, and undertakeresearch across commodities. Animal husbandry, fisheries,aquaculture, and many other enterprises integral toagriculture, were also brought under the umbrella ofICAR.Now, the system has grown into one of the world's largestnetworks of agricultural R&D, education, and extensioninstitutions. Currently, ICAR is managing R&D activitiesin 102 institutions that include 65 research institutions,four deemed universities with research facilities, 14National Research Centres, six National Bureaux, and 13Project Directorates. ICAR is also playing a major role in

YOJANA January 2022

To strengthen the agricultural research network, itwas imperative to develop a network for higher educationin agriculture and allied sciences. In 1948, the countryhas only 17 agriculture colleges that were working underthe administrative control of agriculture departments ofrespective States. During -49, the then Chairmanof the University Gr iJ . 1 'on Dr SarvepalliRadhakrishnan advo opening I universities forscientific training an ~ ling of rural <in h. Pandit GovindBallabh Pant, the th \1 hief Minist :::J f Uttar Pradesh,acted on his call and ted an e committee to theUSA to study the wo ~ rants Universitiesand recommended a mo *gricultural universitiesin India. Subsequently, acting on the recommendations ofthe committee, the Government of Uttar Pradesh decidedto establish a large and integrated State AgriculturalUniversity in Rudrapur. The huge campus was inauguratedon 17 November 1960, by the then Prime MinisterPandit Jawaharlal Nehru as 'Uttar Pradesh AgriculturalUniversity'. This was the first agricultural university ofIndia that laid a strong foundation of higher agriculturaleducation with excellence. Later, it was renamed GovindBallabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, andalso played an important role in the success of the GreenRevolution. During the Fourth Five Year Plan (1960-65), seven State Agricultural Universities (SAUs). wereestablished in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Punjab,Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. Besideshigher education, the wide network of SAUs is currentlyaddressing State-specific research and extension needs inclose contact with farmer communities. Meanwhile, ICARwas also reorganised and revamped in 1966 to addressemerging challenges at the national level. Administratively,it became an autonomous body under the Government ofIndia, and all research institutions/stations under various

31

In 1968, our nation reaped abumper harvest of nearly

17 million tonnes of wheatthat was just 11 million tonnesin 1966. This was the biggest

leap of wheat productionever recorded globally. This

spectacular achievementwas recognised as 'Green

Revolution' over the world.

central commodity committees werebrought under its umbrella. In 1965,ICAR initiated a novel concept of,All India Coordinated ResearchProjects' (AICRPs) with a specificmandate- 'To conduct operationalresearch and multi-location trials ondeveloped technologies to identifytechnical, financial, managerial, andsocial constraints for better marketacceptability to technologies'.Currently, 60 AICRPs are dedicated andfunctioning towards the improvementof various crops, livestock species,fisheries, and many other commodities of economicimportance.

Creating Milestones

Since the post-Green Revolution period, agriculturalR&D mainly focused its efforts on issues that werecritical to sustaining food s '1Jf} efficient use ofnatural resources. In atte so, a of improvedvarieties of various crop re develope ",,' ith desirable

. ~.characteristics, such as h-yield pote , resistanceto pests and diseases, t nee to bi ."0 and abioticstresses, and better nutriti. alit: ~ me landmarkvarieties with far-reaching im f8~ eve loped underthe leadership of ICAR, such as 'RD' series of wheatvarieties developed by IARI, New Delhi. These varietiesare high-yielding, rust-resistant, and scientists also addedthe attribute of 'climate adaptability' in the latest varieties.The 'HD' series of wheat varieties now covers nearly 140lakh hectare area out of 317 lakh hectare of wheat growingarea in the country. Per hectare productivity of wheat hasnow sky-rocketed to 3,424 kg, which was just 669 kgduring 1946-47. The nation harvested a record 110 milliontonnes of wheat during 2020-21 (4th advance estimate).In rice, other than high-yielding, specific varieties weredeveloped to perform well under drought or water-loggedconditions. However, Basmati rice varieties, developed byIAR!, won worldwide acclaim and popularity due to theirexquisite aroma, flavour, and texture. The Basmati variety

GIS-based fore-warning System. Source: MSSRF

32

'Pusa-1l21' has earned the uniquedistinction of being the 'longestgrain' variety in the world with anexceptionally high cooked kernelelongation ratio of 2.5 and volumeexpansion more than four times. Indiacould earn equivalent to Rs 33,000crore of foreign exchange by exportingbas mati rice during 2018-19. Backedby S&T interventions and improvedvarieties, India harvested a record122.27 million tonnes of rice during2020-21 (4thadvance estimate).

To attain self-reliance in oilseedsproduction, agricultural R&D was oriented towardsincreasing per hectare productivity by various S&Tinterventions. The recent introduction of exotic oil palmas an oilseeds crop by developing production technologiessuitable to Indian conditions has shown promise. Earlier,the introduction and popularisation of soybean in suitableregions have successfully contributed to the kitty of edibleoils. Due to consistent efforts, oilseed production in thecountry has reached a record of36.1 0 million tonnes during2020-21. (4th advance estimate). Special interventionmade to raise the production and productivity of pulseshas led to record production of nearly 26 million tonnes in2020-21 (4thadvance estimate). A mission mode approachwas adopted to raise the production of horticultural cropsmainly by the introduction of new varieties, improvedpackage of agricultural practices, expansion of thearea, and regeneration of old/unproductive orchards.Currently, India ranks number one in the productivityof banana, grapes, papaya, cassava, and green peas.Total horticultural production is estimated to be329.86 million tonnes (highest ever) during 2020-21(2nd advance estimate). A significant increase inproduction is registered over the previous year in nearlyall categories of horticultural crops, such as fruits,vegetables, plantation crops, spices, and medicinal andaromatic plants. In the latest development, scientistshave developed bio-fortified varieties of some majorcrops, which are 1.5 to 3.0 times more nutritious thanthe traditional varieties. Recently, the Prime Ministerdedicated 17 such varieties of eight crops to the nation.

During the 1950s and 1960s,just like foodgrains, Indiadepended heavily on the import of milk to meet nationaldemand. To attain self-reliance, an ambitious programme,called 'Operation Flood', was launched in 1970 thataddressed production and productivity issues with majorreforms in the marketing of milk and milk products. Soon,the efforts paid dividends and in 1998, India became thelargest producer of milk in the world, surpassing the USA.The transformation, widely known as 'White Revolution',is still making waves with current milk production of nearly

YOJANA January 2022

200 million tonnes and per capita milkavailability crossing 400 gm per day.Advances made in animal breeding,reproduction, health, and nutritionhave made seminal contributionsin sustaining the white revolution.Similarly, the targeted programme of'Blue Revolution' transformed thefisheries sector with an all-time highproduction of nearly l4.l6 milliontonnes between 2019 and 2020. On theglobal map, India is the second-largestaquaculture-producing country and thethird-largest fish producer.

Way Forward

Despite splendid growth, Indian agriculture is facingsome major challenges such as small and fragmentedland holdings, post-harvest losses, and poor marketinfrastructure. Recently, the Government has launchedseveral new schemes and programmes to address suchissues by adequate fund allocation and devising innovativemeasures that include cutting-edge S&T interventions.For example, Artificial Intelligence and Machine learningare paving the way for intelligent farming, and the use ofloT-enabled sensors to prevent excessive use of harmfulchemicals. Specialised drones and robots are poised

to revolutionise modern farming.Drones, aerial as well as ground-based, and satellite imagery arehelping farmers to remotely monitorcrops, diagnose issues, and alsomake informed decisions regardingcrop protection and nutrition. Digitaltransformation is changing the face ofagriculture and farmers by providingthe right knowledge, resources, andtechnology on a real-time basis. Onlinemarketplaces (e-Mandis) and regularmarket updates are empowering farmersto maximise their income. Recentthrust and support to agri-startups arehelping the promotion of agriculture as

an enterprise with attractive retu r, the futureofIndian agriculture lies in the m ustainableagriculture, which means d f} opment po .~. relatedto agriculture and farmers Ui; include con ation ofnatural resources and create a ~ bling policy ~. ironmentfor future agriculture. Gene cY. and .. ution ofappropriate technologies, improv ~ ort services,and enhancement in physical infrastructure are other issuesthat need immediate attention. Integration of resources,technologies, knowledge, and policies is paving the wayfor better agriculture and a brighter tomorrow. 0

India has travelled a longjourney from being a famine-

afflicted and food-scarce nationto a proud food- surplus nation.

The Basmati variety 'Pusa-1121' has earned the uniquedistinction of being 'longest

grain' variety in the world withan exceptionally high cookedkernel elongation ratio of 2.5and volume expansion more

than four times.


7~~-Az dOY

~ IKaAmnt Mahotsav

DEVELOPMENT

gconic gmages from

YoJANA ARCHIVES

TRACING THE GROWTH

Economic TransformationManojPant

India gained independence in 1947 under the tumultuous economic and political conditions.First, the treasury was bankrupt with little or no foreign exchange reserves. Second, the immediateneed was to obtain political consensus on inter-state disputes, a new constitution, and a plan foreconomic development. Third, there was the issue of how to engage in international economicrelations wit~ the dominant western powers from which India had just gained independence.

Dndia's international relations with the westdetermined the initial plan of economicdevelopment. The bankruptcy of the treasuryimplied that any development programme

initiated could not be foreign exchange intensive. India'spolitical relations with economic powers like the US andUK were not very good. This led to closer economic andpolitical relations with the then USSR, helped by therupee-ruble exchange programme with the Soviet Unionwhere exports of Indian products like tea were exchangedfor imports of essential items like crude oil. All paymentswere to be in national currencies so that this was equivalentto barter trade.

Close relations with the Soviet Union also led to theadoption of the Feldman model of economic developmentbased on a planned expansion ofSt industries.However, the strategy of adding ~ pro 4! capacityof the capital goods sector @(~ll-conceive thesecapital goods were themsel ~ import-depe ~ t andneeded scarce foreign exchan '-: addition, ~ trategyrequired strict control on import ~ ~ goods toconserve foreign exchange. While 1m of planneddevelopment worked for a while, the inefficiency of theFeldman model became apparent when the productionof capital goods became constrained by the need forimported components. In addition, the wars of 1962 and

The author is Vice-Chancellor and Professor in Economics, Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, New Delhi. Email: [email protected]


1965 further stretched resources so that it became apparentthat the Five Year Plan models had an inherent economicinconsistency. Parallelly, the growing population createda shortage of basic foodstuffs culminating in India andit was being forced to import wheat from the US underthe PL480 programme. Excessive concentration on theindustrial sector producing capital goods and neglectof the agricultural sector implied a development modelconstrained by the availability of consumer goods. Whilethis may have worked in communist countries like theSoviet Union, in a political democracylike India it was not sustainable.

