Accepted Manuscript

Title: Drugs held and sold by pharmacists of the Jewishcommunity of medieval (11th–14th centuries) Cairo accordingto lists of materia medica found at the Taylor-SchechterGenizah collection, Cambridge

Author: Efraim Lev

PII: S0378-8741(06)00500-9DOI: doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.09.044Reference: JEP 4410

To appear in: Journal of Ethnopharmacology

Received date: 22-6-2006Revised date: 17-9-2006Accepted date: 21-9-2006

Please cite this article as: Lev, E., Drugs held and sold by pharmacists of the Jewishcommunity of medieval (11th–14th centuries) Cairo according to lists of materiamedica found at the Taylor-Schechter Genizah collection, Cambridge, Journal ofEthnopharmacology (2006), doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.09.044

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication.As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript.The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proofbefore it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production processerrors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers thatapply to the journal pertain.

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

FigureClick here to download high resolution image

Page 1 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

FigureClick here to download high resolution image

Page 2 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

Drugs held and sold by pharmacists of the Jewish community of medieval (11th -14th centuries) Cairo according to lists of materia medica found at the Taylor-Schechter Genizah collection, Cambridge

Dr. Efraim Lev Dep. of Eretz Israel Studies and School of Public Health, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel Abstract

The importance of the Genizah for the research of the medieval Mediterranean communities, supplying information on almost every aspect of life, is well known among historian. Less known is that pharmacy was the most popular of all branches of the healing art in the Medieval Jewish community of Cairo, according to the Genizah manuscripts.

Sources for study of medieval practical drugs are extremely rare since most records naturally vanish over the years, and only some medical books, which contained theoretical pharmacology, have survived to the present day. Drugs lists enable us to understand medieval practical pharmacy and to reconstruct their inventories.

This study reports on seventy-one original drugs lists that were found in the Genizah; they are different from merchants' letters dealing with commerce in drugs and give no instructions for the use or preparation of formulas as usually found in prescriptions. Twenty six lists are written in Judeo-Arabic and forty-five in Arabic, none of the lists is written in Hebrew. The longest list contains sixty-three identified substances.

These lists were apparently used by pharmacists for professional and business purposes as inventories of drugs, records, orders, or even receipts.

Two hundred and six different drugs are mentioned in the drugs lists of which one hundred and sixty-seven are of plant origin, sixteen are of animal origin, and the remaining twenty-three are inorganic

The lists point directly to the place they occupied on the shelves of the pharmacies that could be found in the lanes and alleys of the Jewish quarter of Cairo. The most frequently mentioned substance were myrobalan (27), pepper and saffron (21), lentisk (15), almond, basil, rose, rosemary (14), cattle products, camphor and spikenard (13). Key words: Genizah, Cairo, Jewish community, materia medica, drugs lists, ethnopharmacology, Mediterranean, medieval

Abstract

Page 3 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

1

A-G-Lists-Article - M.M-17.9.06

Drugs held and sold by pharmacists of the Jewish community of medieval (11th -14th centuries) Cairo according to lists of materia medica found at the Taylor-Schechter Genizah collection, Cambridge

Dr. Efraim Lev Dep. of Eretz Israel Studies and School of Public Health, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel 1. Introduction

The existence of the Cairo Genizah, a room in the Ben Ezra synagogue of the Palestinian Jews of Fustat (Old Cairo), in which various kinds of written materials were deposited, has been known to European scholars since the early nineteenth century. The extraordinary circumstance of its preservation for this long period, from about the tenth to the nineteenth century, against the ravages of time and decay was due to the exceptionally dry climate of Egypt. Some nineteenth century scholars even visited it, but superstitious tales prevented them from touching or removing any fragment. By the end of the nineteenth century the "spell was broken" and manuscripts were bought from the synagogue officials and guards. The fragments slowly reached the hands of collectors and came to the attention of scholars in Russia, America, and Europe. Soon after that different academic institutes and libraries purchased manuscripts and assembled their own collections (Reif, 2000). The main collections are spread around Europe, Asia and North America: Cambridge, Manchester, Leningrad, Oxford, London, Paris, Strasbourg, Budapest, Philadelphia, Jerusalem, Cincinnati, Vienna, Washington, Birmingham, Frankfort, Berlin (Richler, 1994). The Taylor-Schechter (T-S) Genizah collection at Cambridge University Library is the largest collection, holding more than 150,000 fragments (three times more than all other collections together). Dr. Solomon Schechter (1847-1915) and Dr. Charles Taylor (1881-1908) were responsible for recovering the majority of Genizah manuscripts from Cairo in 1896. 1.1 History of research

The importance of the Genizah for the research of the medieval Mediterranean communities, supplying information on almost every aspect of life, is demonstrated by Goitein (1967-1988), Gil (1992; 1997), Ben-Sasson (1991) and others. On the importance and the potential of research into the medical aspects of the Genizah documents Goitein wrote in 1963: "Only a special study can do justice to this subject" (Goitein, 1963); in 1967 he reiterated, "With regard to… medical and culinary plants, there is enough material for a Ph.D. dissertation on each” (Goitein, 1967-1988). One early study on medicinal materials in Muslim Egypt was conducted by Dietrich and published in 1954; this scholarly work was based on one manuscript replete with information on trade in drugs (Dietrich, 1954). A number of scholars have dealt with

* Manuscript

Page 4 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

2

this subject-matter, such as Goitein (Goitein, 1963), Baker (Baker, 1996), Fenton (Fenton, 1980), Dietrich (Dietrich, 1954), Cohen (Cohen, 1993), Dvorgetsky (Dvorgetsky, 1990), and especially Isaacs (Isaacs, 1979–1980, 1991).

The medical profession has been studied in works on the Genizah in general, and on the life of the Jewish communities and societies in the Mediterranean (Goitein, 1967-1988). Medicine as a subject in its own right has been given due attention only in the last few years, with the publication of a catalogue of medical and para-medical manuscripts in the Cambridge Genizah collection by Isaacs and Baker (Isaacs & Baker, 1994). Short descriptions are given of 1616 fragments, about one quarter of which concern materia medica. However, the book hardly discusses or analyses the evidence. The compilers close their introduction to the catalogue as follows: "Much more could be said of the Genizah medical material, but enough basic information has been provided to encourage future scholars with an interest in such matters to pursue further investigation" (Isaacs & Baker, 1994). Further research on the T-S collection have provided information on more than 160 fragments referring to medicine in general and materia medica in particular (Lev & Chipman, 2007).

This article aims to reconstruct the contents of pharmacy shops run by the Jewish pharmacists in medieval Cairo (mainly 10th-13th centuries) i.e. substances held and sold for medical use. The present research project is based mainly on lists of materia medica from the T-S Genizah collection at Cambridge. All other collections are much smaller and some have not yet been catalogued (Richler, 1994). These contain very few Genizah fragments relating to medicine, in most cases parts of books (personal observation). 2. Methods and Materials 2.1 Research description 2.1.1 Pharmacy in the Genizah

Pharmacy was the most popular of all branches of the healing art, according to the Genizah manuscripts. Goitein writes: “One need not delve deeply into the writings of the Cairo Genizah in order to discover that a great many of them refer to the professions connected with the processing and sale of drugs, spices, perfumes and potions for medical and culinary uses”. Elsewhere he states, “The prominence of the Jews in the professions of druggist and pharmacists during the High Middle Ages – which is paralleled by their equally strong representation in the fields of medicine on the one hand, and in that of the international trade in spices and drugs on the other – calls for comment”. He explains the phenomena not as the continuation of the pre-Islamic tradition, but as a law of economic history, still in effect today, that minority groups have a chance of being successful in occupations not yet monopolized by the more privileged classes of the society. A subsidiary element might have been the fact that the pharmacist's profession was a bookish one (Isaacs & Baker, 1994). The use of hand-books, classical materia medica, and herbals such as that of Dioscorides was an important part of the work. The Jewish religion too, as it developed in post-Talmudic times, had become very scholarly.

Şaydalānī (e.g., al-Israili al-Saydalani) or şaydanī is usually translated as pharmacist or apothecary. The latter occupation belongs to the same group, and there were specialists such as the sufūfī or preparer of medical powders. The word şaydalānī is traditionally explained as dealer in sandalwood (Santalum sp.), so

Page 5 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

3

şaydalānī, like ‘aţţār, originally designated a perfumer. The pharmacists were trained to collect and preserve the various medicaments brought from near or far-off lands (Isaacs & Baker, 1994). 2.1.2 Lists of materia medica

Sources for such study of a medieval community are extremely rare since all records of practical medicine naturally vanish over the years, and only some medical books, which contained theoretical medicine, were recurrently used, sold, or kept in libraries, have survived to the present day. Authentic, practical medical and pharmacological knowledge can be extracted from lists of materia medica, prescriptions and medical letters found in the Cairo Genizah. Lists of materia medica enable us to understand medieval practical pharmacy and to reconstruct their inventories.

Lists of materia medica may be of various origins: inventories of pharmacies compiled for establishing or dissolving partnerships, for commercial orders, or for tax purposes; pharmacists' invoices and order forms for substances, especially those of wholesalers sent to retailers, or of pharmacists sent to wholesalers. These are among the best sources for the study of drugs and the reconstruction of the community's inventory of practical materia medica. Goitein, for example, points out consignments, one of fifty-four items, another of thirty-four .The drugs listed are known from other sources, but in this case all were carried at the same time by one retailer; the fragments mention weights and prices as well. Invoices to individuals are common, and they teach us about transactions, payments, and drugs used at that time. Some invoices note quantities and prices, others have only the prices (Goitein, 1967-1988). In general, the seventy-one original materia medica lists found in the Genizah lack any headings that might explain their uses. However, since they are different from merchants' letters dealing with commerce in drugs and give no instructions for the use or preparation of formulas (as is usually found in prescriptions), they were identified as lists of materia medica . Twenty-six lists are written in Judaeo-Arabic (figure 1), but the vast majority, fourty-five lists, are written in Arabic (figure 2). Figure 1 – List of simples and their quantities, written in Judaeo-Arabic (T-S Ar.30.274). Figure 2 – List of simples and their quantities, written in Arabic (T-S Ar.39.487)

In some cases they appear as rows with written quantities, in other cases the

lists are written as long columns, sometimes on very narrow and long or large sheets of paper. Occasionally the quantities are in Arabic words, at other times in Hebrew script, in a few cases in Coptic numerals, and rarely in some other form. These lists were apparently used by pharmacists for professional and business purposes as inventories of materia medica , records, orders, or even receipts.

