Article

Is self-reflection dangerous? Preventingrumination in career learning

Reineke LengelleAthabasca University, Canada and The Hague University of Applied Sciences, The Netherlands

Tom LukenLuken Loopbaan Consult, The Netherlands

Frans MeijersThe Hague University of Applied Sciences, The Netherlands

Abstract

Reflection is considered necessary and beneficial within career learning and is deemed to be a condition for successful

career-identity development. Indeed, reflection is generally seen as a key competency in learning how to respond

effectively to a complex and dynamic post-modern world in which individuals are increasingly exposed to risk.

Paradoxically however, reflection can itself form a risk when it results in rumination. It is therefore important to identify

the conditions and personal (risk) factors that make reflection a detrimental or beneficial activity and to identify elements

within career-learning interventions that promote benefit. The purpose here is to increase awareness about reflective

versus ruminative processes and promote responsible use of interventions that aim to stimulate reflection in the process

of career-identity formation. Based on the ‘‘career writing’’ method, the authors conclude that a successful career

intervention must especially provide good facilitation and a safe holding environment.

Keywords

Career reflection, rumination, narrative, career identity, career writing

Introduction

The need for career reflection is more paramount intoday’s society than ever before and the onus isincreasingly on the individual to do the reflecting.While previous forms of career assessment werefocused on matching models, such methods are nolonger enough (Meijers & Lengelle, 2015; Savickaset al., 2009). Researchers and career professionalsare aware that being able to reflect on the self is essen-tial in today’s market and that methods must bedeveloped and assessed that make this possible andeffective. However, research in several sub-domains ofpsychology indicates that an emphasis on reflectingcan put people at risk of rumination with its asso-ciated symptoms (e.g. worry, anxiety, depression).These findings have barely been touched upon in thefield of career development. Our aim is to offer anoverview of the scientific literature on reflection and

rumination to career scientists and practitioners.We intend to uncover known conditions that makereflection either dangerous or beneficial. Finally, wewill apply the findings by describing how career writing(Lengelle, 2014) is used to promote healthy reflection.

We will begin by describing changes in society inthe last century, thereby showing the reasons reflec-tion has become essential, but also explore the risksthat would make it a form of unhealthy reflection(i.e. rumination). The aim here is also to encouragefurther research on the topic.

Societal developments underlying theneed for career reflection

Until about halfway through the 20th-century, indi-viduals had little influence over their life course as thiswas largely determined by the existing and assumednorms and values of the times (Meijers & Wesselingh,

Corresponding author:

Reinekke Lengelle, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Athabasca University, 1 University Drive, Athabasca, AB T9S 3A3, Canada.

Email: reineke@tic.ab.ca

Australian Journal of Career Development

2016, Vol. 25(3) 99–109

! Australian Council for Educational

Research 2016

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DOI: 10.1177/1038416216670675

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1999). There were so-called ‘‘standard biographies’’whereby the identity of individuals (i.e. the story indi-viduals tell themselves and others about the meaningof their lives) (Meijers & Lengelle, 2012) was con-structed on the basis of socially prescribed ‘‘masternarratives’’ (Davies & Harre, 1990). However, dueto secularization, the lifting of socio-political barriers,growing prosperity and mobility and the resultingincrease in possible choices in the second half ofthe 20th-century, the ‘‘prescriptive power’’ of thesenarratives became increasingly contested, especiallyby young people, resulting in a growing individualiza-tion of society (Giddens, 1991). These changes incombination with the economic recession, which hitindustrialized societies in the 1980s, meant that theindividualized society soon became a risk society(Beck, 1992). In order to survive socially and econom-ically, the individual was forced to demonstratemore and more self-direction (e.g. agency) based ona coherent career story (McMahon & Watson, 2015;Maree & Di Fabio, 2015). And because one’s storycould (and can) no longer be derived from the wisdomof established narratives, an individual must select,synthesize, and ultimately construct one’s story froma much wider range of prescribed and imagined stor-ies, where one’s own experiences also become part ofthe tale. With this in mind, education and careercounseling are increasingly focused on the need forreflection in the hopes that it will foster narrativedevelopment and self-direction.

