A

SEMINAR PAPER

ON

INSTRUCTIONAL (TEACHING) THEORIES

WRITTEN BY

AKPAN, ESENAM PAUL

PRESENTED

TO

DR (MRS) ALICE UDOSENDEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM STUDIES,

EDU MANAGEMENT & PLANNINGFACULTY OF EDUCATION

UNVERSITY OF UYO, UYO.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE COURSE (EDC:611) FOR THEAWARD OF MASTER’s DEGREE IN EDUCATION

JULY, 2014

TABLE OF CONTENTS

i. Title page

ii. Table of contents

iii. Abstract

Introduction - - - - - - - 1-3

Gagne’s theory of instruction - - - -

4-6

Gagne’s Nine steps (Events) of Instruction - 6-

7

Strength and weaknesses of the theory - - 7-

9

The implication of Gagne’s theory - - - 9

Bruner’s theory of Instruction - -

10-12

Principles which Bruner’s theory is Built upon -

12-16

Implication of Bruner’s theory on curriculum

study - 16-17

Ausubel’s theory of Instruction - - -

17-20

Implication of Ausubel theory - - - - 21

Constructivism theory of instruction - -

21-242

The principles of constructivism - - -

24-25

Implication of constructivism - - - -

26-28

Vygotsky’s theory of Instruction - - -

28-31

Strengths and weakness of the theory - - 31

Implication of Vygotsky theory to curriculum

studies - 31-32

Conclusion - - - - - - - 33

Recommendation - - - - - - 34

References

3

ABSTRACTThis paper examined the different instructional theories; its relationshipwith curriculum studies and the education process of the leaner ingeneral. It however reviews different definition of “Instructional Theory"by different authors, but specifically viewed an Instructional theory as asystematic way of "how what one wishes to teach can best be learned"(Okoro 2002). This paper considered Bruner’s theory of Instruction,Gagne’s theory of Instruction, Ausubel’s theory of Instruction, VygotskyInstructional theory and the constructivist theory of Instruction as themajor variables for discussion. It however concluded that a theory ofteaching must answer the questions of teaching for efficient learning. Itwas recommended that; Instructors should adopt the differentInstructional theories that best fit the nature of the class, age ofstudents present in class and the type of subject taught as these wouldpredict and control the ways in which the teacher-behaviors affect thelearning of students.

4

INTRODUCTION

An Instructional theory is a theory that

offers explicit guidance on how to better help

people learn and develop.

Kerlinger (1965) has also defined the term theory

of teaching as a set of interrelated constructs,

definitions, propositions which present a

systematic view of teaching by specifying

relation among variables with the purpose of

explaining and predicting. Under this definition

main emphasis has been given on the relationship

among teaching variables. The purpose of

relationship is to understand predict and control

teaching tasks Bruner (1964) defines the theory

of teaching as the explanation of "general

methodology of teaching." From his definition

Bruner believes that teaching is different from

instruction. His definition is concerned with

"how what one wish to teach can best be learned"

(Okoro 2002).

Instructional theories focus on how to

structure materials for promoting the education

of the learners, particularly Youth. Originally

5

in the United States in the late 1970s,

instructional theory is typically influenced by

three general educational thoughts; the

behaviorist, the cognitive and the constructivist

schools of thoughts. Instructional theory is

heavily influenced by the 1956 work of Benjamin

Bloom, a University of Chicago Professor and the

result of his taxonomy of educational objectives.

Other instructional theorists like Robert M.

Gagne came up in 1965.

Although instructional theory has been

criticized by some authors like Paulo Freire

whose work appears to criticized instructional

approaches that adhere to the knowledge

acquisition stance, and his work pedagogy has had

a broad influence over a generation of American

educators with his critiques of various "banking"

models of Education and analysis of the teacher

student relationship (http;//www.dsa-

atlanta.org/pdf_docs/macedo_intro_poto.pdf)

Freire surfice that knowledge comes about only

through the learner by inquiring and pursuing the

subjects in the world end through Interaction; He

6

emphasized on teacher – student Interpersonal

relationship.

