Chapter 8

A Final Note

In this book we have tried to cover a complex and ambiguous subject.We suggest approaches and methods that allow relatively inexperiencedindustrial engineers to design good facility plans with efficiency andeffectiveness. The methods of this book will also help experiencedfaciliry planners.

Chapter 1 placed facilities and the planning process in historicaland business perspectives. It explained why facilities are so important.It traced some general trends in facility design. It looked to the futureofworking facilities.

Chapter 2 established a framework for the planning process. Itdefined levels ofdetail that correspond to planning phases. It explainedthe four fundamentals of space planning: units, affinities, space andconstraints. It defined conventions useful in all phases ofplanning.

Chapter 3 demonstrated how to design a macro-layout. Macrolayouts size and locate departments, areas or other large-scale featureswithin abuilding. This is the layoutphase that is usually most importantfor industrial engineers. We introduced the Model Project Plan toguide designers through their tasks. We examined the importantessentials of an operations strategy. We explained how to synthesizeinformation and strategy into workable facility layouts.

Chapter 4 addressed the details of equipment and furniturelocation. It presented a methodology and principles for designingeffective work cells.

In Chapter 5, we examined the lowest detail of space planning-the workstation. Here we explained how to design the workspace forefficiencv. effectiveness. safetv and health.

216 Faci l i t iesPlanning

Site planning was addressed in Chapter 6. The special issues ofoffice space planning were explored in Chapter 7.

We would like to leave you with some key points to remember asyou work through your next facllity project:

' isolate the levels and focus on only one level at a time;' try to work from the highest to the lowest level unless special

conditions dictate otherwise;. remember the four fundamentals: SPUs, affinities, apace and

constraintsl' follow the Model Project Plans. Accomplish each task in

sequence and do not look too far ahead. Uncertainties willeventually be clarified;

. know thy process;' remember that people ate an integral part of every workprocess;

' the most successful space plans are interactive and participativeprojects. Users supply information, insight and needs;management develops strategy; the designers synthesize arange of workable plans; and all participate in the evaluationand selection; and

' a clear and appropriate operations strateg'y is your beacon inthe night.

Glossaryactivity areas. (See space planning units.)

affnities. Various factors that demand closeness between any two cells in a space plan. Forexample,communication orpersonal interaction. Inworkstationdesign, aftinities evolve from the movementol-parts, movement ofhands, and the necessity for observition, and other indirect facrors.

aftinity diagram. An idealized spatial arrangement that evenrually becomes a space plan. Alsocalled a configuration diagram.

affinityzones. Locations in a workstation that are within an operatois optimum visual and reach zones.

allocation of functions. Divides work between people and machines and largely determines thequality of the operaror's work experience

anthropometry. The study of the dimensions, weights, and strengths of human body segments.

biomechanics. The stud.yof.mechanical forces in human movement, including the interactionberween individuals and their physical environment.

block plan. In site planning, a development plan that begins with blocks ofland desienated foreach function or area with long travel distanies bet*.en SPUr. Each building may thEn expandwithin its block.

bottom-up. Facilities planning.that starts with the details. Deparrmenral units are designed firstand, evenrually, the overall faciliry plan is built.

broadcast. In this system for coordinating production, a schedule dictates the rate and productmx lor the tlnal oDeratron,

business architecture. The design and development of facilities, organization, products, andprocesses into a functioning, interactive

business system. Also known as manufacturing strategy and corporate reengineering.

cells. (See space planning units.)

channel route structure. A fixed route with various stops along which equipment moves. At eachstop loads originating at that point are picked up and thbse desiined for that point are dropped off.

circulation. A material flow method that uses mobile operators to ceury d product or transfer abatch through separate operatlons.

2 1 8 Facilities Planning

cloning. Duplicating an existing facility or portion of!t.

composite cell. A work cell made up of several smaller cells'

configuration diagram. (See affinity diagram.)

constraints. Those conditions that limit an ideal space plan. For example, building size and

shape, columns, floor loading, utility configurationi, and external features'

corporate reeingineering. (See business architecrure)

direct link. A physical link between processes that allows products to move from the first to the

,..ond p.oce., without queues, bufiers, or delays. The piocesses start and stop together.

direct route structure. A route structure that allows materiai to move from its origin directly to

i ts dest inat ion.

duplicate plan. In site planning, a development plan that starts with an initial facility, which is

then c lonid on adiacent land'

dynamic lot size. The balance between operations from work piece to work piece.

dynamic work. Tasks that require an operator's body to be in motion'

elemental calculation. One of six methods used for calculating space requirements' Each piece

:lff::$"r$:.-ipment assigned to an SPU is measured and added together for the total

experientialfacilityplanning. Planningfacilities based on past experience' common sense, and instinct'

external factors. In site planning, those site factors that exist largely outside the site boundaries.