Indeed, this is the starting point of constructivistcareer theories, which make individuals responsiblefor their own life design (Savickas et al., 2009).At the core of constructivist theories is the idea thata ‘‘resilient career’’ can only be realized when individ-uals get to know themselves, more specifically identifylife themes, which provide unity in a person’s life story(Savickas, 2011). Life themes are subconscious pat-terns in lives and life stories that usually have theirroots in earlier life experiences (Csikszentmihalyi &Beattie, 1979) and have become a form of tacit know-ledge that has to be ‘‘voiced’’ in a dialogue in whichstories about meaning are constructed, deconstructed,and reconstructed. Their construction and articula-tion form the foundation of co-constructing the nextscene in the life plot (Savickas, 2011). The processfrequently begins with a significant or painful experi-ence in the present (e.g. job security is threatened;burnout; noticing inequity in the workplace) thatbrings up an old coping mechanism that is rooted inpast struggles (Meijers & Lengelle, 2012). Thesemoments of life change and the resulting stressaffect the development of brain, mind, and bodyawareness, all of which are closely connected (Siegel& Solomon, 2003). The situation can only be usefullyunderstood when the messages from the emotionalbrain (where the experiences are stored) are givenvoice in the rational brain (Robertson, 2012). Thisin essence means that a successful identity-learning

process starts with a bodily awareness of emotions(Gendlin, 1996) and develops into a more cognitiveunderstanding, which ultimately must meet with asense of affective congruence. Law (1996) calls thefirst step the ‘‘sensing phase’’ of the learning processand this phase is followed by the sifting, focusing, andunderstanding phases.

The process, whereby the experience is voicedthrough the stages, does not happen automaticallyhowever. Stressful experiences tend to deactivatethe ability to be rational for brief or longer periods(Van der Kolk, 2014). Even if rationality is reenga-ged—by for instance putting feelings aside—thethoughts that emerge are frequently rationalizationsand become unhelpful default narratives. Humans areapt to reach for ways of avoiding what might requirethem to learn or change rather than touch on whatis unprocessed. They do this by displaying thesymptoms described by Baker and Stauth (2003) inthe acronym ‘‘VERB’’—victimization, entitlement,rescue, and blame. This form of rationalization is,as Rand (1984, p. 12) puts it, a ‘‘process of not per-ceiving reality, but of attempting to make reality fitone’s emotions’’. No matter how much insight andunderstanding an individual develops, ‘‘the rationalbrain is basically impotent to talk the emotionalbrain out of its own reality’’ (Van der Kolk, 2014,p. 47) and it tries to explain away what has happenedwith unhelpful consequences.

Getting to know one’s life theme through self-reflection can in fact be exhausting and meets withresistance; it arouses feelings of fear, helplessness,and anger. This is even truer in the context of‘‘liquid modernity’’ where individuals are constantlybeing asked to reflect about their self, while at thesame time being faced with increasing insecurity andalienation. Stress seems unavoidable, exhaustion is arisk and in the long-term the chance of existentialanxiety and depression is real (Bauman, 2012).

In short, a person in the post-modern world runs therisk of collapsing under the pressure of having to con-stantly be a creative and critical subject in one’s ownlife. Under particular circumstances, self-reflection cantherefore become rumination (Elliott & Coker, 2008;Takano & Tanno, 2009) which is the opposite of whatis needed. In the section below, we will identify rumin-ation risk factors and answer the question: what keyelements need to be present in narrative career-learninginterventions in order to promote self-reflection in away that prepares people well for the risk society, with-out causing harm?

Empirical findings on reflection,rumination, and well-being

We define reflection as an active and intentional pro-cess of becoming conscious of and understandingexperiences in order to learn from them for thefuture. Rumination by contrast is when reflection is

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characterized by negative effects like becomingblocked from taking action, loss of spontaneity, pes-simism, and falling into a bottomless pit of reflectionupon reflection (Van Woerkom, 2010). Kukla (2007)describes it as falling into mental traps like continuedthinking about a question that simply cannot beanswered by a lack of data. Because thinking is anuncontrolled, associative process that stems from ourunconscious psycho-somatic processes that evadesintrospection, we ‘‘often walk blindly against the intan-gible but nonetheless unyielding walls of language’’,Steiner (2009, p. 52) concludes. In line with this argu-ment, Dohn (2011) states that engaging in reflectiveactivities can lead to rumination in the process ofestablishing independent secondary reflection practiceswith their own evaluative criteria thus ‘‘initiating a self-referential development of practice representationsincreasingly out of touch with practice’’ (p. 673). Inaddition, she mentions self-delusion and excessive pre-occupation with oneself (i.e. navel-gazing) as a risk.