The Five Year Plan model itselfhinted that the state would directproduction in the private sector.The need to limit consumption andconserve foreign exchange impliedthat production by the private sectorhad to be limited by an industriallicensing system where all importsrequiring scarce foreign exchangewere prohibited. In other words,the industrial licensing regime soonimplied the discretionary issue ofindustrial licenses, crony capitalism,and ad hocism in the planning process.

36

howe not be unreasonable to infer that the~t\\lia~ 4' robably directed by the political

~ dealin ith aggressive dominant westernence, leadin ~.:.: closer relations with the Soviett the same ti ::::1 ncreasing demand for consumer

good a growing estic population led to an era ofdomest z ~~

h Deihl * f h 0 .. I'In tee 0 t e 197 s, two major socra 1Stinitiatives were undertaken: one, the complete takeover ofthe wholesale trade in foodgrains and, two, nationalisation

of the major banks. The first measurewas a complete failure and had to berepealed quickly. It was expectedlyfollowed by a period of shortage offoodgrains leading to inflation asdomestic agricultural productionremained stagnant. At the same time,the war for independence of Bangladeshled to additional shortages, followedby the extreme political instability ofthe late 1970s. Simultaneously, theshortage of foreign exchange reserveswas exacerbated by the dramaticincrease in the price of oil in the worldmarket. It was during this period,coinciding with the end of the Third

The Five Year Plan modelitself hinted that the state

would direct production in theprivate sector. The need to

limit consumption and conserveforeign exchange implied that

production by the privatesector had to be limited by

an industrial licensing systemwhere all imports requiring

scarce foreign exchange wereprohibited.

YOJANA January 2022

Year Plan and three years of Annual Plans, that it becameclear that the Feldman model of planned industrialisationwas a failure. Subsequently, starting with the TechnologyPolicy Statement of 1982, production liberalisation andeasing of imports oftechnology were initiated. The internalinconsistency of the planning model leading to foreignexchange shortages reached its peak in the 1980s so thatby the end of the decade, India was in danger of renegingon its external liability and being unable to pay for morethan one month of imports. The reforms of 199 I were aconsequence of this, leading to both domestic and externaleconomic liberalisation and abandonment of the Feldmanmodel of economic development.

To that extent, the period of real economic growthbegan after 1991 when domestic production was openedup completely and foreign exchange controls were alsolifted, while the rupee was allowed to devalue to controlimports via a market mechanism. In other words, most ofthe decade of the 1990s went into dismantling the complexdomestic production and external import control regimes. Ittook at least the decade ofthe 1990s to open up markets andreplace bureaucratic controls by a system of independentmarket regulators in areas like stock markets, competitionpolicy, power distribution, etc. The gains of the shift ofstrategy showed up immediately so that by the end of the1990s, India's foreign exchange reserves increased from

YOJANA January 2022

USD 5.8 billion to USD 38 billion and foreign exchangeceased to be a constraint on industrial development. Inother words, by the end of the 1990s, a completely neweconomic paradigm was established where the state startedwithdrawing from di <t: . n in the areas where themarkets efficiently r&. ered g ~ nd services.

~ ~The extent 0 ~ shift in the e _. mic paradigm can be

appreciated by a '" ber of policy =! ts that are continuingtill date. First, wh e Foreig "b ange Regulation Act(FERA) was being·7.. . to limit the nature offoreign producers in the , today there is little politicalopposition to the need for foreign participation, especiallyin the area of technology via Foreign Direct Investments(FDI). The change in fact began in 1993 when the IndustrialPolicy Resolution stated that the country needed to engageFDI in all areas. It is worth noting that liberalisation offoreign investment policy in tenus of both sectors andextent of foreign equity ownership has continued since1991 with almost no policy reversals in policies despitetwo or three major political changes in the centre.Today, the issue has changed from discouraging foreigninvestments to actively encouraging FDI with almost norestrictions. Second, for those who have lived in Indiathrough the 1960s and 1970s, there is no greater testimonyto the success of the new economic paradigm than the factthat in areas like communications, automobiles, and other

37

While India in the 1960s wasfaced with an extreme shortage

of foodgrains like wheat and rice,today foodgrains production

has increased exponentially withlarger stocks of grains. In fact, itemerged as a dominant exporter

of these items in the 1990S.

consumer goods, the private sector isnot only the dominant producer butalso an efficient producer. The era ofendemic shortages in most consumergoods has now evolved into one wherethe constraints on production aredemand and not supply.

Third, the other aspect of thenew economic paradigm has been thedevelopments in agriculture. Onceagain, while India in the 1960s wasfaced with an extreme shortage of foodgrains like wheatand rice, today foodgrains production has increasedexponentially with larger stocks of grains. In fact, itemerged as a dominant exporter of these items in the1990s. Presently, agricultural production is also no longera constraint on development. To take one example,production has increased from about 90 million tonnes inthe 1960s to almost 200 million tonnes.

In other words, in the 1980s, a change in the paradigmhas implied that the major constraints to economicdevelopment, namely, foreign exchange and food grainproduction, have been eliminated. In current times, theissue is not so much about t and shortage ofbasic foodgrains but one .cipation in theworld market and struc ~ hange in a ;.lture.

Q> ='The switch to an n economy ~ r 1991 hadimplied that India was a lock into :6r d trade. Since1980, global trade has bee tY .~~ ut 8 per cent inreal terms up till 2008., India * .* in this growth aswell, with the share of total trade in GDP increased fromaround 15 per cent in the early 1990s to between 45 to 50per cent today. To put it in another prospective, one out ofevery two rupees of GDP is generated by an exported orimported commodity. It is also well known that comparedto the 2 to 3 per cent growth rate of GDP in the secondhalf of the last century, a growth rate of 4 to 5 per centis considered below par today. At the same time, present-day India has moved away from being an agricultural-dominated economy where the share of GDP originatingin agriculture has declined from about 40 to 50 per cent inthe 1960s to less than 15 per cent today. However, someexperts have argued that India has become a 'crisis-driven'economy so that with the external crisis averted, domesticconstraints have emerged.

First, while economic theory is clear that thegovernment has "no business being in business", yetattempts to reduce the government participation in areaslike civil aviation, hospitality, etc., have faced strongpolitical opposition: what happens to the security of thoseemployed in public sector vital focus? The main issue ofpolitical democracy is who pays for "structural adjustment"as economic change takes place? Second, the declining

38

share in agricultural production in GDPis actually an indication of economicdevelopment and operation of the so-called Engel's Law. It is, however,a failure of structural adjustmentsand the strategy of industrial growththat a similar decline in the numberof those whose primary livelihoodoriginates in the agricultural sector isnot observed. More to the point, whileIndia has effectively engaged with theworld economy, the required structural

adjustment from an agrarian economy to modem industrialsociety is still incomplete.

To a certain extent, the last few decades have seenthis 'structural adjustment' taking place in the Indianeconomy. This is particularly true in the industrial sectorand the manufacturing economy which now accounts forabout 25 per cent of the GDP. More importantly, sectorsthat were forced to remain small because of reservationsand quotas have either closed down or linked to the growthof the large-scale industries. A typical example is a textilesector in which MSME firms did not grow due to limitedcompetition from imports and/or large-scale firms. Mostsuch firms, including the areas like leather garments,engineering, etc., have now learned to link up as suppliersto the large manufacturing firms or have gradually closeddown. Such supply chain linkages have also enabled Indiato integrate with the global economy. Over the last fewdecades, the government has played an important rolein easing the difficulty of this structural adjustment forMSMEs. This process will need to continue.

However, the greatest failure to bring out structuraladjustment has been in the agricultural sector. Whilewe have already noted that the share of agriculturalproduction in GDP is now down to about 15 per cent, it isstill worrying that for 50 to 60 per cent of the populationin rural areas, agriculture is still a fallback option. It is notsurprising that agriculture today is not a profitable optionmainly because of the failure of labour to migrate tothe more productive industrial and service sectors. Thisconstitutes a failure of agriculture policy which has notbeen able to induce farmers to diversify into high value-added production, both in farm products and in relatedareas like dairy farming.

It is this last structural adjustment that must take placegiven the issues of political economy. It is clear that intrade or in industrial/service sector policy, future reformsmust relate to the required structural adjustment in theagricultural sector. As Aldous Huxley famously said, "youcannot prevent an idea whose time has come". The new-age economy of "fintech" and "startups" must also engagewith this question. 0

YOJANA January 2022

BUILDING BLOCKS

Infrastructure: History & ChallengesSameera Saurabh

India's independence was in itself a turning point in its economic history. The country was pooras a result of steady deindustrialisation by the British. Less than a sixth of Indians were literate.The abject poverty and sharp social differences had cast doubts on India's survival as one nation.Cambridge historian Angus Maddison's work shows that India's share of world income shrankfrom 22.6% in 1700 (almost equal to Europe's share of 23.3%) to 3.8% in 1952. The country thatowned the brightest jewel in the British Crown lagged behind in the world in terms of per capitaincome at the beginning of the 20th century.

Infrastructure Development Model

The model envisaged a dominant role of the state asan all-pervasive entrepreneur and financier of privatebusinesses. The Industrial Policy Resolution (IPR) of1948 proposed a mixed economy. Earlier, the 'BombayPlan', proposed by eight influential industrialists envisageda substantial public sector with State interventions andregulations in order to protect indigenous industries. Thepolitical leadership believed that since planning was notpossible in a market economy, the state and public sectorwould inevitably playa leading role in economic progress.

India set up the Planning Commission in 1950 tooversee the entire range of planning,including resource allocation,implementation, and appraisal offive-year plans. These Plans werecentralised economic and socialgrowth programmes modelled afterthose prevalent in the USSR. India'sfirst Five-Year Plan, launched in1951, focused on agriculture andirrigation to boost farm output asIndia was losing precious foreignreserves on foodgrain imports. TheFirst Five-Year Plan was based onthe Harrod-Domar model with fewmodifications. By the end of thePlan in 1956, five Indian Institutesof Technology (IITs) were started

as major technical institutions. The University GrantsCommission (UGC) was set up to take care of fundingand take measures to strengthen higher education in thecountry. Contracts were si ! ub1j five steel plants,which came into exist ~ e ~ e of the SecondFive-Year Plan. .! ~.

