ENGLISH

USAGE

As the name suggests, this type of question has a few jumbled sentences and one has to select an answer choice which has a logical sequence of the sentences. Let us have a look at a simple example. Directions: In the following question, four statements are provided. These statements form a coherent paragraph when properly arranged. Select the alternative representing the proper and logical sequencing of these statements. A. Management Entrance Tests are designed to test the candidates'

ability to think under the candidates' stressful conditions. B. This gives the examiner a chance to assess the presence of mind of the candidate. C. The stress is gradually shifting from "cramming" to application. D. This is so because the managers of tomorrow need to be extremely swift in their response to management problems and crisis.

(1) DBAC (2) BCAD (3) CADB (4) ABCD

Parajumbles are of two types:

Without Clues: Here the statements of the parajumble are given without the opening and the concluding sentences which would have otherwise served as clues. The example given above is of such a type.

With Clues: These questions have, apart from the jumbled up statements, a fixed opening statement and a fixed closing statement, to give a clue to the student as to wherefrom the parajumble is likely to begin, and where it is likely to end. The example given below is of such a type.

Sentence Arrangement/ Parajumbles

Types of Parajumbles

CATsyllabus.com

Directions: In the following question, four statements are provided between an opening statement 1 and a closing statement 2. The four statements are jumbled up and form a coherent paragraph when properly arranged. Select the alternative representing the proper and logical sequencing of these six taken together: 1. British health authorities issuing 'no cause for concern' statements sought to soothe the nervous nation. A. Thus the dreaded disease arrived in London. B. The media was quick to develop these suspected cases into full blown plague. C. News from India itself was very bad and serious papers reported on how New Delhi seemed helpless. D. That these cases were cleared later was considered no news. 6. They reported the advance of plague across India.

(1) ABCD (2) CDBA (3) BADC (4) DBCA Your approach to a parajumble will depend on the types of hints offered in the parajumble. Parajumbles primarily offer two types of hints or connecting patterns: 1. Structural Connectors/Clues 2. Logical Connectors/Clues

Structural Connectors/Clues In such parajumbles, there are words which can simply be used to find connecting sentences and hence the correct answers can be found, often without having to read the complete sentences. In the following examples, parajumbles having such connectors have been analyzed:

The pronoun way In parajumbles, finding pronouns and then linking those to their nouns can help solve a question very quickly. This is highlighted in the following questions:

How to solve

a parajumble?

TIP The major time

consuming factor in a

parajumble is that

often a student has to

read all the sentences

or most of them

before solving the

question.

The Structural

connectors method

will eliminate the

need to read the

sentences and instead

sharpen your scanning abilities.

Parajumbles (types) Structural clues

Logical clues

(Methods)

Structural signposts way

Pronoun way

Directions: In the following question, four statements are provided. These statements form a coherent paragraph when properly arranged. Select the alternative representing the proper and logical sequencing of these statements. A. They found that the surface water may be as much as 20oC warmer than the deep water. B. The cheapest collector of the sun’s heat is a body of water. C. For a number of years, French engineers have been trying to harness the temperature difference produced in the oceans by sunshine. D. But 20 degrees is a very small temperature difference for operating a turbine. (1) CBDA (2) BACD (3) BCAD (4) ABCD How to solve this question correctly in an efficient way: 1. Do not read all the sentences completely. Just scan the beginning of every sentence to find clues 2. “They” in the first sentence (1) itself is a vital clue. 3. This implies that there must be a noun that must have been mentioned before this. 4. Start looking for that noun which can be the antecedent of the pronoun “they”. When a pronoun refers to a noun given before it, such a noun is known as the antecedent of that pronoun. Be careful that you just scan the sentences looking for nouns instead of reading the whole sentences. 5. “French Engineers” in sentence C can be the only appropriate noun for “they” as it is the only noun that refers to human beings, and is plural. This implies that C immediately precedes A (Also written as CA) 6. There is only one choice with this sequence of CA i.e. Choice (3) 7. Answer Choice: (3)

Benefit: By reading just three words (they, French engineers) after scanning of a 3 or 4 seconds, this question can be solved Directions: In the following question, four statements are provided. These statements form a coherent paragraph when properly arranged. Select the alternative representing the proper and logical sequencing of these statements. 1. Its most easterly point is Cape Spear, New Found land. 2. It comprises the entire North American continent, north of the United States, with exclusion of Alaska, Greenland and the tiny French island of St. Pierre.

Remember

Toolkit

3. Its western limit is Mount St. Elias in Yukon Territory, near the Alaskan border. 4. Canada, the world’s second–largest country (after Russia), is the largest country in the Western hemisphere. (1) 2314 (2) 1432 (3) 3214 (4) 4213 How to solve this question correctly in an efficient way: 1. Scan the beginning of every sentence to find clues 2. Beginning word of 1 (Its), of 2 (It), of 3 (Its) and of 4 (Canada) imply that Canada is the noun that precedes the other three sentences. 3. Hence, 4 is the beginning sentence (Written as 4 –––––) 4. Answer Choice (4) .

A great time saver Directions: In the following question, four statements are provided. These statements form a coherent paragraph when properly arranged. Select the alternative representing the proper and logical sequencing of these statements. 1. Most of Malaysia occupies the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, south of Thailand. 2. It is sometimes called Malaya, or Peninsular or West Malaysia. 3. Malaysia is a country that bridges mainland and peninsular Southeast

Asia, bordering Thailand and northern one–third of the island of Borneo, bordering Indonesia, Brunei, and the South China Sea, south of Vietnam.

4. Its two parts are separated by more than 650 km of the South China Sea.

(1) 2134 (2) 3412 (3) 2314 (4) 2143

How to solve this question correctly in an efficient way: 1. Scan the beginning of every sentence to find clues 2. ‘Malaysia’ in sentences 1and 3 implies that the answer should have 1or 3 in the beginning as 2 and 4 cannot be in the beginning as these sentences will have a noun in a preceding sentence to justify the beginning of these sentences, having “It” and “Its“. 4. Correct answer choice is (2). When you are not looking out for pronouns, scan for words called structural signposts like hence, but, therefore, this, etc. This is another way of solving such questions quickly.

Toolkit

Toolkit

The Structural Signposts Way

Directions: In the following question, four statements are provided. These statements form a coherent paragraph when properly arranged. Select the alternative representing the proper and logical sequencing of these statements. A. It has been due to competing amusements, education, improvements

in industrial condition and the expensiveness of drink itself. B. The fanatics have been able to see it that the Englishman drinks his glass of beer with a faint feeling of wrongdoing but they have not actually been able to prevent him from drinking it. C. The practical disappearance of drunkenness as an English vice has not been due to anti–drink fanatics. D. In the matter of drink, the only result of a century of temperance agitation has been a slight increase in hypocrisy. (1) DCAB (2) BDCA (3) ABDC (4) DABC How to solve this question correctly in an efficient way: 1. Scan the beginning of every sentence to find clues 2. In B sentence, “The Fanatics” is mentioned. 3. “The” before “fanatics” implies that if there is any other sentence with the word “fanatic“ without “the” before, such a sentence would come before B. 4. This happens in C. Hence C comes before B but does not necessary

immediately precede it (This can be written as C––––B). The explanation for this is that when a noun in mentioned once or introduced in a paragraph, any reference made to it again will single it out as a specific noun and hence will be preceded with “the”.

5. Sequence of C––––– B is found only in choice (1). Hence, choice (1) is the answer.

Directions: In the following question, four statements are provided. These statements form a coherent paragraph when properly arranged. Select the alternative representing the proper and logical sequencing of these statements. A. This can be done in two ways: by increasing security and by cultivating courage. B. When a theatre catches fire, a rational man foresees disaster just as clearly as any other scared person. C. It must be one of the chief concerns of the scientific moralist to combat fear. D. I am speaking of fear as an irrational passion, not of rational prevision of possible misfortune. (1) BADC (2) ABCD (3) CADB (4) DCBA

Toolkit

To summarize the approach for solving questions having structural connectors: 1. Scan the beginning of sentences, looking for words like:

• Pronouns • This, But, Hence, Therefore, etc • ‘The” preceding a noun

2. Then try to develop the relationship. 3. Find the sentences that have the relationship. 4. Make a connecting link and narrow down to the correct answer.

How to solve this question correctly in an efficient way: 1. Scan the beginning of every sentence to find clues 2. We have a clue in the first sentence A. “This” is the clue. 3. One can imply something by asking the question: What can be done by increasing security and by cultivating coverage? 4. This is answered in C i.e. one can combat fear by the ways mentioned in A. 5. So CA is the link. 6. Answer is (3) Choice as it is the only choice with CA as a link.

Here the sentences will have no explicit connectors as are found in the parajumbles having structural connectors. One needs to often read the entire sentences. Generally the questions in the exam use combination of logical and structural clues to select the correct answer. So, the method that you have learnt before, finding structural clues should be tried first. Only then relationships based on the inherent logic in the sentences should be drawn. Directions: In the following question, four statements are provided. These statements form a coherent paragraph when properly arranged. Select the alternative representing the proper and logical sequencing of these statements. A. There should be eight to ten national banks with a network of countrywide branches. B. On the restructuring of banks the Narsimhan Committee said there should be three or four large banks, including the State Bank. C. While the large banks could become international in character, the national banks could be engaged in universal banking.

