Japanese ReligionsA Comparative Study to discover Religious Ideas of the Jōmon

People

Michael CableBridgewater College

Spring 2014

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IntroductionWithin the modern boundaries of the Japanese nation there

are three unique cultural groups from which the modern Japanese

people have descended from. All three of these cultures found in

Japan, the Yayoi, the Ainu, and the Ryūkyū share a common

ancestor, the mongoloid branch of Homo Sapien, who were the branch

of humanity that settles in Asia after the migration out of

Africa, and the Ryūkyū and Ainu specifically are direct

descendants of the Jōmon culture of prehistoric Japan. The Jōmon

themselves were mongoloid originally, however due to isolation on

the Japanese Island after the land bridges that connected it to

the mainland closed about 20,000

years ago1. The Jōmon were the

ethnic group and culture that made

up the population of Japan up until

1 J. Edward Kidder Jr, “The Earliest Societies in Japan,” in The Cambridge History of Japan: Volume 1 Ancient Japan, edited by Delner M. Brown. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 50.

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their decline during the immigration or “Invasion” of the Yayoi

people from China. Some anthropologists believe that the Yayoi

rather than wiping out the Jōmon simply incorporated the

weakening culture into their own system2. With this shared past

and ethnic history it is reasonable to see similarities between

the religions of all three groups as religious ideas influenced

by an older group, in Japan’s case this would be the Jōmon

culture which spanned all the way up to right around the

beginning of the Common Era3. These similarities can be

discovered by examining the beliefs and practices of Shintō

because of its thorough documentation and then by comparing to

the Ainu and Ryūkyū religions.

What is known about the Jōmon is that during their time

Japan was undergoing extreme climate change,4 this was because

Japan was one of the few places in North East Asia that wasn’t

covered in Glaciers5. Because of this

2 William W. Fitzhugh, “Ainu Ethnicity: A History,” in Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People, edited by William W. Fitzhugh and Chisato O. Dubrevil. (Los Angeles: Perpetua Press, 1999), 17-183 Kidder, “The Earliest Societies in Japan,” 544 Akira Matsui, “Jomon,” in Encyclopedia of Pre-History Vol 3: East Asia and Oceania, editedby Peter N. Peregrine and Melvin Ember. (New York: Kluner Academic and Plenum Publishers, 2001), 1195 Ichiro Yamanaka and Peter N. Peregrine, “Japanese Upper Paleolithic: Sendokian,” in Encyclopedia of Pre-History Vol 3: East Asia and Oceania, edited by Peter N.

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Figure 1. Population History Map.From Page 17 of Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People

the Jōmon tended to be seasonal dwellers6, this means that they

would have separate settlements for each of the seasons in order

to maximize their survivability. The Jōmon commonly fished along

rivers in Japan as a primary source of sustenance7. In terms of

their culture archaeologists have found jade and amber artifacts

buried with Jōmon bodies8. The term Jōmon itself means cord

pattern, and was coined from the distinctive pattern found on the

ceramics of the culture9. There is some evidence of a snake cult

and archaeologists have found clay figurines that appear to have

religious purpose10. Other than this information gathered from

archaeological finds in Japan, little is known about the Jomon

people. Richard Anderson states that Japan itself is filled with

high mountains, volcanoes, deep sea trenches, and land

instability11.This fact could have played a key role in the

development of all three religions.

Peregrine and Melvin Ember. (New York: Kluner Academic and Plenum Publishers, 2001), 1176 Yamanaka and Peregrine, “Japanese Upper Paleolithic,” 1207 Yamanaka and Peregrine, “Japanese Upper Paleolithic,” 1208 Yamanaka and Peregrine, “Japanese Upper Paleolithic,” 1219 Kidder, “The Earliest Societies in Japan,” 58-5910 Kidder, “The Earliest Societies in Japan,” 69-7011 Richard W. Anderson, “Japan,” in The General Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife, Volume 2: South East Asia and India, Central and East Asia, Middle East, edited by William C. Clements. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2006), 272

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In attempting to find possible religious ideas that may have

come from the Jōmon it is important to examine the formation of

religion in order to understand where these shared beliefs might

have been formed. Religion itself is formed when there is an

easily definable feelings or ideas, and when specific acts,

customs, beliefs, and conceptions are associated with the defined

feelings or ideas12. If an event was not easily explainable then

as part of man’s early learning process a supernatural

explanation was an attempt to adjust13. In early society, which

in Japan’s case would be around the time of beginning of the

Yayoi, the development of a national religion can be broken down

into three simple steps. The deity of the strongest family

becomes the clan deity; the deity of the strongest clan becomes

the tribe deity; and the deity of the strongest or most dominant

tribe becomes the center of worship for a nation’s religion14. In

Japan this refers to the Yamato clan who brought all of Japan

under Imperial rule by subjugating different clans. Along these

12 Paul Radin, Primitive Religion: Its Nature and Origin (New York: Dover Publications, 1957), 313 Radin, Primitive Religion, 714 Edward E. Collinger, “The Unity of Government and Religion in the Ryūkyū Islands to 1,500 A.D.,” Contemporary Religions in Japan 10, no.1/2 (Mar.-Jun., 1969):37. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30233923

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lines falls the idea of scholars that religion will only preserve

and emphasize values accepted by the majority of the group at the

given time15. In Japan’s example where magic, or the idea of

magic, is very important it is important to note that magic was

the first example of man applying the principle of causation16.

This development of magic is very important because while it is

not referred to directly as magic in Japan the supernatural

forces acting upon the world is very important for all three

religions.

The religion of the Yayoi ethnic group, more specifically

the Yamato family that united the Yayoi under their control, was

Shintō. Shintō is a nature based polytheistic religion, which has

been heavily influenced by Buddhism in the Common Era. Shintō is

sometimes classified as a folk religion; however it is in fact an

organized religion with a system of shrines and temples; as well

as a clear hierarchy amongst the priests and priestesses. Shintō

is unique from western religions mainly in how the term “gods” is

viewed. In Shintō gods are called Kami, and can be anything that

15 Radin, Primitive Religion, 516 Radin, Primitive Religion, 60

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is not explainable or exhibits extraordinary feats17. However

Japanese Philosopher Norinaga holds that the only way to

understand the true path ordained by the Kami, is to understand

that there is no true way18. This very nature and eastern idea,

as it is also seen in buddhism as well as Taoism, and is not

unique to Shintō among the religions on the Japanese Archipelago.