""The Second Five r Plan and dustrial PolicyResolution 1956 (long idered the e <C) rnic constitutionof India) paved the way'z It . .~ ent of the publicsector and ushered in the Po·· d. The Second Planfocused on the development of the public sector and 'rapidIndustrialisation'. The Plan followed the Mahalanobismodel, an economic development model developed by the

Indian statistician Prasanta ChandraMahalanobis in 1953.

From the Second Five-YearPlan, there was a determinedthrust towards substitution ofbasic and capital good industries.Hydroelectric power projects andfive steel plants at Bhilai, Durgapur,and Rourkela were establishedwith the help of the Soviet Union,Britain (the UK), and West Germanyrespectively. Coal productionwas increased enormously.More railway lines were addedin North East. The Tata Instituteof Fundamental Research(TIFR) and the Atomic Energy

The author is Director in the Government ofIndia with work experience ranging from policy formulation and implementation in ExternalAffairs, International Labour Standards, G20, BRlCS, Rural Development, and Commerce. Email: [email protected]


Commission of India wereestablished as research institutes. In1957, a talent search and scholarshipprogramme was begun to findtalented students to train for work innuclear power.

Power and steel were identifiedas the key bases for planning. The680ft Bhakra multi-purpose projecton the Sutlej river in HimachalPradesh was considered a newlandmark of a resurgent India.The huge Bhakra-Nangal damsare among several hydel projectsIndia built to light up homes, runfactories, and irrigate crops. Thesecond plan set a target to produce6 million tonnes of steel. Germanywas contracted to build a steel plant in Rourkela, whileRussia and Britain would build one each in Bhilai andDurgapur, respectively. Nationalisation of 14 public sectorbanks was a major event during the Fourth Plan (1969-74) which had a huge impact on the Indian economy &infrastructure. The Indian National Highway System wasintroduced and many roads were widened to accommodatethe increasing traffic during th ~ 74-78).

~ ~Infrastructure provi g req massiveinvestments, often over olonged dur of time,coupled with procedural d li s and returns ~ ected aftera long period of investmen nsequentl ~ en the highfiscal requirements, particular ~ -~c, infrastructuredevelopment projects, public' \ ents alone maynot be sufficient to fund infrastructure development inIndia. Consequently, time and again there have beenrecommendations to encourage private participation ininfrastructure development through various forms of Public-private Partnerships (PPPs).

Recent Milestones

60 crore by 2030. Urbanisation inIndia has become an important andirreversible process, and it is animportant determinant of nationaleconomic growth and povertyreduction.

In order to promote affordablehousing, the Government hasmade several efforts to create anenabling environment. Infrastructurestatus has been granted to affordablehousing which will enable theseprojects to avail the associatedbenefits such as lower borrowingrates, tax concessions, and increasedflow of foreign and private capital.

Real Estate (Regulation andDevelopment Act) [RERA]

Proactive measures, such as the Real Estate (Regulationand Development)Act, 20 16(RERA), RealEstate InvestmentTrusts (REITs), the Benami Transactions (Prohibition)Amendment Act 2016, higher tax breaks on home loans,the Goods and Services Tax (GST), land-related reforms,optimising development control rules, rationalising of thestamp duty and registration charges, digitalisation, etc., havealso been introduced by the Government. Before RERA, theIndian Real Estate sector was largely unregulated till 2016,which led to many anomalies resulting in various unfairpractices, ultimately affecting the homebuyers adversely.Therefore, a need was being felt for a long time to regulatethe sector in such a way so as to ensure transparency andaccountability. RERA marked the beginning of a new era inthe Indian Real Estate sector.

Responding to the demand and supply gap in affordablehousing, the Government of India launched Pradhan MantriAwas Yojana (PMAY)- Urban in 2015. The larger goal isto fulfill the housing needs of homeless urban poor and enablethem to own decent pucca houses with basic infrastructurefacilities by 2022. Based on demand assessment at the Statelevel, the nation has the mammoth task of constructing about12 million houses under EWSILIG segment of the society inorder to achieve the goal of Housing for All.

Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (ARHCs)------------------ In the wake of Covid-19 pandemic,aligning to the vision of AtmanirbharBharat, the Ministry of Housing andUrban Affairs (MoHUA), has initiatedAffordable Rental Housing Complexes(ARHCs) for urban migrants/ poor.A first of its kind in the country, thisinitiative will not only improve theliving conditions of urban migrants from

India is heralding in an era of new transformation, whichhas an enormous prospect for growth. We are expected tobecome a USD5 trillion economy by 2024 and aspire tobecome a USDI0 trillion economy by 2030. There is a hugepotential for entities to playa transformational role in theupcoming time. There are opportunitiesfor large-scale development to meetthe aspirations of the 'Young India.'Between the present and 2030,approximately 700 to 900 million squaremetres of urban space every year will beconstructed. India is witnessing rapidurbanisation. According to Census 20 11,India's urban population was 37.7 crore,which is projected to grow to about

A need was being felt for along time to regulate the sector

in such a way so as to ensuretransparency and accountability.

RERA marked the beginningof a new era in the Indian Real

Estate sector.


EWS/ LlG categories including labour, urban poor but alsoobviate the need for staying in slums/informal settlements/peri-urban areas, etc. ARHCs will playa vital role in wealthcreation, development of infrastructure, and providingdignified living will all basic amenities to the urban poor!migrants.

These initiatives will be effective in spurring housingand construction activities, providing huge relief to realestate developers. Also, these would attract private andforeign investments in the housing sector, having a positivemultiplier effect on GDP and labour market.

The availability of encumbrance-free landwithin existing municipal areas for urban housingschemes is not an easy task. Therefore, provisionhas been made to include rural areas falling withinthe notified Planning/Development areas, underthe ambit of PMAY (U). It would leverage the availabilityof additional land at a cheaper cost for the construction ofaffordable houses.

Bharatmala Pariyojana isa new umbrella programmefor the highways sector thatfocuses on optimising theefficiency of freight andpassenger movement acrossthe country by bridging criticalinfrastructural gaps througheffective interventions likethe development of EconomicCorridors, Inter Corridors,and Feeder Routes, NationalCorridor Efficiency Improvement, Border and Internationalconnectivity roads, Coastal and Port connectivity roads,and Green-field expressways. A total 24,800 kms are beingconsidered in Phase I of Bharatmala project. Improvementin the efficiency of existing corridors through thedevelopment of Multi-Modal Logistics Parks (MMLPs).

Urban Mass Rapid Transport

The concept of mass rapid transit for New Delhi firstemerged from a traffic and travel characteristics study whichwas carried out in the city in 1969.

While extensive technical studies and the raising offinance for the project were in progress, the city expandedsignificantly, resulting in a two-fold rise in population, anda five-fold rise in the number of vehicles between 1981 and1998. To rectify the situation, the Government ofIndia andthe Government of Delhi jointly set up a company calledthe Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) on 3 May 1995,with E Sreedharan as the Managing Director.

DMRC, a special-purpose organisation, is vested withgreat autonomy and powers to execute this gigantic projectinvolving many technical complexities, under a difficult

YOJANA January 2022

urban environment, and within a very limited time frame.DMRC was given full powers to hire people, decide ontenders, and control funds. The first line of the Delhi Metro,the Red Line, was inaugurated on 24 December 2002.The Delhi Metro became the second underground rapidtransit system in India, after the Kolkata Metro, whenthe VishwaVidyalaya-Kashmere Gate section of the YellowLine opened on 20 December 2004.

Way Forward

The Introduction of 'MetroLite' or 'MetroNeo', asrecommended by the Government, is mandated in citieswith lower capacity requirements. This is considering thesignificantly less capital cost which has a bearing on theoverall funding requirement and commercial sustainability.

Over the short term, unbundled private participation forall new/expansions of existing metro systems may be takenup. Herein, various high capital expenditure componentssuch as stations, rolling stock, maintenance facilities, etc.,

r--------------------, should be undertaken throughlong-term contract/concessionfor private investment. Also,securitisation of operationalassets should be tested in themarket. Innovative financingmechanisms to fund metroprojects are required to beexplored and Non-Fare Boxrevenue streams are to beaugmented. Provisions havebeen made in Metro Bill toattract private investment.

The quality of infrastructure development in India needsurgent attention ifthe country intends to realise its economicand growth potential. Infrastructure development remains akey constraint in India's econo ic development. Althoughinvestments in infras C· do not guaranteegrowth, in general, sc ate that a strongassociation exists be of infrastructureprovisions and econo 3 in terms of grossdomestic product (G n other wo dustrial growthis contingent upon the ~ ~ her infrastructuralfacilities such as transports . , and electricity, andcommunications However, infrastructure development initself remains both a financial and a regulatory challenge.In order to do so, in addition to the available provisionsfor public investments, efforts must be made to adequatelychannelise the opportunities for private participation in thereal estateihousing sector. 0

EndnotesI. Planning Commission, 20082. Ministry of Finance, 20153. Economic Survey 2018-194. Mishra et al. 2013, Nataraj 2014

41

gconic gmayes from

YoJANA ARCHIVES

Voyage of Indian Cinema

When the movingimages, a gloriousinvention of the LumiereBrothers, were projectedon a screen in WatsonHotel in Bombay on 7July 1896, it heraldeda new era in the Indiansub-continent. Onlya few months before,a show of the 'livingphotographic pictures'was held in Paris byLouis and Auguste-the Lumiere Brotherswho had successfullypatented the process of'Cinematoqraphe: TheTimes of India in Bombayrightfully called theentire experience 'themarvel of the century:Thus, started the journeyof a medium that hasnow become an integralpart of our daily life.

Prakash Magdum

With a rich history of art and culture, it was but natural that

Indian artists took an instant liking to this newest form of art.Hiralal Sen and H S Bhatavadekar filmed short items includinga short reel The Wrestlers '. The photographer duo made such

footages while several narrative films were being imported on a variety oftopics. One such film 'Life of Christ' was screened in Bombay in 1901 andamong the audience was a middle-aged artist DG Phalke. Enchanted by whathe saw on the screen that day, Phalke was determined to make an Indian filmand his dream came true in 1913. In the meanwhile, Phalke went to England,learned the craft, and put together a team of motley artists to shoot India'sfirst feature film Raja Harishchandra.

A year before, Dada Tomey had successfully made Pundalik, 'afascinating religious subject and a popular Hindu drama' which received atremendous public response. The only difference / was shot by anEnglish cameraman and filmed a stage drama r 0 e feature.