B.O Smith (1969) gives a statement as a

definition of theory of teaching. ‘a teacher who

is not theoretically trained will interpret

events and objects in terms of communications

concepts that have come from the experience of

the race permeated without, model ideas about

human behaviors.’ The statement by smith

indicates the nature of theory of teaching. Here

theory of teaching answers three questions; ‘how

do teachers behave, why do they behave as they

perform and with what effect? These fundamental

questions apply for all teachers, for all

students and for all situations in which teaching

occurs.

The few theories of instruction (teaching)

that would answer these questions include

Bruner’s instructional theory; Vygotsky’s

instructional theory, Gagne’s theory of

instruction and the constructivist’s theory of

instruction.

7

2.1 GAGNE’S HEIRARCHICAL THEORY OF INSTRUCTION

Robert Mils Gagne was an American

Educational Psychologist who lived between August

21, 1916-April 28, 2002. He was best known for

his conditions of learning; He pioneered the

science of instruction during the World War II

when He worked with the army Air Corps. He

applied instructional theory to the design of

computer-based training and multimedia-based

learning.

Although it is not unusual for R. M Gagne’s

work to be considered in a volume addressing

learning theories, his contributions can most

appropriately be considered as an ‘Instructional

theory’ (Smith and Ragan 1996). Gagne (1985)

described the nature of instructional theory as

an attempt to relate the external event of

instruction to the outcomes of learning by

showing how these events lead to appropriate

support or enhancement of internal learning

processes. The province of an instructional

theory to Gagne, is to propose a rationally based

relationship between instructional events, their

effects on learning processes and the learning

8

outcomes that are produced as a result of these

processes Gagne (1985;p244).

Gagne’s theory of instruction is commonly

broken into three areas;

(1) Taxonomy of learning outcomes; which is

similar to Bloom’s taxonomies of cognitive,

affective and Psychomotor outcomes. Gagne’s

taxonomy consists of five categories of learning

outcomes – verbal information, intellectual

skills, cognitive strategies, attitude, and motor

skills. Gagne, Briggs and Wager (1992) explain

that each of the categories lead to a different

class of human performance.

(2)The conditions of learning: Essential to

Gagne’s ideas of instruction are what he calls

‘Conditions of learning’. He breaks these down

into internal and external conditions.

The internal conditions deal with previously

learned capabilities of a learner or what the

learner knows prior to the instruction. For

example, before a learner can understand the

lesson on ‘Nervous Co-ordination’, the learner

must have had prior knowledge to the lesson

based on ‘sense perception’.

9

The external conditions deal with the stimuli

(purely behaviorist term) that are presented

externally to the learner. For example, what

instruction is provided to the learner

determines what knowledge the learner will gain

from the instruction.

To tie Gagne’s theory of instruction together he

formulated nine events of instruction which when

followed, these events are intended to promote

the transfer of knowledge or information from

perception through the stages of memory. He

based his events of instruction on the cognitive

information processing learning theory.

(3)The events of instruction:

GAGNE’S NINE STEPS (EVENTS) OF INSTRUCTION ARE

SUMMERIZED AS FOLLOWS:

(1) Gain attention: Present stimulus to ensure

reception of instruction.

(2) Tell the learner the learning objective.

what will the pupils gain from the instruction.

(3) Stimulate re-call of prior learning.

Ask for re-call of existing relevant knowledge.

(4) Present the stimulus: Display the content

(5) Provide learning guidance.10

(6) Elicit performance: Learners respond to

demonstrate knowledge.

(7) Provide feedback: Give informative feedback on

the learner’s performance

(8) Assess performance: assess more performance and

more feedback to reinforce information.

(9) Enhance retention and transfer to other

contexts.

STRENGTH OF GAGNE’S THEORY AND ITS ASSUMPTIONS

According to Cunningham (1996), Gagne’s

theories into real life have some unique

strength. Following the three areas of the theory

as described by Driscoll (1994) I will first

examine the domains of learning outcomes.

