Environment Education - 12

CHAPTER-XII

NATIVE PLANT DEVELOPMENT IN

ALBERTA, CANADA FOR

RECLAMATION AND REVEGETATION

OF DISTURBED SITES

Surya Narayan Acharya1*

Jay Krishan Woosaree2

1Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research

Centre, 5403 - 1st Avenue South, Lethbridge, Alberta,

Canada T1K 3M4.2Alberta Research Council, Bag 4000, Vegreville, Alberta

Canada T9C 1T4;

ABSTRACT

Native plants collected from high stress environments are desirable

in reclamation and revegetation work as they are adapted to the conditions

and have aesthetic value and ability to allow the area revert back to its

original state by being less aggressive in nature. Native plants seldom

become noxious weed when used and contribute to crop diversity in the

area. Although there is a lack of consensus on the definition of a native

plant, every one agrees that they are valuable particularly in situations

where the land was disturbed to a great extent and other highly developed

introduced plants do not have adaptation for the condition. Development

of native plant cultivar allows for easy commercial production and

distribution of the species without restricting the genetic diversity to a

large extent. These cultivars belonging to number of species can be

mechanically mixed to further diversify the plant community in the

reclamation sites. As environmentally conscious people our goal should be

248 Environment Pollution and Conservation: Global Issues and Policies

to ensure that disturbed lands are restored to a condition compatible to the

ecosystem of the area and as plant breeders, reclamationists or public land

managers we should try our best to satisfy this important goal. This article

highlights the justification for native plant development for reclamation

and revegetation while maintaining genetic diversity, the latest techniques

and methods necessary for native plant development, the related genetics

and other environmental aspects associated with native plant development

programs and provide strong guidelines for future prospects of native plant

use for reclamation and revegetation of disturbed areas.

INTRODUCTION

Native species are desirable to preserve and create native

plant communities, for aesthetics, to reduce possibility of

aggressive introduced species from taking over and reduce

biodiversity and to meet the requirements of new Alberta

reclamation criteria (Native Plant Working Group 2001). In Alberta

there are two native grass improvement programs. One is funded

by the Government of Alberta with support from agencies such as

Parks Canada and some private seed companies. The second is an

Agriculture Agri-Food Canada program at Lethbridge Research

Centre (LRC). The Alberta Government sponsored program has

been in operation since 1983. This program started with the

objective of developing and commercializing native grass cultivars

suitable for use in reclamation and revegetation of disturbed sites.

Research work started in earnest at the Alberta Environmental

Centre, Vegreville, (currently Alberta Research Council, Vegreville)

and concentrated on developing cultivars for high elevation

disturbances caused by coal extraction activities in the Rocky

Mountain area of Alberta. After releasing five native grass

cultivars for reclamation of high stress environments, this cultivar

development program continued to include species for range

improvement and for use in habitat and landscape restorations and

enhancements for various regions of Alberta. The overall objective

of the LRC program is to conserve giant wild rye germplasm for

future generations and to develop new populations of giant

wildrye grass cultivars for wildlife habitat improvement, use as

shelter belt and for sustainable pasture and hay production in

western Canada. Indirectly the objective will improve the aesthetics

of habitats for Canadians and improve the security of Canada’s

future food supply.

Native plant development in Alberta, Canada ... 249

The rational for the first program was that seed of native

plant varieties were not available on the market in early 1980s and

any seed collected from native stands were too expensive and varied

from year to year for satisfactory use in reclamation work. As a

consequence reclamation projects used tame forage grasses with

very limited success particularly when used in high stress

environments. Reclamation practitioners and land managers

(Reclamation Research Technical Advisory Committee of Alberta

Environment) believed native species could thrive under stressful

conditions where tame forages have failed. High-stress

environments, such as those found at higher elevations within the

foothills and mountains of Alberta, are difficult to reclaim because

non-native species often cannot survive or reproduce in these harsh

environments (Hardy BBT Ltd. 1989; Thornburg 1982). When

reclamation plantings fail, disturbed sites are subject to soil erosion

resulting in further degradation of the site and can cause problems

at other sites where eroded material such as finer particles of coal

mine gets deposited. Native species originating from high stress

environments were expected to provide a sustainable cover in these

areas.