The Ainu are an ethnic group of tribes that at one time

spread from as far south as Mt. Fuji, during the end of the Jōmon

period, all the way north up to the Sakhalin Islands19. However

in more recent history the Ainu have been restricted to the

northern reaches of Hokkaido and the Sakhalin Islands. Much like

the American Indians their culture is very tribe based and relies

heavily on shamans20. Similar to Shinto, the Ainu religion is a

nature based polytheistic religion; however it is much more

focused on maintaining the balance between the worlds of men and

17 William P. Fairchild, “Shamanism in Japan,” Folklore Studies 21 (1962): 30. http://www.jstor.rog/stable/117734918 Norinaga 47319 Sakuzaemon Kodama M.D., Ainu: Historical and Anthropological Studies (Sapporo: HokkaidoUniversity School of Medicine, 1970)20 Sarah M. Strong, “The Most Revered of Foxes: Knowledge of Animals and Animal Power in Ainu Kamui Yuakr,” Asian ethnology 68, no.1 (2009). 30, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25614520

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Kamui (gods)21. Kamui, while very similar to Kami, comes from a

different root word and the word in itself is in no way

influenced by the Ainu’s Japanese neighbors. Kamui, unlike Kami,

exist in everything, supernatural and natural alike22. The best

comparison to how Kamui are viewed in the western sense would be

like a soul, where everything has one but some are much stronger

than others. Apposed to Kami which are aspects of nature beyond

human capability, and while humans can possess traits of certain

Kami, only a select few can become Kami after death. So while

there are many similarities in what is considered to be Kamui or

Kami their limits and different.

To the south of Japan lie Okinawa and the Ryūkyū peoples.

The similarities between the religion of the Ryūkyū people and

Shinto are so strong that some have called Ryūkyū religion,

“Okinawan Shinto23.” While there are certainly very many

similarities it is important to note the differences. Most of the

differences come from the heavy Chinese influence before the,

Satsuma clans of Feudal Japan began exerting their influence over21 Takako Yamada, “Ainu (Japan),” in The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World folklore and Folklife, Volume 2: South East Asia and India, Central and East Asia, Middle East, edited by William M. Clements (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2006),28822 Strong, “The Most revered Foxes,” 2923 Bollinger, “The Unity of Government and Religion,” 2

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the group24. While the Satsuma explains some of the similarities

it does not explain the similarity of the two. Like the other two

religions, the Ryukyu religion is a nature based polytheistic

belief system, it is important to note however the female

dominance in their religion. The Noro, or shrine priestesses have

maintained very firm control over the religion, so firm that

female deities and pronouns are listed before their male

counterparts,25 meaning that the female deities are held in

higher regard and considered more powerful than the male deities.

This is very different from both the Ainu religion and Shintō

because of the female controlled aspect, in the other two

religions while women do hold a position of power, they are still

subservient to the male rulers.

The late Jōmon people, who existed right before the Yayoi

take over, and the Ainu have probably made contributions to the

Japanese religion26. Naokazu Miyaji stated that it is impossible

to solve the mystery that is the origin of Shintō without

understanding the religious idea of the ancestors of the

24 Bollinger, “The Unity of Government and Religion,” 425 Bollinger, “The Unity of Government and Religion,” 926 Kidder, “The Earliest Societies in Japan,” 79

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Japanese,27 which is now known as the Jōmon culture. By examining

the similarities it is possible to understand the Jōmon religious

ideas more thoroughly than ever before. While each of the three

have many differences, there are many similarities that point to

a common source because of their close geographic proximity. The

finding of similarities may even provide a method of consolation

with the past by understanding the similarities that were

overlooked in early interactions between the Yayoi and their

neighbors to the north and south.

Methodology

In researching this topic the language barrier was clear and

present at all stages of research. In depth looks into Shintō in

English are very dispersed in times of publication. Historically

with the United States occupation of Japan after World War II,

there was a rush by the U.S government to understand the Japanese

people. Along with this governmental need was a public desire to

understand more about the exotic and far away land that was Japan

at the time. Due to this governmental need for understanding the

Library of Congress was a starting point for research. Using the

27 Naokaza Miyaji, “What is Shinto?” Contemporary Religions in Japan 7, no. 1 (Mar., 1966): 41

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Library of Congress’ extensive collection of books and reports

available to the public allowed for access to older and rarer

sources. However this also meant that many of the sources I came

across had to be discarded due to issues of bias. Much of this

bias came from the post war anger and blame on the system of

State Shintō, which is not what Shintō really is.

Part of the difficulty was due to the language barrier,

which forced me to rely on sources that had been translated to

English or were originally written in English. This proved much

more difficult with sources on the Ainu, because most of the

sources were in Japanese or German, because of early German

interest in the Ainu. Ryūkyū while somewhat difficult due to the

American use of Okinawa as a military base was still easier

because of the general interests of the U.S. military members and

their families who were stationed on Okinawa. This general

interest expanded to the history of the island they were on and

while Okinawa is only one of the six big islands in the Ryūkyū

Islands, because of its central location in the Islands, it

represents both the northern and southern aspects of the people.

Through this methodology I was able to find a selection of

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sources, including primary sources, that provided in depth looks

at the key ideas and rituals of all three religions.

Historiography

Almost all of the sources used were focused on the study and

chronicling of the religion and its people. The point of these

studies was to build bridges of understanding between, in this

example, Shintō and western thought28. This desire originated

from a need to make peace with the idea of Shintō after State

Shintō seen during World War Two caused so much damage. For

Ryūkyū there was a need to provide answers about the people with

which so many American service men were interacting with. Finally

with the Ainu, because of the similarities in their treatment to

how the United States treated American Indians, there was a

desire to understand the culture of an almost extinct people.

The sources were either written from a perspective of a

western outsider trying to understand, or of a Japanese scholar

or insider attempting to explain the religion to the rest of the

world. These perspectives were limited by the language barrier.

28 James W. Boyd and Ron G. Williams, “Japanese Shintō: An Intepretation of a Priestly Perspective,” Philosophy East and West 55, no.1 (Jan., 2005): 33, http://search.ebscohost.com/’ogin.aspx?direct=true&db=hlh&AN=15025839&site=ehot-live

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While many of the authors were authorities on either the religion

itself or the culture as a whole, some of the sources, mainly the

primary, were the thoughts and beliefs of the men who shaped the

religion. This was seen with the reflections of the Japanese

Scholars, however this only applied with these sources.

All of the secondary sources where focused on simply

chronicling and explaining these religions. The main argument for

the Shintō sources was that true Shintō, which is referred to as

Shrine Shintō by many scholars, is very different from the State

Shintō seen in pre-war Japan. While the sources for the other

religions didn’t really have an argument, the focus was on

explaining and writing down the culture of the people. This work

is intended to build off of the information compiled by these

sources.

While at times this work disputes points put forth by

certain sources by drawing separate conclusions than the ones

drawn in studying the religions, it is not meant to dispute the

information chronicled. This comparative study is meant to shed

light onto the origin of the religions of the modern Japanese

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people, which would be the religion of the Jōmon the original

human inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago.