Merchants' letters found in the Genizah contain more information for other aspects of medieval trade; they mention drugs' names and their origin, and we can learn about routes and other aspects of the drug trade of that era, for example, between Cairo and Alexandria. However, this issue is not in the scope of this paper and will be dealt in another article dealing with the trade in materia medica in the medieval Mediterranean. Also, there is information on imports of drugs to port cities, as in the cases of the Rif and Cairo. One such fragment is the subject of a book by Dietrich, which describes the trade in drugs between India and other countries in the

Page 6 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

4

Far East and Egypt (Dietrich, 1954). However, these documents were not used as main sources in our research since they do not have a direct relevance for medicinal uses. A large portion of the substances mentioned in merchants' letters were also used by members of this medieval society as foodstuffs, spices, and condiments, and for cosmetics and industries (tanning, dyeing, etc.). 2.1.3 Identification

The identification of the drugs mentioned in the Genizah fragments is complicated by many difficulties, aside from the regular ones facing every Genizah researcher, such as poor preservation (stains, fading), incomplete texts (holes, tearing) and the diverse and sometimes illegible handwriting of professionals or laymen alike. These difficulties were partly elucidated by Isaacs and his team, who confronted them when trying to identify the various medicinal herbs mentioned in his catalogue. Other difficulties encountered were caused by the wide range of names for each plant, as well as corrupt names sometimes written as forms of Greek or Persian terms (Isaacs & Baker, 1994).

Owing to the successful efforts made by the Arabs to expand and improve their range of materia medica, doctors at that time had a very sizeable repository of pharmaceutical knowledge at their disposal. Jewish writers preferred to use Arabic terms, rather than Greek or even Hebrew. The use of different names for the same substance was even an issue for physicians who came from the West, such as Maimonides, When the sage of Cordoba moved to the Eastern Mediterranean, Maimonides, like many other physicians of the Islamic world who were great travellers, became keenly aware that the same drug had different names, often three or four, in different parts of the world, and sometimes even in the same place. As a result Maimonides wrote his glossary (a multilingual dictionary of materia medica.) which was later edited by the German-Jewish physician Max Meyerhof, who spent almost all his working life in modern Egypt as a doctor (Ben Maimon, 1940).These difficulties were solved with the aid of previous field and historical research (Lev, 1999; 2001; 2001a; 2002; 2002a; 2002b; 2002c; 2003; 2003a; 2004; 2006; Amar & Lev, 1999; Lev & Amar, 2000; 2002; 2002a). This new approach combines botanical and zoological training, sound knowledge of and expertise in the flora and fauna of the Levant and Eastern Mediterranean, and the application of scientific tools acquired in over 20 years of research.

Other works that were of great uses are past and present-day market surveys done by Meyerhof (1918), Ducros (1930), and others (Ahmed et al, 1979). Some specialized botanical dictionaries such as that of Issa (1930) and Bedevian (1936) were very useful for the purpose of identification. 3. Results and Discussion

The detailed information is presented in 3 tables sorted according to their origin, i.e. animal, inorganic and plant substances. The substances are displayed according to the alphabetical order of their common names. The scientific names as identified by the author of this article (animals and plants) and chemical formulas (inorganic substances) are also presented along with the total number of times each substance was mentioned in lists of materia medica and the theoretical medical uses that were recorded from parts of medical books found in Genizah.

3.1 Drugs of animal origin

Page 7 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

5

Sixteen substances of animal origin were recorded as being held and sold for medicinal purposes by the Genizah people according to lists of materia medica (table 1). This number matches the size range of substances of origin in other practical inventories, medieval as well as modern traditional. It is 7.8% of the total number of materials and is well within the known percentage range (3.9 - 16.8%). Table 1 –Drugs of animal origin recorded in lists of materia medica found in the Genizah.

The most frequently mentioned substances, and therefore, we suggest, most

frequently used ones, were: cattle products and mollusca operculum. Four substances were mentioned only in lists and have not yet been found in any prescription (bird, crab, fish, mollusca). Animals, their body parts, and their products have been used as medicine since the earliest times in most known cultures (Lev, 2006). Evidences for such uses have been recorded in ancient Egypt (Bryan, 1930), Assyria (Mesopotamia) (Thompson, 1990; Hakim, 1970) and ancient China (Gordon, 1949; Kremers & Urdang, 1976).

In the classical period, Hippocrates mentions the use of six kinds of animals, constituting 2.5% of all the substances (Riddle, 1987). Dioscorides reports on the use of about 168 body parts and products of animals, which account for 10% of his inventory of drugs (Riddle, 1985, Gunther, 1959), the Jewish Sages also mention living creatures and their products (Perelman, 1926; Preuss, 1983), and similar animals, their body parts and products were also mentioned in Neo-Aramaic (Syrian) medicine (Budge, 1913). In Arabic medicine substances such as chicken eggs, cow cheese, and bee honey were used (Ibn al-Qayyim, 1993), while the Iraqi physician al-Kindi [9th century] describes the medical use of twenty-two kinds of animals that constitute 7% of the total substances in his book (Levey, 1966). Maimonides notes the use of about 28 animal kinds, also constituting 7% of the total (Maimonides, 1940). Bodenheimer summarized the writings of Arab physicians, and according to him, fifty-two animal extracts and products are recorded as being used for medicinal purposes in the medieval Levant (Bodenheimer, 1967). In medieval Europe, Saladino d’Ascoli describes the use of about 20 different animals, their body parts, and their products (Muntner, 1963).

The use of these creatures is also maintained in Middle Eastern traditional medicine: Meyerhof describes the use of 41 substances of animal origin out of 640 drugs recorded in the market in Cairo at the beginning of the 20th century (Meyerhof, 1918). Among the Sinai Bedouin, about 25 kinds of living creatures used for medicine are documented (Levey, Bedouins, 1978). A survey conducted in Syria in the 1970s found that 4.5% of the substances traded by the medicine sellers in the market were of animal origin (Honda et al., 1990). Similar data also arise from surveys in Jordan (9.6%) (Lev & Amar, 2002) and in Israel (6.5%) (Lev & Amar, 2000). In Iraq, 12 kinds of animal-origin substances were recorded, which comprise about 3.7% of the substances in the inventory (Hooper, 1937), and on the other hand, the inventory of the Jewish population of Iraq describes about ten kinds of animal, which constitutse 5% of the comprehensive list of drugs (Ben Ya'akov, 1992).

In Pakistan 31 organic substances of animal origin were noted, accounting for 9% of all substances in the inventory of traditional medicine (Ali et al., 1984).

3.2 Drugs of inorganic origin

Page 8 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

6

Twenty-two inorganic substances were recorded as being held and sold for medicinal purposes by the Genizah people according to lists of materia medica (table 2). It is 10.6% of the total number of materials in the inventory. This can be explained by Egypt's being an important producer of such materials (borax, alum) as well as an entrepot for such substances (copper, iron, lead, mercury, earth, silver) (Goitein, 1967–1988). Table 2 – Drugs of inorganic origin recorded in lists of materia medica found in the Genizah. Three substances were mentioned only in lists and have not been found yet in any prescription (bezoar stone, cinnabar, mumie). The high rate of eye and skin diseases that prevailed in Egypt since early times could be another explanation. Inorganic substances have played an important part of the treatment of these diseases from antiquity to the present (e.g., zinc). The most frequently mentioned substances, and therefore, we suggest, most frequently used were: salt, lapis lazuli and lead.

Inorganic substances (minerals, metals, and stones) were used for medicinal purposes from early times and in many different cultures (Lev, 2002a). In ancient Egypt various inorganic substances were used (Bryan, 1930), in medical lists discovered in Mesopotamia, about 120 kinds of metals, stones, and minerals were identified as having been used for remedies, constituting 32% of the total drugs mentioned (Thompson, 1923; Hakim, 1970; Levey, 1959). Ancient Chinese medicine made use of inorganic substances as well (Gordon, 1949; Kremers & Urdang, 1976).

Classical medicine also applied minerals and metals: Hippocrates mentions nine minerals and six metals, comprising about 6% of the total substances (Riddle, 1987). Dioscorides describes the use of about 96 kinds of inorganic substances, comprising about 10% of the inventory of the drugs used by this important physician (Gunther, 1959; Riddle, 1985). The Jewish Sages also mention certain minerals that were used as remedies (Perelman, 1926; Preuss, 1983). In neo-Aramaic (Syriac) medicine inorganic substances were mentioned as well (Budge, 1913; Bodenheimer, 1967).

In Arab medicine, inorganic substances form a small but important component of the inventory of drugs (Stapleton, 1927); al-Kindi describes the use of 27 minerals and metals comprising about 10% of all the substances (Levey, 1966). Maimonides (d. 1204) notes the use of approximately 42 kinds of minerals, stones, and metals, comprising abut 11% of all the substances mentioned (Maimonides, 1940). Hamarneh estimates that in the 10th century the use of chemicals and minerals in Arabic medicine reached its peak as a result of the combined knowledge deriving from the writings of classical physicians, information about eastern medicine, and well-developed commercial ties across the various parts of the Islamic empire, and the connections between it and other countries (Hamarneh, 1980). Fifteen inorganic materials are revealed in the sources as being in medical use in the Levant during the Middle Ages. From a statistical viewpoint they comprise about 5% of the inventory of materials – a finding that resembles that of the lists of materials in traditional medicine in our region, and is not unlike other lists of materials from the Middle Ages and the classical period (Lev, 2002b).