The LRC program was initiated when the Partners of Habitat

Development (PHD) embarked on a program to improve wildlife

habitats across western Canada particularly in Southern Alberta and

Saskatchewan. They needed a reliable and ready supply of quality

seed with a proven ability to grow well under the harsh

environmental conditions of the southern prairies. This group (PHD)

recognized giant wild rye (Leymus cinereus), has the potential to

protect wild life habitat and provide shelter within a short time

(compared to trees or shrubs such as willow) while providing quality

forage during winters when forage is at a premium. The regional

membership of PHD demonstrated a strong desire to conserve

germplasm of giant wild rye for future use and develop populations

that can be used for habitat improvement.

Collection and improvement of native plants provides an

excellent opportunity to conserve and preserve a unique Canadian

plant species, enhance the genetic diversity of Canadian plants of

economic importance and facilitate the conservation efforts in the

Agriculture Policy Framework (APF) and in AAFC’s Action Plan to

address the Canadian Biodiversity Strategy (CBS) and to fulfill

Canada’s commitment to the Convention on Biological Diversity


(CBD) and the FAO International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources

for Food and Agriculture. As biodiversity has been identified as an

important contributor to society’s mental and physical well-being,

these programs will help address public concerns over genetic

erosion, crop diversification, and habitat loss. These public-good

service oriented native plant development programs will provide new

high quality plant germplasm and well documented information for

national and international breeders and researchers dealing with

crop production and improvement. The information generated has

the long-term potential to stimulate additional production through

usage of other native Canadian plant species in restoration and

reclamation projects, enhance the sustainability of the agricultural

sectors, and increase the global competitiveness of the Canadian

native seed industry. At the same time the environmental risk of loss

of this biodiversity is reduced.

Reliable supply of high quality native plant seed with proven

ability to grow under harsh and extreme environmental conditions

will help the use of these native grasses in areas not suitable for

introduced species. The availability of a new native grass with

improved biomass producing ability, persistence, adaptation to

extreme temperatures and ability to grow with minimal inputs are key

requirements in many reclamation and revegetation situations.

WHY DEVELOP NATIVE GRASSES?

Most forage crops used in Canada have a Eurasian origin.

Since 1932, the Central Experimental Farm in Ottawa has made

approximately 20,000 introductions of legumes and grasses into

Canada. However, only a few forage crops and cultivars are used by

our cattle producers. These crops and cultivars selected for high

productivity and agronomic traits such as competition with weeds

are aggressive and do not allow other plants to survive in close

proximity. Therefore, conservationist and land managers often

regard these forages crops and cultivars unsuitable for harboring

plant diversity. The introduced forages also do not have pathogens,

or other natural pests to keep them in check in their new

environment. However, under extremely stressful conditions such as

severe drought or low soil nutrient conditions for which they were

not designed these plants do not perform well. In reclamation

situations it has been observed that a very few plant may survive,

but these survivors take all the resources available in the area and


choke out other less aggressive native plants from invading the

area (Christian & Wilson 1999; Desserud 2006; Fansler 2007;

Henderson & Naeth. 2005; Naeth 1985). Indigenous species are

better adapted to the growing conditions and many years of natural

selection have made them suited to extreme stress conditions such

the drought of 2002 (Darling 2002) the most severe on record) or the

recent warm spell in July of 2007 (Environment Canada 2007). It is

therefore easy to understand that native plants will be more suitable

for high stress environments than introduced crops and cultivars

selected for optimum performance under ideal growing conditions.

If native plants have the ability to grow under stressful

environments, why is it essential to develop them before use? This

will be clear if we think about the origin of the successful crops and

cultivars, all of which are native to some part of the globe. Through

development we have brought them to a level where they can be

used effectively and economically for the purpose they are

developed. Undeveloped native plants have many weaknesses such

as seed shattering; and uneven germination, growth, ripening; and

unpredictable production. Although genetic variability is a desirable

thing for reclamation and revegetation purposes some of it needs to

be sacrificed in the process of development to make them grow and

harvest easily and as a consequence more economical for the end

user.