~ •...Phalke's Raja Harishchandra, a four-ree m portrayin ~ story of a

truthful king, started the trend of filming the ological sto ofIndia'spast on the screen. Phalke later established Hindusta . ema FilmCompany with partners and started making N by himself.He learned most of the technical processes invol ing a film andwith a small group of followers, drawn from all strata of the society, hekept making one film after another. Since this new medium of cinema wasconsidered taboo, the role of women had to be performed by men on thescreen. Thus, a male artist called Salunke played the part of Queen Taramatiin Raja Harishchandra. Braving all difficulties and securing finance in

The author is Director, National Film Archive ofIndia, Pune. Email: [email protected]


the exhibition space in India. In fact, the footage offoreign films shown in India was about seven timesthe total Indian production in the mid-I920s. Of thisimported footage, the productions from America aloneconsisted of more than 80 per cent.

The Indian Cinematograph Act passed in 1918 pavedthe way for the system offilm censorship in the country.Thus, the Board of Film Censors was set up in 1920 toscrutinise and certify the films before their exhibition.In 1921, Kohinoor's Bhakta Vidur was released thatcaught the imagination of the Indian masses. The maincharacter, Vidur, from the epic Mahabharata, had avery close resemblance with Mahatma Gandhi. TheCensors thought it would aid the nationalist sentimentsand banned the film. It, thus, became the first film to be

war-like situations, Phalke is credited to lay down the banned by the Censors.firm foundations of the Indian film industry. He was Keechaka Vadham was the first silent film madesuccessful in blending the folklores ofIndia's past with in South India. Produced and directed by Natarajathe technology of moving images of cinema. Mudaliar, it was shot in Madras in 1917 and released to

The technology of sound was yet to arrive, and the a wide reception. Mudaliar went on to make many silentfilms were silent only. Thus, to take the story forward films, mostly based on mythological topics. Along witha few title cards were inserted detailing the narr ~catiOl$ bay and Kolkata, Kolhapur and Pune also emergedso that viewers could understand the plot. The ds a 'or production centers during this time. Baburaowere made in Hindi and English, keeping ~ ind Pai 's Maharashtra Film Company made some

Q)

the countrywide audience. Moreover, a live iji sical spe ular films with a realistic approach. His Savakariaccompaniment was in place, in front of the sc ~ to Pa considered to be one of the first realist portrayaladd sounds. The net effect was electric for the vi t9 • * ~ ial ills prevailing in the society. The Light of Asia,The production of Indian films grew steadily in e'h\ co-production between India and Germany, directedinitial years and along with that new cinema houses by Himanshu Rai, helped popularise India cinemaalso came up across the country. In many places, old abroad. It was screened at many major European centersdrama theatres were converted into cinema auditoriums. and garnered critical acclaim.In the hinterlands, the touring cinemas became much The Indian Cinematograph Committee headed bypopular with makeshift equipment being carried from T Rangachariar was formed to look into conditions ofone village to another after the show was over. the nascent Indian film industry in 1927-28. Even as a

The silent era of Indian cinema saw three major large number of recommendations the committee madeproduction houses which produced .,,~~O',~~~remained only on paper, the entirea substantial number of films. I ...~ T._ exercise helped in establishingLed by DG Phalke's Hindustan •..ALAM-ARA· much-needed data on the stateCinema Film Company, the other .••••• of the film industry. Thus, the·~_A •••players were Calcutta-based Madan --...... highlight of the first few decades

1I:II •• _ca ••••

Theaters and Bombay-based . An ••••..--c-. ....oduct."n was the portrayal of mythologicalKohinoor Film Company. In March --.:- characters from Indian epics. The

It.~==::;.~--=~1-fIiII,4I1_ Z ••••bel ••1917, JF Madan's Elphinstone •••••••• _- •••••.••• 1__ establishment of big studios at many- ••.•••••• a.r--.l -"~"J.h..

Bioscope Company, a precursor to centers was another highlightMadan Theaters, made Satyavadi The number of silent filmRaja Harishchandra, a much productions increased manifold bylonger version of the famous story. the late 1920s and at this point inEstablished in 1918, DN Sampat's time came the technology of sound.Kohinoor Film Company went on to A competition of sorts happenedproduce more than 100 silent films. between various productionEven as the production of Indian companies to introduce sound withfeature films steadily grew, the the picture but ultimately it wasimport of foreign films dominated Th, '.'::-'~ ••:!:;;, '<;:~n~"'!~;":::'~:~;'y;:.'.'~:$::'" Ardeshir Irani who got it first by

="LIGHT OFASIA"=TheJnd;an '~n wlUd. '-~AppooOobon nom London. ,_A~ All. 11'OlANCAST, I~DlANAtmo.phcre, Historic Scene. aod tel·

tina&. the Du.t of the lunatttped plaini',the Quietude of the Verdant Hille, thevillage Peoples and the Beggart.Never before has Indian Ufc been toFaithfully and Realistically portI"8Y~.showing the b'"eI as lived. of the Rich.od the Poor.

See: Gautama (Mr. Hunan-u RaJ). inthe affecting ecenes which bnn(l: ,heknowkdae lhat hat been wid~ fromhim. of Old Age. ScknCM and DeathSC[l\ES & xcnsc TO HA~m

1HE ME"1ORY

SEE INDIA'S OWNMASTERPIECEFILM AT THE

EXCELSIOR THEATRE ~ .• lOA 10 p M.A1"'"THEREQUE.!TOFOUA PATRONS.POPULAJlPltICU


releasing Alam Ara on 14 March1931. The film, made under thebanner of Imperial Pictures, hadspoken dialogues along with songs,and it was described as an 'all talking,singing, dancing picture'. Peoplethronged to theatres in large numbersto experience this new phenomenon.These talking and singing picturessoon got widespread approval andthus ended the silent era of Indian cinema.

As Indian cinema completedtwenty-five years in 1938, a MotionPicture Congress was held in Bombayto celebrate the occasion. The industryhad grown in leaps and bounds with an

average production of 200 films per year. As the secondworld war loomed largely, a Film Advisory Board wasset up for the production of films that aided war efforts.The war impacted the availability of raw stock and italso resulted in introducing the licensing system. Theserestrictions resulted in films getting made that hadescapist entertainers, melodramas, and musicals. Therewere notable exceptions too with KA Abbas's DharatiKe Lal which depicted the grim realities of the Bengalfamine and V Shantaram's Dr Kotnis ki Amar Kahaniportraying a true-life story of an Indian doctor whogives his life while serving in war-torn China. Gemini

"Studio, one of the major production houses of the South,produced a spectacular dance drama Chandralekha inTamil directed by SS Vasan.

Post-independence, the government took someconcrete steps to improve the conditions of the filmsector and a Film Enquiry Committee was constitutedunder the chairmanship of SK Pat" eventually led tothe establishment of the Film . dia to teachthe art of filmmaking, The ~ inance oration ofIndia to assist the budding i akers, and t ~ hildren'sFilm Society of India. T "1:J ational Fil chive ofIndia was also establishe preserve"b cinematicheritage of our country. The:0 '. tion Filmsof India became the Films Di . P. I* produce short

films and documentaries. A fresh groupof talent emerged in the industry withRaj Kapoor, Mehboob Khan, BimalRoy, etc who tried to portray socialrealities through a beautiful mix of artand entertainment on the screen.

The Light of Asia, aco-production between India andGermany, directed by Himanshu

Rai, helped popularise Indiacinema abroad. It was screened atmany major European centers and

garnered critical acclaim.

This new revolution in technology also pavedthe way for the emergence of two eminent productionhouses; Prabhat Film Company in Kolhapur (thenshifted to Pune) and New Theatres Ltd. In Calcutta,helmed by V Shantaram along with Damle and Fattelal,Prabhat Film Company set new trends in terms of story,treatment, acting, and music while simultaneouslyproducing films in two languages, Marathi and Hindi.While Sant Tukaram, based on the life of the popularSaint-poet, received accolades at the prestigious VeniceFilm Festival in 1937, ShejarilPadosi, portrayed apoignant tale of friendship between friends of twodifferent faiths. Prabhat, thus created new standards infilmmaking and garnered a nationwide audience. NewTheatres also chose themes of social relevance- anddepicted them on screen in an artistic way. Led by BNSarkar, the company produced popular musicals likeChandidas and Devdas with KL Saigal and KC Deysinging melodious tunes composed by RC Bora!'

The decades of the 1930s and 1940s saw theemergence of social themes being depicted in largenumbers in Indian cinema. Evils of bigamy, childmarriage, widow remarriage, women's education, socialequality, religious harmony were the topics that definedsuch 'social' films. At the same time, India's freedomstruggle too got portrayed in cinemasof different languages across thecountry. Many filmmakers had activelyparticipated in the national movementand they made films depictingpatriotism as a virtue. Many times, thiswas done in an indirect way to avoidthe gaze of Censors. Gandhian themesand principles such as non-violence,communal harmony, sanitation,swadeshi, village development, etcwere actively portrayed in such films.The introduction of colour was anothertechnological progress for the cinemaindustry and yet again Ardeshir Iranitook the lead by producing KisanKanya, the first colour film shotand processed in India. The era of

YOJANA January 2022

action and stunt films also gainedprominence with Wadia Movietoneproducing several such films starringFearless Nadia, the first stuntwomanin Indian cinema.

The first International FilmFestival of India held in 1952 was aneye-opener for the Indian filmmakersas they were exposed to the vibrantcinema of the world. Bimal Roy's DoBigha Zamin, KA Abbas's Rahi, RajKapoor's Boot Polish, P Bhaskaran'sNeelakuyil showcased the harshrealities with a novel cinematicstyle. But it was Satyajit Ray whosePather Panchali, released in 1955,

45

revolutionised the Indian cinema.Without compromising on the artof storytelling, Ray portrayed thereality of Indian village which wascommended as 'the best humandocument' at the prestigious CannesFilm Festival. He followed it withApur Sansar and Aparajito, atrilogy, that depicted life in Bengalwith deep humanity. Raj Kapoor's The film society movement,Jagte Raho followed the suit in a started in 1950s, also helped insimilar style and technique but was popularising the film culture in theplaced in an urban milieu. Guru country. The film clubs, with theDutt's Pyaasa and V Shantaram's active support from the NationalDo Ankhen Barah Haath tackled Film Archive of India, showcasedunusual subjects but with superb both Indian and foreign classicscinematic treatment. The decade apart from avant-garde films on aof 1960s also saw the trend of regular basis. The film viewers, in thestunt films becoming popular with process, became film connoisseurswrestler Dara Singh as a hero. ti nd this mature audience consciously backed the new

Ritwik Ghatak was another torchbearer of ~~ ca o~ bold experiments in Indian cinema.with a series of films including Meghe Dhake and ,., e arrival of television in India brought filmsKomal Gandhar that charted a different pat rinal dir..... into households. The studio system gave waySen, with his low- budget Bhuvan Shome to beginning of corporatisation of the industry. Thesupported by Film Finance Corporation, in .....•.in the video industry also gave tough competitiontrend that was called a new cinema movement.,tlin."':-_"-:-<S''?t''h"e regular exhibition circuit. Old formulas andRajender Singh Bedi's Dastak dwelled on societ stereotypes became irrelevant and once again contentconscience, Mani Kaul's Uski Roti and Ashadh Ka Ek became the king.Din explored the new thematic language of the cinema.Samskara by Pattabhirama Reddy exposed the orthodoxyand hypocrisy in society and Adoor Gopalakrishnan'sSwayamvaram portrayed the dilemma of a newlywedcouple. Shyam Benegal's Ankur put the conflicts ofemerging new India in a fresh perspective.