FacPlan. A facilities planning model that focuses on-both strategic issues and minutiae, using

a model project plan io guidJand stmcture each project.

floating task assignments. The hierarchical assignment of primary and secondary tasks. As the

worklo-ad fluctuaies, the operator may move from the primary to the secondary'

functional cell. A single process work cell that operates on a wide variety ofunrelated products'

global site location. The site location level of space planning where the firm decides where to

I'ocate facilities and determines their missions.

group technologycell. Awork celi inwhich a series ofoperations for several products takes place

in a single cell.

human-machine system. In a human-machine system, oneor more equipment displays show the

operator rhe inteinal equipment starus. The op..rtor alters contio_l senings io change the

"iJi;;. -Corrtiroine

ob'r"i.r^tior, allows the determination of the effect of altering controls'

internal factors. In site planning, the factors in the site boundary'

intuitive charting/grouping. Examiningproducts, oftenwith process charts, toglean information

and assign products to logical groups.

kanban. Taoanese word for card. This production coordinations system uses a small mixed stock

tiom whici items are pulled frequently. At the time of each withdrawal, the production center

is signaled, sometimes with a card.

key manufacturing task. A task that manufacturing must do well to survive in the market.

layout. (See space plan.)

macro-space planning. The space plan level at which the building, structure, or other sub-unit ofthe

;i;;p[;;;J. i)..ig?.r, d.fine a'nd locate operating departments and determine overall material

Glossary 219

flow' The most important level of planning"it sets the focus, or basic organization, of the factory.

manufacruring focus, The organization of products and processes.

manufacturing stratery. (See business architecture)

masterbuilding. Facilities planning that focuses on construction and buildings.

material flow. f 'he

movcment of Parts, products, and,/or services from work cell to work cell andrnrougnout the taclhry(s).

ma^terial flowanalysis. Using collected data to calculate material flow befween each combinationoI Jru Darrs.

:f:.::*T1.^T^.itsp-lanning. Using computer databases to schedule and track production,

plan capaclry, coltect costs, and provide many other functions.

1i;ro-space planning. Thespace-plan level atwhich the location ofspecific equipment and furnirurers oetermlned l ne emphasls shfts from gross material flow to personal space and communication.

model project plan. A framework of detail revels that translates into planning phases.

motion economy. Steps and procedures that simplifi and improve manual work.

non-flow affinities. Intangible factors that give rise to affinities (q.v.).

l!:1P j"t*rrlcrure.. Suppons operations for all or mosr of a product rine but does notcontrlDute dlrectlv to the Drocess.

*1*g;.I|:study of the human machine. including oxidizing nurrients and generatrng

metabollc byDroducts.

f:t::,.--l:.C,1ll:11-elest1nS. Usingbrainstormingtechniques todevelop the positive, negatrve,

anc lnrerestlng polnts to choose between several space plan options.

process charts. Show the type ofactivity that acts on a product.

process focus. A manufacturing focus that allows each department to specialize in theirparticular process or craft.

product focus. A manufacturing process where operations are grouped into departments thatfocus on prodr.rcts' Each departm*enr must have itt op"r"tionr ?quiiil;;rd :kil,1", o'typrocess a single product.

product-volurne a.nalysis. Examines the current and future time frames for the products andrnerr volumes so that the relationships between various products may be understiod.

production flow.analysis. using spreadsheets, computer analysis, or manuar methods to groupparts that have similar routings.

project cell. A work cell that produces a wide variety ofunrelated products using multiple processes.

l,l:^l"flglirg.one of six methods used for carcurating space requirements. The space for a

glven bl,U comes from the calculation ofanother space.

;::::"?,"rH:::*' A method of calculating space requirements, it uses historical trends to

:::t9^1ryI:t-l19d1cti9n maintain asignificant stock of each item. As users withdraw rtems,rne remarnrng stock decrlnes. when the stock reaches a pre-determined level-the reorder

point-a signal initiates a purchase order or shop order to ieplace ttr" rto.r..-

:1t-"-t1*o.i9i plan. A plan that places the maximum production space on the site. Also included

are appropnate support spaces such as docks, parking, offices, and warehouses.