As a teacher of the instructional lesson, the

assumptions prove to be very beneficial because

(1) It provides a good way to put more structure

into the objectives of the lesson plans.

(2) The domains of learning help the teacher to

better understand what type of learning he was

expecting to see from the students.

(3) The nine events of instruction provide the

instructions with the fulcrum where lesson can

be hanged.11

WEAKNESS OF GAGNE’S THEORY AND ITS ASSUMPTION

The weakness of this theory stems from the nine

steps to instruction, this makes the theory rigid.

The nine events of instruction saves as a guide to

teacher but must be followed in hierarchical mode;

owing to this, if one step is omitted then complete

learning in the lesson has not taken place.

Tanner and Tanner (1980) also falsified Gagne’s

theory from the definition. He assumes that

learning is mechanical and linear, and that the

learner is a mere mechanism to be conditioned

toward making the right automatic responses.

The theory is systematic and the systematic

nature of it may be a turn-off for teachers who are

creative.

The theory is difficult to implement. Many times

it is difficult to take the goals a teacher has for

students and put into a correct learning outcome

category and then create objectives using Gagne’s

standard verbs.

THE IMPLICATION OF GAGNE’S THEORY

Although Gagne’s work was directed at instruction

not at

12

Curriculum design, a substantial influence from his

ideas can be observed in those areas. Cambell,

Primtose,cooper, stacy-ann and Green Molrose (2011)

writes thus, while Gagne’s theoretical frame work

covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the

theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has

been applied to the design of instruction in all

domains. These events should satisfy or provide the

necessary conditions for learning and serve as the

basis for designing instruction and selecting

appropriate media.

Gagne’s theory also helps curriculum designers of

the contemporary world to make lessons learners-

centered by providing meaningful, customized

learning experiences. For example, the publishers

of text books mostly at the primary school levels

align the chapters of the text books with schools’

syllabus accompanied with flamboyant pictures to

facilitate individuals learning.

BRUNER’S INSTRUCTIONAL THOERY (DISCOVERY TEACHING)

Jerome Bruner was born in 1915 in New York, USA.

He is a cognitive psychologist who is primarily

interested in the development of mental abilities.

He is most associated with what is called discovery13

learning. Bruner believes that learning is

different from instruction. For him, emphasis

should be placed on how to make instruction

scientific just as it is placed on theories of

learning. Bruner is the major proponent of what is

today known as ‘Discovery Teaching or teaching for

discovery learning.

This is a teaching method requiring the re-

arrangement of subject-matter structure so that the

learner is able to go beyond the evidence presented

to acquire new insights.

Bruner says knowing is a process, not a product

instructing someone in a discipline is not a matter

of getting, him to commit results to mind (Okoro

2002). Instructing rather, is that of teaching him

to participate in the process that makes the

establishment of knowledge possible. Instead of

presenting the learners with conclusion, the

learning situation should be structured so that

they learn how to work with data to make inference.

That is, learners should be made to learn the

procedures or methods of inquiry.

In his ‘discovery teaching’ he based his teaching

method on inquiry learning. Here learning is gained

14

through experience. He emphasized that instructors

should help the learners use inductive reasoning –

using specific to formulate general principles.

He advocated the spiral construction of

curriculum. (revisit concepts) where the learner

builds on past experience, students interact with

environment to discover facts and relationship on

their own. Students should be made to create own

construct of knowledge through narrative

PowerPoint.

The inductive processes are mastered by learners

as they participate in discovery learning

situations. Examples of discovery teaching are (1)

In teaching about mammals include man, goat, dog,

cats, Wales camels as examples, then ask students

to mention other examples of mammals.

(2) Encourage students make intelligent guesses.

Instead of giving a word’s question; say – let us

take a look at the words around it and think about

what it possibly means.

According to Rhalmi (2011), the main ideas of the

theory can be summarized as follows:

Learning is an active process, thus, learners

select and transform information.

15

Learners make appropriate decisions and

postulate hypotheses and test their

effectiveness

Learners use prior experience to fit new

information into the pre-existing structure.