Plant ecologist and restorationist argue that the traditional

approach to cultivar development reduces genetic variability within

a cultivar and so these populations are not as suitable for

revegetation as a diverse population of seeds (Alberta Environment

1995; Knapp & Rice 1994; Native Plant Working Group 1999;

Richards et al. 1998; Wark et al. 1995). The high elevation disturbed

sites (old mine sites) for example poses a serious challenge to the

plants, as they have to survive and grow under a high stress

environment. A genetically diverse population has a better chance

to survive as some genotypes may have adaptation for the specific

small niche environments within a mine site. The reclamation

industry demands inclusion of genetically diverse plants and so our

aim is to develop a series of native plant cultivars or source-

identified cultivars that can be individually grown for seed and then

mechanically mixed to increase diversity both in-term of species and

genetics. This approach makes it easy for the seed producers to

produce high quality seed economically under reasonably good


growing conditions. Low seed production cost will translate into

low seed price and high use. Most grasses and legumes are open

pollinated in nature and so harbour genetic variability although may

look morphologically uniform. This approach also allows the seed

companies to prepare a separate mixture for each situation or use.

NATIVE PLANT DEVELOPMENT AND HOW DOES IT ADDRESS

THE ISSUE OF PLANT AND GENETIC DIVERSITY

Native plant development started mainly for use in

reclamation and revegetation work in Alberta and so any plant

development has to pay close attention to maintain plant diversity.

There are two well known approaches to native plant development.

One of the approach is called “Ecovar™” development where as the

other is simply native plant cultivar development. Although strict

definition of ecovar is difficult to find, it is considered an

intermediate step between a true native plant and a very uniform

highly selected cultivar. Ecovars are the offspring of native plants

that have been specially selected from a larger population for their

ability to survive and reproduce in specific regions of the Canadian

Prairies (Wark et al. 1995). The native plant cultivar development we

practice is not much different from the ecovar approach excepting

that we perform provenance trials to ensure its ability to grow and

survive in high stress environments while having ability to produce

good amount of seed under good growing conditions. The native

grass cultivars developed so far are open-pollinated in nature and

so harbor genetic variability. On addition to this variability these

cultivars are expected to be mixed mechanically to increase plant

diversity for their effective use in reclamation/revegetation or site

restoration work. The choice and derivation of a measure of

biodiversity will depend fundamentally on the use to which it will be

put (Gaston 1996). Programs such as the ARC or AAFC Native Plant

Program aim to increase the supply of locally adapted varieties

developed from Alberta collections on the commercial market for use

in reclamation, revegetation, rehabilitation and habitat restoration.

The main objectives of the plant development programs in

Alberta are to:

• Collect and maintain as much variability as practically

possible in native plants.

• Test collected native plant materials.


• Determine geographic adaptation of these native plant

materials through provenance testing in multiple

locations.

• Evaluate these plant materials in native seed mixes

under different reclamation or habitat improvement

conditions.

• Compare the plant materials to common seeds or those

already on the market, but are from a different origin.

• Develop technologies (seeding techniques, weed

control, seed processing) to propagate and cultivate

these native species under field conditions; and

• Release the plant materials as named varieties to the

seed industry for commercial production and

distribution.

These programs are comparable to the United States Plant

Materials Centres of the Soils Conservation Service. While

developing plant materials for reclamation of disturbed sites, habitat

improvement or range improvement the plant breeders have to ensure

that the plant materials can be economically propagated and they

would perform under the conditions for which they are developed.

PLANT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Seed and Plant Collection

A successful native plant development program will need

collection of an extremely diverse source material from which

cultivars can be developed. A first step in this process was to

identify key native species within the target environment from which

collection were made. Seeds of the species were systematically

collected within different plant communities (ecoregions and land

forms) to ensure inclusion of enough diversity among which

selection was possible. A site description form was prepared for

each collected sample so that further collection can be made at a

later date if need arises. Seeds are collected, cleaned, labelled and a

small amount of seed was stored in a seed repository (–18 oC) for

long term storage. A sample of the collected seed was then

germinated using the Canadian Methods and Procedures for Seed

Testing (1992). Germinated seeds were then transplanted into root-

trainers and allowed to grow in the greenhouse for transplanting

into field nurseries during the summer months.


Seed collection was not easy as the native plants have a

tendency to shatter their seed as soon as they mature. Adjusting

collection trip to seed maturity was extremely difficult when the

collection target included multiple species. For this reason, whole

plants along with roots were collected from high stress

environments, kept cool in transit and transplanted to pots and

given care in growth cabinets before transplanting into field

nurseries.

Nursery Testing

In the nursery, plant vigor, winter hardiness, morphological

characteristics, phenology and seed production were observed and

recorded. Plants of the same species from a location with similar

characteristics are bulked to form plant lines. Plants that are

morphologically distinct are grown separately and they make

separate plant lines.