Saladino d’Ascoli, the Italian chemist, describes the use of about 26 kinds of metals and minerals and about ten kinds of stone in Europe in the Middle Ages (Muntner, 1963). A similar situation and the use of identical materials occurs in the framework of traditional medicine in the Middle East:In Jordan, 9.8% of the

Page 9 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

7

substances recorded in a similar survey (Lev & Amar, 2002) were of inorganic origin, and in Israel the proportion was 6.1% (Lev & Amar, 2000). In a survey conducted in shops selling medications in Syria, 12.7% of the drugs were inorganic. In Iraq, about 17 minerals and metals were described, comprising about 5% of the materials in the inventory (Hooper, 1937). The inventory of drugs of Iraqi Jewry contains a description of the use of about nine kinds of such substances, again comprising about 5% of the materials mentioned (Ben-Ya'akov, 1992).

In a study of traditional drugs that was conducted in Pakistan during the 1960s, the use of 43 minerals and metals was noted, comprising 12.5% of all the medicinal materials reviewed (Ali et al, 1984).

3.3 Drugs of plant origin

One hundred and sixty-eight plant were recorded in lists of materia medica (table 3). This number is well within the size range (150-417) of plant in other practical inventories (Lev & Amar, 2006). It is 81.6% of the total number of materials. This proportion, where plants account for 70-90% of materia medica inventories, is found in different sources from classical medical books to present-day traditional medicine (Lev, 2003; Lev, 2002). The most frequently mentioned plants, and therefore, we suggest, most frequently used were: myrobalan, pepper and saffron.

Table 3 – Drugs of plant origin recorded in lists of materia medica found in the Genizah.

Twenty-eight plants were mentioned only in lists of materia medica and have

not been found yet in any prescription (acacia, agrimony, ajava, anemone, arar-tree, azerolier, banana, betel-pepper, bitter-vetch, broad-leaved papperwort, bryony, cedar, cocoa nut palm, cornelian cherry, dragon's blood, elecampane, eringo, Jews’ mallow, juniper, manna, mulberry, oriental plane tree, orpine, stonecrop , papyrus, Nile papyrus, polypody, struthium, sumac, thyme).

Plants have been used as drugs since prehistoric times (Palevitz, 1978). It is assumed that when man discovered the nutritious quality of edible plants he also came to realize that other plants, and sometimes the edible plants themselves, had medicinal value (Yaniv, 1982). Much information on the use of plants is contained in ancient Chinese medical books (Read & Pak, 1936) which hold thousands of medical prescriptions (Gordon, 1949; Kermers & Urdang, 1976). The Ebers Papyrus yielded nearly one thousand medicines, mostly of plant origin (Bryan, 1930; Nunn, 1996; Estes, 1989; Stetter, 1990). Twenty-five to thirty plants out of hundreds that were mentioned in the Bible (Low, 1924-1934; Feldman, 1957; Feliks, 1976; Moldenke, 1952; Harrison, 1966; Duke, 1983; Preuss, 1992; Zayyda, 1956; Ulman, 1960; Shoshan, 1979; Palmer, 1986; Rosner, 1994; Hamarneh, 1973), have been identified as remedies (Amar, 1996; Jacob, 1993; Ulman, 1960). Medical sources in documents discovered in Nippur mention a few dozen medicinal plants, and others from Ashurbanipal (Thompson, 1923) have references to about 250 kinds of plants (Hakim, 1970).

As for classical sources, Hippocrates mentions about 400 drugs, most of them (91%) being plants (Riddle, 1987). Theophrastus describes medicinal plants in The History of Plants (Theophrastus, 1990) in which more than 500 medications are listed (Kremers & Urdang, 1976). Dioscorides collected many plant specimens and examined their medicinal virtues. In his De Materia Medica (Gunther, 1959) he describes more than 600 kinds of plants. Pliny the Elder describes plants, including

Page 10 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

8

medicinal ones, in eight of the thirty-seven volumes of his Historia Naturalis (Pliny, 1992). Seventy out of fourhundred kinds of plants mentioned in the Talmud are defined as medicinal plants (Low, 1924-1934; Perelman, 1926).

The medical tradition formulated during the early Islamic period indicates the use of plants such as black cumin, cedar, citron, date (both fruit and kernel), eggplant, fig, garlic, henna, onion, rice, and watermelon (Ibn al-Qayyim, 1993).

The Muslim rulers took advantage of the fact that various cultures existed under their regimes. They transferred agricultural technologies and processing methods. These historical processes made possible the transfer of new crops and products, mainly from south-east Asia, to the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe, e.g. sugar cane (Amar, 2000; Watson, 1983). In that way the inventory of materia medica, mainly in the East (the Muslim world) but also in the West (Europe), became enriched with dozens of new plants. Hundreds of plants, as well as extracts, gums, resin, oil, and other products, were used in Muslim medicine. Most were plants already used by Greek and Roman physicians and pharmacologists and mentioned in classical medical literature; a few were medicinal plants introduced by the Muslims.The medical qualities of these plants and their products are largely described in the medieval literature, including medicinal plants, perfumes, and spices (Levey, 1973).

3.4 Total figures of the inventory

Two hundred and six drugs are mentioned in the lists of materia medica, of which one hundred and sixty-seven are of plant origin, sixteen are of animal origin, and the remaining twenty-three are inorganic (table 4). Table 4 – Drugs recorded in lists of materia medica found in the Genizah.

4. Summary Conclusions

Lists of materia medica point directly to the existing trade in these drugs and the place they occupied on the shelves of the pharmacies that could be found in the lanes and alleys of the Jewish quarter of Cairo. The most frequently mentioned substance were myrobalan (27), pepper and saffron (21), lentisk (15), almond, basil, rose, rosemary (14), cattle products, camphor and spikenard (13). Custus and ladanum were mentioned 12 times, endive, quince, sesame and sugar 11, and cherry, frankincense, licorice and salt 10 times each. The rest of the substances were mentioned nine times (4), eight (11), and less than that (170).

The large amount of lists written in Arabic might be considered as an evidence that Arabic was the daily and commercial language of pharmacists and other member of the Jewish community of medieval Cairo. None of the lists is written in Hebrew. The longest list contains sixty-three identified substances. The average number of substances on the short lists (up to 10 substances) is six, and on the long ones (more than 10 substances) it is twenty-six.

Thirty-seven drugs were mentioned in lists of materia medica and did not mentioned in prescriptions: a. Four drugs of animal's origin: Bird (GN), Crab [crayfish], Fish,(GN), Mollusca [operculum]. b. Three inorganic's drugs: Bezoar stone, Cinnabar, Mumie (GN). c. Thirty drugs of plant's origin: Acacia, Agrimony [liverwort], Ajava, Anemone, Arar-tree, Azerolier, Banana, Betel-pepper, Bitter-vetch, Broad-leaved pepperwort, Bryony, Cedar, Cocoa nut palm, Cornelian cherry, Dragon's blood [GN], Elecampane, Eringo, Jews’ mallow, Juniper, Manna (camel

Page 11 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

9

thorn), Mulberry, Oriental plane tree, Orpine, stonecrop (GN), Papyrus, Nile papyrus, Polypody, Struthium (soap-root), Sumac, Thyme (GN). These drugs were available to the patients in the Jewish pharmacies, they might have been mentioned in prescriptions that did not survived, or were used mainly without being prescribed. Alternatively, they might have been used as traditional drugs by the member of the Cairo Jewish community. According to previous work (Lev and Amar, 2006), seventy-two substances were mentioned only in prescription and have not found yet in any list of materia medica known in the Genizah: a. Fifty-six plants (gum ammoniac, apricot, asafoetida, asparagus, barley, bean, beet, ben tree, bitumen trefoil, Cabbage, calamus, centaury, chamomile, chickpeas, common caper, cypress-tree, dill, dodder of thyme, Egyptian clover, Egyptian marjoram, fumitory, hellebore, horehound, hyssop, jasmine, leek, lemon-grass, lentil, lettuce, linseed, lovage, malabathrum, meadow saffron, melon, mint, mustard, opopanax, oxymel, pear, pellitory of Spain, pilosum basil, pine (nuts), red-behen, savory, sea squill, service tree, spinach, staphisagria, sweet clover, tamarisk, tar, wallflower, white-behen, wild nard, willow). b. Eight inorganic substances (agate, copper, gold, gypsum, mercury, minum, pyrite, silver). c. Eight animals (adder, caracal, cuttle-fish, earthworm, kermes, silk worm [cocoons and products], snail, spiny-tailed lizard).

This might be due to the large number of prescriptions (140) compare to lists of materia medica (71) that have been survived and revealed in the Genizah. Another explanation, in the case of substance of animal's origin, might be that, most of these substances were gathered by the pharmacists or bought from hunters and were almost not traded regularly through the usual routes and dealers and therefore were not mentioned in the lists of materia medica (Lev and Amar, 2006).

Acknowledgments

This research would have not been taken place without the generous grant of St. John's College, Cambridge which hosted the author as an Over Seas Visiting Scholar (2003-2004). The author would like to express his deepest thanks to Dr. Leigh Chipman, Hebrew University, Israel, and Dr. Zohar Amar, Bar-Ilan University, Israel and the anonymous referees for their helpful remarks. Special thanks to my colleagues at the Taylor-Schechter Genizah Research Unit at Cambridge University Library, which shared with me their enormous knowledge and experience and supported me with helpful remarks: Prof. Stefan Reif (head), Shulie Reif, Dr. Avihai Shivtiel, Dr. Fredrich Niessen, Dr. Ben Outhwaite, Dr. Rebecca Jefferson, Ellis Weinberger, Sara Sykes. The author would like to thank the Syndicate of Cambridge University Library for the permission to publish the Cairo Genizah fragments presented in this article.

References Ahmed M.S., Honda G., & Miki W., 1979. Herb Drugs and Herbalists in the Middle East. Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures in Asia, Tokyo. Ali S.A.M., Bakht H.S.J., & Mahdihassan S., 1984. Simples of Unani Pharmacy, In: Mahdihassan S. (ed.), Bazaar Drugs and Folk Medicine in Pakistan. Hamdard Foundation Press, Karachi . pp. 52–63.