220 Facilities Planning

socio-technical system. The integration ofsocial and technical systems into oneunit- Social systems

irJ"a. "."of. uld th"ir habirui attirudes, values, behavioral ityles, and relationships. Technical

systems incfude machinery, processes, procedures, and their physical arrangement (layout).

space plan primitive. An affinities diagram (q.v.) with space requirements added to it.

sDace plan. Determines and lays out the use ofspace in and around a facility, ranging from site

pi.nning to workstation design. Also known as a layout.

space planningunits. The entities arranged by space plan designers. Also called cells and activity

areas.

space. standards. One. of six methods used for calculatin-g.space^t:1:,t:"^Tt:-t: -Based

on

expeflence, space requrrements that relate to some parameter ofthe business are established

recordinq to iob clasiifications or places in the hierarchy'

static balance. when the equipment times for operations, averaged over the entire product mix,

are similar or the same.

static work. Tasks that require an operator's body to remain in a stationary position for an

e-xtended period.

strategic layout planning..Top-down.facilities planning that sets policy first and then arranges

the technology, organizatlon, and tacll; / to supPort lt.

stripe plan. A special version of :�zone plan (q.v.) where each SPU expands horizontally'

sub-micro-spaceplanning.The space_planlevel atwhich aworkstationis designed; task, operators and

too.ls are examinedl task are a]located; and tools and txrures are selected or oeslgneo'

supra-space planning. The space plan level atwhich site planning takes place. This includes number,

sire, a.d locition of-buildings, infrastructure, plant expansions, and eventual srte sanuatron.

systematic layout planning, Using step-by-step procedures, conventions, and phases to plan a

layout, adding system and structure to the plan.

terminal route structure. A route structure thatworks wellwith long distances and partial loads'

Loads move first to several terminals, often on different equipmenifor each terminal, and then

on to their destination.

transformation. One of six methods used for calculating space requirements. A designer takes a

;;;;;q;ir";"r,i fo, "n existing SPU and uses that asihi basis for projecting future needs'

visual estimating. A method of calculating.space needs. Templates representing :qYpT:"t

-d

fun.l*----rr. pfi.edon alayoutaccordingto "-'doig".;..ludgt"entand knowledge ofsimilarinstallations.

weightedfactorana\sis, Decision-making based on a combination ofthe ranious factors, both qualita-

,iu.-*i qu-,itrtive'. Judges frst identi$ihe factors, decide a weight for each, and rate each option.

work cell operations plan. A form for recording infrastructure decisions'

work cells. Small, self-contained work units.

worker selection. The process of identifing characteristics for each job and the minimum

criteria for those who might be selected for it.

workingfacilities.The land, buildings, and equipmentthatprovide the physical capabilityto addvdue'

workstation. The space or area ofa faciliry in which individuals-or operators perform tasks' This

ranges from an assimbly station in a faciory to a cube in an office'

zone plan. In site planning, a development plan that begins with a central core ofspace. Each

Sijij.?;,i.^ ;, i.tiuity f,as , ,.lateb zone.'As sp".. neEdr incr.^se, the SPUs expand outward

but within their designaied zones.

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A

A affinities 81accelerator 163accounting 203acquisition 188activity area. 24administration 203aerospace engineers 54aesthetics 9laffinities 23affinity diagrams 23air l ines 138ais les 85all-salary systems 146allocation 163allocation of functions 162American National Standards Institute

2 4 .Americans with Disabilities Act 174anthropometric data 168anthropometrics 166architects l3archives 210artwork 32assembly lines 139

B

backtracking 52balance 142bar chart 81bills of material 139biomechanics 166block 193block plan 194body segment class 165Boehm-Davis 163

Index

bottom-up 9brainstorming 98broadcast 138building outline 91bulletin boards 157

C

CAD systems 25carpal tunnel syndrome 162casual overtime 211Catholic Church 8cell definition 69cells 22cellular 46central system 138channel route structure 138channel structures 138character positions 127Charles Sorensen 152checklists 214circulation 141city buses 138classical design 169clearance 169cloning 9coding and classification 118command and control 145communication 24communications systems 208company culture 203compatibility 115compensation system 136computer simulation 158computers 210conceptual framework 29connector devices 210consensus 78

226 FacilitiesPlanning

constra ints 23, 27containers 63contracted projects 211conventions 112conventions 29, 74coordination 56, 109copy machines 210Cosmos Products 32cost control 56cross-functional teamwork 8cross-training 145crossovers 52cubic les 211cumulative trauma disorder 162cumulative traumas 162Currl' 163customer services 203customers 55cy'bernetic work team 146cycle t ime 142