In many studies, the expected positive effects ofreflection are not found (Cornford, 2002; Grant,Franklin, & Langford, 2002; Mann, Gordon, &MacLeod, 2009; Meijers, Kuijpers, & Gundy, 2013).According to S� ims� ek (2012), the absence of evidenceof positive effects of (self) reflection could be explainedby the fact that ‘‘self-reflectors are at the same time self-ruminators’’ (p. 33). Indeed, several scholars viewrumination as a likely side effect of reflection (Andre,2009; Takano & Tanno, 2009; Van Seggelen-Damen &Van Dam, 2016). Both reflection and rumination can beviewed as forms of repetitive thought, ‘‘the process ofthinking attentively, repetitively or frequently aboutone’s self and one’s world’’ (Segerstrom et al. inWatkins, 2008, p. 163). In fact the definitions of reflec-tion and rumination overlap considerably and as aresult the phenomena studied are difficult to disentangle.

Self-reflection and ruminationare related

Rumination may be paradoxically defined as ‘‘a processin which people focus repeatedly on the causes andsymptoms of their mood to improve the way they feel’’(Kross, Duckworth, Ayduk, Tsukayama, & Mischel,2011, p. 1033). Distinguishing it from worrying, Nolen-Hoeksema, Wisco, and Lyubomirsky (2008, p. 400)show rumination to have the following characteristics:

. more past-/present than future oriented;

. focused on issues of self-worth, meaning, themes ofloss;

. conscious motive is to understand the deep mean-ings of events, gain insight, and solve problems;

. non-conscious motive is to avoid aversive situ-ations and the responsibility of taking action.

Because the concepts reflection and rumination areclosely related, it is no surprise that often

relationships are found between reflection, rumin-ation, and being unwell or even depressed. Thatsaid, researchers have developed several instrumentsto disentangle the relationships. Elliot and Coker(2008) constructed two more or less independent(r¼ .31) scales: the Self-Reflection Scale and theSelf-Rumination Scale. They found significant rela-tionships between the two concepts and a measurefor happiness. They conclude, ‘‘that although mean-ingful self-reflection may be beneficial (. . .) the perilsof self-reflection are that it may trigger self-rumina-tion which has detrimental consequences for happi-ness.’’ (p. 127). The reason for this they suggest is‘‘that people who have a tendency to self-reflect findit difficult to disengage from this process in the face ofadverse circumstances, unfavourable outcomes, andnegative events in their lives’’ (p. 132).

The Rumination-Reflection Questionnaire (RRQ)developed by Trapnell and Campbell (1999) producesscores for reflection and rumination that are reli-able (a5 .90) and relatively independent (r¼ .22).Using this instrument Takano and Tanno (2009)found that self-reflection significantly predicted self-rumination, whereas self-rumination did not predictself-reflection. They conclude that self-reflection per sehas an adaptive effect, but that this is cancelled out bythe maladaptive effect of self-rumination. Thosewho reflect are likely to ruminate and to reflect sim-ultaneously. ‘‘Self-reflection may easily turn intoself-rumination, when individuals attempting tounderstand their current problems fail to generatesolutions during their problem-solving attempts’’(p. 263). Using the RRQ S� ims� ek (2012) showed thatself-reflection and depression were correlated nega-tively but there are strong correlations between self-reflection and self-rumination, and self-ruminationand depression. Using the same instrument, VanSeggelen-Damen and Van Dam (2016) hypothesizedthat reflection would have a negative relationship toemotional exhaustion, and a positive relationship tojob satisfaction, but these hypotheses were not con-firmed. They found, however, a strong, unidirectionalrelationship between reflection and rumination, andsignificant relationships between rumination andemotional exhaustion and job satisfaction. They sug-gest that reflection raises questions and doubts thatremain with the individual and are difficult to aban-don. ‘‘Consequently, while trying to understand them-selves and solve their problems, some employeesmight end up struggling with the issues raised andthus engage in rumination.’’ (p. 16).