Page 12 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

10

Amar Z. and Lev E., 1999. A Historical Survey of Drugs of the al-Sham Region During the Middle Ages (640-1517 CE). Eretz, Tel-Aviv. Baker C. F., 1996. Islamic and Jewish medicine in the medieval Mediterranean world: the Genizah evidence. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 89, 577-580. Bedevian A. K., 1936. Illustrated Polyglotic Dictionary of Plants Names. Argus and Papazian press. Cairo. Ben Maimon, Moshe (Maimonides), 1940 . Un Glossaire de Matière Médicale Composé par Maimonide, M. Meyerhof (éd.) Mémoires Présentés à l̀ Institut d`Egypte, 41. Cairo. nos. 309, 140, 55, 88. Ben-Sasson M., 1991. The Jews of Sicily 825-1068. Yad Izhak Ben Zvi, Jerusalem [Hebrew]. Ben-Ya’akov A., 1992. The Traditional Medicine of the Babylonian Jews. Yarid Hasfarim press, Jerusalem. (Hebrew), pp. 433-438. Bodenheimer S., 1967. Animals in Biblical Lands. Bialik Institute, Jerusalem. (Hebrew), pp. 128-134, 155-157. Bryan C.P., 1930. Ancient Egyptian Medicine – The Papyrus Ebers. Geoffrey Bles., London. Budge E.A.W., 1913. Syrian Anatomy Pathology and Therapeutics or the School of Medicine. Oxford University Press, London. Cohen M.R. 1993. The Burdensome Life of a Jewish Physician and Communal Leader: A Geniza Fragment from the Alliance Israelite Universelle Collection, Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 16, 125-136. Dietrich A., 1954. Zum Drogenhandel Im Islamischen Agypten. Carl Winter, Heidelberg . Ducros M.A.H., 1930. Essai sur le Droguier Populaire Arabe de l'Inspectorat des Pharmacies du Caire, MIE 15. Duke J.A., 1983. Medicinal Plants of the Bible. Conch Magazine Ltd., London. Dvorjetski E., 1990. The Contribution of the Geniza to the Study of the Medicinal Hot Springs in Eretz-Israel, in: Proceedings of the Twelfth World Congress of Jewish Studies, II, Jerusalem, pp. 85-93. Estes J.W., 1989. The Medical Skills of Ancient Egypt. Science History. Pubns. New York. Feldman A., 1957. Plants of the Bible. Dvir press, Tel-Aviv. (Hebrew) Feliks Y., 1976. Plant World of the Bible. Massada LTD, Ramat-Gan. (Hebrew)

Page 13 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

11

Fenton P., 1980. The Importance of the Cairo Genizah for the History of Medicine. Medical History 24, 347-348. Gil M., 1983. Palestine During the First Muslim Period (643-1099). Tel Aviv University and the Ministry of Defense – Publishing House, Tel-Aviv. (Hebrew). English short edition: 1992. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Gil M., 1997. In the kingdom of Ishmael. 4 Vols. Tel Aviv University, The Bialik Institute, Jerusalem and the Ministry of Defense – Publishing House, Tel-Aviv. Goitein S. D., 1963. The medical profession in the light of the Cairo Genizah documents. Hebrew Union College Annual 34, 177-194. Goitein S. D., 1967-1988. A Mediterranean Society. University of California Press, Berkeley. I, p. 267, 210; II, p. 253, 240-272, I, pp. 153-154, 209-224. Goitein S.D., 1980. Palestinian Jewry in Early Islamic and Crusader Times. Yad Izhak Ben Zvi, Jerusalem. (Hebrew) Gordon B.L., 1949. Medicine Throughout Antiquity, F. A. Davis Co., Philadelphia. pp. 255-390, 355-390. Gunther R.T., (trans.), 1959. The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides. Hafner Pub., New York. Hakim M.S., 1970. Hamdard Pharmacopoeia of Eastern Medicine. Indian Medical Science Series No. 55. Karachi. p. vii. Hamarneh S., 1973. Origins of Pharmacy and Therapy in the Near East. Naito Foundation, Tokyo. pp. 17-21. Hamarneh S., 1980. Climax of Chemical Therapy in 10th Century Arabic Medicine. Der Islam 38, 283–288. Harrison R.K., 1966. Healing Herbs of the Bible. EJ Brill, Leiden. Honda G., Miki W., & Saito M., 1990. Herb Drugs and Herbalists in Syria and North Yeman. Heibunsha Press, Tokyo. Hooper D., 1937. Useful Plants and Drugs of Iran and Iraq. Field Museum of Natural History, Publ. 387. Chicago. pp. 189-193. Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyya., 1993. Medicine of the Prophet, M. al-Akili (ed.). Philadelphia. (Arabic ed. – A.Shabbir [ed.]. 1986. Al-Tibb Al-Nabawi, Jeddah). Pp. 7-9.

Page 14 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

12

Isaacs H.D., 1979-1980. The Impact of Western Medicine on Muslim Physicians and their Writing in the 17th Century. Bulletin of the British Association of Orientalists 11, 52–57. Isaacs H.D., 1991. A medieval Arab medical certificate. Medical History 35, 250-257. Isaacs H.D., (with the assistance of C.F Baker), 1994. Medical and Para-Medical Manuscripts in the Cambridge Genizah Collections. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Issa Bey A., 1930. Dictionnaire des Noms des Plantes. Presse de l'Imprimerie Nationale, Cairo. Jacobs I. & W., (eds.) 1993. The Healing Past. Brill, Leiden,

Kremers E, & Urdang G., 1976. History of Pharmacy. PA:Lippincott. Philadelphia. pp. 3-5, 14-27.

Lev E., 1999. Medical Materials in Jerusalem during the Tenth to the Eighteenth Centuries. in: Amar, Z., Lev, E. and Schwartz, J. (eds.) Medicine in Jerusalem Throughout the Ages. Eretz - Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv. pp. 51-78. (Hebrew) Lev E., 2001. The Use of Clay and Earth as Food and Medicine in the Land of Israel and Syria During the Middle Ages. Korot 15, 7-19. (Hebrew) Lev E., 2001a. The Galilee, Mt. Hermon and Mt. Lebanon as a Main Source of Mineral Medical Substances During the Middle Ages. Horizons in Geography 53, 113-127. (Hebrew) Lev E., 2002. Reconstructed Materia Medica of the Medieval and Ottoman al-Sham. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 80, 167-179.

Lev E., 2002a. Medicinal Exploitation of Inorganic Substances in the Levant in the Medieval and Early Ottoman Periods. Adler Museum Bulletin 28, 11-16. Lev E., 2002b. Medicinal Substances of the Medieval Levant. Eretz - Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv. (Hebrew). p. 45.

Lev E. 2002C. Trade of Medical Substances in the Medieval and Ottoman Levant (Bilad Al-Sham). in Lev, Y. (ed.), Towns and Material Culture in the Medieval and Middle East. Brill, Leiden. pp.159-183. Lev E., 2003. Medicinal Substances in Jerusalem from Early Times to the Present Day. BAR International Series 1112. Aarcheopress, Oxford. p. 281. Lev E., 2003a. Traditional Healing with Animals (Zootherapy): Medieval to Present-Day Levantine Practice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 85, 107-118. Lev E., 2004. Work in progress – the research of medical knowledge in the Cairo Genizah – past, present and future. in: S. Reif (ed.), The Written Word Remains – The archive and the

Page 15 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

13

achievement, Taylor-Schechter Genizah Research Unit at Cambridge University Library, Cambridge. pp. 37-51. Lev E., 2006. Healing with animals in the Levant from the 10th to the 18th century. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2:11, pp. 1-11.

Lev E., and Amar Z., 2000. Ethnopharmacological Survey of Traditional Drugs Sold in Israel at the End of the 20th Century. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 72, 191-205. Lev E., and Amar Z., 2002. Ethnopharmacological Survey of Traditional Drugs Sold in the Kingdom of Jordan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 82, 131-145. Lev E. and Amar Z. 2002a. Ethnic Medicinal Substances of the Land of Israel. Eretz -Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv and Yerid Hasefarim, Jerusalem. (Hebrew) Lev and Amar, 2006, Reconstruction of the inventory of materia medica used by members of the Jewish community of medieval Cairo according to prescriptions found in the Taylor-Schechter Genizah Collection, Cambridge, Journal of Ethnopharmacology (forthcoming). Levey M., 1959. Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia. Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam. Levey M., 1966. The Medical Formulary of the Aqrabadhin of al–Kindi. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. Levey S., 1978. Medicine, Hygiene and Health Among the Sinai Beduins. The Israeli Society for the Protection of Nature, Tel-Aviv (Hebrew), pp. 86-88. Low I., 1924-1934. Die Flora der Juden, I-IV. R. Löwit, Vienna-Leipzig. Meyerhof M., 1918. Der Bazar der Drogen und Wohlgeruche in Kairo. Archiv fur Wirtschaftsforschung im Orient (Weimar). pp. 1-40, 185-218. Muntner S., (ed.) 1963. Saladino d` Ascoli, Book of the Pharmacists (1430). Historical Notebooks Press, Tel-Aviv. (Hebrew), pp. 116-117. Moldenke H.N.&. A.L., 1952. Plants of the Bible. The Ronald Press Company, Waltham. pp. 136-162. Lev, Efraim and Chipman, Leigh. (2007, In press). Isaacs catalogue ‘Medical and Para-medical manuscript in the Cambridge Genizah collection’ - New edition. Cambridge University Library, Cambridge and Archeopress, Oxford. Nunn J.F., 1996. Ancient Egyptian Medicine. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman London. Palevitch D.,1978. Medicinal Plants and Their Value in Modern Medicine. Mad’a 26(6), 264-269. (Hebrew)