Japanese Shamanism

Shamanism is not unique to the Japanese Archipelago, it is a

common feature found across the globe. Shamanism can most simply

be defined at the name given to phenomena that have occurred

around the Shaman, who is often a person with an unusual

personality who has mastered what are viewed as magical

techniques, such as trance, rapture, and separation of the soul

from the body29. In Japan however Shamans were more or less

predominantly female30, and were the mediators between the world

of the gods and the world of men31. This tradition stretches all

the way back to Queen Himiko of the Yamato, who while queen was

never seen by the public, or even her own brother, she had one

servant who would relay the knowledge the gods had given her to

her brother, the ruling King, and he would then govern according

29 Ichirō Hori, “Shamanism in Japan,” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 2, no 4 (Dec., 1975): 245, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3023308630 Christina Pratt, “Japan,” in An Encyclopedia of Shamanism Vol 1: A-M, edited by Christina Pratt. (New York: Rosen Publishing Group, 2005), 24031 Hori, “Shamanism in Japan,” 232

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to the will of the Kami. This pattern was seen again, later, in

Okinawa32.

Shamanism in Japan has more or less stayed the same over the

centuries and millennia, the only real great change came with

Buddhism. When Buddhism arrived in Japan it coalesced with Shintō

and the other beliefs already found in Japan, greatly altering

them33. In fact at one point Kami were seen as the manifestations

of different buddhas34. Shamanism is a key factor in shamanism

because most of its accepted leaders and religious servants

participate in shamanistic activities. According to Yanagita

Kunio, a Japanese scholar sometimes known as Kawamura Itaruki,

there are two types of Miko, or shamanesses, in Japan. One is

attached to large shrines and performs at sacred dances and

festivals; while the other works as a medium. Both however,

according to Kunio, are derived from on source identified at

miko-gami, or the child of kami35. Due to this despite an eventual

loss of shamanistic functions, Miko’s still maintained their

32 Hori, “Shamanism in Japan,” 23433 Hori, “Shamanism in Japan,” 23634 Susan Tyler, “Is there a Religion called Shintō?” in Rethinking Japan Volume II: Social Sciences, Ideology, and Thought, edited by Adriana Boscaro, Franco Gatti, Massino Raveri. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987), 26735 Hori, “Shamanism in Japan,” 232

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spiritual duties, which was dominated by their identities as

mediums36. Another type of shamaness found in Japan is the Itako,

who served three main functions. The first was to be able to call

up the spirits of the dead, the second job was to communicate

with Kami and other divine beings, and the third task of the Itako

was to play instruments to pleasure the Kami37. Within the Shintō

framework of shamanism, it was believed that Kami could and would

take on the form of a charismatic human being from time to time,

and that people who exhibited unusual qualities could experience

ascension and become a Kami themselves.

In the Ainu region there is only one type of shamaness and

she is called as Tsusu. Unlike in the shamanism of mainland Japan

within the Shintō framework the Ainu shamaness were against being

mediums believing that the indiscriminate conjuring of spirits

could pollute their own guardian spirit. In fact the only time

the tsusu would act as medium was at the request of wajin, which

were Japanese people in Ainu lands. Also unlike its Shintō

counterpart, Ainu shamanism was not hereditary in any sense38.In

36 Hori, “Shamanism in Japan,” 23737 Hori, “Shamanism in Japan,” 27938 Hori, “Shamanism in Japan,” 242-244

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the Ryūkyū Islands the Noro priestiesses compare to the Shrine

Mikos in Japan in many regards; however because of the

institutional preservation of their role in Okinawa it is

difficult to make a direct comparison39. With the similarities

seen however it is agreed upon by many scholars that the three

cultural groups once formed a single religio-cultural sphere40.

In its general functions shamanism in Japan, as with other

cultures, offered a means of adjustment for the general

populace41. By understanding these similarities it becomes

possible to see what would lead to the similarities in the three

religions. So while shamanism initially depended on animistic

psychology, once it was institutionalized it began to exercise an

immense religio-cultural influence, underlying this development

according to scholars, was a primitive monotheistic idea42.This

means that while the religions are polytheistic there is a very

heavy focus on one god above all others. Shamanism in Shintō

played a critical role in the development of Japanese society and

eventually in the formation of modern day Shintō.

39 Hori, “Shamanism in Japan,” 23840 Hori, “Shamanism in Japan,” 28341 Hori, “Shamanism in Japan,” 24642 Hori, “Shamanism in Japan,” 245

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Shintō

On the main island of Japan with the Yayoi people exists a

nature and ancestor based polytheistic religion known as Shintō.

The word itself is made out of two characters, the first one is

Shin, which can be read to mean Kami, and the second one is Dō,

which can be read to mean the way of the gods43. The term Shintō

didn’t arise until the introduction of Buddhism around the Sixth

Century C.E.44 when it became necessary to create a distinction

between what had been the only religion of Japan and what was now

a new religion to Japan. With this need for separation came a new

term for Shintō shrines, Jinja, which is formed with two

characters; jin (shin) being kami, and ja (sha) being place.

Shintō itself arose from the Yamato clan, which held Shintō as

its clan’s cult. As the Yamato expanded so did their religion,

until eventually it had incorporated all of the clans in Japan

into itself45. There are four main ideas that are crucial to

Shintōs identity. The first is animism, which allows people to

see divinity in all the phenomena found in the world of nature.

43 Stuart D.B. Picken, Essentials of Shinto: An Analytical Guide to Principal Teachings (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1994), XXI44 Picken, Essentials of Shinto, XXII45 Picken, Essentials of Shinto, 8

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The second is nature worship, which led to the creation of

shrines in locations prized for their natural beauty. Third is

shamanism, which provided an intermediary between the divine and

man. Finally there was purification, which is a key part in

Shintō and can be traced all the way back to the origin stories

of Shintō, with Izanagi and Izanami46. Unlike many other

religions found around the world Shintō has no sacred book that

lists out ethics and doctrine as seen in the Bible, Torah, and

Koran. Shintō however does possess the three divine symbols of

the imperial line, which are the sword, mirror, and gem and the

two accepted recordings of ancient matters in the Kojiki and

Nihongi47.These two records work similarly to the Old Testament in

the bible, in that is explains where the world came from and

explains the divine right of the Imperial Family. Also it is

accepted and said by priests that there is no real need for

ethics until man separates himself from life and the world around

him. All man needs to do is to follow the example of the Kami,

which means to follow the same rules they do including the rules

46 Picken, Essentials of Shinto, 9-1047 Jean Herbert, Shinto: At the Fountain head of Japan(New York: Stein and Day Publishers, 1967), 34-35

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of nature48. These rule of nature include the rules of death, the

changing of the season, and the respecting of natural phenomena

and disasters. Also should someone decide to never visit a

shrine, and then simply put they will not be under the protection

of any Kami and will be on their own49.