Overall the studies done over diverse populationsand cultures show that reflection in itself leads to posi-tive outcomes on well-being, but that positive out-come are often ‘‘spoiled’’ by negative effects causedby rumination. What then determines or influenceswhether repetitive thinking becomes reflection withthe corresponding positive outcomes or ruminationwith negative outcomes?

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Personality-related factors that influencethe process and outcomes of thinking

Trapnell and Campbell (1999) searched for correlatesof reflection and rumination with self-ratings ofpersonality traits and measures of the five-factormodel of personality. They conclude that the motiv-ational dichotomy ‘‘fear vs. curiosity’’ is an importantfactor. Rumination seems motivated by perceivedthreats, losses, or injustices to the self. Reflection ismotivated by curiosity or epistemic interest in the self.Rumination is associated with the Neuroticism factorand reflection is associated with the Openness factor.The findings of Trapnell and Campbell corroboratewith those of Silvia, Eichstaedt, and Phillips (2005).Elliot and Coker (2008) found in their study that‘‘independent self-construal’’ (i.e. to see yourself asindependent from others) is associated with greaterhappiness. In addition, they found that self-reflectiontends to be beneficial to individuals who do not exhi-bit high levels of happiness. To people who are extre-mely happy, self-reflection seems to not be beneficial.Takano, Sakamoto, and Tanno (2011) found thatrumination is also associated with perceived impairedinterpersonal skills. They propose that this coulddelay problem solving and exacerbate the effect ofinterpersonal problems, thereby leading to dysphoria.S� ims� ek (2012) tested a model in which three othervariables were associated with depression, apartfrom self-reflection and self-rumination. Firstly,‘‘self-concept clarity’’ (SCC), i.e. a clear and consist-ent organization of multiple facets of the self.Secondly, the ‘‘Gap’’ (GAP) between experience andlanguage, i.e. the perceived inability to express innerexperiences using language. And finally, S� ims� ek intro-duced the ‘‘Need for absolute truth’’ (NAT), i.e. astrong desire for an abstract type of self-knowledgeand self-relevant information as a rigid and inflexibledeterminant of the self. S� ims� ek found a positive rela-tion between GAP, SCC, and depression. This cor-roborates the findings of Csank and Conway (2004)that high SCC may reflect poor adjustment, i.e. defen-siveness, perfectionism, and a risk factor for depres-sion when people face achievement stressors.Furthermore NAT was an important mediator forthe relationship between reflection and depression:self-reflection seems harmful to mental health whena person has a high need for ‘‘absolute truth’’.

Van Seggelen-Damen and Van Dam (2016) incor-porated in their study the role of self-efficacy, definedas ‘‘the extent to which people believe they can per-form the behavior required in any given situation toobtain certain goals’’ (p. 3). Their findings confirmedthe importance of self-efficacy for employee well-being. Employees who were more self-efficacioustend to engage more in self-reflection and less inself-rumination.

Gender is another important factor: women are moreat risk for depression than men because they ruminatemore (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). A study by Sales,

Merrill, and Fivush (2013) among adolescent femaleswith challenging lives showed that greater narrativemeaning making (measured by the inclusion of morecognitive processing words, positive emotion, andgreater reflective insight) about a highly negativeevent was associated with higher depressive symp-toms. Having a more external locus of control wasalso significantly related to having higher levels ofdepressive symptoms. The authors speculate that inthe absence of a structured, scaffolded model of nar-rative meaning making, it was too difficult for theinterviewed young women to create narratives thatprovide beneficial effects.