Instructors should encourage scaffolding.

i.e. the process through which able peers or

adults offer supports for learning

Curriculum should follow a spiral structure

i.e. the curriculum should revisit its basic

ideas, building on them until the student

grasps the full formal concept.

The intellectual development includes three

stages: the enactive, iconic and symbolic

stages.

PRINCIPLES WHICH BRUNER’S THEORY IS BUILT UPON

Bruner’s theory specifies four principles

which a theory of instruction must encompass.

These are:-

(A) Motivation: Children are by nature motivated

to learn. They have built-in ‘will to learn.

This is intrinsic motivation. A theory of

instruction, according to Bruner, must be16

concerned with the experiences and contexts

that will tend to make learners willing and

able to learn.

(B) Structure: A theory of instruction must

specify the ways in which a body of knowledge

should be structured so that it can be

readily grasped by the learner. Bruner states

that any given area of knowledge can be

presented in such a way as to be understood

by almost any learner (Okoro 2002). Bruner

considered that structure of any body of

knowledge can be characterized in three ways;

(i) Method of presentation (lecture method,

demonstration method or discovery method).

(ii) How much is presented at a time

(iii) Which level of presentation is being

aimed at (whether it is being presented by

means of action, images or symbols).

Bruner distinguished three main levels or modes

of processing information by children, these

include:-

17

The enactive stage: This refers to learning

by actions, it implies adaption at the

motor level. For example, the capacity for

a child to move around or try to reach and

to grasp something.

The iconic stage: This refers to the

learners’ use of picture or models; the

child uses images to form concrete objects

in learning. For example; in the nursery

one and two; pupils are provided with

pictures and colours to match it with the

names of what they are to learn.

The symbolic stage: This refers to the

ability to develop how to think in abstract

terms. This stage general abstract ideas

are learnt through word and numbers.

C. Sequence: A theory of instruction should

specify the most effective sequence in which

to present the materials.

Bruner believes that learning in a specific

subject area should move through a certain

sequence. For younger learners especially,

instruction should first begin with the

activity level, followed by the use of images

18

through representation, and finally, the

materials can be communicated through words.

D. Re-enforcement: A theory of instruction should

specify the nature of rewards. Feedback is very

important in learning in order to achieve

mastery of any task, the learner must receive

feedback to either improve on wrong learning or

to progress with the right task.

Weakness off Bruner’s theory

(1) Since the instructor is passive, learning by

the learner require much of the cognitive

work, this too much information received from

the environment by the Learner often lead to

cognitive overload.

(2) It often requires vast resources unavailable

in traditional classrooms.

(3) It always leads to potential misconceptions

which teachers may fail to recognize.

(4) It does not give teacher ample opportunity to

have control over learners.

THE IMPLICATION OF BRUNER’S THEORY IN CURRICULUM

STUDIES

19

Bruner’s theory has direct implications on

the teaching practice and curriculum development.

Here are some of these implications.

(1) The teachers must revisit materials to

enhance knowledge. The concept of ‘spiral

curriculum’ which is seen as entry behavior

to help learners have prior knowledge about

the lesson before new concept, vocabularies

etc are introduced.

(2) Teachers should assist learners in building

their knowledge by giving them class work,

Assignments and surprise tests.

(3) Instruction must be appropriate to the level

of the learners. For example being away of

the learner’s modes (enactive, iconic,

symbolic) will help you plan and prepare

appropriate materials for instruction,

according to the difficulty that matches

learner’s level.

(4) Students should be involved in the class

using prior knowledge.

(5) Teachers should provide feedback that is

directed towards intrinsic motivation. Bruner

(1961,p;28) in Rhalmi (2011) states that

20

learners must ‘experience success and failure

not as reward and punishment, but as

information.’

AUSUBEL’S INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY (EXPOSITORY

TEACHING)

David Paul Ausubel (1918,-2008) was an

American Psychologist who is known for the term

‘Expository teaching’. Ausubel is particularly

concerned with the best possible way for the

teacher to convey meaning through instruction to

learners. According to him, the principal

function of pedagogy is the presentation of ideas

as information meaningfully and effectively such

that clear, stable and unambiguous meaning emerge

and are retained over a long period of time as an

organized body of knowledge.