In understanding the term Kami, it is important to note that

there are two types of Kami, this is critical in understanding

the Shintō view of the world and heaven, so that proper

comparisons can be made to the worldly and heavenly understanding

of the Ainu and Ryūkyū religions. The first of these two types of

Kami are the Amatsu-no-kami, which are the Kami of heaven, and

Kunitsu-no-kami, who are the Kami of earth; both of these groups has

a generally acknowledged head, for the heavenly Kami it is

Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun and ancestor of the imperial

line, and for the earthly Kami it is Saruta-hiko-no-mikoto, whom was

the god who stood at the cross roads of heaven and earth awaiting

the heavenly grandson, the first emperor, to help him with his

rule of earth50. Also unlike western mythology where there is48 Herbert, Shinto, 69-7049 Michiro Takao, Interview of a Priest from the Shirasaki Hachiman Shrine in Yamaguchi Japan, Nov. 20, 2013, Transcript, Translated by Tomoko Cable, in author’s personal collection50 Picken, Essentials of Shinto, 95

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often a clear line between gods who are good and gods who are

evil, in Shintō there is no clear distinction between good and

evil Kami51. Another note of importance is that the Kami did not

create humanity; rather we descended from the earthly Kami over a

large span of time. In fact Kami are born and can die just as

humans do52. This lack or a gap between the heavenly and the

worldly is seen in the other religions of Japan, especially with

the Ainu. This common ancestry extends even into plants and

animals, meaning that all living things are related and part of

one large family53. This also means that there is no omnipotent

or omniscient Kami in all of Shintō, while Kami do have

supernatural powers they tend to be localized on whatever the

Kami is said to rule, and only Kami that are enshrined in public

temples have specifically designated abilities54. Priests play an

important role due to the fact that their job is to worship the

Kami on a daily basis so that they can keep a good relationship

between the Kami and Humanity. In fact priests refuse to preach

51 Herbert, Shinto, 2652 Picken, Essentials of Shinto, 6353 Herbert, Shinto, 2154 Herbert, Shinto, 30

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because language is considered to be imperfect and therefor

improper for the transferring of the words of the Kami55.

Due to the lack of a specific holy book, it is impossible to

precisely understand, the metaphysical concepts that concern the

world and the higher plains of existence without being trained as

a Shintō priest56. This does not mean however it is impossible to

know many of the defining concepts and beliefs held in Shintō.

The soul in Shintō is known as tama, which is found in all

things. According to scholars it is held that there are four

tomoe that make up the tama. The first is Ara-mitama, which is

what appears to the outer world, and is the wild, destructive

evil, constructing divine part of the soul. It is believed that

someone who possesses a strong ara-mitama holds to ability to

rule. The next is Nigi-matama, this is what consolidates the inner

mind of a person, and is the quiet, refined, and peaceful part of

the tama. A strong nigi-matama is said to create union and

harmony. Third is the Saki-matama, which is the part that splits

and differentiates people, and is the happy, loving part of the

tama. Saki-matama is said to be the cosmic sense in the tama, and

55 Herbert, Shinto, 13256 Herbert, Shinto, 59

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is where the blessings and riches found in

the mountains and sea originated. Finally

there is Kushi-matama, or the centralized

part of the tama, and is the inside spirit

that can be wonderful or hideous, brings

wisdom, and is hidden. Kushi-matama is

rarely seen, but when seen contains aspects of both ara-mitama and

nigi-matama, but goes beyond them, however even if someone or

something possesses kushi-matama it can be lost over time57. Each

one of these aspects of tama is associated with a cardinal

direction and color as well. Ara-mitama is associated with the

north, which is associated with the ideas of origin and paradise,

with the color black (kuro) or purple (murasaki). Nigi-matama is

associated with the West, which is connected to the ideas of

integration and propulsion, and has the color white (shiro). Saki-

matama is associated with the South, which has the ideas of

harmony and expansion, and the color red (aka). Then kushi-matama

is associated with the East, and the ideas of life and creation,

and has the color blue or green (ao)58. These tomoe are combined

57 Herbert, Shinto, 6258 Herbert, Shinto, 148

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Figure 2 Tomoe from Shinto: At the Fountainhead of Japan

to create an image of a circle divided into three ying-yang like

sections, this is because of the rarity of the fourth tomoe,

kushi-matama59. Understanding the concept of a soul in all three

religions which often times is lost if it is not recorded in

writing, is key in attempting to delve into the Jōmon religious

thinking.

Another idea found in Shintō that has to do with the soul

but is not necessarily defined in a western sense as the soul is

musubi, which is the creative principle that permeates from all

forms of life, some more than others60. This creating principle,

musubi, is seen in the names of the earliest Kami, who are

believed to have created Japan, in fact it is even part of their

name61. Musubi however can be lost through large amounts of what

is considered pollution in Shintō. Pollution in Shintō is on a

fundamental level related to death, examples of what causes this

pollution of the soul, or kokoro as it is sometimes called, is

the destruction of agricultural works, causing injury or death,

scattering excrement, indiscriminate sex, bestiality, and

59 Herbert, Shinto, 15060 Boyd and Williams, “Japanese Shintō,” 3461 Boyd and Williams, “Japanese Shintō,”34

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leprosy62. It this pollution is allowed to build up then a person

cannot enjoy musubi’s full benefits, which create what is called

akaki kiyoki kokoro, which translates to a pure and cheerful heart63.

This combined with the idea of tomoe provides a very thorough

understanding of the Shintō soul, the idea of a soul is the basis

in almost every religion, and is critical when comparing

religions.

Another easily found idea in Shintō is the idea of what

happens after death. According to a priest at the Shirasaki

Hachiman Shrine in Yamagūchi Japan, a soul will move on from this

world (Gensei) into the next world (Kakuri-yo), and Kakuri-yo is

governed by Okuninushi-no-o-mikami. If someone is a priest then the

soul goes through a 50 year period of purification before it

becomes an Ubu-shi-kami, who is the protector of a family64. Going

further than this the soul is said to be indestructible, and even

after death the soul of the dead continues to live the same kind

of life as people still in Gensei65. In fact there are said to be

62 Boyd and Williams, “Japanese Shintō,”3663 Boyd and Williams, “Japanese Shintō,”3664 Michiro Takao, Interview of a Priest from the Shirasaki Hachiman Shrine in Yamaguchi Japan, Nov. 20, 2013, Transcript, Translated by Tomoko Cable, in author’s personal collection65 Fairchild, “Shamanism in Japan,” 32

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four types of souls, aramitama which are the souls of the living,

nigitama which are the souls of the dead, kushimitama which are

mysterious or marvelous souls, and sashimitama which are souls of

happiness or good fortune. There are even souls referred to as

power souls which can possess and give power to objects in nature

such as rocks and trees66. Even for souls that are not priests

there is a period of purification that is either 39,49, or 50

years, after which all nigitama become spirits or gods meaning

they can be honored as ancestor spirits. However if there were no

surviving relative to mourn for the nigitama then it was said that

the soul would wander around frightening people, and it they had

died in anger or misfortune they would become an evil spirit that

would need to be exorcised67.