Based on an extensive review of literature on mean-ing-making, Park (2010) concludes that meaning-making efforts do not automatically lead to gaininga sense of meaning. ‘‘The quality of the meaning-making attempts and the meanings made is at leastas important as the quantity", Park (2010, p. 290)states. For example, blame and negative evaluationstypically lead to poorer outcomes than nonjudgmen-tal reflection. Kross et al. (2011) conducted an experi-ment with fifth-grade children to help delineate thepsychological mechanisms that distinguish adaptiveversus maladaptive forms of self-reflection. They stu-died the perspective of the children recalling negativeexperiences. A ‘‘self-immersed’’ perspective meansthat they visualize events happening to them throughtheir own eyes. From a ‘‘self-distanced’’ perspectivethey see themselves in their experience from the per-spective of an observer or ‘‘fly on the wall’’. The find-ings of Kross et al. indicate that children who analyzetheir feelings from a self-distanced perspective recountless and reconstruct more. A self-immersed perspec-tive leads to more emotional reactivity and blamingothers. In an earlier study, Kross (2009) cites fMRIbrain research indicating that recalling negativeexperiences from a self-immersed perspective activatesmore strongly Brodmann Area 25, an area involved indepression, than recalling them from a self-distancedperspective.

Papageorgiou and Wells (2003), Roussis and Wells(2008), and Smith and Alloy (2009) conclude thatrumination serves to effectively avoid the processingof negative emotions. ‘‘High ruminators may avoidthe private experience of negative affect throughrumination and in so doing, may actually worsentheir negative mood (. . .) rumination is a misguidedemotion regulation strategy’’, according to Smith andAlloy (2009, p. 123). In the same vein, Geurtz (2013)treats thinking as a widespread addiction, comparableto addictions to alcohol, drugs, gambling, and sex:‘‘The effect is a temporary interruption of discomfortbut also a strengthening of it after the effect of thedrug has passed’’ (p. 10). According to Watkins(2008), repetitive thought becomes unconstructivewhen a person experiences an inability to reduce cog-nitive or emotional discrepancy and at the same timeis unable to give up the efforts. Watkins also states

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that repetitive thought that is characterized by high-level, more abstract construals has unconstructiveconsequences under circumstances of novelty,unfamiliarity, difficulty, or stress. This is becausethese construals do not guide the individual in know-ing what to do next. Moreover, processing at a higher,more abstract level may interfere with goal disengage-ment. The higher in the hierarchy, the more importantthe goal becomes to the general sense of self, and theharder it becomes to disengage from it. In the samevein, Rood (2011) concludes her dissertation statingthat altering thinking styles (from abstract to con-crete) may be more helpful for prevention and treat-ment of juvenile depression than other interventions.

Akin to global traits and abstract construals is theconcept over-general or categoric memory (Watkins& Teasdale, 2001). Over-general memories are sum-maries of repeated occasions (for instance waiting atbus stops or making mistakes) and are contrasted tospecific memories (i.e. events that occurred at a par-ticular place and time). Over-general memory hasbeen implicated in the maintenance of depression. Inan experimental study, Watkins and Teasdale (2001)found that an analytical self-focus is associated withover-general memory and with chronic ruminativeattempts to make sense of current or past difficulties.Self-focus in itself is not a negative factor according toa meta-analysis of 226 studies on self-focus and nega-tive affect by Mor and Winquiat (in Nolen-Hoeksemaet al., 2008). The researchers concluded that self-focusafter failure was associated with increased negativeaffect but that self-focus after positive events wasassociated with reduced negative affect.

Two additional factors in the causes of ruminationbecame clear from a questionnaire study amongpsychology students where Stein and Grant (2014)investigated the role of dysfunctional attitudes(‘‘negatively biased assumptions and beliefs regardingoneself, the world, and the future’’) and core self-eva-luations (‘‘a basic, fundamental appraisal of one’sworthiness, effectiveness, and capability as aperson’’) in the relations between self-reflection,self-insight, and subjective well-being. Their findingssuggest ‘‘that self-reflection can lead to enhanced well-being through the development of self-insight and thisis more likely to occur when low levels of dysfunc-tional attitudes and higher levels of positive self-evaluations are present’’ (p. 519). In other words, ifa person already has negative attitudes about the self,rumination is more likely, while those who think wellof themselves are likely to benefit from reflection.