Remember

Toolkit

TIP

All parajumbles will not

offer such clues as will

help you solve the

questions instantly. But

chances are that some

questions will be such as

will test your skill to

solve the questions

quickly. So before doing

a question, look out for

pronouns or words like

therefore, hence, etc

Logical Connectors /Clues

D. The Committee was of the view that moving to this revised system be based on profitability considerations.

(1) BCDA (2) BACD (3) ADBC (4) CBAD How to solve this question correctly in an efficient way: 1. Using the structural signposts, “The Committee” in sentence D implies that name of the Committee that has been mentioned in another sentence B could be the sentence coming before D, if not immediately preceding D. This can be written as B ––––––D 2. This means that choice (3) is eliminated. 3. Now the logical analysis will be done for further progress. Sentence B mentions ––––––––– large banks Sentence A mentions ––––––––– national banks Sentence C mentions –––––––– large and national banks Therefore, C should come after A and B. 4. In the remaining choices (A, B and D), this happens only in choice (2). 5. Hence Choice (2) is the answer.

Toolkit

Sentence Completion questions do not test your vocabulary knowledge only. These questions test your reasoning abilities as well. In fact some questions can be solved with reasoning abilities only, even if you have no idea about the meanings of some of the words. (Who said you can get these correct without any knowledge of words?)

ENGLISH

USAGE

Fill – In – The – Blanks (Sentence Completion) How NOT to solve a sentence completion? 1. Read the sentence 2. Try out the options one by one 3. Eliminate some options and then try again to fit in the remaining ones till one choice is left This of course should be the natural approach for solving any such question. But actually it is a very time consuming method and the choices are such that many students tend to be confused while using this option and might not always get the correct answer.

What is The Strategy? Look for Structural Keywords As stressed earlier, a sentence completion question will focus more on reasoning abilities of the student than on vocabulary knowledge. The sentences have keywords whose significance, if known to the student, can help him in finding the answer instantly (and of course correctly!)

Remember

Caution

Toolkit

Summarizing: 1. Find the structural keyword and try to find the significance of it.

Significance is nothing but analyzing what could come in the

blank / blanks before looking at the answer choices.

2. Find choices which are closer to the significance that you have

drawn from the keyword.

3. If the answer choice has not been found then look for other

important words in the sentence and analyze their significance as

in step 1.

4. Now you will be able to select the answer out of the choices at

step 2 by finding a word that best captures the significance in step

3.

Despite the supposedly primitive lifestyle, Australian aborigines developed the boomerang, a ________ and _________ hunting tool that maximizes gain with minimum effort. (1) ponderous…expensive (2) clean….dynamic (3) dangerous….formidable (4) sophisticated….efficient (5) useful….attractive Structural Keyword here is: “Despite” Significance: Even if the lifestyle is primitive, aborigines have developed a tool which shows characteristics dissimilar to tools of such a primitive era or similar to tools of modern era. So the tool must be having a positive connotation; in other words both the blanks should be highlighting the positive aspects of the tool. Steps: 1. Eliminate any choice with negative words: (1) and (3) are eliminated. 2. Possible answers (2), (4), (5) Is/are there any other important word/words worthy of your consideration Other Keywords: “maximizes gain with minimum effort” Significance: The blank/blanks should capture this idea of maximizes gain with positive effort. Steps: 1. Out of the remaining choices, only choice (4) has a word (efficient) which captures this idea. 2. Hence, correct answer is Choice (4).

This method has been explained in detail. Therefore it might seem time consuming. But with practice through this highly structured approach you should be able to combine Step 1 and 3 and straightaway find the answer from the combined significance of keywords and other important words will give you. Following connecting patterns will help you in offering a compendious analysis of sentence completion questions. Contrast: Quite often, one part of the sentence contains an idea that is in contrast to, opposed to, or different from an idea in another part of the sentence. Unlike Shakespeare, who wrote his best novels during ___________, Bacon wrote some of his finest novels when he was over seventy years old. (1) illness (2) war (3) youth (4) marriage (5) convalescence Structural Key word: Unlike Other Important words: seventy years old Significance: The blank should be opposite of seventy years or old age Answer: (3) In this kind of sentence, one part of the sentence describes something that is similar to something described in another part of the sentence. Here’s an example: Just as musicians in the 1970s were amazed by the powers of the electronic synthesizer, so musicians in the time of Bach _______ the organ, the technical wonder of its day. (1) railed against (2) marveled at (3) were troubled by (4) strove to master (5) practiced on Structural Key words: Just as, so Other Important words: amazed, technical wonders Significance: Just as the musicians of 1970s were amazed, so the musicians in the time of Bach must have been amazed as well. So the blank must be a synonym of amazed. Also the instrument was a technical wonder of the day, hence the blank must have a positive word. Answer: (2)

Remember

Similar words signaling Contrast are although by contrast despite however nevertheless nonetheless on the other hand whereas yet but

Common Connecting Patterns

Toolkit

Similarity

Toolkit

In a sentence with this kind of organization, one part of the sentence states an idea, and another part gives an example of that idea. Look at this sentence. Biologists have often gained special insights by examining the life forms that develop in _________ regions, as illustrated by Darwin’s studies of evolution among the finches on certain __________ Pacific islands. (1) arid … lush (2) harsh … tropical (3) typical … unusual (4) crowded …deserted (5) isolated … remote Structural Key word: As illustrated Other Important words: No such words Significance: Both the blanks should be synonyms or conveying the same idea. Answer: (5) In this kind of sentence, one part of the sentence restates or repeats (in different words) what is said in another part of the sentence. (Sometimes writers will do this to make a new or complicated idea a little clearer.) These are also called conclusion signposts. Here’s an example: Public attitudes toward business ___________ are deeply _________; most people resent intrusive government rules, yet they expect government to prevent businesses from defrauding, endangering, or exploiting the public. (1) ethics … cynical (2) investment …divided (3) practices … emotional (4) regulation … ambiguous (5) leaders … hostile

Keywords highlighting similarity are: as …. as in the same way like likewise resembles same similarly also further more in addition as well as moreover at the same time

Keywords highlighting example are: as in the case of for example for instance specifically such as

Toolkit

Restatement

Structural Key word: Other Important words: resent intrusive rules, yet Significance: The presence of a semi colon (;) means that the part of the sentence after that restates the idea given in the part before it. Hence the first blank should be related to rules. Regulation in Choice (4) is the best match. Answer: (4) In this kind of sentence, one part describes something that causes, produces, or influences what’s described in another part. Here’s an example: Because of the power and recognition that go with public office, incumbent politicians have enormous____________ when waging election campaigns against outside challengers. (1) difficulties (2) expenses (3) advantages (4) budgets (5) concerns Structural Key word: Because Other Important words: power and recognition Significance: Power and recognition will lead to a positive outcome for an incumbent politician. Answer: (3)

Keywords highlighting restatement are: in fact in other words in short namely so to speak that is are therefore thus consequently hence so to conclude

Keywords highlighting cause and effect are:

as a result causes consequently due to

leads to produces results in therefore thus

Toolkit

Toolkit

Cause and Effect

ENGLISH

USAGE

Verbal Analogies An analogy is a relationship between words based on certain characteristic. When you say that your friend Robin is as crazy about skiing as you are about ice hockey, you are making an analogous comparison. In short, it looks like this: Robin : skiing :: I : ice hockey In other words, Robin feels about skiing just as I feel about ice hockey. Each of us is related to the sport named in the same way – we’re crazy about it. Always express the relationship of the first pair in a sentence. The answer you seek must complement that sentence with another pair that expresses exactly the same relationship.

What’s the best strategy? Build a bridge – a sentence that defines the logical relationship between the two words in the question stem. Then test the bridge with each pair of words in the answer choices. Only one will work, assuming that you are able to eliminate all the incorrect choices. 1. Build the Bridge – A bridge is a short sentence that contains both

words in the stem pair and shows how they are related. Let’s call the two words in the stem pair “A” and “B”. A typical bridge would define A in terms of B.

CARDIOLOGIST : HEART A cardiologist treats diseases of heart. BAKER : BREAD A baker bakes bread. SCALPEL : SURGEON A scalpel is a tool used by surgeon.

Analogy

Toolkit

Note: The student can also solve some analogies without forming a bridge. If a word is a synonym or an antonym then the same relationship should exist between the answer choices.

Example: EXODUS : INFLUX This is an antonym pair. So the answer choice should also have similar relationships. Other examples: PULCHRITUDE : UGLY: pulchritude means beauty. TAUT : SLACK: taut means tightly stretched and slack is lax/loose ZENITH : NADIR: zenith means pinnacle while nadir means low depth ENCOMIUM : PRAISE This is an example of synonym pair. So the answer choice should also have similar relationship. Other examples: AMULET : TALISMAN PROPINQUITY : PROXIMITY INSIPID : VAPID This approach is useful in saving time from making a bridge but can be used only if same relationship exists in only one of the answer choices. The student would have to eventually form a bridge to eliminate and come to one answer choice. 2. Narrow the Bridge – This step is useful if in the previous step more

than one answer choice is left after elimination. Take an example

SCALPEL : SURGEON The bridge was: Scalpel is a tool used by Surgeon.