Ausubel believes that factual information is

most easily learned if it is organized and

sequenced logically. That is new information is

meaningful to the extent that it can be related

to what is already known. He therefore,

emphasizes that contents of materials be

presented in a logical order, moving from generic

to specific concepts, so that learners can form21

cognitive structure and encode new information

(Okoro 2002).

Expository teaching is sometimes called

deductive teaching because the teacher often

begins with a definition of the concepts or

principles, illustrates them and unfolds their

implications. The three basic principles of

Ausubel’s expository teaching are:

i. Concepts are meaningful only when the

learners can visualize them and subsume

them within a cognitive structure

ii. When teaching a concept, the teacher

should proceed from the most generic

concepts to the most specific ones.

Before trying to define ‘Chimpanzee,’

for instance, first teach the more

generic concepts of ‘animal,’

vertebrate, ‘Homoikilothermic’ and

‘Mammals’ all of which subsume

‘Chimpanzee,’

iii.Learners can learn a concept only when

they are ‘ready,’ for it

One interesting aspect of Ausubel’s

theory is his notion of ‘Advance organizers.’

22

The Concept of advance Organizers

Advance Organizers, according to Azlina et

all (2008) are concepts given to learners prior

to the materials actually to be learned, to

provide a stable cognitive structure in which the

new learning can be subsumed. They are concepts

and principles which facilitate the reception of

new knowledge and are chosen for usefulness in

explaining and organizing the new concept.

Anderson, Spiro and Anderson (1978) In Ivie

(1998; p 35) for example, conceded that Ausubel’s

general theory of subsumers contains much that is

valuable for educational practice. Siann and

Ugwuebu (1980) in their book Educational

Psychology in a changing world summarised

Ausbel’s major recommendation in the following

seven points.

1.Explain your learning objectives.

2.Start lesson with advance organizers that

include general principles to help students

absorb the materials systematically.

3.Alert the students to new concepts.

4.Present the learning in systematic steps.

23

5.Ensure, by asking questions, that students

are actively taking part in the lesson and

are mastering the material.

6.Follow the lesson with a summary

7.Set questions or assignments on that

materials that require students to organize

related materials on their own.

IMPLICATION OF AUSUBEL THEORY

The expository theory of Ausubel in

application developed the theory of reception

learning; it places teacher and students in

specific roles and follows a certain sequential

path.

- It makes students to understand the similarities

and differences between new materials and related

concepts.

- It helps instructors to present new information

in small, logically organized steps and in a

sequence that is easy to follow

- It helps students translate what is learned into

an organized reference that reflects upon past

experience or prior knowledge.

CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF INSTRUCTION

24

Constructivism is a theory of instruction that

argues that ‘humans generate knowledge and meaning

from an interaction between their experiences and

their ideas’. Constructivists were of the opinion

that learners form or construct much of what they

learn or comprehend (Kristim 2011). Central to the

tenet of constructivism is that, learning is an

active process. Information may be imposed, but

understanding cannot be, for it must come from

within (Maurine 1999). Since according to Elleh

(2014), constructivism is a philosophy of learning

founded on the premise that , by reflecting, on our

experiences, we construct our own understanding of

the world we live in. constructivism require a

teacher to act as a facilitator whose main function

is to help students become active participants in

their learning and make meaningful connections

between prior knowledge, new knowledge and the

process involved in learning.

According to Jacqueline and Martins (1983) on a

workshop on constructivism as a paradigm for

teaching and learning; constructivism is basically

a theory based on observation and scientific study

about how people learn. When we encounter something

25

new, we have to reconcile it with our previous

ideas and experience, may be changing what we

believe, or maybe discarding the new information as

irrelevant. This predisposes that we are active

creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we must

ask questions, explore and assess what we know

(Stephen and Karen 2013).