The issues of unemployment and identity in the1970s gave birth to a phenomenon called Angry YoungMan on the screen. With an intense portrayal by AmitabhBachchan of such characters backed by spirited storyand dialogues by Salim-Javed, a series of such filmsbecame an instant hit striking a chord with the younggeneration. In the South too, this became a rage thanksto powerful acting performances by Kamal Haasan andRajinikanth. On the other hand, the films with disco andpop music gave voice to the aspiring youth. Musicalswith western sensibilities were made in large numbersand peppy songs became a cornerstone for hit films.

Then there was a middle-of-the-road cinemastriking a fine balance between art and commerce. It toldstories of the common man with Hrishikesh Mukherjee,Guizar, and Basu Chatterjee portraying the themes ofthe daily struggle and aspirations of the middle-classin their films. The art-house cinema also prospered inthis period with notable films being made in Marathi,

Malayalam, Kannada, Tamil, Odia,Gujarati, Bengali, and Assameselanguages. In what is called theparallel cinema movement, thefilms made by John Abraham, GAravindan, Girish Karnad, AmolPalekar, Saeed Akhtar Mirza, MSSathyu, Tapan Sinha carried forwardthe rich legacy of realism.

46

The new millennium brought fresh air, both in termsof stories and techniques in the industry. The technologyoffilmmaking and exhibition shifted gears and celluloidgave away to digital. It freed the energies of youngfilmmakers and themes rooted in the soil got a fillip.With the help of subtitles in English, the good filmsmade in any language found an eager audience both inIndia and abroad. The advent of animation and visualgraphics opened the doors to new possibilities and filmslike Bahubali became huge hits.

The over-the-top (OTT) technology is a harbingerto newer vistas for the film industry. Instead of a regularrelease in theaters, the films are now being releasedon the digital platform. Even, films are being madeexclusively for such platforms. The community wayof consuming the content is slowly being replaced byprivate viewing in the comforts of one's home. At thesame time, the new filmmaker is no longer dependenton the vagaries of the regular commercial distributionsystem. He has now new avenues to explore that canshowcase the content to a worldwide audience. Butdespite all the advancements in technology, the film isafter all a medium of telling stories. As long as thesestories are humane and interesting, the medium ofcinema will continue to thrive. 0

YOJANA January 2022

FOURTH PILLAR

Role of MediaProf Sanjay Dwivedi

Journalism is one of the most effective tools for the rapid transformation of society. Whenthe publication of the first Hindi newspaper 'Udant Martand' began, its motto was 'For theinterest of Indians: The value of journalism is distinctly imbibed in this phrase. Journalismaims to safeguard the interests of the common citizens. It was started in India with the goalof development and in its long journey, the media has proven that it is the fourth pillar ofdemocracy in the true sense.

The development of newspapers in India

began in 1780 when James Augustus Hickylaunched India's first newspaper, 'BengalGazette', in English. Published in Kolkata,

this newspaper was founded on Hicky's tenacity, passion,and standing for the truth. Its motto was- 'Open to all yetnot influenced by anyone.' He declared his objective-'I enjoy shackling myself for the freedom of my mindand spirit.' Hicky was the first journalist of India whofought with the British government for the freedom of thepress. I Media has played a significant role in awakeningsocial consciousness since the time of the independencemovement. Be it any country in the world, the media hasalways been a vehicle of change and consciousness. It hasa critical role in spreading awareness and creating a publicopinion on any prevalent issue. The media,on one hand, acts as a communicationlink between the government and thepublic, while on the other hand, it alsokeeps a check on the functioning of thegovernment. The media has a vital role incommunicating the problems and issues ofthe people to the government. It is for thisreason that even today people look up tothe media with hope.

The role of media has also changedover time. The communication revolutionhas contributed the most to this. However,this has also brought forth the challengeof factual representation before the mediain the prevailing scenario of a conflictbetween credibility and popularity.

Diversity of views, differences, and disagreements is alsoof great importance in a democratic system. By bringingtogether the ideas of all co 6 a Ie, the media

- 0allows them to understan 'VI' em. If youobserve in the context of ~ ndia, medi '" ass mediaq, _.

reflects the actual situatio ;Q any society . untry. Thepower of media can be gau <.> through its reach. Thisautonomy and independen 01. 0 brin r:,.ifJ the media atremendous responsibility to r.· and society.Change is the law of nature, and t IS aw applies to all theideas, concepts, objects of this world, man, environment,and nature itself. This change results from human reactionsto new situations. New situations and challenges give riseto new technologies. Nowadays, Information Technologyhas completely transformed the world.

The author is Director General, Indian Institute of Mass Communication, New Delhi. Email: [email protected]


HI C R r' sBENGAL GAZETTE;I OR 'IHE ORJ.GINAL

Calcutta General Advertiier." lY"E;' P.fi,t",.I ••• c.._tU/ P."" 0,,. " .lI ",,,.... .M( '1tJI.,.", ~] Nuof",-----

From Saturday September the 8th to S'lIlrd:lY Scptcmb:r 1sth 1781• [:-lo. XX

Gln/tt.nt StIt/la mWI./ Ell" • N. B. Any perron thmt has gor ruch SIR,Itrpriu IIJIJ1;/11/Ii';I. L:diC"S 10 difi e ofT, t~ them apply to To Mr. HICKY, •

HO Drc~bitious of making .11' theCk:rk oft\: I'rinting Ollice, and th,y I' HAVE (rcq ••cnrt~ h,••re~ II u~ho.w ble Indcpcndtnce by th~ will be !relied Wllh. Q I1"II!crot "I'.r~Qch Ill"'''(\- }'Oor de EflcmiCi oitl ••ir Count.y. 1 ." pcr, rhar intlead u: POint,,," out I'

hr,"MGWk ••• "" ••••1'" e••••Pd1'."I't"'~"·"'" '";,',-=,-,m1[,,, .61;"",lit f~jllng Vt:fJ'cl commanded by H",ft. I. IbtL- J _ m<nI ot pub", ~Ii:"",C.I Icr (uf R~S BR /\CEY mounting n (IX e/ Ibtft RulmJ. menr or dNdlut:on. It h.\J hr."rs, 12 ~ohorns.nd twenty Swj. II"\UI:~worn ~o. the SlUmps, in a tutAlly cmplo}e~ in .,..'"~1••••I ••

of the American company Cisco,by 2021, the number of smartphoneusers in India is likely to double toabout 83 million. Apart from this, by2022, internet data consumption inIndia is expected to grow five timesmore than it is today. The numberof Facebook users in India is about300 million, while the number ofWhatsApp users is about 200 million.The number of Twitter users has alsoincreased to more than 30 million.India is the biggest market for thesemedia, and through them, fake newsis garnering maximum publicitytoday. The citizens of developedcountries faced this situation a

The world is connected through the internet little earlier. Hence, they are in a position to decide whatand computer networks, allowing all places to stay would be the correct information for them to use. Butinterconnected. This connectivity has resulted in the birth in a developing country like India, where education andof digital media, which is also known as new media. \.~~tatiolA eness levels differ, people vacillate between multiple

Every century is known for its distinguishing reo ~. and information choices. Sometimes they cannotThe 21 st century is being considered as the cent lI: f the che' e facts and accept wrong as right. A survey report'Internet and Social Media'. From the shifting di CD sions by rosoft in 2019 pointed out that internet users inof the media, it looks as if the present time is for In ii re the most vulnerable to fake news. This report,change. New ways of communication and new 6' ~ A' ~red after a surve~ conducted in 22 countries, saidhave emerged, which have become an integral par . -I'll t 64 per cent of Indians are the victims of fake new~.our lives. One such medium connecting people is Social It IS a matter of concern because, at the global level, thisMedia, which many have adopted as an integral part of figure is 57 per cent. The most important thing about thislife. Today, social media is determining several aspects report is that family or friends also play an essential role inof our lives. How the increasing popularity of social spreading fake news'.media grips the world can be gauged from the fact that The sustained spread of the information revolutionnow the number of people using social media in the world in India and the advent of new technologies like socialhas exceeded the number of people who do not use it. media is the reason why many sources of information haveAccording to a report', the number of social media users become available to people. Earlier, information reachedworldwide has increased to 51 per cent of the world's the people only through an approved process. Limitedpopulation. It has also been concluded that the number people were managing them who followed the rulesof social media users worldwide has increased by over and the law. But technology changed everything. Today,10 per cent in the last years. During this period, social everyone is a creator and publisher. Technology has givenmedia connected 37 crore 6 lakh people. If its average this opportunity to everyone. Therefore, the sources ofis taken, then every day, 1 million users and 12 people information have become innumerable. Due to this, noware connected to social media every second. According everyone wants to put forward his point of view. Some ofto a report called DataReportal, a user them are responsible, while for peoplespends an average of 2 hours and 22 Media has played a significant many times more than them, thisminutes a day on social media. If role in awakening social responsibility does not mean anythingthe time spent by all users on social at all. It leaves the commoner in aconsciousness since themedia is added up, then every day, the dilemma as to what is right and whatequivalent of one million years is spent time of the independence is wrong. The same information can beon social media alone. The figures are movement. This autonomy good for a particular set of people andenough to indicate the relevance of and independence brings bad for another.social media in the present times. to the media a tremendous

Today, India is emerging as the responsibility towards thelargest market for the internet and country and society.smartphones. According to an estimate

Today, we live in an era ofinformation boom, and words like 'post-truth' have been included in everydayconversation. When something is


beyond the truth, when there is nodifference between falsehood andtruth, when the idea of right and wrongis not based on facts or knowledgebut sentiments, it is called post-truth. In such a time, awareness andunderstanding will have to be createdabout 'information.' There is nothingnew in fabricating and propagatingissues for one's interest. However, inthe digital world, the way fake news onpolitical, economic, and social issueshas become widespread is a seriousconcern. Thanks to social media andmessaging networks, the disseminationof information on a large scale is notlimited to the elite class or conventional media. Because ofthese networks, it has become impossible to stop the flowof information. In such a situation, people must have accessto tools that empower them to analyse and even discardthat information. We have to raise awareness in childrenbecause the bombardment of information nowadays beginsright from childhood. We have to find ways to differentiatebetween facts and fiction.