Progeny and Multi-location Testing

Some times to ensure plant performance, individual plant

progenies are grown in separate lines. The off type plants are

removed from the line and the seed of the rest of the plants are

bulked. The bulked seeds are used to establish provenance tests or

in reclamation studies.

The plant lines are tested in multiple environments

representing different climatic and soil conditions. This is an

important step before releasing any the new cultivar as it

generates information about its performance over a wide range of

environmental conditions (Fehr 1987). We normally test our lines

in 3-4 loca t ions for a t leas t three years and observe

characteristics important for seed production such as ease of

mechanical harvesting and adaptability including winter survival

and disease tolerance. As some species are new to seed

producers’ information about appropriate seeding rate, weed

management, seed processing, seed dormancy, forage value (both

biomass production and quality), stand longevity, and fertilizer

application, and seed production are generated. The information

gathered is impor tant both for the seed producers and

reclamation practitioners. The seed growers are interested in seed

yield and other agronomic characteristics about the new

populat ion to make decis ion for growing i t . The users


(reclamation practitioners) on the other hand use the data to

determine the cultivars suitability for a specific reclamation situation.

For example, a cultivar that produces high forage yield and quality

forage will not be suitable for road side revegetation project in the

park area as it may attract ruminants closer to the road and thus

create an hazard for automobiles.

Provenance testing (common garden approach)

This test is important to determine if the newly developed

populations (before they become cultivars) can survive high stress

environment with out much external input. The test therefore is done

in sites that are accessible for testing number of populations and

provide high stress environment. Some provenance test sites are in

the old and abandoned coal mines and others close to glaciers in

the National Parks in Alberta (Fig. 12.1). These sites provide very

short growing season, extreme weather conditions and low nutrient

soils with very small ‘A’ horizon.

In the absence of genetic data, adaptation to ecoregions is

considered for seed transfer purposes. Because the variability in

a plant population may be related to the distribution of

continuous or disjunct environmental factors such as soil type,

altitude, exposure or latitude with their associated factors of

precipi ta t ion, temperature and photoperiod, the relat ive

contribution of genetics and environment to a plant population

(phenotype), we evaluate seedlings from various seed sources

from same ecoregion or landforms under relatively uniform

conditions such as in growth chambers or greenhouses. The

purpose of provenance trials is to identify populations that have

adaptation to certain stress conditions. This testing system is

not unique to native plants in Alberta. In fact, the International

Union of Forest Research Organizations set up a Working Group

on -Provenance Research and Testing in 1962 and this group

presented Standardization of Methods for Provenance Research

and Testing to the IUFRO Congress at Munich in 1967 (IUFRO

1967).


Figure 12.1. Map identifying the native grass collection and test sites in

Alberta, Canada.

Variation in adaptive traits among populations can be studied

through the sampling of individuals from different environments and

growing them in one or more common environments. We can then

assess genetic variation among species, among populations within

species and among individuals within populations. At ARC, we have

been following these principles. The patterns of variation help

decide the make up of the variety and determine the variety

utilization zone. This process is commonly used in forest

management. For example, the Forest seed transfer guidelines in

British Columbia (Ying &Yanchuk 2006) restrict maximum seed

transfer distance by elevation, latitude, longitude and ecological

classification. These guidelines help restrict seed movement in order

to avoid planting maladapted seedlings by moving populations too

far from their origin. Similarly in native plant development (grass,

forb and legume), the ecoregions should be used as seed transfer

zone to avoid introducing plants to areas for which they are not

adapted or where they may be unwanted.

We are fortunate to have molecular techniques to help guide

population development and elucidate the distribution of genetic

variation over geographic space. However these techniques are


expensive and need to be redefined for each species. Larson et al.

(2001) found that genetic distance - the disparity between the alleles

of the parents, is not necessarily highly correlated with the

geographic distance between the parents. However, it does tend to

increase with geographic distance (Massa et al. 2001), though not

necessarily on a linear scale.