Choices: (1) computer : executive Computer is a tool used by an executive? Retain it

(2) cook : knife Cook is a tool used by knife? Eliminate it (3) trowel : mason Trowel is a tool used by a mason? Retain it

Remember

(4) fertilizer : farmer Fertilizer is a tool used by a farmer? Eliminate it (5) saw : carpenter Saw is a tool used by a carpenter? Retain it Now in this case as three choices are left, then it means that the bridge has to be redefined or narrowed to come to one choice. New Bridge: Scalpel is a tool used by Surgeon to cut. In this case, all choices except (5) are left. So answer is (5). Tip for analogies: Don’t waste your time in guessing the answer choice if you don’t know the meaning of the stem words or the likely answer choice. But go for intelligent guessing. Barring a few exceptions, if two answers choices have the same relationship, they cannot be the answers. The narrower the pool of answer choices, higher would be the probability of getting an answer right. Common Analogous Relationships: Analogies fall into patterns or types that tend to repeat on tests. Being comfortable with some of the basic ones should prove helpful. 1. Antonyms – celestial : mundane :: pinnacle : nadir

Your sentence reads: Celestial is the direct opposite of mundane, just as pinnacle is the direct opposite of nadir, Total opposites on both sides.

2. Synonyms – stingy : miserly :: indigenous : native

Stingy means miserly, just as indigenous means native. Both sides of the analogy balance because both show synonyms.

3. Degree – warm : boiling :: cool : : gelid

Warm is much less hot than boiling, just as cool is much less cold than gelid (frigid, frozen). 4. Person Related to Tool, Major Trait, or Skill/Interest

Example: surgeon : scalpel : : bricklayer : trowel A surgeon uses a scalpel as one major tool in his work, just as a bricklayer uses a trowel as one of his main tools.

Note that a noun representing a person is in first slot of each pair and the adjective we expect as the major describing trait is in the second slot of each. Remember to make a sentence that states the relationship of the first pair, and make it as precise as possible.

Toolkit

5. Person Related to Least Desirable Characteristic or to Something Lacking

Example: accountant: inaccurate :: judge : corrupt The last thing an accountant should be is inaccurate, and the last thing a judge should be is corrupt. Again, the noun (person) is in the first slot, and the adjective naming the least desirable character is tic in the second slot of each pair.

6. One of a Kind

petunia : flower :: maple : tree A petunia is a flower, just as a maple is one kind of tree.

7. Part of a whole

verse : poem :: stanza : song A verse is a part of a poem, just as a stanza is a part of a song. 8. End Product Related to Substance

car : metal :: furniture : wood A car is typically constructed of metal, just as furniture is often constructed of wood.

9. Cause and Effect (or Typical Result)

aggression : war : : discord : altercation: Aggression can lead to (or result in) a war, just as discord (disagreement) can lead to (or result in) an altercation (heated angry argument)

10. Noun Related to Logical action/Purpose

Example: Centrifuge : spin: : scissors : cut A centrifuge spins, just as scissors cut. 11. Relationships of Location/Description

Example: camel : desert : : alligator : swamp A camel is a animal of the desert, just as an alligator is an animal of the swamp. (This does not mean that we only see camels in the desert or alligators in a swamp, merely that each is a natural denizen of the named areas)

12. Implied Relationships Example: clouds : sun :: hypocrisy : truth

Clouds hide (or block out) the sun, just as hypocrisy hides (or blocks out) truth.

WHEN WORKING WITH ANALOGIES, REMEMBER: 1. Analyze the given pair as precisely as possible 2. Express this relationship in a clause or sentence 3. Choose your own idea of a good answer – your pair of words – before looking at the answer choices 4. Eliminate bad answer choices one by one. Cross them out on your answer sheet. 5. Keep negative vs. positive concepts in mind. If one or both sides

of an analogy require a negative word, for instance, you can discard any answers that show positive words in that particular slot.

6. Keep human vs. animal vs. plant vs. mineral concepts in mind. Comparing a human worker to another human worker is a better analogy than comparing human to animal.

7. Be alert to live vs. inanimate (nonliving) distinctions. A comparison between a human and an animal is more accurate than one between a live thing and an inanimate thing. A man uses a hammer just as an otter uses a rock for example, is a fair analogy that compares how one living things uses a tool to the way another living things uses a tool.

Remember

ENGLISH

USAGE

Main Idea Questions In these questions short paragraphs are given. What you are supposed to do is to find out the theme of the given paragraph. 1. To begin with, read the first two lines of the paragraph very carefully. 2. Try to form an opinion as to what the paragraph is going to talk about. 3. Read the paragraph. You don’ t need to comprehend everything in the

paragraph but the parts with key words like ‘but’, ‘yet’, ‘still’, ‘in spite of’, etc.

4. Read the closing lines of the paragraph very carefully. 5. Now see whether the opinion you had formed initially tallies with the

paragraph or not. Generally, the opening and the closing lines of paragraph give a very good view of the theme of the passage. We are constantly told that information technology will take us to a gleaming, gigabyte–infested other world called Cyberspace. Baloney! The Industrial Revolution didn't take us to Motor space; it brought motors into our lives. The Information Revolution will do the same, introducing new tools, which we will use to serve our ancient human needs. This new movement is not about multimedia, virtual reality or even the mighty World Wide Web. It is about an emerging information marketplace in which computers and their users everywhere will buy sell and freely exchange information and "information work". The theme of the paragraph is: (1) Man always wants to satisfy his primitive needs. (2) Going into the Motor space was always a far – fetched dream (3) The Information Revolution will be an exchange not of virtual reality but of information. (4) The Industrial Revolution was not as good as we expected the Information Revolution to be.

Themes of Short RC Type Question

Let us try to solve the question: The opening lines of the paragraph indicate that it is going to talk something about ‘information technology’. When we read on, we find that it is talking about the fact that information technology will not usher in a new era but will lead to increase in exchange of information. The same idea occurs in (3). Next Sentence Questions Over the past few years ‘what comes after’ questions have been repeated in the CAT examination. A question of this type may be worded in several ways as under: 1. Which of the following statements will most likely begin the paragraph immediately following the passage? 2. Which of the following statements would most logically conclude the passage? 3. Which of the following is most likely to be a continuation of the passage? 4. Which of the following statements will most likely complete the passage? However, since the only thing most certain about the CAT examination is its uncertainty, the next time students could get questions of the following type: Previous Sentence Questions 1. Which of the following statements will most likely begin the paragraph? 2. Which of the following statements would most logically conclude the paragraph immediately preceding the passage? Intervening Sentence Questions 1. Which of the following statements would most logically fit the parenthesis? 2. Which of the following is most likely to fill the blank space in the passage? 3. Which of the following statements will most likely complete the passage? For answering these questions not only do we have to get a grasp of the passage, but more particularly, we have to study carefully the statements immediately preceding/succeeding the passage. Let us have a look at an example of each type.

Toolkit

Main Idea Question 'A pattern of black minority ethnic settlement characterized by residential concentration, segregation and deprivation is now well established in Britain. Although this distinctive geography is largely a product of post–war migration, black settlers have a long history in Britain; small clusters of Africans and Indians emerged in port areas such as London, Liverpool and Cardiff as early as the 1800s. These settlements were, however, extremely localised so the day–to–day experience of most people living in Britain at that time was a white one. The Victorians nevertheless held some clearly developed images of 'race', colour and ethnic difference, which were rooted in colonial relations with South Asian and West Indian countries. The largely negative stereotypes associated with 'uncivilized peoples' in far–off lands were to prove powerful constituents of 19th–century racist ideologies, which have survived, albeit in a modified form, into the late 20th century.'

Q. According to you what is the theme of the passage. (1) “Racism” was more rooted in south Asian and west Indian countries. (2) Britain’s experience as colonizing nation, led to negative racial stereotypes in the 19th century, which brought about racism of 20th century. (3) Victorian era had a clearly developed image of ‘race’, colour and ethnic difference. (4) None of these

If we study the paragraph carefully, we find that the focus of the passage is ‘racism in Britain’. So option (1) can’t be the answer. Again, both the opening and the concluding sentences talk of the present period. So (3) can’t be the answer. Since this passage is about ethnic minorities in UK and also since the passage states that these ‘were rooted in colonial relations”, (2) forms the answer.

Next Sentence Question In descending the social scale in any modern industrial community, the primary fact–– the conspicuous leisure of the master of the household–disappears at a relatively high point. The head of the middle–class household has been reduced by economic circumstances to turn his hand to gaining a livelihood by occupations which often partake largely of the character of industry, as in the case of ordinary business man of today. But the derivative fact –– the vicarious leisure and consumption rendered by the wife, and the auxiliary vicarious performance of leisure by menials– remains in vogue as conventionality which the demands of reputability will not suffer to be slighted. It is by no means an uncommon spectacle to find a man applying himself to work with the utmost assiduity, in order that his wife may in due form render for him that degree of vicarious leisure which the common sense of the time demands.