Page 16 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

14

Palmer B., (ed.), 1986. Medicine and the Bible. Devon. Perelman M., 1926. Midrash Refuah [Medical Commentary], 3 vols. Dvir press, Tel-Aviv. (Hebrew), I, 50-98. Plinius G., 1992. Naturalis Historia (W.H.S. Jones, trans.) (LCL). London Preuss J., 1983. Biblical and Talmudic Medicine (F. Rosner, trans.). Jason Aronson INC, Northvale, New Jersey, London. pp. 433-437. Read B.E., and Pak. C., 1936. Chinese Materia Medica from the Pen ts’ao kang mu [by] Li Shih Chen, 2nd ed. Peking Natural History Bulletin, Peking. Reiani Y., 1963. Drugs of the Yemenite Jews. M.Sc. Thesis submitted to the School of Pharmacology, Hebrew University. Jerusalem. (Hebrew) Reif S. C., (ed.), 1988. Published Material from the Cambridge Genizah Collections: A Bibliography 1896-1980, Cambridge University Library Genizah Series 6, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Reif S.C., 2000. A Jewish Archive from Old Cairo. Curzon Press, Richmond, Surrey. pp. 1-22. Richler B., 1994. Guide to Hebrew Manuscript Collections. The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem. pp. 60-64. Riddle J.M., 1970. Lithotherapy in the Middle Ages. Pharmacy in History 12, 39-50. Riddle J.M., 1985. Dioscorides on Pharmacy and Medicine. University of Texas, Austin. pp. 146-167. Riddle J.M., 1987. Folk Tradition and Folk Medicine: Recognition of Drugs in Classical Antiquity, In: J. Scarborough (ed.), Folklore and Folk Medicine. American Institute of the History of Pharmacy, Madison, Wis. pp. 33–61. Riddle J.M., 1992. Albert on Stones and Minerals, in J.M. Riddle, Quid pro quo: Studies in the History of Drugs. Great Yarmouth, Norfolk, Variorum, Galliard. pp. 203-234. Rosner F., 1994. Medicine in the Bible and the Talmud. Ktav and Yeshiva University Press, New Jersey. Shoshan S., 1979. Medical Sources. Shoshanim press, Rehovot. (Hebrew) Stapleton H.E., 1927. Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century. Memoris Asiatic Society of Bengal 7, 317–418. Stetter C., 1990. The Secret Medicine of the Pharaohs. E. Siedler, Chicago.

Page 17 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

15

Theophrastus, 1990. Enquiry into Plants (A. Hort, trans.) (LCL). London. Thompson R.C., 1923. Assyrian Medical Texts. Oxford University Press, London. Ulman S. B., 1960. Medicinal Plants in the Bible. Sinai 26, 194-205; 27, 372-382. (Hebrew) Watson A.M., 1983. Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World. Cambridge University Press, London–New York. Yaniv Z., 1982. Medicinal Plants in the Perspective of Time. Mada, 26, 10-22. (Hebrew) Zayyda Y., 1956. Medical Botany in Israel from Biblical Times till the End of the Middle Ages. Harofe Haivri 1, 82-90. (Hebrew)

Page 18 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

A-G-Lists-M.M-Tables-Revised-17.9.06 Table 1 –Drugs of animal origin recorded in lists of materia medica found in the Genizah.

No. Common

name Scientific name

No. of times mentioned in lists of materia medica .

Theoretical medicinal uses found in Genizah's medical literature (selective)

1. Ambergris Physeter catodom

1 Headaches and diseases of the brain, aphasia, spasms of muscles, tension, shaking and facial palsy, obstructions, winds, diarrhoea, pleurisy and trembling

2. Beaver (Castoreum)

Castor fiber 1 Eye diseases, headaches, brain diseases, jaund ice, fevers, palpitation, paresis, weakness of sexual organ, and as aphrodisiacs

3. Bird (GN) 1 Dentistry and oral hygiene, increasing men's sexual power, partial paralysis

4. Cattle Products (cheese, milk, cream)

Bos taurus 13 Stomach ailments, asthma, gout, piles, liver and kidney's diseases, swelling

5. Chicken Products (eggs, meat)

Gallus gallus domesticus

4 Eye diseases, inflammatory swellings

6. Coral Coelenterate System

2 Treatment of obstruction, wind, diarrhoea, pleurisy and trembling, eye, heart and teeth diseases

7. Crab [crayfish]

Decapoda 1 Eye and skin diseases, dog bites, scorpion sting, and for cleaning the teeth

8. Donkey [Ass] Products (milk, feces)

Equus asinus 1 Lungs, epilepsy, hemorrhoids, eye disease

9. Fish,(GN) 3 Skin diseases, constipation, poisoning, bites and stings

10. Goat [cheese] Capra hirctus mambrica

1 Eye and skin diseases, dentistry, poisonings

11. Honey Apis mellifica 4 Coughs, eye diseases, aphrodisiac, phlebotomy

12. Lacca Laccifer lacca 4 Dressing applied to the liver region and for other internal organs

13. Mollusca [operculum]

Strombidae and Muricidae

6 Skin diseases, wounds in the stomach, arithritis, eye and ear diseases, purgative, emetic treatment of uterus, diseases, epilepsy, paralysis

14. Musk

Moschus moschiferus

4 Headaches and diseases of the brain, paresis and weakness of sexual organ, aphrodisiacs, winds, wart, dysuria, dysmenorrhoea, hard swellings and as abortifacient

15. Pearl Pinctada margaritifera

3 Eye diseases, depression, palpitation, fevers, strengthening the stomach and liver

16. Wax Apis mellifica 4 Skin diseases, spreading ulcers, fevers, sciatica, varicose veins, phlebotomy, convulsion, tetany, colic

Table

Page 19 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

GN – Abbreviation for 'general name' e.g. various scientific species included Table 2 – Drugs of inorganic origin recorded in lists of materia medica found in the Genizah. No.

Common name

Chemical formula/ description

No. of times mentioned in lists of materia medica.

Theoretical medicinal uses found in Genizah medical literature (selective)

1. Alum

AlK(SO4)2, 12.H2O 2 Eye diseases, teeth, cosmetics

2. Arsenic As2S3; As2S2 4 Necrotic lesions, stomach ailments and gum diseases

3. Asphalt Bitumen (Pix)

2 Dentistry, toxicology

4. Bezoar stone 1 Poisoning, eye diseases, fevers 5. Borax Na2B4O7.10H2O 4 Stomachic confections, eye diseases,

convulsion and tetany fevers and colic, earaches, wounds, women's diseases

6. Cadmium Cd 1 Eye diseases, dentistry, skin d iseases 7. Cinnabar HgS 1 None 8. Clay (earth,

bole) Armenian Earth, Cyprus clay, white clay, Egyptian clay

5 Eye diseases, inflammatory swellings of the breast, diarrhoea, epilepsy, intestinal ulcer, colic, kidneys and bladder disease

9. Cuprite Cu2O 4 Eye diseases 10. Haematite Fe2O3 4 Eye diseases, dentistry 11. Kohl

[Antimony, Galena]

Sb, PbS 6 Eye diseases

12. Lapis lazuli (Na,Ca)8(AlSiO4)6(S, SO4,Cl)1-2

8 Theriac, stop excessive lachrymation, helping the eyelashes to grow

13. Lead, white (Ceruse)

2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2 7 Eye and skin diseases, umbilical hernia and incessant crying

14. Litharge PbO 1 Eye and skin diseases 15. Mumie

(GN) 1 Headache, ear and throat pains,

coughs, paralysis, heart and stomach disorders, broken bones, wounds of the sex organs and for internal uses such as renal disorders

16. Potash (GN) K2 CO3; Na2 CO3 3 Dentistry, cause miscarriage

17. Sal-ammoniac

NH4Cl 3 Eye diseases and diphtheria

18. Salt

NaCl 10 Eye diseases, pustules on the tongue, exophthalmosis, sciatica, toothache, stomach aches, pains in the spleen

19. Scoria 3 Dentistry and oral hygiene, ear pains, wounds, stop excessive lachrymation

20. Sulphur Sulfur (S) 4 Skin diseases, animal bites, paralysis, migraine, wounds, mental illnesses

21. Vitriol [verdigris]

Green - FeSO4, blue - CuSO4, white - ZnSO4, CuSO45H2O

4 Chronic diseases, necrotic lesions, skin and eye diseases

22. Zinc Zn 8 Eye and skin diseases

Page 20 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

GN – Abbreviation for 'general name' e.g. various scientific species included

Table 3 – Drugs of plant origin recorded in lists of materia medica found in the Genizah (Scientific names and details according to International Plant Name Index [IPNI] http://www.ipni.org/ipni/p lantsearch). No. Common

name Scientific name and family []

Distribution of plants and part used []

No. of times mentioned in lists of materia medica.

Theoretical medicinal uses found in Genizah medical literature (selective)

1. Acacia Acacia sp. [Mimosaceae ]

Arabia, Sahara [resin, fruits , juice]

1 Eye diseases, umbilical hernia, incessant cry, septic conditions near the ear

2. Agaric Agaricus sp. [Agaricaceae]

Levant [whole] 3 Eye diseases, heart disease, poisoning

3. Agrimony [liverwort]

Agrimonia eupatria L. [Rosaceae]

Mediterranean, Euro-Siberian [who le]

1 Fevers, poisoning, animal bites and stings, eye diseases, liver ailments

4. Ajava Carum copticum Karst. [Apiaceae]

Cultivated [fruits] 1 Eye diseases, cough, colds, indigestion, hemorrhoids, stomach ailments, colic

5. Almond Amygdalus communis L. [Rosaceae]

Levant, cultivated [seeds]

14 Eye diseases, fevers, hectic and septic fevers, cancer, erysipelas, soft and hard inflammatory swellings and elephantias is

6. Aloe Aloe sp. [Aloaceae]

Domesticated [liquid from the leaves]

8 Eye diseases, purgative

7. Aloe wood Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. [Thymelaeaceae]

Tropical, India (wood)

8 Fevers, dentistry

8. Amomum Amomum sp. [Zingiberaceae]

Tropical, domesticated [seeds

1 Palpitation, theriac, purgative, general tonics, indigestions, hemorrhoids, looseness of bowels, stomach ailments, colic

9. Anemone Anemone coronaria L. [Ranunculaceae]

Mediterranean [flowers, leaves]

1 Eye and skin diseases

10. Anise Pimpinella anisum L. [Ap iaceae]

Asia, cultivated [seeds]

4 Eye diseases, palpitation,

11. Apple Pyrus malus L. [Rosaceae]

Cultivated [fruits] 1 Fevers, purgative, general tonic

Page 21 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

12. Arar-tree Callitris quadrivalvis Vent. [Cupressaceae]

North-West Africa [resin]