Constructivist teachers encourage students to

constantly assess how the activity is helping them

gain understanding by questioning themselves and

their strategies, students in the constructivist

classroom ideally become ‘expert learners.’ This

gives them ever broadening tools to keep learning.

With a well planned classroom environment, the

students learn how to learn.

For example: A JSS 2 teacher believes his

students are ready to study ‘Gravity’ He creates an

environment of discovering with objects of varying

kinds, students explore the differences in weight

among similar sized blocks, foam, wood and lead.

Some students hold the notion that heavier objects

fall faster than light ones. The teacher provides

materials (Stories, vidoes, images) about Galileo

Newton etc. He leads a discussion on theories about

26

falling. The students then replicate Galileo’s

experiment dropping objects of different weights

and measuring how fast they fall. They see that

objects of different weight actually usually fall

at the same speed although surface area and aero

dynamic properties can affect the rate of fall.

THE PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Jacqueline and Martin (1993) offer five key

principles of constructivist theory which can guide

curriculum structure and lesson planning. These

are:

1.Pose problems of emerging relevance to

students.

2.Structure learning around primary concepts

3.Seek and value students’ points of view

4.Adapt instruction to address students’

suppositions

5.Assess students’ learning in the context of

teaching.

Benefits of Constructivist theory

27

1.Constructivism promotes social and communication

skills by creating a classroom environment that

emphasizes collaboration and exchange of ideas.

2.It creates a transferable learning atmosphere

where students create organizing principles that

they can take with them to other learning

setting.

3.Learning/students learn more, and enjoy learning

more when they are actively involved rather than

passive listener.

4.By grounding learning activities in an authentic,

real-world context, constructivism stimulates and

engages students

5.Constructivism gives students ownership of what

they learn.

6.Engaging the creative instincts develops

students’ abilities to express knowledge through

a variety of ways. The students are more likely

to retain and transfer the knowledge to real

life.

Pitfalls of Constructivism

Sweller (1988) found evidence that pratice by

novice during early Schema acquisition, distracts

these learners with unnecessary search-based28

activity when the learner’s attention should be

focused on understanding (acquiring schemas)

IMPLICATION OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

According to the social constructivist approach,

instructors have to adapt to the role of facilitators

and not teachers (Bauerseld 1995). Where as a teacher

gives a didactic lecture that covers the subject

matter, a facilitator helps the learner to get to his

or her own understanding of the context. In

constructivism, the learner plays an active role in

the learning process. The emphasis thus, turns away

from the instructor and the content and forwards the

learner (Gamoran, Secada and Marelt, 1998). The

Dramatic change of role in constructivism implies

that a facilitator needs to display totally set of

skills than a teacher (Brownstein 2001)

- A teacher tells, a facilitator asks

- A teacher lectures from the front, a facilitator

supports from the back

- A teacher gives answers according to a set

curriculum; a facilitator provides guidelines and

creates the environment for the learner to arrive

at his own conclusions.

29

- A teacher mostly give a monologue, a facilitator

is in continuous dialogue with the learner

(Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999).

Brooks and Brooks (1999) summarized a large

segment of the literature on descriptions of

‘constructivists teacher’ as implications to

curriculum studies and education in general,

they conceive of a constructivist teacher as

someone who will:-

1.Encourage and accept students’ autonomy and

initiative.

2.Use a wide range of materials including raw

data, primary sources and interactive materials

and encourage students to use them.

3.Inquire about students’ understanding of

concepts before sharing his/her own

understanding of those concepts.

4.Encourage students to engage in dialogue with

the teacher and with one another.

5.Encourage students’ inquiring by asking

thoughtful, open-ended questions and encourage

students to ask questions to each other and

seek elaboration of student’s initial

responses.

30

6.Engage students in experiences that show

contradictions to initial understanding and

then encourage discussion.

7.Provide time for students to construct

relationships and create metaphors.

8.Assess students’ understanding through

application and performance of open structured

tasks.

Hence, from a constructivist’s perspective,

the primary

Responsibility of the teacher is to create and

maintain a collaborative problems-solving

environment, where students are allowed to

construct their own knowledge and the teacher

acts as facilitator or guide (Mureen 1999).