D

data acquisition 30deciders 97decision criterion 97decision tree analysis 97decision-makers 33decor 208dedicated cell 112delay symbol 39deliverables 28derived elements 24design iteration 157design team 109design tools and aids 29design volume 133designing for the extremes 1?2development officials 188Diamond Equipment Company 119diaphragm pumps 119direct labor 132direct link 56, 138direct route structure 138dis-economies of scale 55distributors 138doors 210duplicate 193duplicate plan 194dynamic 142dynamic balance 142d1'namic dimensions 169d1'namic imbalance 142d1'namic posture 167

E

E affrnities 81economic lot size 134economies of scale 55Edward DeBono 98

elbow room 169elemental calculation 84emergencies 210empowerment 146environment 5environmental specialists 188EPA 99equipment 56equipment balance method 136equipment batching 142equivalent flow unit 71ergonomics 162Eric Trist 6ethnic populations 169excess capacity 149expansion possibilities 188experience 9experiential 9explicit strategy 53external lot size 131

F

facilitator 207facilities 57facility mission statement 15FacPlan 2000 11faxes 210fear ofpunishment 146Federal Express 138frnancial analysis 97finished-goods inventory 111fixed assignment 143frxed route 138flex-time 211flexibility 109flexible hours 211float 143Florida 125flow calculations 71flow calibration 77flow complexity index 101flow/non-flow ratio 81tocus b /

focus opportunities 54focused factory 55forecasts 22fork trucks 138fortresses 4freedom of movement 156functional cell 112fundamental 24furniture 208

G

Gantt chart 33Gator Steel 125geographic areas 55geopolitics 16global economics 8

Bibliography 227

go/no-go criteria 97grasprng 178greenery 208group incentive system 147Group Technology (GT) Cell 112group technology cells 63grouped product profrle 37

H

hand tools 173Handbook of Commercial and Indus-

trial Facilities M 55Handbook of Commercial and Indus-

trial Facility Man 191Handbook ofHuman Factors 174handcarts 76handle space 169handling and product cells 24handling symbol 39Harrison 163headroom 169Heisenberg 98Henry Ford 55Hierarchical organizations 8horizontal affinity zone 178horizontal space 180hourly wages 146Human Factors In Engineering and

Design 174human movement 167human resources 203human-machine system 162hybrid systems of compensation 147

I

I affrnities 8lidentifier 24implicit strategy 53inbound material 149Individual incentives 146Industrial engineers 12Industrial Revolution 3Information 5information services 203infrastructure 16, 57inherent 144inherent method 143inspecUreject 144inspection points 144instinct 97intangibles 186integration 161interaction 24interior design approach 204intermediate plans 193internal customers 214internal lot size 131Inventory Analysis 42inventory costs 131

inventoryreduction 104inverted-U 153item or SKU numbers 40iterative improvement 26iterative process 25

J

job sharing 211joints 167

K

Kanban 56kanban 138key dimensions 54key manufacturing tasks 54knowledge 4

L

laboratories 210Large 113Layout 8layout planning 30lead times 139"leapfrog" 143legroom 169lighting 208line 68line production 46logic flow 30long internal idle time 143long moves 52long-distance truckers 138lot size 131low-cost equipment 142

M

macro-layout 29macro-space plan 16Maintenance 65management 13manufacturers 203manufacturing orientation 36manufacturing support 203marketing 36markets 55Maslow's Hierarchy 154mass-production technology 4master building 9material flow 52material flow analysis 97material flow charts 39Material flow values 71material requirements planning 138material supply 16McDonald's 9medieval guilds 8Medium 112merged ratings 81

228 Facilities Planning

metabolic byproducts 167metal detectors 210methods 28methods-time-measurement 165micro-level evaluation 158micro-space plan 17Middle Ages 4Milwaukee, Wisconsin 6mission 57mission statement 58modei projects. 28monocode system 125mot ion economy 162, 165motor responses 163moving 178Moving Day 272MRP 56multi-use areas 208muscles 167musculoskeletal system 167

N

NASA 163National Institute for Occupational

Safety and Health 173negotiation 188new construction 208Norway 186

o

O affinities 81office layouts 86office planning 204office user survey 208operation cycle 131operation "strings" 63operation symbol 39operational cells 69operations strategies 11operations strategy outline 58operator assignments and skills 136operator comfort 161operator mobility 144operator variety 161organization analysis 48organization chart 48organization charts 22organization-based approach 204OSHA 97outbound container 149outputs 15