4 Diarrhea, hemorrhage, erysipelas

13. Ash tree Fraxinus excelsior L. or Fraxinus syriaca Boiss. [Oleaceae]

Asia/Europe[bark and leaves]

2 Theriac, purgative, aphrodisiac

14. Asphodel Asphodelus aestivus Rchb. [Asphodelaceae]

Levant [roots] 2 Wounds, draining pus, soothing pains of the chest, spleen and liver, treating respiration, and relieving pains of the joints, back, head, and ears

15. Azerolier Crataegus sp. [Rosaceae]

Mediterranean [fruits , seeds]

1 Intestinal problems, astringent, diuretic

16. Balm Melissa officinalis L. [Lamiaceae]

Mediterranean [leaves]

1 Depression, strengthening the heart, eliminating phlegm, aid ing digestion, reducing gases, mild purgative

17. Balsam

Commiphora gileadensis ( L. ) M.R.Almeida [Burseraceae]

Arabia and East Africa, [gum resin]

1 Eye diseases, epilepsy, palpitation, theriac, purgative, stomach ailments

18. Bamboo [Chalk, tabashir]

Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. [Poaceae]

South-East Asia [ashes]

6 Jaundice, fever, palpitation, loss of teeth, strengthening the stomach, diarrhea, weakness of the liver and bile corruption, quatrain fever

19. Banana Musa paradisiaca L. [Musaceae]

Cultivated [fruits] 1 Liver and spleen diseases

20. Basil Ocimum basilicum L. [Lamiaceae]

Cultivated [leaves] 14 Eye diseases, fevers, colds, stomach ailments and colic, emmenagogues, aboratifacients, general tonic

21. Bdellium Commiphora mukul Engl. [Burseraceae]

Africa and Asia [gum resin]

7 Colic, diarrhea and strengthen the muscles of the stomach, sciatica, varicose veins, and phlebotomy

22. Berberry Berberis cretica L. [Berberidaceae]

Levant, Iran, Iraq [fruits]

6 Diseases of the liver, spleen and bowles

23. Betel (areca) palm (nut)

Areca catechu L. [Arecaceae]

Tropical Asia [fruits] 1 Skin diseases, stimulant, astringent , vermifuge

24. Betel-pepper Piper betel Blanco [Piperaceae]

Tropical [fruits , seeds, leaves]

1 Palpitation, purgative, emmenagogues and abortifacients

25. Birthwort Aristolochia sp. [Aristolochiaceae]

Mediterranean [stem root]

1 Wind warts, dysuria, dysmenorrhoea and hard swellings

26. Bitter-vetch Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd. [Fabaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 1 Skin diseases, cancer, burns, poisoning

27. Black cumin Nigella sativa L. [Ranunculaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 1 Eye and skin diseases, fevers, poisoning

Page 22 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

28. Black spleenwort

Asplenium onoperis [Aspleniaceae]

Mediterranean [rhizome, leaves]

6 Hemorrhoids and ailments of the intestines, and for urine flow

29. Borage Anchusa italica Retz. and Anchusa officinalis L. [Boraginaceae]

Mediterranean [leaves]

7 Cleanses the stomach, relieves pains of the kidney and spleen, reduces swellings, disinfects wounds, skin diseases, strengthens the eyesight, effective against madness and melancholy, relieves pains of the mouth, teeth, chest, lungs, cures coughs and heartburns, treats jaund ice

30. Bottle gourd Lagenaria vulgaris Ser. [Cucurbitaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 5 Eye diseases, skin diseases, fevers, dentistry

31. Box Buxus sempervirens L. [Buxaceae]

Cultivated, Europe, Asia [fruits , leaves]

1 Headaches and wounds

32. Box-thorn Lycium afrum L. [Solanaceae]

Europe, N. Africa [leaves, fruits , roots]

7 Eye diseases, skin diseases, cough, dog bites

33. Broad-leaved pepperwort

Lepidium latifolium L. [Brassicaceae]

Mediterranean [leaves]

1 Skin diseases

34. Bryony Bryonia cretica L. [Cucurbitaceae]

Mediterranean [leaves, fruits]

1 Skin diseases, diuretic and purgative drug, and helps to treat ulcers and abscesses

35. Camphor Cinnamomum camphora ( L. ) T.Nees & C.H.Eberm. [Lauraceae]

Tropical Asia [leaves]

13 Jaundice, eye diseases, fevers, pain, swelling

36. Cannabis [Indian Hemp]

Cannabis sativa var. indica (Lam.) E.Small & A.Cronquist [Cannabaceae]

Cultivated [seeds, gums produced from leaves and flowers]

4 Eye diseases, insanity and epilepsy

37. Caraway Carum carvi L. [Ap iaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 3 Headaches, smallpox, kidney stones, stomach worms. Kidney stones, reduces swellings, induces sleep

38. Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum Maton [Zingiberaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 7 Colic, cough, kidney stones, skin diseases

39. Carob Ceratonia siliqua L. [Caesalpiniaceae]

Cultivated, Mediterranean [fruits]

1 Stomach, swellings, emmenagogues, bleedings, abortifacients

40. Carrot (wild and cultivated)

Daucus carota L. [Ap iaceae]

Cultivated [seeds, roots]

3 Eye diseases, palpitations, purgative, sexual problems

41. Cassia [Senna]

Especially: Cassia acutifolia Delile [Fabaceae]

Tropical, desert, cultivated [leaves, fruits]

5 Bladder stones, purgative, eye diseases, women's illnesses, epilepsy, smallpox

42. Cassia, Cassia fistula L. Tropical Asia, Africa, 3 Swellings, soothing

Page 23 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

purging [Caesalpiniaceae] Cultivated [fruits] nerves, purgative, animal bites

43. Castor oil Ricinus communis L. [Euphorbiaceae]

Middle East [seeds, oil]

1 Skin diseases, convulsion, tetany, fevers, colic, purgative

44. Cedar Cedrus libani G.Don [Pinaceae]

Mediterranean [oil, resin]

6 Eye diseases

45. Celandine [swallow-wort]

Chelidonium majus L. [Papaveraceae]

W Asia, N Africa, Europe [seeds, roots]

1 Eye diseases, diuretic

46. Celery (GN) Apium graveolens L. [Apiaceae]

Cultivated, (roots, seeds]

2 Pains [including joints], palpitation, theriac, sand in kidney, wounds, indigestion, haemorrhoids, looseness of bowels, stomach ailments, colic;,purgative

47. Chate melon Cucumis melo var. Chate L. [Cucurbitaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 4 Liver diseases, fevers, venereal diseases

48. Cherry (GN), Prunus cerasia Blanche ex Post (sweet cherry), P. cerasus L. (sour cherry) [Rosaceae]

Cultivated [fruits , seeds, oil]

10 Aphrodisiac, light purgative, emetic

49. Chickling-vetch

Lathyrus sativus L. [Fabaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 1 Eye diseases

50. Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum Nees and C. cassia Blume [Lauraceae]

India and Eastern Asia [bark]

7 Eye diseases, colds and coughs, obstruction, wind, diarrhoea, pleurisy and trembling, coughs, cold, palpitation, theriac, purgative, general tonic, stomach ailments and colic

51. Clove Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb. [Myrtaceae]

Cultivated, E. Asia [flower buds]

9 Cold, coughs, freshens the breath, treats the gums and stomach disorders, eye diseases

52. Cocoa nut palm

Cocos nucifera L. [Aracaceae]

Tropical [fruits] 1 Eye diseases, coitus, increased semen, strengthens the kidneys, strengths the male sexual organ

53. Colocynth (bitter gourd)

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. [Cucurbitaceae]

Deserts and on sandy soil [fruits, seeds]

1 Purgative, gargle for swollen throat, to ease tooth extraction

54. Common reed Phragmites communis Trin. [Poaceae]

Cosmopolitan, river banks [roots]

3 Diuretic, alopecia, bites, skin diseases, erysipelas

55. Coriander Coriandrum sativum L. [Ap iaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 3 Eye diseases, diarrhoea, inflammatory swellings of the breast, fevers, headaches

56. Cornelian cherry

Cornus mas L. [Cornaceae]

Europe, Asia [fruits, flowers]

1 Stimulates sexual desire, antidote to poisons and animal venom, induces

Page 24 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

urine flow 57. Costus

(Arabian costus)

Costus speciosus L. [Costaceae]

Himalayas [various parts]

12 Eye problems, stones in the bladder, black bile and phlegm, convulsion and tetany, fevers and colic, epilepsy, internal ulcer, colic, kidneys and bladder diseases, coughs and colds

58. Cotton Gossypium herbaceum L. [Malvaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 2 Coughs, increases sexual desire

59. Cubeb pepper Piper cubeba Bojer [Piperaceae]

Tropical regions [fruits]

3 Cures gum and mouth sores, dentistry, d iuretic, opens obstructions in the liver

60. Cucumber Cucumis sativus L. [Cucurbitaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 2 Fevers, sexual diseases, diuretic, stomach

61. Cumin Cuminum cyminum L. [Apiaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 4 Eye diseases, stomach and liver complaints

62. Dates Phoenix dactylifera L. [Arecaceae]

Cultivated, deserts [fruits]

2 Skin diseases, aphrodisiac, diarrhoea

63. Dodder Cuscuta sp. [Cuscutaceae]

Cosmopolitan [whole plant]

3 Cold headache, sciatica, varicose veins and phlebotomy, strengthens penile erection

64. Dragon's blood [GN]

Dracaena draco L. [Dracaenaceae]

Sumatra [resin] 3 Fistula, hemorrho ids, cancer and loss of the gums, strengthens the stomach, treats bleedings, open wounds and diarrhea

65. Eggplant Solanum melongena L. [Solanaceae]

Cultivated [fruits] 2 Strengthens the stomach, increases urination, relievesheadaches and earaches

66. Elecampane Inula helenium, L. [Asteraceae]

Cultivated [leaves] 3 Colds, joint pains, strengthens the heart and stomach, arouses sexual desire and stimulates coitus

67. Endive (Chicory)

Cichorium intybus L. (also C. endivia L., C. pumilum Jacq.) [Asteraceae]