When comparing religions it is critical to know the creation

stories and their signifigance to the religion, the Shintō

creation myths are found in the Kojiki and the Nihongi. Both works

were commissioned by the Emperor of Japan, and the two works are

very similar, with mostly stylistic differences. While they are

the closest things Shintō has to holy books they are not holy

66 Fairchild, “Shamanism in Japan,” 3367 Fairchild, “Shamanism in Japan,” 33-34

26

books in the western sense. There is some talk of purification

rituals and other such rites, however it is not clearly outlined,

because the main point of both works is to be a narrative of the

creation of Japan and the Imperial Line which descended from

these deities to rule over Japan. In both works after part one of

either five or six parts depending on the translation, there is

very little mention of religious rites, it is almost entirely

dedicated to the history of the Emperor and the country of Japan.

Originally there were five deities that are the separate heavenly

deities and had forms that were not visible68. From these five

heavenly deities came the first two deities of the seven

generations of the Age of the Gods69. These generations were each

made male and female, and each was formed by the mutual actions

between the heavenly and earthly principles70. The names of the

first two were Kuni-nō-tokö-tati-nö-kami and Töyö-kumu-nu-nö-kami, they

did not have visible forms. After these two came U-pidi-ni-nö-kamï

whose wife was Su-pidi-ni-nö-kamï, followed by Tuno-gupi-nö-kamï whose

wife was Iku-gupi-nö-kamï, followed by Opo-to-nö-kamï whose wife was68 Donald L. Philippi, trans., Kojiki (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1968), 4769 Philippi, Kojiki, 4870 W.G. Aston, trans., Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from Earliest times to A.D. 697(Rutland: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1972), 7

27

Opo-to-nö-be-nö-kamï, followed by Omö-daru-nö-kamï whose wife was Aya-

kasiko-ne-nö-kamï, and finally followed by the two well-known

deities of Japan Izanagi-nö-kamï and his wife Izanami-nö-kamï, better

known as Izanagi and Izanami71. According to the Kojiki Izanagi and

Izanami were commanded by the deities of heaven to solidify the

land, and to accomplish this task they were given the Heavenly

Jeweled Spear. Then from atop the Heavenly Bridge they dipped the

spear into the “brine” and the drops that fell from the spear

created Onögörö Island. After the island was formed the pair

descended to the island and made themselves a place to live. They

then attempted to give birth to a child, the first one was a

“leech-child” and sent away on a boat of reeds, the second child

born called Apa was put in the same category as the “leech-child”

and neither was considered rightful progeny. This was because of

the order in which the two had circled the huts they had made in

an improper order, Izanami had reached the conclusion before her

husband Izanage, and that was the cause of the issues. After the

issue was resolved the two gave birth to the numerous islands and

items found in nature72. Scholars have interpreted this as a sign

71 Philippi, Kojiki, 4872 Philippi, Kojiki, 49-54

28

of the patriarchal society that had taken over since the time of

Himiko, several centuries earlier, in which men came before

women.

After this Izanami became pregnant with the deity of fire,

with the birth of the fire god came Izanami’s death from the

burns. In his rage Izanagi cut off Kagu-tuti-nö-kamï’s (the fire god)

head. The blood that feel from the tip of the sword onto the

rocks gave rise to three more deities, the blood from the guard

of the sword gave birth to another three deities, and the blood

from the hilt gave birth to two more deities. From the head,

chest, belly, genitals, hands, and feet of Kagu-tuti-nö-kamï’s body

arose anther eight deities73. With his rage subsided Izanagi went

to Yomi, the land of the dead, to see Izanami. When he arrived

Izanami asked Izanagi not to look at her, Izanagi cannot restrain

himself from looking and sees her corpse covered in maggots. From

these maggots came the eight snakes that would chase Izanagi as

he fled from Yomi, these eight snakes then gave rise to the

thunder deities. After discarding his comb and several other

items to distract the snakes, Izanagi exits Yomi, and seals it

73 Philippi, Kojiki, 57-60

29

off. From the other side of the barrier that now seperates Yomi

and the world of the living Izanami say that she will kill 1000

people every day and in response Izanagi says that he will create

1005 people every day74. This is why, according to priestly

interpretations and scholars alike that the population is always

growing, because there are less deaths than births every day.

This is where the Kojiki and Nihongi show notable difference

from each other. In the Kojiki after his trip to Yomi, Izanagi

needed to purify himself and to do so he bathes in a river. Two

deities are born from where he initially jumps into the river,

three were then born to rectify the evils of the impurity of

death, two came from the bottom of the river, two came from the

middle of the river, and two came from the surface of the river.

Then from his left eye came Ama-terasu-opo-mi-kamö, better known

was Amateraasu the sun goddess, from his right eye came Tuku-yömi-

nö-mikötö, better known as Tsukiyomi the goddess of the moon, and

from his nose came Take-paya-susa-nö-wo-nö-mikötö, better known as

Susanoo the god of the ocean and storms. Amateraso was given

Izanagi’s necklace and the rule of the daytime, Tsukiyomi was

74 Philippi, Kojiki, 61-67

30

given the rule of the nighttime, and Susanoo was given rule of

the oceans75. The Nihongi on the other hand says that Izanagi and

Izanami produced Amaterasu so that there would be a lord of the

universe after they had produced the countries, mountains,

rivers, and trees. They then produced Tsukiyomi and sent him and

Amaterasu up into the heavens to rule76.

Sometime after their birth Susanoo became unhappy with

ruling the oceans, feeling he had been cheated and begins to vent

his anger. In doing so he destroyed much of the land and living

things, so Izanagi expelled Susanoo from heaven, but before he

left Susanoo went to take his leave from Amaterasu77. Susanoo

then convinces Amaterasu to create children with him as a

challenge and they take one of the other’s items to give birth to

children. From Susanoo’s sword Amaterasu gives birth to three

goddesses, and from Amaterasu’s beads Susanoo gives birth to five

sons. Amaterasu claims victory in the challenge as her item

produced five sons while Susanoo’s created three daughters.

Susanoo admits defeat for a short while before growing restless

75 Philippi, Kojiki, 70-7176 Aston, Nihongi, 18-1977 Philippi, Kojiki, 73-74

31

and angry. In the process Susanoo scares Amaterasu into hiding in

a rock cave78. Because Amaterasu, the sun, was hidden away, the

world plunged into darkness. According to the Kojiki this cause the

800 different deities to gather, the deities come up with a plan

to bring Amaterasu back out of the cave. So they create what

would become two pieces of the imperial regalia, the mirror and

the imperial jewel. They then began to party, and as Amaterasu

stuck her head out from behind the rock, the deities used the

jewels to give themselves light and the mirror to entrance

Amaterasu with her own reflection and lure her out. As soon as

she had left the cave the other deities sealed shut the cave so

the sun could never hide again. Because of his part Susanoo was

fined one thousand tables of gifts, had his beard cut off, and

was expelled from heaven79.