VYGOTSKY’s THEORY OF INSTRUCTION

Lev Vygotsky 1896 who lives in Orsha, in

Russian Empire developed this theory; he placed

more emphasis on social contributions to the

process of development. He focused on the

connections between people and the socio-cultural

context in which they act and interact and share

experience. According to Vygotsky, humans use31

tools that develop from a culture, such as speech

and writing to mediate their social environments.

Vygotsky’s theory holds three major themes which

are:

1.The more knowledgeable others (MKO)

2.Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

3.Social interaction.

THE MORE KNOWLEDGABLE OTHER (MKO)

This refers to someone who has a better

understanding or higher ability level than the

learner, with respect to particular task, process

or concept for example; when an assignment is given

in schools, students would consult their senior

colleagues, parents, internets etc to facilitate

the accomplishment of the task.

ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)

This is an important concept that relates to the

difference between what a child can achieve

independently and what a child can achieve with

guidance and encouragement from skilled partner.

According to Vygotsky, learning occurs here.

Vygotsky sees the ZPD as the area where the most

sensitive instruction or guidance should be given

32

allowing the child to develop skills they will then

use on their own, developing higher mental

functions.

Level of Assisted Performance

(ZPD)

Level of Independent Performance

From the diagram above, crossing the ZPD is

essential to vygostk’s theory. This can only be

accomplished with the help from MKOs (more

knowledgeable others)

Example of ZPD is when an instructor is reading

an English course book 3 with a learner, the

learner reads aloud, while the instructor follow

the learner’s reading. When he comes across a word

that is unfamiliar e.g. ‘conflagration.’ He asks

for help; instead of telling him the answers, show

him a picture of a ‘large destructive fire’

33

  Di

fficulty o

f the

task

(meaning of conflagration). They will figure out

the meaning of the word.

SOCIAL INTERACTION

ZPD is developed when students work in group,

share ideas in group works or use online-media in

learning. Teachers can use videos and interactive

worksheets to assist student through scaffolding.

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESS OF THE THEORY

The theory is highly child-centered and it aids

fast and long lasting cognitive development. Since

it is socio-culturally based; good cultural values

and norms of the society can be basely learnt.

Critique to this theory is that since teacher and

more knowledge others (MKOs) serve as role models,

the learner can learn bad attitude from his model

by re-creating previous classroom (learning)

collaborations.

34

IMPLICATIONS OF VYGOTSKY THEORY TO CURRICULUM

STUDIES (CLASSROOM)

According to Vygotsky, for curriculum to be

developmentally appropriate, the teachers must plan

activities that encompass not only what children

are capable of doing on their own, but what they

can learn with the help of others (Karpov and Hay

Wood 1998).

Just as Bruner’s theory of instruction, Vygotsky

repeatedly stressed the importance of past

experiences and prior knowledge in making sense of

new situations or present experiences which is very

important in every lesson as entry behaviors.

Teachers can use information about both levels of

Vygotsk’s zone of proximal development in

organizing classroom activities.

35

CONCLUSION

As discourse in this paper the different

instructional theories and their implications in

practical classroom experiences and curriculum

developments in education, this paper concluded

that instructional theory is tied to learning

theory, thus, different instructional (teaching)

theories can only be applied in different

classes/age-level of learners to aid effective

learning and cognitive development; as this would

answer the questions of ‘the teaching for effective

learning.

36

RECOMMENDATION

Based on the forgoing grounds, this paper

recommended that:

1.Vygotsky instructional theory, Ausubel’s and

constructivist theories of instruction should

only be practiced in the tertiary level of

education where there is ‘Readiness’ on the parts

of the students to learn, while Gagne’ and

Bruner’s instructional theory should be

implemented in Nursery, Primary and Secondary

School Level.

2.Instructors should adopt the ‘best fitted’

instructional theory that suites the age of the

learners present in class.

3.Instructors should match the instructional theory

with the type of subject/topic taught as this

will predict the control ways in which teacher-

behaviors affect the learning of students.

37

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