Cultivated [seeds, roots]

11 Fevers, cancer, erysipelas, soft and hard inflammatory swellings and elephantias is, liver and eye diseases

68. Eringo Eryngium sp. [Ap iaceae]

Levant [leaves, seeds, roots]

1 Hardens erection, reduces gases

69. False Safflower (Bastard saffron)

Carthamus tinctorius L. [Asteraceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 1 Womb and kidney pains, heart problems, poisonings, opens obstructions in the urinary tract, purgative

70. Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Mill. [Ap iaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 1 Hernia, eye diseases, headaches and diseases of the brain, topical application

71. Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum L. [Fabaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 1 Eye diseases, stomach complaints

Page 25 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

72. Frankincense (olibanum)

Boswellia carterii Birdw. [Burseraceae]

High deserts (Arabia, Ethiopia), [gum resin]

10 Eye diseases, teeth loss, skin diseases, dog bite and stings of the scorpion and spider, hemorrhages

73. Galbanum Ferula galbaniflua Boiss. & Buhse [Ap iaceae]

Turkestan, Persia, Crete [resin]

4 Eye diseases, insanity

74. Galingale Alpinia galanga Willd. [Zingiberaceae]

Cultivated, tropical [rhizome]

1 Sexual diseases, stomach problems, strengthen respiration, dentistry

75. Garden Cress (Pepper Grass)

Lepidium sativum L. [Brassicaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 1 Skin diseases, dentistry, diarrhea, strengthens the muscles of the stomach

76. Garden rocket Eruca sativa Mill. [Brassicaceae]

Cultivated [seeds; leaves]

2 Eye diseases, increases the strength of the sperm, increases sexual desire, cure internal diseases, opesobstructions in the urinary tract, increasessmilk in breastfeeding women, and dispelling gases

77. Garlic Allium sativum L. [Alliaceae]

Cultivated [bulbous root]

4 Eliminates intestinal worms, cleanses the throat, relieves chronic coughs and toothache, skin and eye diseases, emmenagogue

78. Ginger Zingiber officinale Roscoe [Zingiberaceae]

Cultivated [rhizome] 3 Diseases of the kidney, winds in the stomach, paresis and limpness (weakness) of the sexual organ and aphrodisiac, strengthens penile erection

79. Grape vine Products (wine, vinegar, raisins)

Vitis vinifera L. [Ampelidaceae]

Cultivated [fresh fruits and raisins, vinegar, wine, jam...]

7 Snake bites, paresis and limpness (weakness) of the sexual organ; aphrodisiac

80. Gum Arabic (Babul Acacia)

Acacia nilotica ( L. ) Delile [Mimosaceae]

Deserts, Arabia, Africa [gum resin]

7 Eye diseases, strengthens the stomach, diarrhoea resulting from weakness of the liver, diarrhoea, abdominal pains, dysuria and fevers, loss of teeth and leucoderma

81. Hazelnuts Corylus avellana L. [Corylaceae]

Cultivated [nuts] 1 Poisoning, cleanses the intestines, improviesmemory, curesblood hemorrhages in the chest and lung, treatsscorpion bites, reduces gases, and causes constipation and vomiting

82. Henbane [Hemlock]

Hyoscyamus albus L. [Solanaceae]

Cultivated [seeds, leaves]

1 Eases tooth and ears pains, stops bleeding, eye diseases, blood spitting and women’s diseases

Page 26 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

83. Henna Lawsonia inermis L. [Lythraceae]

Cultivated [leaves] 4 Skin diseases, teeth problems

84. Horned Poppy Glaucium corniculatum ( L. ) Rudolph [Papaveraceae]

Semi-arid [fowers] 1 Eye diseases, analgesic, soothing

85. Hypocist [Rape of Cistus]

Cytinus hypocistis L. [Rafflesiaceae]

Mediterranean [flowers, other parts]

2 Diarrhea, indigestion, bleedings and weak joints

86. Indigo Indigofera tinctoria L. [Fabaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 6 Skin d iseases, swellings, wounds

87. Iris Iris florentina L. or I. mesopotamica Dykes [Iridaceae]

Mediterranean [root stem, flowers, oil]

2 Skin diseases, dentistry, convulsion, tetany, fevers and colic

88. Jews’ mallow Corchorus olitorius L. [Tiliaceae]

Cultivated [leaves] 3 Skin diseases, poisoning

89. Judas-tree Cercis siliquastrum L. [Fabaceae]

Mediterranean [flowers]

1 Fistula, itching, serious wounds and cancer

90. Jujube Ziziphus vulgaris Lam. [Rhamnaceae]

Cultivated [fruits] 9 Skin diseases, bubo and scrofula

91. Juniper Juniperus sp. [Cupressaceae]

Aasia, Europe, Levant [fruits, leaves, resin]

1 Dentistry, d iseases of the heart

92. Ladanum Cistus ladaniferus L. [Cistaceae]

Cultivated [resin produced of leaves and stems]

12 Dentistry, embrocation for leucoderma, sexual problems

93. Laurel Laurus nobilis L. [Lauraceae]

Mediterranean [leaves, fruits , seeds, oil]

3 Skin and eye diseases, poisoning

94. Lavender Lavandula officinalis Chaix [Lamiaceae]

Cultivated [leaves, stems, flowers]

1 Pain in the joints, eye inflammation, dimness of vision and widening of the pupils, eye complaints, lippitude, inversion and lice of the eyelids

95. Lemon Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f. [Rutaceae]

Cultivated [fruits , juice]

8 Purgative, necrotic lesions, poisoning, headaches, fainting

96. Lentisk

Pistacia lentiscus L. [Anacardiaceae]

Mediterranean [gum resin]

15 Eye diseases, umbilical hernia and incessant crying, diarrhoea, fever, the burning of black bile and phlegm, obstruction, wind, diarrhoea, pleurisy and trembling

97. Leopardus bane (panther strangler)

Doronicum scorpioides Willd. [Asteraceae]

Cultivated [roots] 1 Eye diseases, eliminates the desire for coitus

98. Lichen Usnea sp. [Usnceae]

Cosmopolitan [whole plant]

2 Cold, coughs, heart diseases, improve the eye sight, anesthetic

99. Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra L. [Fabaceae]

Cultivated [roots] 10 Eye diseases, purgative, jaund ice, acute fever, palpitations, inflammations, dimness of vis ion

100. Long pepper Piper longum L. Cultivated [fruits] 3 Eye diseases, palpitations,

Page 27 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

[Piperaceae] theriac, purgative, general tonics, indigestions, haemorrhoids, stomach ailments, colic

101. Lotus [GN] Nymphaea sp.; Nuphar sp. [Nymphaeaceae]

Water plants [leaves, flowers, oil]

7 Eye and skin diseases, aphrodisiacs

102. Madder Rubia tinctoria Salisb. [Rubiaceae]

Cultivated [roots] 1 Pains, skin diseases, hemorrhoids accelerate menstruation, cure teeth, cleansed the spleen, liver, and internal organs, leprosy, induced urine

103. Maidenhair Adianthum capillus-veneris L. [Ad iantaceae]

Mediterranean, Asia, Europe [leaves, root stem]

1 Purgative, snakebite, eliminates worms, stones in the urinary tract, and expectorant, soothing, curse stomach diseases and skin diseases, hemorrhages, accelerates menstruation, diuretic

104. Mandrake Mandragora autumnalis Bertol. [Solanaceae]

Mediterranean [roots, fruits]

8 Poisoning, skin diseases, stomach ailments, insanity, ep ilepsy

105. Manna (camel thorn)

Alhagi maurorum Medik. [Fabaceae]

Asia [resin] 3 Eye and skin diseases, fevers

106. Marsh-mallow Althea officinalis L. [Malvaceae]

Temperate zones globally [seeds, stems]

3 Sciatica, varicose veins and phlebotomy, weakness of the liver and bile corruption, apparent swelling behind the ear,abdominal diseases

107. Mulberry Morus nigra L. [Moraceae]

Cultivated [fruits , roots]

1 Dentistry, cures intestinal diseases, diarrhoea, burns and wounds, relieves toothaches and backaches

108. Myrobalan (Cherry P lum)

Terminalia sp. [Combretaceae]

Cultivated, Asia [fruits]

24 Eye diseases, cold, pain in the joints, headache, inflammation, diarrhea

109. Myrrh Commiphora myrrha Engl. [Burseraceae]

Deserts in Africa & Arabia [gum resin]

6 Stomach and liver complaints, coughs and colds

110. Myrtle Myrtus communis L. [Myrtaceae]

Cultivated [leaves, fruits , oil]

8 Eye diseases, general strengthening, stomach ailments, spider bites

111. Nutmeg Myristica fragrans Houtt. [Myristicaceae]

Cultivated, Asia [seeds, peels]

2 Colic, coughs, colds, strengthens the stomach, improves the appetite and sexual desire

112. Oak gall Quercus sp. [Fagaceae]

Asia-Europe [gallnuts]

8 Skin diseases, diarrhea, dentistry

113. Olive oil Olea europaea L. [Oleaceae]

Cultivated [fruits , oil] 4 Skin and eye diseases

114. Onion Allium cepa L. [Alliaceae]

Cultivated [onion, seeds, leaves]

4 Eye and skin diseases, paresis and weakness of sexual organ, aphrodisiacs

115. Opium (Poppy head)

Papaver somniferum L.