After his expulsion from heaven Susanoo begins living on

earth amongst the earthly dieties. During his time he runs into a

farmer whom has lost all of his daughters except one to an eight

headed dragon, and so begs for Susanoo’s help promising his last

daughters hand in marriage. So Susanno uses an eight fold brewing

78 Philippi, Kojiki, 76-8179 Philippi, Kojiki, 82-85

32

method to create a strong wine, and then created a fence with

eight gates, and disguised the last daughter as his hair comb. So

when the dragon arrived it found eight gates, one for each of its

heads and then drank the wine Susanoo had placed just inside each

gates. With the dragon drunk Susanoo strikes, as he killed the

dragon his sword broke and in the middles of the tail he fined

Kusanagi (grass cutting sword)80, which he would later give to

Amaterasu as way of apology.

During Susanoo’s time on earth, the heavenly Kami came to

the decision that earth, called the central land of the reed

plains, needed to be brought into order, and so they first sent

Amë-nö-po-pi-nö-kami and he did not report in for three years. So

they then sent Ame-nö-waka-piko, and he did not return for eight

years81. So finally the heavenly Kami in a show of force defeat

the earthly deities, forcing the earthly deities promise

obedience82. Afterwards Amaterasu’s grandson Piko-po-nö-ninigi-nö-

mikötö, otherwise known as Emperor Jinmu, was commanded to

descend down from heaven and rule as emperor83, he was given the

80 Philippi, Kojiki, 85-8781 Philippi, Kojiki, 120-12382 Philippi, Kojiki, 13383 Philippi, Kojiki, 137

33

imperial regalia to show his divine right from Amaterasu84.

However the reason that emperors are mortal is because of an

insult accidently paid to an earthly deity known as Opo-yama-tu-mi-

nö-kamï85.

Within this initial creation myth one can see the roots of

the purification rituals that are important in Shintō to this

day, as well as the root of holy status the Emperor holds because

of his familial descent from Amaterasu the sun goddess who is

more or less the main deity in Japan. As with the holy books in

the west this creation story is in fact a story that when read

properly provides some rules on how one should life live, however

unlike its western counterparts there are no direct lessons and

rules put down by this myth. From here though it becomes easier

to understand many of the rites and rituals found in Shintō,

especially in the Miko families found throughout Japan, it also

becomes possible to examine by use of the creation myths of the

Ryūkyūs and Ainu, the creation ideas that the Jōmon held.

In Shintō, as seen in the Ainu tradition, there is a strong

connection between specific deities and animals that represent

84 Philippi, Kojiki, 14085 Philippi, Kojiki, 145

34

them or act as their messengers. Examples of this are the fox

representing the mountain gods, deer representing the Kasuga

deity, and the world represning the deity of Sanpo86. In fact a

specific type of priestess in Japan called an Itako, are believed

by scholars to have been directly influence by the Ainu, although

it has yet to be proven87. There is even evidence of an ancient

skull cult that used to exist in stone age Japan, which is still

seen partially in the Ainu culture to the north88, in fact there

is even a very heavy focus on mountain worship in Shintō evident

through the Shugendō sect of priests, who are defined as a subset

of Shintō who hold that the mountains were the homes of the gods

and souls89. An idea found in Shintō similar to the Ryūkyū is the

presence of a hearth god which is critical in the Ryūkyūan

religion90.

Shintō is focused on the unfolding of the world in present,

opposed to the dichotomy of good versus evil as seen in western

religions91. This is seen in the other religions of Japan as

86 Fairchild, “Shamanism in Japan,” 4487 Fairchild, “Shamanism in Japan,” 6488 Fairchild, “Shamanism in Japan,” 7789 Fairchild, “Shamanism in Japan,” 8690 Fairchild, “Shamanism in Japan,” 10091 Boyd and Willaims, “Japanese Shinto,” 42

35

well, creating this sense of similarity, because of its

uniqueness from other religions in the world. The main aim of

Shintō is in part aimed at purification of the soul and proper

acknowledgement of the wonder found in nature92. This focus on

purity is not unique to Japanese religions, however the heavy

focus on the respect and awe of nature it a very rare in

organized religions, and this rarity is found in all three

Japanese religions. So through understanding the beliefs and

rituals of these three religions it is possible to say what comes

from a common ancestral source because of the uniqueness of the

three religions.

Ainu

92 Boyd and Willaims, “Japanese Shinto,” 46

36

To the north of the Yayoi people on the main island of Japan

are the Ainu, a tribe centered society found in the northern

regions of Hokkaido and

the Sakahlin islands.

At one point the Ainu

used to found as far

south as Hachinohe city

in the Aomoric

Provence, and Iawaya

Cave on the Shimokita

Peninsula, both part of

the Ohwu region93. The

Ainu like the Yayoi and

modern Japanese,

believe in a polytheistic nature based religion. However unlike

their Shintō following counterparts members of the Ainu tribes

were expected to know most if not all of the spells/incantations

that shamanesses would use and what each one would do. This

chanting that was considered to be spells and incantation was

93 Kodama, Ainu, 66

37

Figure 3 Ainu Territories from Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People

used for almost everything ranging from natural disasters to a

crying baby94. Unfortunately today the long standing oral

tradition of the Ainu only remains in transcribed form95.

A key part of the Ainu understanding of the world is the

Kamui, which they believe to be present in all things96. The Ainu

believe that the Kamui are continually working on their own world

and at times can become negligent of this one, when this happens

someone dies an accidental death or there is a cloud of

misfortune. In order to remedy the situation the whole village

will sing, stomp, and moan to draw the attention of the Kamui

back to this world. This act has several different names, one is

kewehumse, which roughly translates into groaning to ward off

evil spirits, nine-horippa, which is ritualistic shouting and

dancing, or rimimse, which is group singing and dancing. The name

used varies depending on where the particular Ainu tribe is

found97.