Production of Breeder Seed

The selected populations are given a name and then

established under isolation at Vegreville for production of breeder

seed. These plots are established and maintained according to the

guidelines set by the Canadian Seed growers Association (CSGA)

(Canadian Seed Growers’ Association 1994) and the Canadian Food

Inspection Agency (CFIA). For that purpose, the newly developed

populations have to be registered with CSGA with full plant

description and any distinguishing features they may have. The

bulk harvested seed of varieties are then turned over to seed

companies for further multiplication and distribution. The named

varieties are sold as certified seed, a seed grade with known quality

and performance. Certified seed provides assurances regarding

purity (freedom from weeds) and seed viability - important

considerations for reclamation and revegetation success.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND DATA ANALYSIS

Since seed supply is limited in most situations, nursery plants

are evaluated on single plant basis. Twenty five to fifty plants of

each population (in most cases collections from a small area) are

randomly planted in a field nursery. Data are collected on phenology

and adaptation. If no visible differences are observed among plant

collections of the same species, seeds are then bulked and used in

subsequent testing. For multi-environment testing, at each location

a randomized complete block design with five to six replications is

normally used. Experimental units (plot) in this case consist of five,

6-m long rows. A check cultivar of a closely related species is

normally included in each test to compare the new populations.

Species are randomly assigned within the experiment.

Data are analyzed using Proc GLM (SAS Institute Inc 2002)

of analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine population differences

in emergence, plant vigor, dry matter production, seed yield and

1000-seed weight. Combined analysis of the data from all locations


and years are used to study genotypes, location and year effects by

using mixed model ANOVA. All plots are harvested by hand except

for seed increase plots and breeder seed plots where mechanical

seed harvesting techniques are used. For the reclamation trial, the

species performances in the seed mix are determined through species

composition, percent cover, amount of plant litter, percent of bare

ground showing and aboveground biomass, using a Daubenmire

quadrant. Following the above methods and collected materials a

number of native grass cultivars were developed (Appendix I) and

commercialized for use in high stress environments.

BREEDING STRATEGIES IN NATURAL POPULATIONS

In natural population, sexual hybridization or interspecific

hybridization is not uncommon. There is much evidence of mating

of individuals more closely related than individuals mating at

random. Jones (2003) provides examples of hybridization among

closely related species. Western wheatgrass (2n=56) arose as an

octoploid hybrid between two tetraploid (2n=28) species, beardless

wildrye (Leymus triticoides [Buckley] Pilger) and thickspike

wheatgrass (Elymus lanceolatus [Scribn. & J.G. Smith] Gould) (Jones

2003). Such a species originating through hybridization between two

distinct species is referred to as an allopolyploid (or alloploid).

Because beardless wildrye and thickspike wheatgrass are

allotetraploids themselves, each also arose from two diploid (2n=14)

species. In the case of thickspike wheatgrass, it arose from

hybridization of bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata

(Pursh) A. Löve) and a barley species (Hordeum sp.); though the

origin of beardless wildrye is less certain (Jones et al. 2003). The

combinations of different genomes in a single alloploid species;

known as “fixed heterozygosity” results in heterosis (Soltis & Soltis

1993). Jones et al. (2003) from an analysis of chloroplast reported

that western wheatgrass has the chloroplast genome of thickspike

wheatgrass but not beardless wildrye and that thickspike wheatgrass

has the chloroplast genome of bluebunch wheatgrass. Bluebunch

wheatgrass and thickspike wheatgrass served as female parents and

barley and beardless wildrye served as male parents in evolutionary

history. The reciprocal crosses either did not occur or did not

persist.

Among the grasses, the genus Poa is known to exhibit a

large amount of diversity (Hitchcock 1950; Larson et al. 2001).


Among the many species, Poa secunda is a dominant understory

species, has tremendous potential for forages, range improvement

and reclamation. Poa secunda is differentiated from other Poa

species by the lack of a prominent keel on the lemma. The problem

with this species is that it is also a facultative apomict and has often

been confused with as many as 45 species, including big bluegrass

(Poa ampla Merr.), sandberg bluegrass (Poa sandbergii Vasey) and

Canby bluegrass (Poa canbyi Scribn.).

For decades, traditional techniques such as isozymes have

been very useful in determining evolutionary patterns in many

agricultural crops and native plant populations (Almgard & Clapham

1977; Ducousso et al. 1990; Gottlieb 1977; Haddioui & Baaziz 2001;

Hamrick & Godt 1990; Mailer et al.1994; Schell & Waterway 1992).