We live in an era of informationboom, and words like 'post-truth' have been included ineveryday conversation. Whensomething is beyond the truthwhen there is no difference

between falsehood and truth,when the idea of right and

wrong is not based on facts orknowledge but sentiments, it is

called post-truth.

every situation and can remain so ingood times as well. It is the feeling ofunity. It is the bonding that needs tobe awakened. Intellectualism shouldbecome part of the common man'sthinking. The media can play this rolein directing mediapersons accordingly.The function of media is to provideinformation to the people catering tothem and enhancing their intellectuallevel. Democracy is realised and mademeaningful through such participation.It is the responsibility of the media toinculcate in the readers and viewers aserious understanding of the concernsrelated to the public and the issues our

country is facing.

Before attaining independence, the peoplecommitted to freedom struggle used to engage injournalism. Newspapers and magazines used to advocatethe cause of independence fiercely. It is crucial that ayearning to do something for the country and a desire totake the country forward should be awakened amongstthe countrymen. As was the spirit of the movement for

--..,.,.,.--:-------.;-"""'---.-.......:--.---- Swaraj (self-rule), soshould be the energyof the movement forSurajya (good rule).For India to emergeas a £ ~QW: nwithto a il

b .stan s III maarea. is the nee ~~ .~the h.. .~~India Ii elm aplace in the domain ofscience, technology,innovation, and sportsin the world, similarlyour media should alsogain global reach andcreate a global identity

to raise India's voice in the world. Today, the press ofIndia should accept this challenge and contribute tonation-building. 0

References

Public educationis the prime objectiveof journalism whichwe are graduallyneglecting. Forpublic education, itis necessary that wealso go through a self-learning process. It isalso the responsibilityof journalism tosustain society'svision and intellectualconsciousness infavour of the nation.Today, when India ismaking rapid stridesin its progress anddevelopment, all thecountries of the world are looking at our country with newhope. A new beginning has been made in India's economic,social, and cultural journey. India's identity is changingand it is not only a cultural heir of an accomplishedtradition, but also a rapidly developing nation. That's whyIndia is also evoking expectations. While expressing thediversity and plurality of this country, the media can elicitthe threads of unity in it. The strength of our country isthat we unite swiftly in times of crisis. But that feelingevaporates once the problem is over. We have to createa vision in the minds of people that they are together in

YOJANA January 2022

1. Natarajan J; History of Indian Journalism (1955), PublicationsDivision, Ministry oflnformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India,New Delhi.

'Hootsuite' and 'We Are Social' Report.

Johnson 1. Miriam; Books and Social Media How the Digital Ageis Shaping the Printed Word (2021), Taylor & Francis, UnitedKingdom.

2.

3.

49

SOCIETY

Re'forming' Caste in New India

Caste has been a subject ofconsiderable debate andreform in Indian society,predating the strugglesfor independence and aconstant accompanimentto the same as well. Thedebate is tumultuous,often embroiled in pitchedpolitical battles and notlending itself to rationalpolicy decisions. And yet,it is also very evident thatthe contours of the casteequations have been'reformed: changed inseveral positive ways in thepast seventy-five years. Thisarticle traces some of thecontours of these changeswhile also articulatingsome of the contemporarycomplex challenges inrelation to caste.

AmitaBhide

In pre-independence India, caste was seen as a 'social' question;

it was a subject of social reform which necessitated the creationof more universal opportunities in sectors such as education andjobs (by the government), delibera orts for inclusion through

actions of voluntary organisations, by sev UV" rmers, and efforts byactivists and advocates to open previousl led spac h as drinking watercommons and access of temples to cast , hich were d lB d the same. It was:::Ia period where there was some cognitio ~ issues linke 'ft'l discrimination andexploitation on basis of caste, and on th ~1.'tI.erhand, c "1. continued to be thebasis of the organisation of communities a :lilr .~<:-eft\'. '(Caste: Subject of State Policy and Reform

Caste discrimination was a subject of considerable debate in theConstituent Assembly and the adoption of specific provisions for preventionof discrimination as well as the adoption of principles of affirmative action,

The author is Professor, Mumbai Campus, Tata Institute of Social Sciences. Email: [email protected]


especially for the Scheduled Castes, was a significant of opportunity to those who are highly vulnerable aboundand foundational reform. With these moves, the post- even now; the fact that State agencies including police areindependence state took on the mantle of transformative titutionally bound to investigate and deliver justice isaction, heralding a shift of domain of caste reform to t "<.t.,,; Qn 11matter.political and economic sphere and not just restricted to ~ Th ~A d h·ft· th t C ti f th, ., . . 11 ? con s I ,I.e. e ranSlorma IOn 0 e~oc~al sphe~e ~s m th.e pre-independence era. ~he .0 agency i -- rhaps even more significant as it has been

Significant shift ISseen m terms ofth~ transformation I i responsi ~ for expanding the opening given by the'~g~ncy' of the castes who w~re prev~ously labelled onl ~ consti ,...•.al commitment. Several examples can bevictims, depressed, and lackmg a voice. ·~.:1*re'(~this change - the articulation of action against

The shift to the state as an institution that has the onus Cities as a crime, demands for effective budgetaryof transformative action in relation to caste has not been allocation for the Dalits, the exposition of how practiceseasy and is highly uneven. Institutionalisation of practices of exclusion and discrimination are embedded in systemssuch as reservations in education, jobs, and election of and institutions, the evolution of an entire discipline ofpeople's representatives has been much easier than the Dalit Studies that takes inspiration from racial studies,transformations in the structure of these institutions the rising associationism among Dalit businesses, theand the texture of actual governance. The adequacy of increase in several Dalit castes articulating and visualisingtransformations initiated by reservation, and their outcomes themselves in a disaggregated way, the emerging genre ofare a subject of more substantive films and other cultural forms that givedebate. However, it is undeniable that The post-independence an expression to the hitherto facelessthey have enabled the organisation of state took on the mantle and amorphous Dalits, all illustrate thethe Dalit castes, given an impetus to emerging power of the Dalit voice, andof transformative action,mobilisation and organisation of other perhaps point the attention of society tocastes in subsequent years, and more heralding a shift of domain more critical voices and concerns thatimportantly, created a critical space and of caste reform to the have been invisibilised. A Dalit is novoice within State organisations that can political and economic longer content to be a passive victimspeak for the excluded. While stories of sphere. but seeks to be an active interlocutorextreme oppression, crime, and denial in events. Moreover, this is seen as a


We may be very far from a casteless societybut we have definitely moved the needle

from a society in which caste was an accepteddispenser of privilege to one where such

dispensation of privilege on the basis of birth iscontested and challenged.

matter of right and not as a favour to be granted by theauthorities.

Existing Challenges

What is outlined here is not meant as a celebratoryrecord, for one needs to recognise that we are far from anequal society. It should be recognised that the lower castesand several sections of Dalits bear the unfair burden ofthese inequalities. Within this structure, Dalit women bearthese burdens even more. Furthermore, some of the dreamsas articulated at the time of independence are turning outto be sour. For example, Dr Arnbedkar viewed cities andurbanisation as possible sites of liberation for Dalits fromtradition and suffering-bound villages and rural societies.As urbanisation becomes a significant phenomenon, it isseen that cities only shift the domains of caste expression.Thus, certain 'unclean, insanitary' occupations areconsidered to be exclusively practiced by Dalits, therebyperpetuating the tradition. Similarly, the predominance ofDalits in slums in the cities can be seen as an expressionof their legacy of spatial exclusion from the villages. Thedream that cities are a force of liberation by their very"nature is proving to be wrong.

We also need to be aware that while some of themeanings of what caste means in social discourse have

YOJANA January 2022

blurred and transformed, there are ways in which theimagination of caste has become even more entrenched.To illustrate, some stu . hat the digital space ishighly casteist. Elec .~ of the governmentaccept and build ste equati _. and mobilisations.Caste is ever-prese Q) d visibilised g ven more domainsof our everyday Ii ut what nee ~ 0 be noted is thatvisibilisation is a pr 'on ov '4j.••.sibility, perpetuated."neglect, and systemati P8mlliS . We may be very farfrom a casteless society but we have definitely movedthe needle from a society in which caste was an accepteddispenser of privilege to one where such dispensation ofprivilege on the basis of birth is contested and challenged.

Reflections

The question of caste is an extremely complex one,given its deep embeddedness in our society. A reviewof our efforts in the last seventy-five years indicatesthat we have been successful in changing the contoursof the caste question. We have not been as successful increating effective alternate principles for inclusion and inthe distribution of opportunities. However, the track for apositive change has certainly been set in motion. 0

53

DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND

Preparing Future leaders

Over 67per cent ofIndians are betweenthe ages of 75 and 65,or of working age. Aremarkable statistic, thisdemographic dividend-defined as the largershare of working agepopulation than non-working population-reflects the country'simmense potential forgrowth in the comingdecades. The visionaryAtmanirbhar Bharatinitiative seeks tocapitalise this inherentpotential and generateemployment for the 72million Indians who jointhe workforce every year.This would catapult Indiato economic ascendencyand help it attain thegoal of a USD5 trillioneconomy by 2024.

Aarushi Aggarwal

Leveraging the demographic dividend relies on the requisite skillingof the country's workforce. Recognising this, the Governmentestablished a dedicated Union Ministry in 2014. The objective ofthe Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE)

is the coordination of skill development efforts across the country, integrationof demand and supply of skilled manpower, and upgradation of skills andencouragement of innovative thinking. Responsible for numerous schemes thatseek to ensure that India's youth are not only prepared to enter the workforce butalso to answer the changing demands of a modem job market, MSDE managesshort-term schemes like the Skill India Mission, Pradhan Mantri Kaushal VikasYojana and various other long-term training initiatives that promise to train anaspiring Indian populace not only to qualify for potential opportunities but alsoto excel .in them. Furthermore, under the Ministry, the number of IndustrialTraining.Institutes (I'TIs) has grown by over 40 d is currently at morethan 15,000. ~~ 01} tI/:.