94 Joseph M. Kitagawa, “Ainu Myth,” in Myth and Symbols: Studies in Honor of Mircea Eliade, edited by Joseph M. Kitagawa and Charles H. Long. (Chicago: University Chicago Press, 1969), 312-31395 Strong, “The Most Revered of Foxes,”2896 Strong, “The Most Revered of Foxes,” 2997 Kitagawa, “Ainu Myth”, 322

38

Ainu understanding of the Kamui can best be described in

their view of how humans even achieve things in this world,

meaning that according to the Ainu, humans are weak and cannot do

things on their own, everything humans do is with the help of the

Kamui. Even something such as putting out a fire, which relies on

the power of the Kamui associated with water and their

powers98.Similar to Shintō all things are considered essentially

good natured, however as they age they can become complex and

sometimes they create trouble. This trouble occurs when they lose

control of their mind, in fact if the object or person is treated

well in its life it will go on to become a good natured Kamui,

however if it is treated disrespectfully it will go on to have an

evil mind99. According to Ainu belief, similar to the Shintō once

again, is that gods have a duty to protect humans but in return

they have to be compensated and humans have a right to be

protected by they are expected to return the their favors100. If

this is not observed then the person will not be under the

98 Hisakazu Fujimura, “Kamuy: Gods You can Argue with,” in Ainu: spirit of a Northern People, edited by William W. Fitzhugh and Chisato O Duhevil. (Los Angeles: Perpetua Press, 1999), 19399 Fujimura, “Kamuy,” 194100 Fujimura, “Kamuy,” 195

39

protection of the Kamui, in which case they are left at the mercy

of the evil minded complex gods.

Within the Kamui there is a clear hierarchy based off of how

they are named. Those who have names that are purely descriptive

such as Chironnup (Red Fox), which means thing we kill, are much

less powerful than those who have names with a special

description such as Nupurikorkamui (Bear), which means spiritual

being who governs the deep mountains, or Repunkamui (Orca), which

means spiritual being of the off shore sea101. The more powerful

the Kamui the more influence it has over its locations natural

forces, and just like in Shintō there is not any Kamui which is

omniscient102, there is also a heavily favored and focused upon

goddess in the Ainu religion as well, her name is Fuchi, and she

is the deity of fire and the owner of the world, she is ever

referred to as Iresu Kamui, which means, she who teaches other

Kamui103. Her role is critical in that if an Ainu believes that

they have been wrongly treated by another Kamui they may pray to

Fuchi to have the god stripped of their position, forcing the god

101 Strong, “The Most Revered of Foxes,” 33102 Strong, “The Most Revered of Foxes,” 39103 Neil Gordon Munro, Ainu Creed and Cult (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 17

40

to ask the plaintiff for forgiveness. It is important to note

however that in order for the god in question to be in trouble

the Ainu must have performed the proper ceremonies, which vary by

region, asking to god to cease their divine punishment. This

punishment is often for laziness on the Ainu’s part104. This is an

important similarity and yet difference between Shintō and the

Ainu Religion, in that as seen in Shintō the deities often times

are behave the same a humans, they just happen to have more

power, and yet the Ainu belief goes even further by showing that

humans have a right to argue with the deities. This is most

likely a belief that originated with the Jōmon because of the

accepted idea that the Ainu lived around and had close relations

with the late period Jōmon people105. This would indicate that

this idea originated with the Jōmon, was adopted and changed to

fit the needs of the Yayoi, specifically the Yamato, before the

Jōmon were all assimilated.

104 Fujimura, “Kamuy,” 195-196105 Hajime Ishida, “Ancient People of the North Pacific Rim: Ainu biological Relationships with their Neighbors,” in Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People, edited by Willaim W. Fitzhugh and Chisato O Duhevil. (Los Angeles: Perpetua Press, 1999), 53

41

A type of rhythmic chant called a Yukar is used to transmit106

Ainu knowledge and fortunately there are many yukar which were

recorded and transcribed to provide the creation story of the

Ainu. According to the Ainu in the beginning there was no land

only a swampy ocean and the world was chaos. Then a wagtail flew

above the water and beat the mud with his tail creating land. The

Ainu have always believed in a round earth concept with each

island viewed as its own world governed by an individual god.

After the land was made a mountain crystalized out of the ocean

and the creation god lived on top of the mountain. After a while

a goddess came along on a cloud of five colors, and she created

the rocks in the ocean, the soil, the fish and lobsters, the

grass and trees, and gold, silver and jewels. During this a pair

of crows came flying, and they were given control of the thunder

and rain, as a result they are known as Kamui-chikafu (god bird),

and they have taught good morals to husbands and wives. To this

day hunters will salute the bird if it should fly over them107.

106 Kitagawa, “Ainu Myth,” 322107 Carl Etter, Ainu Folklore: Traditions and Cultures of the Vanishing Aborigines of Japan (Chicago: Wilcox and Follet Company, 1949), 19

42

Another version of this creation myth follows a similar

format in that the creator often referred to as kotan-kot-kanuy,

which means land making deity, descended with his sister onto

what is now known as Mt. Daisetsu in Hokkaido and from the clouds

created the world. Yellow clouds became soil and black clouds

became rocks, from this they formed the entire world. In some

versions of the tale they have an animal helper, as seen in the

earlier example, and in another version it is said they created

the world on the back of a moving fish. Due to this there are two

Kamuy which have to hold down the giant fish at all times,

anytime they take a break for a rest or a meal there is an

earthquake because the fish moves108 . While different from the

Shintō myths both cultures share the idea of a murky ocean before

the creation of the land. While it is possible that this

originated from a time even further back than the Jōmon, it is

clear that this idea of a world before humans being a swampy or

murky ocean originated with the Jōmon.

108 Shinko Ogihara, “Mythology and Animal Tales,” in Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People, edited by Willaim W. Fitzhugh and Chisato O Duhevil. (Los Angeles: Perpetua Press, 1999), 275

43

The Ainu view of the soul is based off of reincarnation and

is very complex. The soul is referred to as ramat, and while not

exactly the same western idea of a soul, it is more or less the

Ainu idea of a soul. For the Ainu the body is simply a medium

through which a soul acts as it is reincarnated repeatedly in the

same form. This means that if in this life a person is a man,

then in every life he has been a human male, and if it is the

soul of a female deer, in every life it has been a female deer.

After death the soul travels from this world to the other world,

which is the same as this world. If the soul cannot let go of its

attachments then it will float around in this world unable to

move on, seeking a body to possess so that they may fulfill their

wishes109. If a person is possessed by a soul it is the beginning

of a tragedy and the soul possessing the body is considered an

evil spirit110. If a soul manages to return to its own body

however it is considered a near death experience, however in most

cases the soul will be reborn in the other world shortly after

their death in this world. They will then live their life in that

world in a way that was pre-determined by their life in this

109 Fujimura, “Kamuy,” 193110 Fujimura, “Kamuy,” 194

44

world. Men will go to the camp of their paternal ancestors and

women will go to the camp of their maternal ancestors, before

they are reincarnated into the other world. After their life in

the other world they are reincarnated in this world and the cycle

continues111.