Reflection and rumination: Summing-up

Figure 1 depicts the factors that were found in ourliterature search, and their influence. Essentially, if aperson is psychologically healthy, confident, open, incontrol, not expecting too much of reflection, and nottoo focused on him- or herself, then productive forms

of reflection are likely to occur. In other cases, there isa risk of rumination and negative outcomes.

Almost all factors that were discussed are in thedomain of characteristics or traits of the person, habitualways of thinking, and of perceptions and attitudes. Thenext section examines—using the example of the narra-tive career-learning intervention ‘‘career writing’’—whichresponses and key elements can counter the detrimentaleffects of rumination and make the work of career-identity formation a beneficial reflective activity.

Career writing

Career writing (Lengelle, 2014) is a narrative-basedcareer identity development method suitable for fos-tering life designing that is based on both writing forpersonal development (Bolton, Field, & Thompson,2006) and on career counseling. It combines creativewriting (e.g. fictionalizing aspects of one’s biography),expressive writing (i.e. exploring traumatic experi-ences by writing about both the events and feelingsexperienced), and reflective writing (i.e. deliberatereflections about one’s life with an opportunity toquestion beliefs and identifications). Research on themethod (Lengelle, Meijers, Poell, & Post, 2014) showsa variety of positive outcomes (e.g. luck readiness,workplace performance, action-ableness, positive emo-tions) among university students. Additionally, twodecades of experience by one of the authors using writ-ing as a method for personal and professional develop-ment has shown few ruminative side effects.Furthermore, writing for the aim of self-explorationand healing has been shown to be effective: researchdone in the last three decades has demonstrated signifi-cant positive benefits to both physical and mentalhealth (Lepore & Smyth, 2002; Pennebaker, 2011).What then makes writing about one’s life and personalstruggle an effective form of self-reflection and whatmight that say about career-learning interventions ina more general sense?

First and foremost, the online or face-to-face class-room where ‘‘career writing’’ is taught is a non-judg-mental space (Lengelle & Ashby, 2016). Second, theapproach is a structured narrative meaning-makingmethod that consciously takes into considerationthat reflective learning is an embodied experience inwhich emotions and thoughts play a combined role inpersonal development. It also recognizes the import-ance of getting ‘‘out of one’s head’’ (e.g. out of overlyself-involved, repetitive thinking processes) and doesso using a host of creative exercises that foster self-insight (Lengelle, 2014).

There are several main exercises used in career writ-ing. First ‘‘proprioceptive writing’’, a journal-writingmethod that invites people to write what they hearwhile also observing what appears on the page andasking probing questions (Trichter-Metcalf & Simon,2002). Second, fiction writing where students make upcharacters and stories without the pressure of telling or

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Table 1. Response of career writing to risk factors of rumination.

Risk factor Career writing view, exercise or interaction

Fear dominates curiosity The creative process of career writing emphasizes a process of

exploration; the facilitator welcomes ‘‘fear’’ as a symptom of

wanting to develop; the presence of other group members

demonstrating their own ‘‘curiosity’’ frequently rubs off on

more fearful types. There are a variety of exercises, like pro-

prioceptive writing and The Work that can be used to look at

the ‘‘monster under the bed’’.

Neuroticism—a personality trait related to anx-

iety, fear, moodiness, worry and other negative

emotional states

The expressions of neuroticism are considered normal ‘‘symp-

toms’’ when reacting to boundary experiences. Proprioceptive

writing makes room for feelings and worries (so-called negative

feelings) in the sensing phase in particular.

If complaints persist, dialogue writing and ‘‘The Work’’ are

good exercises for questioning underlying beliefs that may

exacerbate suffering and symptoms.

(Perceptions of) Impaired interpersonal skills Writing itself is often suited to shy introverted or socially awk-

ward people because they have an option to share or not or

can wait until they are more comfortable; others sharing in the

group often reveal common vulnerabilities and this conceivably

lowers the anxiety that is associated with (perceived) impaired

interpersonal skills. Just as in counselling, being ‘‘weird’’ or

perceiving oneself as such is not a barrier to participation.

(continued)

Figure 1. Factors influencing processes and outcomes of thinking about stressful experiences.