Q. Find the theme of the passage: (1) The heads of the household and their wives in any social scale

engage themselves in unproductive skills and tastes. (2) The middle and lower – class wives are manifesting the prestige

and position for the good names of the household and its master.

(3) Vicarious leisure enjoyed by the master and their wives is due to the number of their liveried servants.

(4) Lower class wives are assisting their masters in fulfilling their duties towards their industrial heads and business mans.

Q. What according to you would succeed the passage? (1) These in no pretence of leisure on the part of the head of the household.

(2) The leisure rendered by the wife invariably occurs disguised under some form of work or household duties or social amenities.

(3) In ascending the social scale, the head of the household and their wives also render vicarious leisure. (4) None of the above.

Let’s scrutinize the options for the theme based question:

(1) Heads of the household are not engaged in ‘unproductive skills and tastes’. Besides, usage of the phrase “in any social scale” renders this answer option incorrect, hence ruled out.

(2) This is the right answer as it sums up the idea of this passage (clue is provided by the statement – “But the derivative fact ––– slighted”)

Options (3) and (4) are irrelevant according to the passage and have to be ruled out. Hence, (2) is the answer.

Coming to the ‘next statement’ type question, as this passage (including the last sentence) discusses the leisure rendered by the services of the middle and lower class wives, the subsequent passage would provide an explanation of how this leisure is facilitated by the wives. Hence, (2) is the answer.

Intervening Sentence Questions When I go out of the house for a walk, uncertain as yet whither I will bend my steps, and submit myself to my instinct to decide for me, I find, strange and whimsical as it may seem, that I finally and inevitably settle southwest, toward some particular wood or meadow or deserted pasture or hill in that direction. My needle is slow to settle, –– varies a few degrees, and does not always point due southwest, it is true, and it has good authority for this variation, but it always settles between west and south–southwest. The future lies that way to me, and the earth seems more unexhausted and richer on that side. I turn round and round irresolute sometimes for a quarter of an hour, until I decide, for the thousandth time, that I will walk into the southwest or west. ( ). Thither no business leads me. It is hard for me to believe that I shall find fair landscapes or sufficient wildness and freedom behind the eastern horizon. I am not excited by the prospect of a walk thither; but I believe that the forest which I see in the western horizon stretches uninterruptedly toward the setting sun, and there are no towns, nor cities in it of enough consequence to disturb me. Let me live where I will, on this side is the city, on that the wilderness, and ever I am leaving the city more and more, and withdrawing into the wildness. I should not lay so much stress on this fact, if I did not believe that something like this is the prevailing tendency of my countrymen. I must walk toward Oregon, and not toward Europe. And that way the nation in moving, and I may say that mankind progress from east to west. Q. Find the theme of the paragraph: (1) We go eastward to realize history and we go westward into the future. (2) We go eastward to explore fair landscapes and we go westward to exploit the forests. (3) Author wants to settle in west and south–west as he feels at home here. (4) The author is apprehensive on which direction he should choose for morning walk. Q. According to you, what statement would logically fit in the

parenthesis? (1) My needle is not pointing towards east. (2) For there is serenity and tranquility in west. (3) Eastward I go only by force; but west ward I go free. (4) None of these.

The last sentence of the paragraph gives the clue for the theme of the passage – “the nation is moving and that mankind progress from east to west”. The author in this passage metaphorically draws a comparison between east and west. He symbolizes east as the past and the west as the future (the statements: ‘it is hard for…………east to west’ provides the clue). Hence, (1) is the answer. Coming to the intervening statement question, the statement subsequent to the parenthesis reflects the author’s thought on east and west, which implies that (3) would coherently fit in the parenthesis. (1) is not logical as can be sensed from this sentence – “My needle is slow to settle . . . and does not always point due southwest ……” Option (2) is a conclusion, which will not be cogent with the author’s thought on west as indicated in the latter part of the passage. Hence, (3) is the answer.

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USAGE

Word Usage Here one has to find out the correct /incorrect usage of a particular given word out of the given four sentences. Find incorrect usage: Administer 1. The boy was administered the medicine by the doctor. 2. The way the event was administered was not proper. 3. His administer of the work wasn’t fair enough. 4. Administer the task well or you will be doomed. The option (3) talks about the ‘administer’ of the work not being good, which is a wrong usage. Answer: (3) The question has often been received in two formats as under: Format I: Here very simple words are used in various sentences and students are asked to identify the statement(s) where the word has not been used correctly. Students commit the cardinal error of looking for grammatical errors in the sentence, whereas what they are required to do is simply to identify the statement where the stem word is a misfit. Format II: Here the types of words used are a little more difficult. Out of the illustrations provided, the students have to find out which illustration suits the best. Let us have a look at the following few examples: Format I: 1. ADVANCE (1) Advance three paces. (2) The discovery of antibiotics was a major medical advance. (3) Property values are going to advance in the near future. (4) She was planning for advance preparations to clear CAT this

time.

Correct Usage

“Advance” in option (1) and (2) is correct as it means to move forward or

to progress. “Advance” as in (3) is correct as it refers to increase in price. The word “advance” in option (4) is superfluous in such sentences as

“preparations” already refer to future. Hence, (4) is the answer. 2. ENFORCE (1) Have you any statistics that would enforce your argument? (2) The police are entrusted with the enforcement of law and order. (3) Such a strict rule is not easily enforceable. (4) The teacher enforced the children into obedience. We can “enforce” a regulation or desirable behaviour as in (2) and (3),

but we cannot enforce a person to do something or into doing something as in (4) (which is incorrect usage of enforce). “Enforce” in (1) is correct, which implies to give greater force or strength to an argument. Hence, (4) is the desired incorrect answer.

3. DATA (1) Feed the data into the computer. (2) Insufficient data were supplied for a reliable result. (3) The information captured is stored as a database and can be retrieved at any time. (4) The available data on acid rain in Northern Europe suggests that Britain is the chief culprit. “Data” as we use means relevant facts and information, statistical material

(used in plural form). In this regard options (1) and (2) are correct. In (3), “database” refers to information prepared for or stored by a computer, hence is correct. Option (4) highlights singular use of data (as indicated by “suggests” in the sentence, which should be suggest; alternatively ‘data’ can be replaced by “information” or “evidence”), which is incorrect usage of the word. Hence, (4) is the answer.

4. RAGE (1) The fierce battle raged for weeks (2) The long hike has given me a rage thirst. (3) Cholera is raging(v) out of control in the informal settlement (4) Many youngsters want whatever is the latest rage.

“Raged” in (1) means to continue violently, which depicts its correct usage. (2) is the incorrect usage of “rage” grammatically as the correct usage would be to replace it with “raging” (intense, extreme). In (3), cholera is spreading rapidly, which implies correct usage of raging in this sentence. “Rage” in (4) means a temporary enthusiasm, craze or fad, which is correct. Hence, (2) is the answer. 5. SCREAM (1) His bright purple shirt screams. (2) Chickens have screamy necks. (3) She’s an absolute scream, always cracking jokes. (4) The car screamed along the highway at 140 km per hour. “Screams” as used in (1) is correct as it means to be too conspicuous. Option (2) depicts incorrect usage of “scream” as “unattractively thin

and bony” is not one of the meanings of screams. “Scream” in (3) means a very funny person. (4) – “Scream” means to move very fast, which depicts its correct usage. Hence, (2) is the answer. Format II: 1. CARICATURE (1) Verbal description of people as hardworking bores. (2) Sketch of the country’s premier in a newspaper with the nose protruding and a bulging out tummy to give humorous implications. (3) A direct satire on the politicians. (4) Somebody described as a stodgy fellow in a novel. Sol. The word ‘caricature’ literally means an imitation or picture of a

person, exaggerated for satirical effect. So option (2) best represents illustration of the word. (3) is only partially correct and cannot specifically be referred to as caricature, since a satire could take various forms and caricature could be of persons other than politicians.

2. SWANSONG (1) An actor’s blockbuster movie before a long hibernation. (2) A magnum opus by accomplished director, which can never be repeated. (3) The piece de resistance in a show. (4) The last stage show of a pop singer before her death.

Sol. ‘Swan song’ refers to the last act, final creative work of a person as before retirement or death. Option (1) is incorrect, as actor has been described as going in hibernation and not in retirement. Option (2) is incorrect again for the same reason, as the director does not stop making films. Option (3) uses the phrase ‘piece de resistance’, which literally means main item or event in a series. Only option (4) represents correctly usage of the word ‘Swan Song’.

3. PLATONIC (1) A vagrant visiting bawdy houses quite often and hitting it off well with the hookers there. (2) A pimp's offering you the best catch in the region. (3) A friendly relationship mellowed over a period of time without physical intimacy. (4) The relationship between a doctor and a patient. Sol. The term ‘Platonic’ is used to refer to something non physical. In the

given sentences, though both option (3) and (4) represent non–sexual relationship, yet (3) is far better answer choice as it specifically defines the relationship being not physical.