Schall et al. (1991) and Schell & Waterway (1992) used molecular

data to measure genetic differentiation, population subdivision and

genetic diversity. Their studies have shown that on an average,

species with restricted geographic ranges have lower overall genetic

diversity and within population variability compared to species that

have a wide geographic range. This is contrary to the belief that

plants cannot be moved more than 330 km north or south and 160

km east and west (Welch et al. 1993). Others have argued that

herbaceous plants can not be moved more than 100 m and woody

shrubs more than 1 km without the fear of genetic pollution (Linhart

1995; Millar et al.1989).

However, the way in which variation is apportioned among

populations, as well as the amount of gene flow seem to be

correlated with the mating system (cross-pollinating versus self-

pollinating) and not necessarily with size of the geographic range

(Schell & Waterway 1992). Clebsch (1960) studied comparative

morphology and physiology in population of spike trisetum

(Trisetum spicatum L. Richt.) from Colorado, Alberta, South America,

New Zealand and Australia and found few clinal trends in

morphological variations and often the trends were not obvious.

Whisenant (1999) argued that strict distance requirements are neither

practical nor supported by genetic or evolutionary evidence. Using

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLP), Larson et al.

(2001) detected a high degree of variation within population (52

AFLP fragments per plant per primer pair in Poa secunda), but little

divergence between the two natural sandberg bluegrass

populations, collected from sites nearly 600 km apart. This implies


that if these populations have similar adaptation potential, then

efforts to develop natural germplasm sources might be streamlined.

Measuring genetic diversity in plant populations

Genetic diversity is important for plant adaptation. Genetic

diversity of common morphological traits is difficult to measure in

natural populations since the traits are influenced by environmental

factors to a large degree and many interacting genes contribute to

their expression. Since phenotype or appearance of a plant is the

result of effect due to its genotype, combined with effect of the

immediate environment and the effect due to the interaction between

genotype and environment it is difficult to measure these effects

individually in the natural habitat. It is therefore essential that

provenance trials or studies dealing with molecular marker be used

to assess the genetic effect.

Assessments of genetic diversity with molecular markers can

overcome the problem associated with environmental variation

because at the molecular level environmental effect is minimal and

these markers are governed by only one or a few genes. These new

techniques have been used extensively in economically important

crops (Aman, 1995; Huff 1997; Mackill 1995; Rafalski 1998); and are

yet to be fully utilized for native plant species. In the quest to

maintain or maximize genetic diversity within a population

researchers have used different approaches such as cultivar, ecovar,

ecotype, variety and pre-variety germplasm. As a result, the users of

these native plant materials raise a legitimate concern over the utility

of various types of native plants. A working knowledge of seed

certification, seed testing procedures and understanding of

terminology might alleviate the concerns of seed production such

as genetic shift and plant diversity as described below.

A cultivar is defined as a cultivated variety. A variety is a

group of individuals within a species, which are distinct in form or

function from other similar arrays of individuals – meaning that a

variety may undergo some selection process in order to achieve a

demonstrated commercial value and in many cases its distinct nature

well described (Jones 2003).

An EcovarTM (Wark et al. 1995) is defined as an intermediate

step between a true native plant and a cultivar, a plant selectively

bred to achieve uniformity in plant growth. Ecovars are the offspring


of native plants that have been specially selected from a larger

population for their ability to survive and reproduce in specific

regions of the Canadian Prairies.

An ecotype is defined as an “an ecological sub-unit to cover

the product arising as a result of the genotypical response of an

ecospecies to a particular habitat” (Turesson 1922). According to

Jones (2003) an ecotype is (a) genetically based, (b) distinctive

based on morphology, physiology, phenology, or all three, (c) found

in different habitat types, (d) genetically variable reflecting

adaptation to the different habitats, (e) inter fertile with other

ecotypes of the same species, and (f) discrete entities with clear

differences separating one ecotype from another.

Native plant varieties which we are developing are native

plants that are subjected to selection for their ability to produce

seed under agricultural field conditions. These plants are subjected

to very little selection excepting that they were moved from their

place of origin and allowed to produce seed in a different

environment. CSGA allows pedigreed seed growers to only produce

certified seeds from a stand for three years and breeder seed for five

years if the stand is good (free form off-types and problem weeds).

The level of selection within a species will depend on the

plant breeder’s goal, such as improved yield or biomass or disease

resistance. The plant breeders develop strategy to:

- Recognize morphological traits and physiological and

pathological responses of plant species that are

important for adaptation, yield, dry matter production

and quality of the crop species.