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Table 1. Continued

Risk factor Career writing view, exercise or interaction

Inability to express inner experience in language The aim of career writing is precisely to foster the expression in

language of what is experienced inside. Writing in a variety of

different ways, using different exercises, and doing so at your

own pace is a way to enhance competence with language. The

principle of practice is part of the remedy here: the mere

practice of writing, however slowly and awkwardly it may begin,

constitutes practice. In people unable to identify feelings (e.g.

alexithymia) writing in specific details about actual events can

begin to connect ‘‘inner experience’’ with language.

Need for absolute truth The exercise ‘‘The Work’’ is likely the most powerful undoing with

regards to a need or compulsion for viewing oneself or situ-

ations in a way that requires ‘‘absolute truth’’. This exercise can

also reveal the humor in having this desire; such humor lightens

the seriousness and shows the relativity of ‘‘truth’’.

Abstract type of self-knowledge Career writing emphasizes the value of writing about one’s own

lived experience in concrete detail and not having to formulate

a ‘‘theory’’ about one’s own failings or triumphs. If ‘‘abstract’’ or

a more conceptual knowledge is gained as a result, the process

ties that to felt-experience.

Being a woman Interestingly, career writing attracts women in relatively high

numbers. Regardless of whether a man who tends to ruminate

a lot or women who ruminate more often are involved with the

process, the reflection done here is aimed at ‘‘taking one’s self’’

out of repetitive cycles of thought (see other risk factors for

details)

Having (had) a challenging life As mentioned in the body of the article above, those with ‘‘chal-

lenging lives’’ were likely unable to make positive meaning

making because of a lack of ‘‘a scaffolded model of meaning

making’’. Career writing offers a scaffolded form working with a

clear structure that takes into consideration both traumatic

experience, the non-verbal automatic responses stored, the

need for translation of those feelings into language and the

nature of the embodied learning needed through the phases

(e.g. sensing).

External locus of control Writing in this context is geared towards stimulating an ‘‘internal

dialogue’’ so that steps taken as a result of a second story are

‘‘felt’’ to be congruent and life giving and coming from one’s self

(not others’ views, advice, or pressure). Cultivating an ‘‘internal

dialogue’’ counters overly externalized points of focus—said in

writing terms: one’s writing voice is a form of speaking one’s

own truth in the face of opposing viewpoints.

Blaming The Work is a good exercise to counter ongoing blaming, how-

ever ‘‘blaming’’ itself is considered a natural symptom of a first

story within ‘‘career writing’’ (it’s no big deal, just one’s first

response to a boundary experience). By explaining the theory

of career learning to participants in a way that provides infor-

mation about the learning process on a ‘‘just enough and just in

time’’ basis, these symptoms can be seen with some humor and

soberness and as part of a larger process, not a destination.

Negative self-evaluation This too is considered a natural symptom of a boundary experi-

ence—a kneejerk reaction to a challenge a person has not yet

learned how to meet. A non-judgmental atmosphere in the

course and a variety of exercises that question such perspec-

tives or create an opportunity for competence gained in writing

can lessen this tendency. The fun of creating fiction or poetry

and sharing this within a class setting (where feedback is not

evaluative or corrective) can also go a long way in reducing

negative self-evaluation

(continued)

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withholding personal ‘‘truths’’ and later go back to iden-tify salient emotions and uncover life themes that haveinadvertently appeared on the page. There is also play-writing or dialogue writing where participants can play-fully explore a variety of voices, also ones that have beenpushed into the margins. This type of writing also allowsfor invoking so-called ‘‘outside voices’’. Poetry is alsoused, in various phases of the process, sometimes toexpress raw emotions, other times to summarize keyinsights or to capture a life theme so that it canbecome a useful point of reflection during future actionsteps. ‘‘The Work’’ is an inquiry-based writing exercisethat helps individuals question stressful beliefs aboutothers and themselves (Katie, 2002). While studentsoften begin by writing about stressful life events with atone of certainty or victimhood they learn that theirviews are relative, subject to revision, frequently unhelp-ful, and even humorous in their absurdity or arrogance.