4. ADULATION (1) A servant flattering his master. (2) A rodomontade bragging his exploits. (3) An applause given to the best performer in a show. (4) Sensual invitation of the lithe dancer in a dance show. Sol. ‘Adulation’ means praise in a servile manner. Option (3) shall be

incorrect for answer as it mentions that applause was given to the best performer, which is quite valid. This leaves only option (1): A servant flattering his master’, as valid usage of the term ‘Adulation’.

The questions of this kind are very easy to attempt and generally increase the accuracy level to a high degree. Let us see the following example. SENIOR 1. older (a) The senior partner in the firms signs the

cheques 2. pensioners (b) Prefects are chosen from among the senior

pupils 3. with a higher rank (c) He is my senior by 10 years. 4. older or advanced pupils

(d) Some cinemas and shops offer reduced prices to senior citizens.

Match–Type

1 2 3 4 1. c 2. d 3. b 4. a

1. c 2. d 3. a 4. b

1. c 2. d 3. b 4. a

1. b 2. d 3. a 4. c

Simply read the statements and match the meanings with them. 1. The statement (a), says –‘The senior partner in the firm signs all the cheques’. 2. Look at the left hand side column. 3. To sign a Cheque (an important work) you don’t need to ‘older’ or a

‘pensioner’ but a person of a higher rank. Even a pupil can’t sign a Cheque. So (3) will be matched with (a). Therefore, we are left only with options (2) & (4).

4. Now read the 2nd statement. ‘Projects are chosen from among the senior pupils’.

The only meaning which fits here is the 4th one. So (4) & (b) match. Answer: (2)

One Word Substitution The questions of this kind need a very good command of vocabulary. Let us have a look at a couple of examples: As the speaker wandered in his talk and did not keep to the subject,

the audience grew impatient. (1) deviated (2) rambled (3) swerved (4) equivocated

Deviate is to turn aside to only a slight degree; Ramble is to talk aimlessly without connection of ideas; Swerve to turn aside sharply or suddenly; and equivocate is to mislead. It is clear from the sentence that the speaker was talking aimlessly without connecting to his subject only to prolong his speech, so the best suited term from those given above is rambled as the speaker is just speaking.

His theatrical manner made even his sincere statements sound unconvincing.

(1) play–acting (2) dramatics (3) histrionics (4) actions

What we need here is a specific term which can denote the affected or artificial manner of the person. Option (1) is incorrect since it is used to refer to dramatic manner in context of actors and plays. Option (2) Dramatics is a term commonly used to refer to dramatic effect. It can be kept on hold. Option (3), histrionics, is specifically used to refer to artificial or affected manner, and is most suited as answer in the present case. This marks it as correct answer.

Another variation of vocabulary based questions could be homonym/heteronym usage. A homonym could be defined as a word with the same pronunciation as another but with a different meaning, (Ex.: bore and boar); a homophone. A heteronym, on the other hand, is a word with the same spelling as another or others, but with different meaning and pronunciation (Ex.: tear, a drop of water from the eye, and tear, to rip. There are some other confusing pairs of words. Such words have occasionally presented a dilemma to the student who is not confident about his word usage. It is important, therefore, to be conversant with the most common homonyms and heteronyms. 1. The Prime Minister has given his assent / ascent / accent to the proposal. 2. The change has been effected / affected from the first day of the New Year. 3. I really don’t expect to crack the CAT this year as my performance has been awesome / aweful. 4. My friend helped bail / bale me out of trouble. 5. India and certain other Afro-Asian countries have formed a bloc / block to bloc / block the amendment.

The differences among some of the terms are pretty apparent. However, it is suggested that the students go through a comprehensive list of confusing words to be surer of their answer.

Usage of Homonyms Heteronyms and confusing words

ENGLISH

USAGE

Logical Reasoning The term logical reasoning, as applied to the question types covered in this chapter as well as the next is at best misleading. Even the so-called vocabulary based questions like sentence completion, verbal analogies, and others can be answered with a vocabulary base slightly above average, applying simple principles of reasoning. There are several question types that need to be discussed under this head of logical reasoning. In this chapter we shall discuss categorization based questions.

(A) Syllogisms The term 'syllogism' comes from the Greek language and means "to say together", hence giving us the sense of putting two thoughts or two propositions together in order to draw a logical conclusion from them. Here is a valid syllogism: 1. All imported cars are small. 2. All sports cars are imported cars. 3. All sports cars are small. The following, however, is an invalid syllogism : 1. All artists are sensitive people. 2. All artists are poor. 3. All sensitive people are poor. From the above examples of syllogism, you can farther see that every valid syllogism has a key term that appear in both premises and links these together. This connecting term is normally called the middle term of the syllogism. In the first example of valid syllogism, the middle term 'imported cars' provides a connecting link between 'sports cars' and 'small'. The second example has a middle term 'artist' which occurs in each premise. However the argument fails to be valid because the premise while indicating classes

Syllogisms

(artists fall into the class of sensitive people and poor people) – does not inform us of any relationship between these classes. The rule of syllogism is that whatever is true of a class of things must be true of any sub–division of that class. For example, 'Anything true of all horses must be true of stallions'. If something is true of all Asians, it must be true of Indians, Pakistanis, Chinese, Sri Lankans etc. Likewise, if you deny something of a class, we must also deny it of any of its constituents or sub–divisions. If we say that no Asian deals with Australians, it will follow that no Indian deals with Australians.

Structure of Syllogism It is interesting to study the structure of a syllogism. Let us take an example Man is mortal. 1 2 Ganesh is a man. 3 1 Ganesh is mortal. 3 2 As shown above, there are numerically six terms in the above syllogism, but actually there are three terms, each occurring twice. As in a syllogism, subject of the conclusion must occur in one of the first two premises. The predicate must also occur in one of the premises and the middle term, i.e. the third term must appear in both the premises as shown below: 1. All men are mortal. (middle term) (major term) 2. Ganesh is a man. (minor term) (middle term) 3. Ganesh is mortal. (minor term) (major term) As shown above, the middle term does not occur in the conclusion, while it is a term linking both the premises. Propositions are those sentences which can be proved true or false and have a logical form. In the proposition 'man is mortal’, the mortality of the man is affirmed. In the proposition, 'man is not irrational ', the irrationality of man is denied. The following sentences cannot be considered 'propositions' : (i) Let him attain glory. (ii) He should attend office regularly. (iii) She looks cheerful. All the above are sentences but not propositions as they do not use 'is', 'are, 'is not' as connecting verbs and therefore, they are not in the nature of affirmations or denials. In a proposition thus the relationship of the predicate with the subject is affirmed or denied.

Propositions

Four types of propositions The laws of logic are used to determine the validity of the inferences from the given premises. A statement or proposition may be affirmative or negative or it may be an all or a some proposition. The four–fold classification also considers the distribution of the subject and the predicate term and their structure would be as follows: (i) All S is P. (ii) No S is P. (iii) Some S is P. (iv) Some S is not P. In the above sentences, S stands for the subject term and P stands for the predicate term, the sentence with four–fold classification would appear to be as follows: 1. All chairs are tables. S P 2. No chair is table. S P 3. Some chairs are tables. S P 4. Some chairs are not tables. S P

Distributional aspects If you examine the subject and the predicate terms in the above propositions, you will find that they present four different types of sets. In the Venn diagrams, the sets would appear as follows:– 1. All the chairs are tables. 2. No chair is table.

Chairs

tables

Chairs tables

3. Some chairs are tables. 4. Some chairs are not tables. From the diagrams, it is manifest that in the first proposition the subject term, 'All chairs' is fully distributed, but the predicate term 'tables' is not fully distributed. This proposition is known as 'A' proposition. In the second proposition, the diagram brings out the fact that both the subject term and the predicate term are fully distributed. 'No chair is table' means not a single chair is a table and therefore the predicate fully covers the subject term and the subject term is fully distributed. Further, 'No chair is table' also means that no table is chair – not a single table is chair. Thus the predicate term table is also fully distributed. Propositions in which both subject and predicate terms are fully distributed are known as 'E' proposition. In the third proposition, viz. 'Some chairs are tables', the portion we are referring to has been shown by shading the overlapping part of the two circles. We are thus referring only to the shaded portion and therefore in this proposition, neither the subject term nor the predicate term is fully distributed. This type of proposition is known as 'I' proposition. In the fourth proposition, 'Some chairs are not tables', we are talking of the shaded portion of the chairs and you may see in the diagram that while the subject term 'chairs' is not fully distributed, the predicate term table is fully distributed. This is known as 'O' proposition.