P

partitions 157pay-for-knowledge system 147payback 97payout 104people balance method 136perations strategy summary 54

personnel locations 156PERT chart 33Peter F. Drucker 5phases 21physical infrastructure 50physical infrastructure checklist 51physics 98physiology 166Pickering Piano Factory 3piece costs 131pilot cells 22plant expansions 16plant-within-plant 63politics 16polycode system 125positive-negative-interesting 97posture 169Practice of Management 5preliminary product segregation 122primary task 143problem-solving teams 154process 57process charts 39process elements 57process engineers 13process time 131processes 55product mix 143product profile 121product selection 115product-focused 55product-volume (P-V) analysis 35production class profrle 44productivity 161products 55project cell 112proportioning 84prototyping 165psychological integration 161purchase 188

aqualifiers 99qualitative analysis 104quality 65quality assurance 736, 744quality standards 144queues 4l

R

random sampling 74ranking 97ratio forecasting. 84reach 169reaching 178reception areas 210reengineering 3Renaissance 5reorder point 138

Bibliography 229

repairs 41resources 28rest room 210restructuring 3, 8return on rnvestment 97Revised Lifting Equation 1?3Richard Muther 24Robert McNamara 54Rocroi 4roll products 32Roman Legions 8

S

safety 161safety and security 208salary 146salary wages 146sales volume 37Salvendy 118schematic flow diagram 72scope 28seat ing 173secondary task 143sel factual izat ion 146self-managed teams 145serpentine 153set downs 41set-up costs 131set-up t imes 129set-ups 129shared services 208sheet products 32short internal idle time 143"Silicon

Valley" 6simulation 158simulation software 158single p iece 112site boundaries 186site drawing 16site factors 186site features 198site plan 188site saturation 16, 193site specification document 186srtes 183smal l 112social integration 161social system 6socio-technical systems 6space 23space flexibility 193space plan primitive 23, 27space planning units 23space rationing approach 204space standards 84SPC/TQM 144speedometer 163spreadsheet 80static 142static dimensions 169

static posture 167statistical process control 144steering committee 30storage 85straight line 151strategic 9strategy development 30strength 169stripe 193stripe plan 196structural engineers 13sub-tasks 30supervision 109, 136support requirements 55support spaces 191supra-space plan 16symbol 24symbols 24synchronized operations 141system goals 163systematic ISystematic Planning Of Industrial

Facilities 191

T

tables 210tally 41tangible factors 186task procedures 29tasks 28Tavistock 6team spirit 146teams 6teamwork 6technical integration 161technical system 6telephones 210the Prussian army 145throughput 142tissues 167tool production 16tools 13total cost curve 132Toyota 68TQM 6traffic areas 211transfer time I42transformation 84transport routes 188transport symbol 39transport work 101transportation 186trends 206two-dimensional layout 109two-tier class system 146typewriters 142

U

U-shaped 153

230 Facilities Planning

U.S. Air Force 169uncertainty principle 98unfocused factory 54union representatives 188United States Postal Service 4utilities 188utility areas 210

vvalue added index 41value-adding elements 41variable flow paths 56vertical affinity zone 179vertical integration 55vertical space 180video monitors 210visual communications 156visual control 156visual estimating 84

w

warehouses 138weighted factor analysis 97weighted numeric scale 179Wichita, Kansas 6Wickham Skinner 54Wiener 163wires 210work 4work cells 111work positions 173rvork product 38work product activity 38work teams 156work-in-process 44workbenches 142worker selection 162workers 18workforce 4working hours 208workload 142workstations 13writing surfaces 210

zzone 193zone plan 193

About the Authors

Qrarterman Lee is the president of Strategos, Inc., a consulting firm.He was an editor ofthe HandbookofCornrnercial and Industrial FacilitiesManagernenl and is the author oi numerous articles in the fields ofindustrial management and engineering. He has created training coursesfor the Institute of Industrial Engineers, the Society of ManufacturingEngineers and the U.S. Postal Service and assisted organizationsworldwide with the application of innovative management methods.

Arild Amundsen is president of Plancraft, AS, and has an extensivebackground in mechanical engineering, consulting, and management.He resides in Oslo. William Nelson is president ofHumatech, Inc., andspecializes in bio-socio-technical systems. He also designs products,industrial equipment and workstations. Herbert Tuttle is an assistantp;ofessor in the Graduate Engineering Management Program at theUniversity of Kansas. He has over 15 years of experience in industrialengineering and plant management.

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