- Design techniques that will evaluate the genetic

potential for these traits in strains of appropriate

species.

- Search for new sources of genes for the desired traits

that may be utilized in the breeding program.

- Combine the genetic potential for these traits into an

improved variety or cultivar.

The above processes are used mostly by breeders developing

agricultural crops. In our native grass development program our goal

is to maintain genetic diversity and so we apply minimal selection


pressure and that too the selection is mainly confined to ability of

the plant to produce seed. All possible precaution is taken to

minimize loss of genetic variability. There are situations in which

cultivar development approach used by breeders working on

agricultural crops would be preferred, especially for cross-

pollinating species (Pywell et al. 2003). Some may argue and assume

that local, unselected material is the best adapted to the local site

(Linhart 1995) we believe that the method we use (minimal selection)

is appropriate for native plants and this process has no negative

impact on the new populations ability to adapt to the stress

environments.

IS THE GENETIC BASE OF CULTIVARS TOO NARROW?

Some have the impression that cultivars/varieties have narrow

genetic base. This is only true for self-pollinating crops (eg. wheat,

Triticum aestivum L.) and or cross-pollinating crops that are grown

from hybrid seeds (eg. corn, Zea mays; and canola, Brasica sps.).

Genetic base of cultivars can be narrow or broad depending on the

goal of the plant breeder. In Canada, the plant breeders are allowed

to describe the variability present within a cultivar. The plant breeder

may develop isolines (a series of genetically similar lines that carry

different specific genes for resistance to a particular pathogen) and

release them as separate cultivars, or combine them to form a multi-

line cultivar. Such is the case with ARC Vista alpine fescue, ARC

Plateau rocky Mountain fescue and ARC Butte Rocky Mountain

fescue. All three are rocky Mountain fescue grasses with different

maturity dates and adaptation. Other examples include ARC

Mountain View June grass, which is comprised of 6 isolines and

ARC Sentinel, which is comprised of 8 isolines.

Multi-line varieties were first proposed by Jensen in 1952 for

oats and later by Borlaug as a means for combating stem rust in

wheat. A multi-line variety is a composite of genetically identical

lines, except that each line possesses a different gene for resistance

to the disease (Poehlman & Sleeper 1995). By mixing different

combinations of the isolines, the multi-lines can be reconstituted

each year, making it possible to change the component isolines as

changes occur in the prevalent races of the pathogen. In the event

of occurrence of a new race some plants may be susceptible, but not

all. This mix of susceptible and resistant plants should provide a

buffering effect against rapid disease development and thus extend


the life of resistance genes. The same principle is applied in

developing adapted varieties to changing climatic or site conditions.

These multi-lines together, they provide a buffering effect against

environmental stresses. Whenever one uses a multi-line or a single

line will again depend upon the intended purpose or end land use.

CONCLUSIONS

There will always be a lack of consensus on the definition of

a native plant, what constitutes being native: local native versus

indigenous native. However, as plant breeders, reclamation

practitioners or public land managers, it is our objective to ensure

that disturbed lands are restored to a condition compatible to the

ecosystem of the area. This can be achieved through the use of

locally developed native plant materials.

The native plant varieties (source-identified cultivars)

developed or are in the process of development in Alberta provide

an economically viable option for all players from seed growers to

people doing reclamation work, facilitating changes in reclamation

practices and increasing success in achieving long-term

environmental and reclamation goals. In developing locally adapted

native plant varieties, the Alberta programs increases the availability

of native seed in the market for revegetation and habitat restoration

work. These programs also reduces the spread of unrestricted wild

harvesting that can lead to degradation of the remaining natural

habitats or the importation of undisclosed varieties that can lead to

reduced diversity of the ecosystem or in some cases, introduce

unwanted and dangerous weeds.

When choosing native plants in a revegetation/restoration/

reclamation project, one should consider the following:

1. Project goal and the end land use.

2. Select species that are adapted to the ecoregion or the

landforms in the ecoregion.

3. Find out the origin of the cultivar/ecotype/ecovarTM or

common seed that you are using.

4. Use clean seed - check the seed analysis reports and

watch for unwanted weed seeds. If feasible, it is

appropriate to visit the seed production field.


5. Mixtures of several species will add to the diversity

and function of the area.

6. Always seed into a clean seedbed to minimize weed

problems in the future.

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