Chairs tables

Chairs tables

Two types of (syllogism based) question formats Format A: Choosing a set of statements (out of many) that are logically related Let us have a look at the following simple examples: 1. A. All training programs are meant to enhance skills B. A few training programs enhance skills C. Skills are enhanced by a number of factors D. Training programs have worked whenever skills have been enhanced E. A few training programs do not work, but skills are enhanced F. All training programs do not enhance skills (1) ECF (2) ABF (3) DEF (4) AEF Let us try to analyse this example. Here the subject is ‘training programme’. And the predicate is ‘enhancement of skills’. We can omit statement C which does not have the same predicate. D and E do not establish the cause and effect relationship. A direct connection can be established among A, B and F, in that order. 2. A. Five – Year Plans always cause misallocation of resources B. Misallocation of resources leads to underutilization of scarce capital C. The basic problem facing our country is misallocation of resources D. Five – Year Plans can help create a platform for growth E. Five – Year Plans are the cause of a basic problem facing our country F. Our country underutilizes capital (1) ACB (2) BFC (3) DAE (4) ACE Let us solve this example as under: Five – Year Plans always cause misallocation of resources 1 2 The basic problem facing our country is misallocation of resources 3 2 Five – Year Plans are the cause of a basic problem facing our country 1 3 The obvious answer is ACE.

3. A. All men have an element of the wild B. Everything wild is adventurous C. All men are animals D. All men have a desire for adventure E. All men strive throughout life F. All men are adventurous (1) ECF (2) ABD (3) DEB (4) AFC Method – 1: In this example All men have an element of the wild 1 2 Everything wild is adventurous 2 3 All men are animals 1 4 All men have a desire for adventure 1 3 All men strive throughout life 1 5 All men are adventurous 1 3 The correct sequence of sentences has to be; A (1, 2), B (2, 3), D (1, 3) Method – 2: (Venn Diagram) This is the most common of the syllogisms that you might come across. The option A implies that all men are wild. So we enclose all the MEN in the set of WILD entities. Note that there may be other wild entities apart from men, hence, we cannot superimpose the wild circle on men circle. Now the option B says that all wild entities are adventurous. Following the same line of reasoning, we now enclose the WILD circle with ADVENTUROUS circle. From the whole setup it is pretty obvious that ALL MEN are ADVENTUROUS. Therefore the answer is ABD.

3. Adventurous

1. All Men 2. Wild

Format B: Logically related inferences drawn from two statements Let us have a look at the following two examples: 1. All Delhites are Indians. Some Indians are European. If both the above statements are true, which of the following inferences can be drawn? A. All Delhites are European. B. Some European are Delhites. From the diagram above we can deduce neither A nor B. 2. Some spectacles are not lenses. Some Sunglasses are not lenses. A. Some Sunglasses are spectacles. B. Some Sunglasses could be spectacles. In this question the use of word COULD BE is the trick.

(B) Concluding Assertion: In this question type you get four or more statements pertaining to the same idea. Since all the statements pertain to the same topic, one out of these would be the leading statement, called concluding assertion (this may be termed A). Remember there cannot be more than one leading statement in a group, same as there cannot be two swords in a sheath. Then there are one or more supporting statements (termed B). There could also be opposing statement(s) (termed D) and/or irrelevant statement(s) (termed C). The catch here is that there has to be one, and only one leading statement. Any answer option that has no concluding assertion (A), or has more than one concluding assertion cannot be our answer. The strategy is to look for two or more statements that are mutually supportive. One of these is likely to be the concluding assertion. Alternatively we may look for a statement that neither supports, nor opposes any other statement. The practice on this question type will also help you to answer sentence arrangement questions (parajumbles). If you are able to identify a leading statement in a sentence arrangement question, you know that such a statement should either begin or conclude the paragraph, and should not fall in between.

1. European

2. Indians

3. Delhites

Let us have a look at a few examples of this question type. 1. 1. Competitive tests stress more on application than mere cramming. 2. Students get good jobs after clearing such tests. 3. Their parents feel proud of them. 4. Competitive exams are the best tool to select the cream. (1) ABAB (2) BCCA (3) BACD (4) CABD If we go through the above statements carefully, we find that 4 is the main statement on the topic of effectiveness of competitive exams. Statement 1 directly supports this statement. So the answer has to be B - - A. Option (1) has got two concluding assertions and therefore, cannot be the answer. 2. 1. "Natural selection" is the key to Earth's evolutionary years. 2. Darwin became famous for this theory. 3. All species existing today support the causal function of natural selection. 4. Earth's evolution may be unrelated to natural selection. (1) ACCD (2) ABBD (3) ABCD (4) ACBD According to the answer choices here, the statement 1 is definitely the

assertion. Now Darwin might have proposed the theory but as far as the theory being a key to Earth’s evolutionary years is concerned, Darwin has nothing to do with it & so the statement will be irrelevant to 1. This leaves us with answer choices (1) & (4). The statement 3 is in the same line as 1. So it should be marked B. Hence, answer is (4).

The question can figure under slightly modified formats. Another

format could be where a statement is provided as question statement, and a set of four statements are provided underneath the same. The student is required to categorize these other statements as:

1. Upstream statement: If it logically should precede the stem statement. 2. Downstream statement: If it logically should follow the stem

statement. 3. Supporting argument: If it does not logically follow the stem

statement, but otherwise supports it. 4. Irrelevant statement: If it is unconnected with the stem statement.

(C) Categorizing statements as Fact, Inference, and

Judgment: Here the student is presented with a set of related statements and is asked to categorize the statements as under: F: Fact: If it relates to a known matter of direct observation, or an existing reality or something known to be true, J: Judgment: If it is an opinion or estimate or anticipation of common sense or intention. I: Inference: If it is a logical conclusion or deduction about something, based on the knowledge of facts. Let us have a look at a couple of examples of this question type:

1. A. If India has embarked on the liberalization route; she cannot afford to go back. B. Under these circumstances, being an active supporter of WTO policies will be a good idea. C. The WTO is a truly global organization aiming at freer trade. D. Many member countries have already drafted plans to simplify tariff structures. (1) FJFI (2) IFJF (3) IJFF (4) IFlF The strategy here is to look for a statement which is definitely a fact or a judgment. In the above example, statement D cannot but be a fact. Likewise statement B is definitely an opinion or a judgment. From these two clues, we can work out (3) as the answer. 2. A. The Minister definitely took the wrong step. B. Under the circumstances, he had many other alternatives. C. The Prime Minister is embarrassed due to the Minister's decision. D. If he has put the government in jeopardy, the Minister must resign. (1) JFFI (2) IFJI (3) FFJI (4) IFIJ Here too statement A is definitely a judgment and statement B definitely a fact. The two combine to provide us with the right answer (1).

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USAGE

Logical Reasoning (Argumentation And Other) You could get this question under several formats. One format presents a conclusion, followed by two statements, and you have to identify whether either or both the statements could lead to the stated conclusion. A variation of this format presents a generalization or conclusion, followed by one or more statements. You have to find out whether either or both the statements lend any support, contradict or are irrelevant to the generalization/conclusion. Yet another format presents a statement, followed by two or more arguments and you have to find out which of the arguments is relatively strong or weak. Other formats could have the statements followed by assumptions, implications, inferences or conclusions. In certain other question forma, students have to identify the weakness in the statement i. e. whether it is incomplete; non-informative; or it lacks simplicity or logical strength. Irrespective of the format, the questions remain the same at the core and the strategy to crack such questions also essentially remains the same. There are mainly three parts of an ARGUMENT: Conclusion: What point is the author trying to make? Or the claim of the argument. Evidence: What evidence (if any) is there for the support of the 'conclusion?' Assumption: What assumption is required to reach the conclusion of the argument? The assumption bridges the gap between the conclusion and the evidence. It means that if the assumption is not true, the conclusion cannot be reached. Here's an example: All men are intelligent. Therefore, Harish is intelligent. Now, ‘Therefore, Harish is intelligent’--------- conclusion ‘All men are intelligent’--------- evidence

What is the assumption in the argument above, if BOTH the given statements are true? Simple, Harish is a man. Because, the above argument would not have been true, if Harish had not been a man. Thus, this assumption has to be true for the conclusion to be reached.

Denial Test: Denial test is a foolproof method that is used to eliminate the confusion between/among the probable right choices. Application of Denial Test After you have eliminated the wrong choices and are left with two or three probable choices, deny the assumptions (the choices) one by one. If in the process, the conclusion is also weakened or denied then the answer choice is right and if the conclusion can still be reached, then the assumption (choice) is wrong. Let’s try the denial test on this example. Our assumption is that Harish is a man. The conclusion is that Harish is intelligent. Now try to negate the assumption i.e. Harish is not a man and in the process the conclusion that Harish is intelligent is also weakened. Therefore, our conclusion is right as it automatically gets denied if the assumption on which it is based is denied. Once you reach your answer or a group of answer choices, ask yourself for each answer: Does this need to be true for the Argument to be true? If yes, you made the right assumption. Let us have a look at a few examples in various formats. Directions: Each of the questions that follow has a conclusion followed by two statements A and B. Mark 1. if statements A alone is adequate to arrive at the conclusion, Mark 2. if statement B alone is adequate to arrive at the conclusion, Mark 3. if both statements A and B are required to arrive at the conclusion, Mark 4. if both statements are insufficient to draw the conclusion, 1. Coffee is a beverage that is injurious to health. A. Coffee contains caffeine, a chemical substance. B. When coffee is consumed, the nicotine in coffee enters the bloodstream and poisons it.