/"

Skills are generally classified under e broad cate .es: transferrableor functional skills that can be deployed di ss multiple i ~ tries; attitudinal

(,)

skills that define personality characterist ~ nd knowl. -based skills thatpertain to the subjects, procedures, and '. ~ essary to performparticular tasks. This article highlights t ensive governmentpolicies that serve to train a cadre of ambitious professionals across all threetypes of skills.

The author is a researcher, Strategic Investment Research Unit, Invest India. Email: [email protected]


Nurturing Aptitude

The Ministry of Skill Development andEntrepreneurship, with loan assistance from the WorldBank, manages a programme called Skill Acquisitionand Knowledge Awareness for Livelihood Promotion(SANKALP). It aims to improve short-term skill trainingqualitatively and quantitatively through strengthening The National Skill Development Mission wasinstitutions, bringing in better market connectivity, and launched in July 2015 on World Youth Skills Day. In manyenhancing the inclusion of marginalised sections of ways, the mission became the hallmark of youth skillingsociety. Launched in January 2018, SANKALP will run in India and through its ambitions, seeks to help Indianthrough March 2023. youth to develop personally and shape their personalities.

SANKALP is focused on three key result areas. Skill India Mission, as it is popularly known, provides theThese are institutional strengthening at central, state and institutional capacity to train a minimum of 300 milliondistrict levels; quality assurance of skill development skilled people by 2022 and has initiated a convergenceprogrammes; and inclusion of marginalised populations across sectors and States in skill training activities forin such programmes. Institutional strengthening aims India's job seekers. Seven sub-missions also act as buildingto bridge the gap between the skill development effort locks for achieving the overall objectives of the Mission.of different States and de-centralising capacity bui ~atlolf sub-missions are responsible for institutionalAccordingly, capacity building initiatives are dis . ~ ed tr , infrastructure, convergence, trainers, overseasacross all entities involved in planning, implem emp ~ ent, sustainable livelihoods, and leveragingand monitoring of skill-building, from the Pa publ cO frastructure.~Raj in~titutions to the newly. constituted Distri .3"e mission is committed to providing sustainableCommittees (DSC), State Skill Development MID"'" ng that endures a beneficiary's lifetime. The emphasis(SSDMs), and at the ~ational level wit~ National ~. e as been on the creation of an end-to-end implementationDevel.opment Co~oratlOn (NS~C), National Council of framework for skill development that provides life-longVoc~tlOnal Education and Training (NCVET), and other learning. This includes the incorporation of skilling inbodies. the school curriculum and aligning employerlindustry

The second component of quality assurance is intended demand and workforce productivity with trainees'to improve the employability of trainees. Therefore, aspirations by creating a framework for outcome-focusedSANKALP focuses on infusing ~quality in training and training. Furthermore, the mission seeks to build capacitylearning in Technical and Vocational Education & Training for skill development in the unorganised sector where(TVET) by ensuring that the educational and vocational there have traditionally been few opportunities for skilltraining curricula adopt a market-driven approach through training or upgradation. This can adversely impact anthe guidance of master trainers and industry endorsement. individual's career growth trajectory. Therefore, throughThe training of potential teachers is emphasised and this comprehensive framework, the National Skillstandardised through a committee focused on creating an Development Mission (NSDM) hopes to enable pathwaysefficient course structure for learners. for learners to move between vocational training and

formal educational systems and evenseek overseas employment for whichthey will be trained through specificprogrammes that are mapped to globaljob requirements and benchmarked tointernational standards.

a gender action plan that seeks to augment women'sinclusion in skilling and the labour market, skill training ongender inclusion, and prevention of sexual harassment atthe workplace, and skill development and entrepreneurshippilot programmes for persons with disabilities.

Skill Development

Finally, SANKALP strives toprovide an equal platform to all sectionsof society, particularly to individualsfrom historically marginalisedcommunities. It achieves this through atwo-fold approach: the first understandsthe challenges faced by these sections ofsociety and develops pilot programmesto address these challenges, while thesecond builds a bottom-up approach,with the participation of skilldevelopment machinery at the Stateand district levels that can accountfor India's diverse social, geographic,and economic characteristics. Some ofthe programmes undertaken include

Skills are generally classifiedunder three broad categories:

transferrable or functionalskills that can be deployedacross multiple industries;attitudinal skills that define

personality characteristics; andfinally, knowledge-based skillsthat pertain to the subjects,procedures, and information

necessary to performparticular tasks.

Inspiring Knowledge

The Pradhan Mantri KaushalVikas Yojana (PMKVY), now underits third mode, is a flagship schemeof the Ministry of Skill Development& Entrepreneurship that aims to trainIndian youth between the ages of 15and 45 to take up industry-relevant skilltraining and secure a better livelihood.Implemented for the Financial Year


2020-2021, PMKVY 3.0 has afinancial outlay of Rs 948.90 crore foreight lakh beneficiaries who will becounselled through online information!counselling platforms, helplinesor district level skill informationcentres. The Scheme is particularlytargeted towards marginalised groupsincluding trans genders and people withdisabilities. At present the Scheme hasover four lakh enrolled candidates whileanother nearly four lakh candidateshave already been trained.

PMKKs are equipped to run industry-driven courses of high quality with afocus on employability and create anaspirational value for skill developmenttraining and promote excellence thatensures better employability for allbeneficiaries.

PMKKs are equipped to runindustry-driven courses of

high quality with a focus onemployability and create anaspirational value for skilldevelopment training and

promote excellence that ensuresbetter employability for allbeneficiaries. In conjunctionwith Skill India and Make In

India, this employment schemeis preparing a new generationof Indians to take the reins inleading economic and socialdevelopment in India's rural

hinterland.

The PMKVY support trainingin soft skills, entrepreneurship, andfinancial and digital literacy. It isaimed at benefitting candidates inschools or college dropouts andunemployed youth who are trainedaccording to the National SkillsQualifications Framework (NSQF). Training durationcan range from 150 hours to 300 hours, depending on thejob role. Post-training, candidates also receive placementassistance from training partners (TPs). Additionally, thetraining and assessment fees are paid in their entiretyby the Government. PMKVY also has provisions forrecognising prior learning (RPL) and helping individualsobtain certification for their skills that is in accordancewith NSQF norms. It also offers courses to helpcandidates bridge gaps in their knowledge and upskill tomeet industry requirements.

These services are administered through the PradhanMantri Kaushal Kendras (PMKKs), aspirational modeltraining centres, established in every district of India.

~Skllindia---..,- _~_J._

Status of Skill Developmentin the country

Craftsmen TrainingS<heme (CTS)

Trained: 11.47 lakh

w~~ 1NAPS

Nallonal Appranll •• shlpPromDtiDn S<heme (NAPS)

Trained: 3.63 lakh

Pradhen Mlnt,l Ka •• h.1Vlkas Yoiane (PMICVY)

Trained: 1.33 Crore

Skill Acquisition and Knowledge Awareness for Livelihood Promotion (SANKALP)

YOJANA January 2022

The Ministry of RuralDevelopment also heads the DeenDayal Upadhyaya Grameen KaushalyaYojana (DDU-GKY), a schemededicated to creating employmentopportunities in rural India, with aspecial focus on the youth population,aged between 15 and 35, 69 per cent(180 million) of which live in ruralareas. The objective of the DDU-GKYscheme is to bring income diversityto rural families and cater to youthaspirations from these households.

In conjunction with Skill India and Make In India, thisemployment scheme is preparing a new generation ofIndians to take the reins in leading economic and social

.. development in India's rural hinterland.

The Government of tly identified India'sstrengths and determi •.• the country thatleverages these stren ~ rted a path thathelps the country b the gap be -' its capabilitiesand its ambitions. As its rightful place....•.in the family of nati nt on the calibreand abilities of its future _ who will drive thisrise to pre-eminence. The government's measures to skilland train these future leaders are, therefore, of paramountrelevance. 0

Endnotes1. https:lldata.oecd.org/pop/working-age-population.html

2. https:llwww.hindustantimes.com/health/india-adding-12-million -peop Ie- to-working-popu lation -every -year- harsh-vardhan-l 0 1613884150950.htrnl

3. https:llwww.msde.gov.inl4. https:llwww.grantthornton.inlglobalassets/l.-member-firms/indial

assets/pdfs/skilling-ecosystem-in-india-unlocking-the-potential-of-youth.pdf

5. https:llwww.skillscan.com/sites/default/files/Three%20Types%20of''1020Skills%20Classification.pdf

6. https:llsankalp.msde.gov.inl#/web/aboutlSANKALP7. https :llwww.msde.gov.inlsites/defaultlfiles/2019-09/National%20

Skill%20Development%20Mission.pdf8. As per 8 December 2021. https:llwww.pmkvyofficial.orgldashboard#

9. The National Skills Qualifications Framework (NSQF)organizes qualifications according to a series of levels ofknowledge, skills and aptitude. These levels, graded from oneto ten, are defined in terms of learning outcomes which thelearner must possess regardless of whether they were acquiredthrough formal, non-formal or informal learning. hUps:11www.nielit.gov.in/content/nsqf

57

CHANGING FACE

Architecture In IndiaJayaBasera

Like everything else, architecture also thrives on change. Its expression changes depending onthe socio-political and economic conditions in the area it develops in. This article delves intosome of the trends over different periods of India's past and present that have played a crucialrole in articulating its post-independence architectural vocabulary. For the purpose of this article,examples are cited predominantly from Delhi. Through this, the author attempts to introduce thereaders to the ideas and ideologies that help give the architectural landscape of Delhi its multiplelayers and varied architectural styles. To do so, it is important, to begin with trying to understandthe sense in architecture, and how ideologies such as imperialism, nationalism, universalism,regionalism, traditionalism, modernism, and revivalism evolve from its under/ying substance.

Architecture, in a manner, is a form

of communication. It is usually therepresentation of cultures, achievedprincipally through visuals. Visuals that

are aided with nostalgia. It is also an indicator of thedistribution of political and economic power of societyas has been noted by many authors. Architecture orarchitectural design principles often characterise theaspirations of a society and, therefore, they give birth todifferent schools of thought. Thiscan be seen in post-independenceIndia, where the nation is trying tocreate a new identity for itself andwhile doing so trying to break awayfrom its colonial past. This periodcan also be seen as a period movingtowards modernism in architecturalthought. But in this attempt to createsomething different, somethingunique, and something modern,many times it has been limited tojust becoming a copy of the westwith a certain level of influencefrom India's past.