Cultivated [resin] 2 Dentistry, pains, jaundice, fever, palpitation

Page 28 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

[Papaveraceae] 116. Oriental plane

tree Platanus orientalis L. [Platanaceae]

Asia, Mediterranean [wood, peel]

1 Leprosy, tooth pains

117. Orpine, stonecrop (GN)

Sedum sp. or Sempervivum sp. [Crassulaceae]

Europe, Asia [leaves] 1 Eye diseases, fevers, the nerves, cleans the lungs, prevents spitting of blood , stops bleeding and eases kidney pains

118. Papyrus, Nile papyrus

Cyperus papyrus L. [Cyperaceae]

Egypt [plant's ash, stem]

3 Eye diseases, cleanes the teeth, cures wounds, haemorrhages, heals infections of the spleen, cures holes in the teeth, causes lack of appetite, and reduces swellings

119. Parsnip Pastinaca secacul [Soland.] [Ap iaceae]

Cultivated [root] 1 Sexual medic ine, aphrodisiac

120. Peony Paeonia sp. [Paeoniaceae]

Europe, Lebanon [roots, seeds]

4 Epilepsy, and insanity

121. Pepper Piper nigrum L. [Piperaceae]

Cultivated [fruits] 21 Stones in the bladder, inflammatory conditions of the tongue and gums, excessive lachrymation, insufflation and phlebotomy, paresis and weakness of the sexual organs [aphrodisiacs], deafness, ear-ache, headache, pains in the joints

122. Perfumed cherry

Prunus mahaleb L. [Rosaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 8 Washing hands

123. Pistachio, Atlantic

Pistacia atlantica Desf. [Anacardiaceae]

Middle East [resin] 2 Dentistry, skin and internal d iseases and venereal diseases

124. Pistachio Pistacia vera L. [Anacardiaceae]

Cultivated [seeds, nut's peels]

2 Skin and sexual diseases, general tonic, emmenagogues, abortifacient

125. Plantain [Fleawort]

Plantago afra L. [Plantaginaceae]

Middle East [seeds] 4 Umbilical hernia, splitting and falling hair, jaund ice, fever, palpitation, diarrhoea, strengthens the, weakness of the liver

126. Plum Prunus domestica L. [Rosaceae]

Cultivated [fruits] 7 Eye and skin diseases

127. Polypody Polypodium vulgare L. [Polypodiaceae]

Asia, Aafrica, Europe, America [leaves, rhizomes]

9 Dentistry, liver ailments, blood

128. Pomegranate Punica granatum L. [Punicaceae]

Cultivated [flowers, seeds, fruit's peel]

7 Eye diseases, inflammatory conditions of the tongue and gums, fevers, hectic and septic fevers, cancer, erysipelas, soft and hard inflammatory swellings and elephantiasis

Page 29 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

129. Purslane Portulaca oleracea L. [Portulacaceae]

Cultivated [leaves, stems, seeds]

4 Eye diseases, fevers, hectic and septic fevers, cancer, erysipelas, soft and hard inflammatory swellings and elephantias is

130. Quince Cydonia oblonga Mill. [Rosaceae]

Cultivated [fruits , seeds]

11 Strengthens the stomach, diarrhea

131. Radish Raphanus sativus L. [Brassicaceae]

Cultivated [seeds, roots]

5 Eye, throat and skin diseases, deafness, earache, headache, fevers, poisoning

132. Resin (GN) Pinus sp. [Pinaceae]

Europe, Asia [resin] 2 Skin diseases

133. Rhubarb Rheum sp. [Polygonaceae]

Cultivated [roots] 6 Strengthens the stomach, improves its smell, softens the faeces, cessation of thirst and vomiting, relieves jaund ice, regulates the heart beat and improves the appetite

134. Rose (Dog rose)

Rosa canina L. [Rosaceae]

Mediterranean & cultivated [flowers, oil, seeds, fruits]

14 Eye diseases, umbilical hernia and incessant crying, fevers

135. Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis L. [Lamiaceae]

Cultivated [leaves, flowers]

14 Induces urine flow, accelerates menstruation, opens obstructions in the liver and spleen, cleanses the lungs, cures cough

136. Rue Ruta chalepensis L. and R. graveolens L. [Rutaceae]

Mediterranean & cultivated [leaves, oil]

3 Diarrhea, wind, warts, dysuria, dysmenorrhoea, hard swellings, aphasia, spasms of muscles, tension, shaking and facial palsy, bladder, alopecia [topically applied], dysuria

137. Saffron Crocus sativus L. [Iridaceae]

Cultivated [stigmas of flowers]

21 Eye and skin diseases, stomach and liver complaints, headache and diseases of brain

138. Sagapenum Ferula persica Willd. [Apiaceae]

Mediterranean & central Asia [resin]

3 Eye diseases, induces vomiting, sciatica, varicose veins and phlebotomy

139. Salep Orchis sp. [Orchidaceae]

Cultivated [bulbs] 1 Poisoning, sexual diseases, strengthens respiration, revives the spirits, arouses sexual desire, causes erections and increases the sperm

140. Sandalwood (red, white, yellow)

Santalum album L. [Santalaceae]

Cultivated, Asia [wood]

1 Fevers, black bile, diarrhea

141. Sarcocolla Astragalus sarcocolla Dymock [Fabaceae]

Asia, Middle East Iranian-Toranian [resin]

5 Eye diseases, paresis and weakness of the sexual organs, aphrodisiacs

142. Scammony (Syrian

Convolvulus scammonia L.

Mediterranean [resin produced from the

8 Purgative, fevers, paralysis, fac ial lotion and

Page 30 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

Bindweed) [Convolvulaceae] roots] treatment of abscesses, strengthening

143. Sebesten Cordia myia L. [Boraginaceae]

Cultivated [fruits] 4 Strengthens the stomach and the liver, purgative, malaria

144. Sedge [cocograss, coco nut grass]

Cyperus longus L. [Cyperaceae]

Mediterranean [tubers]

5

Palpitation, theriac, purgatives, indigestion, haemorrhoids, looseness of bowels, stomach ailments, colic, emmenagogues, abortifacients, loss of teeth, cold, cough, stones in the b ladder, diarrhea

145. Sesame Sesamum indicum L. [Pedaliaceae]

Cultivated [seeds, oil] 11 Stomach complaints, umbilical hernia, incessant crying, convulsion and tetany, fevers, colic, inflammatory swellings of the breast, deafness, earache and throbbing headache

146. Soap [ash, olive oil] 1 Eliminates mucus, intestine infections, joint pains and skin diseases, causes diarrhea, eliminates intestinal worms, increases menstrual blood flow, fetal miscarriage, and poisonings

147. Sorrel (dock) Rumex sp. [Polygonaceae]

Cultivated [seeds, leaves, stems]

3 Strengthen the stomach, diarrhoea, weakness of the liver, aphrodisiacs

148. Spikenard (Nard)

Nardostachys jatamansi DC. [Valerianaceae]

Asia [roots] 13 Jaundice, acute fever, palpitation, loss of teeth, intestinal ailments, eye diseases

149. Spurge (Milkwort)

Euphorbia sp. [Euphorbiaceae]

Cosmopolitan [juice] 1 Purgative, putrescent wounds, mumps, and to cure insanity

150. Starch Cultivated [grains] 2 Skin and eye diseases, liver ailments, dentistry

151. Struthium (soap-root)

Gypsophila struthium L. [Caryophyllaceae]

Europe [roots] 2 Insanity, skin diseases, induces sneezing as well as miscarriage, diuretic and purging substance

152. Sugar Cane Saccharum officinarum L. [Poaceae]

Cultivated [stems] 11 Eye diseases, colic and coughs, purgative

153. Sumac Rhus coriaria L. [Anacardiaceae]

Mediterranean [fruits]

1 Eye diseases, dentistry, abortifacient, treats a sore throat, prevents diarrhea

154. Sweet Lime Citrus medica L. [Rutaceae]

Cultivated [fruits , peel]

2 Eye and skin diseases, fevers

155. Sweet marjoram

Origanum majorana L. [Lamiaceae]

Cultivated [leaves, stems]

3 Eye diseases, fevers, gynecological ailments, kidney and urinary tract disorders

Page 31 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

156. Sweet Violet

Viola odorata L. [Violaceae]

Cultivated [flowers, oil]

2 Eye diseases, headache, stomach ache, bites of scorpions and reptiles, diarrhoea, abdominal pains, dysuria, fevers, palpitation, sciatica, varicose veins, cancer, erysipelas, inflammatory swellings, elephantiasis

157. Tamarind Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae]

Cultivated, Asia [fruits, seeds]

8 Purgative, fevers

158. Thyme (GN) Teucrium capitatum L. [Lamiaceae]

Mediterranean [leaves, stems]

2 Eye diseases, stomach ailments, colic

159. Tragacanth Astragalus gummifer Labill. [Fabaceae]

Europe-Asia [gum resin]

5 Dentistry, skin and eye diseases, inflammations

160. Tumeric Curcuma longa L. [Zingiberaceae]

Cultivated, tropical [rhizome]

5 Eye and skin diseases, dentistry

161. Turpeth (Turbith, Indian Jalap)

Ipomoea turpethum (L.) R.Br. [Convolvulaceae]

Cultivated, tropical [rhizome, resin]

7 Purgative, eye diseases

162. Walnuts Juglans regia L. [Juglandaceae]

Cultivated [nut] 9 Theriac, sex, kidney disease, hemorrhoids stomach and liver ailments, cough

163. Watermelon Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. [Cucurbitaceae]

Cultivated [fruits , peel seeds]

3 Skin diseases, fevers, kidney ailments, jaundice

164. Wheat Triticum vulgare Vill. [Poaceae]

Cultivated [grains] 1 Skin and eye diseases, inflammatory swellings

165. Wild marjoram

Majorana syriaca (L.) Raf. [Lamiaceae]

Mediterranean [leaves, stems, flowers]

2 Fevers, dentistry

166. Wild rue Peganum harmala L. Zygophyllaceae]

Deserts [seeds] 1 Emetic, aphrodisiac, diuretic, intestinal diseases, hemorrhoids, and diseases of nerves, insanity, ep ilepsy, hemorrhoids, baldness

167. Wormwood Artemisia sp. [Asteraceae]

Cultivated, Europe, N. Africa, Asia [leaves, stems]

2 Stomach ailments, poisoning, bubo, scrofula

168. Yew Taxus baccata L. [Taxaceae]

Cultivated [leaves, bark, fruits , seeds]

1 Heart problems and depression

GN – Abbreviation for 'general name' e.g. various scientific species included

Table 4 – Drugs recorded in lists of materia medica found in the Genizah. Origin Number % Animal 16 7.8 Inorganic 22 10.6

Page 32 of 33

Acce

pted

Man

uscr

ipt

Plant 168 81.6 Total 206 100

Page 33 of 33