Here statement A does not state whether caffeine is good or not good for health. Hence, it does not lead to the conclusion. Statement B details how coffee poisons the bloodstream, and leads to the above conclusion. Answer: (2) 2. An inland letter is a cheaper form of communication in India than a post card. A. A post card costs 25 p while an inland letter costs 75 p. B. For the same handwriting, a post card costs 5 p per 100 words while an inland letter costs 3 p. This is a simple question. Statement A negates the conclusion. But statement B helps form the conclusion by comparing the unit cost or cost per 100 words of the post card and the inland letter. Answer: (2) This question can figure in various formats, but the essential logic remains the same. Let us have a look at another example in a slightly different format: Direction: Sometimes we conclude about characteristics of a general phenomenon by studying or analyzing characteristics of a particular phenomenon. Below is given such an inductive argument. The generalization is given first, followed by a particular statement. You have to find out whether the numbered particular statement strongly confirms, vaguely hints, strongly disconfirms, or is irrelevant to the generalization. Generalisation: Laws that limit the amount of money that can be spent in political campaigns usually help incumbents. A. In the 1970’s campaign-reforms, laws were passed that limited the amount of money that could be spent in a political campaign. In the time that has elapsed since the passage of these laws, the percentage of incumbents who have won re-election has increased. B. Of late the amount of money spent on political campaigns has indeed gone down. Q. What type of support does statement (1) provide for this

generalization? (1) Strongly confirms (2) Vaguely hints (3) Strongly disconfirms (4) Irrelevant The generalization is that such laws help incumbents (who are already known to the electorate). Though statement (A) fails to establish a cause and effect relationship, it does vaguely hint that this could indeed be one of the reasons. Therefore, the right answer ought to be (2).

Other Question Types

As we have already pointed out above, the only thing certain about the CAT is its uncertainty. Although we have tried to include all the question types that have possibly figured in the past CAT examinations, there are still some that might be beyond the categorization as above. A few of such “different” question types are as under: (A) Selecting the Odd-Out Statement: In the preceding chapters we have come across words that do not belong to the group. Selecting the odd-out word needed a good command on vocabulary. Here we shall have a little practice of statements that do not belong to the group. We need to reason out the odd statement. Let us have a look at a couple of examples: Ex. 1. (1) The only show of protest has come from the postal department (2) Railways haven’t shown any protests (3) Media has shown no protests (4) Pay commission is leading to some real hot scenes. Option (4) is easily the odd one out as the first three sentences all refer

to protest in one form or the other. Ex. 2. (1) Playful love songs

(2) Lusty cabaret songs (3) Delightful songs from movies (4) Funky pop music This is another easy question. Sentences given in options (1), (2) and

(3), all refer to different type of songs. Option (4) talks about music. So option (4) is the odd one out.

(B) Logical Completion of Statement: We have had a little practice of short passages, where the last sentence has been deleted. There could be questions where the students have to logically complete a sentence. Let us have a look at a couple of examples: Ex. 1 Being modern is more than just a fad or an outward projection of broad–mindedness;

(1) it is, in fact, a state of prolonged hibernation (2) it is the capacity to understand societal changes and absorb the

good ones (3) it is the unquestioned liberty of human soul where no mortal

shackles inhibit its growth (4) it is the manifestation of an unrestrained prognosis of liberation

The stem of the statement ends with a semi colon. It states that being modern is something more than just a fad. Options (1) (3) and (4) are not logical continuations as they cannot be connected with modernization. Hence, (2) is the right answer.

Ex. 2 The economic reforms process aims at liberalizing policies and systems

– hence we may deduce that: (1) it is essentially a good process (2) it is essentially a bad process (3) some policies were indeed restrictive in the past (4) the future is golden

Options (1), (2) and (4) can be rejected on the ground that these do not

provide an idea about effect of the programme or the kind of policies being used. Option (3) is valid because ‘restrictive’ word can directly be derived from ‘liberalizing policies and continues the same flow. Thus option (3) is correct answer.

(C) Correct Idiomatic Use: Questions based on idiomatic use require the students to select the correct meaning based on contextual usage. Let us have a look at a couple of examples: Ex. 1 Today's politicians move totally on the basis of a dog in the manger

policy. (1) the policy of tit for tat (2) give and take (3) a selfish policy (4) the theory of capitalism

‘A dog in the manger policy‘, is an expression used for a person who keeps others from using things that he may not be using himself. In a way, this means following a selfish policy. Option (3) is the perfect choice for our answer.

Ex. 2 Seeing the ultimate results I inferred that his initial courage was a

Dutch courage. (1) big fiasco (2) failure (3) type of over excitement (4) fictitious courage induced by alcohol

Meaning of the expression, ‘Dutch courage’ is given verbatim in option (4): fictitious courage induced by alcohol. Therefore, our answer is option (4).

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USAGE

Critical Reasoning A typical critical reasoning question is a sequence of two or more phrases, clauses, sentences or statements, one of which is a claim or a conclusion, which follows the premise. For example “The ground is wet, so it must have been raining”. The conclusion is that is must be raining which is based on the premise (or) evidence that the ground is wet. In order to join these two ideas, there is a third variable called assumption. It has been assumed in the question that the ground can only be wet due to the rains. In order to solve a critical reasoning question, it is very important to understand that all these premises are interlinked and must be defined in each question. As in the case of other questions based on verbal reasoning, it is important that we • Go through the question-stem first, to get focus • Read the argument carefully and translate it into your own language to

get its flow • Predict the answer before proceeding to read the answer options • Proceed through the process of POE and find a reason to reject each of

the incorrect answer choices. A question may have more than one correct answer. Our aim is to choose not the right answer, but the best answer. Read all the answer choices at least once. Don’t choose an answer just because it seems to be the correct answer, before going through all the choices. There may be a better answer choice. Try to eliminate as many answer choices in the first reading as you can. Spend most of your time on the short-listed answers only.

Eliminate the comic or the funny choices. Read the question very carefully. Focus always has its merits. Learn to use the DENIAL TEST. It can help you choose the right answer. But dwell on it too long and use it too often and you might end up wasting your valuable time. There are two ways to reach the answer. (A) Read the evidence and use it to reach the answer (B) Eliminate all the answer choices, which you feel cannot be the answer. Now both the ways have their merits and demerits. Although (A) should be the default method, the important thing is, you can use (B) to narrow the range of answer choices. In case you are unable to grasp the question, use (B) to improve your chances of success. Be wary of the same sounding word trap. For example, the question might be about graduate studies, whereas a correct sounding answer trap might read postgraduate studies. And remember, the more stressed you are, the more likely you are to fall in this trap. Question Types: There are, on the whole, six types of questions: 1. Assumption questions: When you read the passage in question, you should be looking for an unstated premise on which the argument depends. For example: Use of this product causes cancer. Therefore, this product should be banned. Now in these statements there is no link unless we state that use of this product is the only cause of cancer. Hence, assumption is the missing link. Pointers: • Assumptions are never stated in the passage. If you see an answer choice

that comes straight from the passage, it is not an assumption. • Assumptions support the conclusion of the passage. Find the conclusion

and then try all the choices to see which one makes the conclusion stronger.

Mrs. Sheela’s daughter, who had love marriage, was very unhappy

with her husband. When she turned to Mrs. Sheela for support, Mrs. Sheela replied, “I can’t believe it. You have had a love marriage!”

What is Mrs. Sheela’s assumption based on which she has said the above statement?

(1) She believes that love marriages do not have any problems. (2) Problems are faced only by those who have had arranged

marriages. (3) Problems within a marriage must be solved by the spouses

themselves. (4) None of the above. Obviously Mrs Sheela assumes only (1). In the 1990’s Children’s’ literature in Indian was symbolized by books

of the R.L. Stein kind. Then Harry Potter happened, “After Potter, we expect an increase in demand”, commented one of the top publishing firms in India.

What did the commentator assume when he gave a statement like the one above?

(1) Children will like Harry Potter a lot. (2) Like R.L. Stein, Potter will also become a big hit. (3) After Potter, when another writer emerges, he expects an

increase in demand. (4) Potter will bring lots of profits, but after a while. The speaker expects an increase in demand for children’s literature. The expectation is based on the assumption that Harry Potter will lead to a general increase of interest in children’s literature. Therefore, (4) should be the right answer. 2. Strengthen questions: There are many ways to strengthen or weaken an ARGUMENT: 1. Strengthen/weaken (deny) the assumption (most of the times) 2. Strengthen (add new, but favorable)/weaken (add new, but unfavorable) the evidence 3. Strengthen/weaken the alternative conclusion. This question is like an assumption question. It asks you to find an unstated premise on which the argument depends, and then bolster it. Pointers: • The best answer will strengthen the argument with new information. If

you see an answer choice that comes straight from the passage – it’s bound to be incorrect.

• New information should help form the stated conclusion with the help of the already stated evidence.

Water resource management has linkages with the management of other resources as well. The large scale deforestation taking place in our mountains has serious implications for water supply in the mountains as well as the plains. Which of the following, if true, would substantiate the above belief?

(1) There is a large and growing demand for wood and wood products which would lead to further deforestation.

(2) The glaciers in the mountains often carry off with them entire trees.