Table 1 shows an overview of a number of the riskfactors identified above and a response to each in con-crete terms using career writing as a reference point.

A summary of key insights

A career narrative method that would foster reflectionin order to make life designing possible requires a safeholding space that is facilitated by a compassionateand knowledgeable teacher or guide. A successfulmethod will promote the following developmentalprocesses: (1) engaging with (i.e. having/allowing/articulating) as well as observing feelings; (2) cultivat-ing a mutually inspiring internal as well as an externaldialogue (a conversation with one’s self and others);(3) articulating lived experiences while also question-ing existing beliefs about those experiences (using spe-cific and concrete details to construct stories and usingquestions to deconstruct our responses to experience);(4) understanding the theory of the growth processinvolved in identity formation, which includes iden-tifying pitfalls and responding with do-able steps(theory is provided on a just-enough, just-in-timebasis); (5) stimulating a playful, creative process thatfosters a sense of fun and competence.

Table 1. Continued

Risk factor Career writing view, exercise or interaction

Using misguided strategies to avoid negative

emotion

The process described welcomes negative emotions, in fact

explaining the role they play in identifying salient themes.

Participants are encouraged to write in concrete details about

struggles (e.g. being fired from a job), such detail brings up

feelings readily, including negative ones.

Over generalizing memory Writing about specific occurrences and not grouping them

together in a kind of over-arching conclusion is intended to

lessen this tendency; The Work also helps to question con-

clusions individuals have drawn about the past

Self-focus Putting worries and thoughts on the page so they can be observed

‘‘like a fly on the wall’’ instead of these remaining

internalized;creative dialogue writing exercise where you write

with yourself and an imagined ‘‘wiser’’ self or with an imagined

other; reading in class means others also observe your process

which helps you see yourself from the outside in

Dysfunctional beliefs The exercise ‘‘The Work’’ is used to query existing beliefs about

self and others

Pre-occupation with self/self-immersed

perspective

See ‘‘Self-referential’’ and ‘‘Self delusional’’ for similar responses

No solutions appearing (after reflection) The focus on ‘‘solutions’’ is often a premature attempt towards a

new perspective. The writing process allows first for examining

the rightness of the questions and interpretations of the

boundary experience; solutions appear organically as a result of

a process that combines feelings and words and checks them

again against feelings. The type of reflection here is not (only)

‘‘head work’’ but embodied work. The emphasis in the process

here is on being better able to respond which supports solu-

tions forming over time—solutions are the fruits of one’s labor,

as opposed to goals that should be readily achieved.

Emotional and cognitive discrepancies The career-writing process is geared towards bringing what is felt

and what is thought together in ways that is congruent and life

giving. It gives an individual the opportunity to develop a new

perspective through sensing, sifting, focusing and understanding

where emotions are put into words that are checked again for

emotional congruence. All exercises have this integrative mix.

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A group-work format has additional benefits becauseit allows for the development of a wider range of pos-sible perspectives, has individuals see and experiencethat they are ‘‘not alone’’ with their struggles and pro-vides opportunities to witness one’s own growing com-petence through the eyes of others.

Conclusion

It is likely that the emphasis on reflection withinschools, universities, and in organizations will growfurther as the complexity, insecurity, and individual-ization of society increases. It is therefore importantthat individuals get the opportunity to develop areflective practice that is both effective and preventsthe harmful effects of rumination. We have describeda method that engages one’s creativity, expressivityand reflectivity to explore this process. In her perhapsparadoxical view of reflection, Gilbert describes thebooks she has written as ‘‘souvenirs of journeys thatI took, in which I managed (blessedly) to escapemyself for a little while’’ (Gilbert, 2015, p. 172).This may be in part at the heart of good narrativeapproaches: we get to develop ourselves while beingrelieved ‘‘temporarily from the dreadful burden ofbeing who we are’’ (ibid., p. 172). In other words, weget to reflect without the self-focus and neurotic dimen-sions of rumination. In fictionalizing our lives, poetic-ally capturing moments of experience, and questioningour stressful stories, new perspectives and identitiestake shape. Our old selves are left behind in the formof our old stories about who we were and our secondstories become our second chances.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest withrespect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of

this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research,authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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