Also, while trying tounderstand the architectural designdevelopment in the country post-1947 one must understand that there

were multiple factors actithis development. First 1A;~"",-rr:;-;~~.G~t.I..;

The author is a heritage consultant and independent researcher based in New Delhi. Email: baserajayargigmail.corn


Indian Institute a/Technology, Delhi

Unfortunately, it's not that simple. To understand thecurrent trends, it is imperative to go back and forth intime to comprehend the events that created the stimulusfor the change in architecture at an en point intime. Starting with the events of . ~ tt ads tothe formal establishment of the rule 1 .a, tothe development of the nation . movement ~ theattainment of independence. us ideologi avebeen presented to the people vi $ [Idings. wespeak of such buildings, we are n ~ . ,h' g themonumental but also the utilitarian, c 1Ir ~ nd moreaccessible.

As soon as the British took' formal control ofthe country post-1857, to project their supremacyand authority over the region, they started imposingthemselves by introducing new elements to theexisting settings. This was by means of town planningtechniques and architectural styles that the Indians werenot familiar with. To create this thrust, the British usedEuropean architecture - Classical, Romanesque, Gothic,Renaissance and Baroque - to produceimages that would represent them andtheir authority. Until 1857, they weretraders trying to create wealth. In thefirst half of the 19th century, they hadfour important ports in India - Surat,Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. Withthe growing importance of Bombay,Surat saw a decline, but compared toit, the rest were all to be considerednew towns that grew around theseports.

Now under the Crown, in the latterpart of the 19th century, a rise of theBritish imperial power is witnessed.Lord Curzon of Ked lest on's term as the

60

Viceroy from 1899 to1905 is seen as its apex. This is alsothe period of growing Indian nationalism. Interestingly,imperialism and nationalism, both opposite sides ofthe spectrum, develop simultaneously by responding toeach other. Building activities were increased in nativecities to strengthen the grip of the imperialistic mastersover their Indian subjects. This was done under the newbuilding codes and bylaws that they created to enhancehygiene and building quality. But these codes and bylawswere far from being in sync with the lifestyle, customs,and traditional practices, because of which they wereopenly negated. Unfortunately, since most of what wefollow today in terms of planning and urban developmentis what came to us from the British, it is still a challengeto be fully implemented or accepted.

The aftermath of the events of 1857-58 wasparticularly devastating for Delhi. The city paid a hugeprice for being the seat of power of the Mughal rulers.Catastrophic changes in the name of economic developmentand planning were carried out to the architectural

landscape of Shahjahanabad (OldDelhi). The habitation around the RedFort was cleared out and buildingsdemolished irrespective of residentialor religious relevance. The railwayswere introduced, piercing throughits center- the building of the stationcompletely changed the integrity ofthe glorious medieval city. Gradually,the water channel that characterisedChandni Chowk was also lost. A lossthat continues to change forms tilldate. The other areas in Delhi underthe British were the Civil Lines, wherethe middle-class population resided,and the cantonment, where the military

The aftermath of the eventsof 1857-58 was particularly

devastating for Delhi.Catastrophic changes inthe name of economic

development and planningwere carried out to the

architectural landscape ofShahjahanabad (Old Delhi),

Gradually, the water channelthat characterised Chandni

Chowk was also lost.

Architecture has itspolitical use, publicbuildings being the

ornament of a country;it establishes a Nation,

draws people andcommunes, and makes

people love theirnative country, which

passion is the origin ofall great actions in a

commonwealth.- Christopher Wren

YOJANA January 2022

men and their families were housed,rank notwithstanding.

Industrialisation led to the growthof philanthropists who were thepredominant patrons of architecturein the larger commercial cities underthe British i.e., Bombay, Calcutta,and Chennai. The educated middleclass is viewed as largely responsiblefor setting the ball rolling on thenationalistic movement in India.Education was opening wider doors inthe political and economic sectors forthem. Years prior to 1857, a majorityof the institutions were establishedby the East India Company, whichdrastically changed post-1870 whenthe middle class took the initiativeto set up institutions with the help ofgovernment grants in aids.

In the late 1800s when Ramakrishna Mission wasfounded under Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) toraise consciousness around Hinduism it also providedan impetus that shaped the thinking of architects suchas Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959) and Walter BurleyGriffin (1876-1937). These architects endeavoured tobring together new spatial orders with spiritual orders.But it was Mahatma Gandhi's philosophies that had amore lasting impact.

By the 1920s, due to the limitations in the ideologiesof swadeshi and nationalism, revivalist art emerged. But itwas getting difficult to progress intellectually because ofits restrictive nature and many are known to have brokenaway from it to experience a freer style. Madhavi Desaiin her book writes, "While nationalism in architectureprior to the J 940s tended to favorrevivalism over reform, that is notthe whole story. Many changes weretaking place within India in responseto the changes in the world aroundit. Institutions were being reformedand new indigenous building typeswere beginning to appear in responseto changes in society. These typeswere modern although often cloakedin traditional or Revivalist facadeswhich, while easing the psychologicalstress caused by change, obscuredtheir innovative nature from thecasual glance. Temples, perhaps themost conservative of all building typesin India, exemplify these changes."Some examples of this are the

YOJANA January 2022

Sarvajanik Mandir, Lakshmi Narayan(Birla) Mandir, and the Swami MalaiMandir in Delhi. All these temples donot follow the Hindu tenets of buildingand the use of the Vastu- Purushamandala. They, without restrictions,experiment with the sikhara, vimana,and gopuram.

Moving on, the first 50 yearsof the 20th century were markedwith fast-paced events resulting infaster-paced changes in India andinternationally. This period is markedby the death of Queen Victoria, thebuilding of New Delhi, Revivalistmovements in art and architecture, theemergence of Modernism, and Indiaattaining independence from Britain.These events would further change the

course of the architectural development, ever-evolving inthe country.

With independence, there emerged a new zeal tocreate an' image' of India that was different from theprevious one. The ideas of this image came from MahatmaGandhi and Jawahar -and both couldn't havebeen more differ d, Gandhi hinged hisideas on traditi Indian e iences, while on theother, to Nehru Indian herit ~ was important but hebelieved that m isation and strialisation were theway forward fo nation. ~ i believed in a rural-based society. Bu .? ~ inion, the developmentand application of scie technological growth wereimperative for a growing modern civilisation. The Sovietplan of a centrally planned economy was very attractiveto Nehru.

The first 50 years of the 20thcentury were marked with fast-paced events resulting in faster-

paced changes in India andinternationally. This period is

marked by the death of QueenVictoria, the building of NewDelhi, Revivalist movementsin art and architecture, the

emergence of Modernism, andIndia attaining independence

from Britain. These events wouldfurther change the course of thearchitectural development, ever-

evolving in the country.

L.D. institute of Technology, Ahmedabad

61

~Ariel view of the Teen Murti Bhawan: 2021Ariel view of the Teen Murti Bhawan: 2016

In 1959, at the 'Seminar on Architecture' when a use sculptural specimens to articulate their purpose orgroup of architects and policymakers met at Sahitya being. The idea this period is used to project is theKala Akademi in Delhi to deliberate the way forward for coming together of the northern part of the country. Thethe post-1947 architecture in India, two styles became Mauryan period provide Nehru with ideas that he wantedfront runners - the revivalist and the modernist. This to interpret to link it to the modern state. The acceptancegroup resolutely chose modernist free expression over a of the Ashokan symbol as the Nation Emblem is alsostate-driven revivalist style. Even though the course was stemming from the same understanding.decided, the buildings of this period project the nation's While Le Corbusier and designed Chandigarh, thereconciliation with its past and the formation of a strong was a multitude of Indian architects who either workedidentity for the future. If we look at two examples from with him or were inspired by his designs. After the city'sDelhi, i.e., the Ashoka Hotel and the Vigyan Bhawan, completion, the visual vocabulary set by it can be seenboth differ from the previous examples of revivalist various buildings in Delhi as well. Jugal Kishorearchitecture. Post-independence Nehru's idea about nta hury designed the Indian Institute of Technologynation's identity was to move toward modernism cam~. 1961-84) and the Jawaharlal Nehru Universitythe representation of modern architecture felt de Camp~' 1973+) was designed by the CPWD and C.in the Indian context. Therefore, he wanted to 10 • P. Ka ~ de show influences from Chandigarh. B. V.a certain past ofIndian history from where he cou Dos ~ esign for the L. D. Institute ofIndology (1957-out the best representations of India's glorious pas medabad shows influences of Le Corbusier'sone that would neither be a part of the Hindu nor Mus * De \. matic forms. Some designs use the formal vocabularypast. Interestingly, for the purpose of nation-building via of Le Corbusier, so much so that one might think thatvisual representation and architecture, symbols, thoughts, they were prepared in his office. The Akbar Hotel (1965-and ideas from Buddhism were incorporated into the 69) and the highly creative Shri Ram Centre (1966-69) inarchitectural vocabulary. New Delhi designed by Shiv Nath Prasad and the Inter-

Both these buildings were and are public buildings. State Bus Terminus (1969-71) designed by RajinderOne is a hotel in the diplomatic enclave in Delhi, Kumar are two examples.while the other is an international conference centre in The articulation of architecture till the 1980s/90sthe heart of New Delhi. They were to be used by not has been difficult and the change now continues intoonly Indians but a large number of the 2020s. The vision of modernismforeigners. Thereby, it gave India In 1959, at the 'Seminar on is fast-changing, especially in thean opportunity to project the best Architecture' when a group context of Delhi. With the plannedthat she wanted to an audience of architects and policymakers redevelopment/relocation of Teenthat needed to notice change post- Murti Bhawan and the Central Vistaindependence. Via these buildings, met at Sahitya Kala Akademi that includes, National Museum, Indirathe inkling was to undertake non- in Delhi to deliberate the way Gandhi Centre for the Arts, and otherverbal communication with the world forward for the post-1947 government office buildings aroundabout the shift in India's id~olo~ies. architecture in India, two the Rajpath, India is heading towardsImportantly also, as. hlst?nans styles became front runners a new vocabulary. One that is inhave noticed that the articulation of . d '11 c Id

- the revivalist and the Its nascent stage an WI untohistory of the Ashokan, Mauryan .. larit d i divid lit in themodernlst gainmg c an y an m IVI ua I yperiod is predominantly based on. 0

b ildi h dl years to come.sculptures. But these UI mgs ar y


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