(3) The scale at which deforestation is taking place indicates that in a few years the forest zones will be severely depleted. (4) The maintenance of forests implies that topsoil is not eroded and moisture is retained, thus ensuring the life of streams. The conclusion here is that deforestation will lead to depletion of water

supply. Only (4) implies that forest management and water-resource management are linked. The new information is that the forests protect against soil erosion. Hence, (4).

Let us have a look at another example: The overriding emphasis on using life insurance policies as tax saving

tools in India has relegated their raison d’etre - risk coverage – to a secondary factor.

Which of the following, if true, would strengthen the above claim? (1) It was found that most life insurance companies highlighted the

tax saving factor in their advertisements (2) People who invested in insurance policies were mainly from

urban areas (3) An income–tax analysis showed that most people had used

insurance more than other investment avenues available to save tax

(4) It was found that there was a rush for new life insurance policies only towards the end of the financial year when people had per force to save so as to avoid paying high taxes.

(3) strengthens the claim as it indicates that the awareness of insurance

as a tax saving tool is high, which is what the author suggests. (4) is a close answer, though there may be no cause and effect relationship between the year-end rush and the tax-saving purpose.

3. Weakening questions: Here is the tricky lot. You have to expose a flaw in the reasoning of the passage. Again, the conclusion is one premise that will help you locate the flaw. Remember you need to choose an option that would prove the conclusion false (or) untrue. Pointer: • Attack a premise or an assumption, rather than the conclusion. A point

that proves the assumption (or) evidence to be false is the answer you are looking for.

During the period 1997 – 2001, the consumption of fried products

decreased 8% and heart ailments also dropped by the same percentage. This is in sharp contrast to the period 1992 – 1997, when people ate more fried products and also reported more heart ailments. Thus we can be sure that there is a link between eating fried products and heart disease.

Which of the following, if true, would weaken the above argument? (1) In contrast to the period 1992-97, during the period 1997 – 2001,

people had regular medical checkups (2) The oil that is used in frying foods has improved in quality

significantly during the last decade (3) The decreases in consumption of fried foods and increase in

heart ailments was reported from different geographical regions (4) There were better medical facilities available to some sections of society, particularly in the bigger cities in the period 1997 – 2001, as compared to previous years (3) states that the decrease in consumption of oil and increase in heart

ailments were observed in different regions. For the hypothesis to be true, the same group of people should have been sampled both for consumption as well as for measuring heart aliments (4) could also weaken the argument but to a lesser extent as it states ‘a certain section.’

4. Inference question: Difference between a conclusion and an inference: Sometimes there is no difference. When the conclusion to an argument is not explicitly stated in the passage, it is something you could infer. In other cases, inferences have nothing to do with the main point of an argument. You can make inferences from the facts that are stated as premises.

Difference between an assumption and an inference: Assumption is something that has to be valid for the given argument to be true. If the assumption is not true, the conclusion of the argument cannot be true (remember the Harish problem?). An inference is a statement that is true if the given argument is true. Hence, eliminate any answer choice that ‘could be false’. All inference questions ask you to find something that is known to be true from the information presented in the argument. Use the Denial Test for inferences. If any answer choice could not pass the Denial Test, it is to be eliminated.

Inference based questions are of two types: • Direct inference • Indirect Inference Direct inference questions can be spotted when phrases like, ‘Directly inferred’, ‘Most directly related’, ‘Inferred’ are used. Indirect inference questions, on the other hand, will have phrases like, ‘Critically inferred’, ‘Critically deduced’. In these types of questions new information, which is not explicitly stated, can be inferred. Taxes are broadly grouped into two categories, direct and indirect taxes. In our country, about 5% of the households are in the taxable income bracket (i.e. Rs. 1, 00, 000 and above per annum). The principle reason for this is the large–scale tax evasion carried on by businessmen and industrialists. Which of the following statements can be inferred from the above

statements? (1) The only group that honestly pays taxes is the salaried group,

because it cannot conceal its income. (2) A very large group of merchants and industrialists who fall within the income tax range either pay very little tax or get away without payment of any tax. (3) The income tax department must be more careful the next time. Because at the rate at which things are going on, the department might have to face hung losses. (4) The income tax department imposes high rates of taxation under both the direct and the indirect tax groups, out of which it faces losses from the direct tax group mainly.

Of all the statements, only statement (2) is best inferred from the passage. This statement gives the reason why only 5% of households are in the taxable bracket. Hence, (2) is the answer.

5. Parallel Reasoning: These questions ask you to recognize the reasoning in a passage and follow the same in an option. For example “If it rains, I will stay home today”. We can simplify the idea to “If A, then B”. Here one has to be extra cautions as parallel reasoning could be parallel on the order of premises mentioned, the structure or the reasoning base of the question. One has to see only the critical structure of the argument, not the content. Types of Parallel Reasoning

In such questions, one has to find a similar structure to the given argument. So one doesn’t have to see the content of the argument, one has to see only its logical structure. The given argument, mostly two or three sentences long can be of following different types-:

1. A cause and effect relationship. 2. General description of a phenomenon. 3. Situation and a person’s reaction. 4. A paragraph where same factors are repeated again and again. 5. Circular reasoning where statement “A” is based on the statement “B”

and “B” is based on “A”. Look at the big picture. Can you identify any of the answer choices which have the same structure as that of the argument? (Only in cases where you are unable to identify any of the answer choices as the correct ones, should you try the rules given below. Keep it as uncomplicated as you can.)

See how many functional elements are there in the argument. The same should be there in the right answer choice.

Try to replace the corresponding elements of the question with the elements from the answer choice and check if the corresponding relationship still stands.

The sequence of the elements might not be the same in the right answer choice.

Self-perception theorists have explored situations in which consumer

compliance with a minor request affects subsequent compliance with a more substantial request.

Which of the following best illustrates the above statement? (1) Someone who donates five dollars to cancer research might be

persuaded to donate a much larger among, when properly approached.

(2) Individuals who try a brand without any inducements or individuals who buy a brand repeatedly are more likely to infer increasingly positive attitudes toward the brand from their respective behaviour.

(3) Those who comply with a minor request, must necessarily comply with a major request also.

(4) (1) and (2) Here option (1) best exemplifies the statement. Here is another example. All lawyers resist accepting evidence contrary to their own legal views.

Since Aman isn't a lawyer, he must not resist accepting evidence contrary to his legal views.

Which of the following arguments is most parallel to the above? (1) All typical family drama movies are dull. Since the Lagan isn't dull, it must not be a typical family movie. (2) Most taxi drivers work long shifts. Since Lallit isn't a taxi driver, he usually works an eight-hour day. (3) All vegetarians eat a healthy diet. Since Fatima isn't a vegetarian, her diet must be unhealthy.

(4) Well-traveled people talk lot about where they've been. Since Anil has traveled, he must be a very interesting conversationalist.

All X do Y. Since A is ~X (not X), He must not do Y. No. of elements here = 3 (Lawyer; resist accepting evidence contrary to their legal views; Aman) (Sometimes the problem might arise when you try to accept “resist accepting evidence contrary to their legal views” as a single element. Remember it is a quality/property of one of the elements that is a noun. Always use the following shortcut: First choose the nouns as elements and then choose their quality/property. And most important of all “healthy and unhealthy” are not different elements; they are just the negative shades of each other.) Starting from choice (1): Had there been the term ‘a typical family drama movie’ instead of ‘dull’ after since, this would have been the correct choice. This choice is not logically in line with the given statement. Therefore, eliminated. In choice (2) we are talking about long shifts and not an eight-hour day.

Choice (3) is the correct answer choice. Replace X with ‘vegetarians’ and Y with ‘healthy diet’. We get the same logical structure of the sentence as the argument. In choice (4), ‘interesting conversationalist’ is a new term introduced. Or using rule No. 2 Now, why doesn’t Aman resist accepting evidence contrary to his legal views? Because he’s a lawyer, Right. Now let’s us see if it corresponds favourably with the two closest answer choices, (1) and (3). Choice (1): Here all typical family drama movies correspond to all lawyers, Lagan corresponds to Aman and quality mentioned for all the movies is that they are all dull. So, the correct answer choice based on the question should be” All typical family drama movies are dull. Since Lagan is not a typical family drama movie, it must not be dull. 6. Resolve/Explain Questions: Here the passage will present you with two seemingly contradictory facts. Your job is to find an option that allows both the facts to be true. Here is an example: The amount of pollution in America's environment has declined steadily since 1970, even though energy consumption, including the use of fossil fuels, which are major pollutants, has not declined and is in fact now at the highest levels ever recorded. Which of the following, if true, best helps to explain the steady decline

of environmental pollution mentioned above? (1) Since 1970, some people have become environmentally conscious and have significantly reduced their consumption of fossil fuels. (2) Reductions in the pollution created during the conversion of each unit of fuel to usable energy have more than offset increases since 1970 in units of fuel consumed. (3) Due to increases in efficiency, the same tasks can often be accomplished today using less energy than was required in 1970. (4) The proportion of fossil fuels used to create the energy consumed in America has declined since 1970.

Here (2) is the obvious answer. This is the only option that shows that the net effect of two opposing forces is beneficial.

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