Another aspect of Ainu understanding of the soul is

displayed in what are called spirit sending ceremonies. In these

ceremonies, which in modern times are used only for bears, they

send off high ranking spirits off to the Kamuy Moshir, which is

the world of the gods112. Originally these ceremonies were used to

send off everything from plants, spent tools, artifacts, and

other inanimate objects to lower ranking spirits of animals

killed during hunting. For these animals killed during a hunt the

ceremony was performed on the spot of the kill. These ceremonies

consisted of sending off the spirit of the Kamuy with gifts so

that in the world of the gods it will tell all of the other gods

of the wonderful gifts it received and then other gods will want

to visit the Ainu. Similar to Shintō these gods would disguise

111 Fujimura, “Kamuy,” 197112 Shigeki Akino, “Spirit Sending Ceremonies,” in Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People, edited by Willaim W. Fitzhugh and Chisato O Duhevil. (Los Angeles: Perpetua Press, 1999) 249

45

themselves or send their emissaries which were always animals.

For the mountain gods it was a bear113, while for Yuk-atte-Kamuy

(deer sending god) and Chep-atte-Kamuy (salmon sending god) it was

deer and salmon respectively114. This gift giving is important for

the gods because in the Ainu system a “true god is a useful god.”

Not only this but gods can gain rank in the world of the gods by

attaining more and more gifts115, examples of other animals that

were honored with Iyomante or Opunire, depending on the region

these are the Ainu terms for these ceremonies, were Kotan-kor-kamuy

(fish owl), Moyūk (raccoon dog) who was thought to be the uncle

or servant of bears, and Upas chironnup (white fox)116. This focus

on animals being representative of the gods or the gods

themselves is very similar to Shintō, and because of how many

religions around the world share similar views such as the Greeks

with Zeus, it is easy to say that this idea definitely has its

roots in the Jomōn peoples.

With the presence of items such as an Ikupasy, which is a

sacred prayer stick used to deliver prayers from the user to the

113 Akino, “Spirit Sending Ceremonies,” 249114Akino, “Spirit Sending Ceremonies,” 254115 Akino, “Spirit Sending Ceremonies,” 250116 Akino, “Spirit Sending Ceremonies,” 252

46

gods because in the Ainu religion direct prayer is not

possible,117 the Ainu tradition is very distinct. Not only this

but there are no temples or shrines, the home is considered the

sacred space to a large number of gods, and one of the only

public religious activities is shinruppa, a memorial ceremony for

Ainu ancestors118. However with these differences have come

similarities such as the focus on harmony with nature and the

Kamuy, as well as the focus on a primary goddess, who for the

Ainu is Fuchi and for Shintō it is Amaterasu, both have to do

with fire, heat , and life. These similarities point to what is

religious foundations from the Jōmon people, which will be added

to with the examination of the Ryūkyū religion. Due to the great

loss of the Ainu population and there for much of the oral

tradition it is impossible to say if there are indeed more

similarities than this.

Ryūkyū

The Ryūkyū islands lie just south of Japan and consist of

about 105 islands, 24 of them are uninhabited. There are six main

117 Fosco Maraini, “Ikupasy: It’s not a mustache Lifter!” in Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People, edited by Willaim W. Fitzhugh and Chisato O Duhevil. (Los Angeles: Perpetua Press, 1999), 328118 Maraini, “Ikupasy,” 329

47

islands Amami and

Tokuno in the

north, Miyako,

Ishigaki, and

Iromote in the

south and Okinawa

in the central

area119. The

records of

ancient Ryūkyū are lacking because during the Kingdom period,

from around 1100 C.E. onward, the records of each dynasty were

destroyed by the following dynasty; this means that there are

very few records left of ancient Ryūkyū120. With prehistoric sites

on Okinawa containing relics of the Jōmon,121 and the similarity

of creation myths and religious practices which point to a common

origin or a deep penetration of one of either the Ryūkyū religion

or Shintō at a very early period122, which means that

119 Clarence J. Glacken, The Great Loochoo: A Study of Okinawan Village Life (Berkley: University of California Press Berkley and Los Angeles, 1955) 13120 Bollinger, “The Unity of Government and Religion,” 30121 George H. Kerr, Okinawa: The History of an Island People (Rutland: Charles E. TuttleCompany, 1958) 21122 Bollinger, “The Unity of Government and Religion,” 1

48

Figure 4 Map of Ryūkyūs from The Great Loochoo: A Study of OkinawanVillage Life

commonalities being the left over traces of the Jōmon religious

system.

What is known about ancient Ryūkyūan religion is that the

ancient villages was often located based off of a sacred grove,

which would normally be the high point in the village123. Along

with this it is known that the Noro, or female priestesses who

would hold power in Ryūkyū society can be traced back to

primitive fire and hearth worship124. The creation myth that is

one of the sole remaining pieces of ancient Ryūkyū culture has

three variations. The first variation says that Amamikyu, the

female pillar goddess, and Shinerikyu, the male pillar god,

descended from heaven and built their huts side by side and a

passing wind impregnated Amamikyu and three children were born.

The first child was the lord otherwise known as the nobility, the

second child was the Noro, and the third child was the commoner.

After their birth they needed fire in order to survive and this

fire was obtained from the Dragon Palace deep beneath the sea.

The second variation clearly highlights the power of the Noro who

are said to have descended from Amamikyu and represents the

123 Bollinger, “The Unity of Government and Religion,” 5-7124 Glacken, The Great Loochoo, 286-287

49

mythology of the Ryukyū before centralization occurred. In this

variation Amamikyu is sent by the Lord of Heaven to find a

suitable place for the gods to dwell. At the time the boundaries

of the islands had not yet been set, so she brought earth, rocks,

and plants to create the seven sacred groves, and then the many

other groves on the islands. After years she went back to the

Lord of Heaven for the seed of mankind, and the Lord of Heaven

sent down the two pillar gods, who are not mentioned, who were

his children. This gave birth to three sons, the first of which

was the King, then the Noble, and then the Father. They also gave

birth to two daughters, the first was the high priestess and the

second was the priestess. In the third variation the only

difference from the first variation is that the Prince of Heaven

descended and gave birth to the five children of the second

variation of the myth125.

This creation myth is important in that it also highlights a

lack of land before the gods, and depicts a murky sea as the only

presence before the creation of land. It also is important in

that there is a male female combination that brought life to the

125 Bollinger, “The Unity of Government and Religion,” 14-16

50

land in one variation of the myth, and the end result is the

holding of one goddess above the rest. Not only that but in time

as castles were built on and around the sacred groves sanctuaries

to the fire god, who would become associated with Amamikyu in

many areas, creates a fire related primary goddess126.

The root of the fire/hearth god arises in the early myth

that the virgin daughter was chosen to guard the family fire and

keep it alive; this contact with the same fire that the ancestors

protected and kept alive created a connection with the

ancestors127. This connection finally led to the evolution of the

priestess, who would dominate Ryūkyū culture. Only women would

worship the fire goddess while both men and women believed in

tree-grove and mountain top spirits,128 as seen in Shintō and the

Ainu Religions.

Over the course of Ryūkyūan history the Noro have

consistently been involved in the power dynamics of the country.

This reached its height when at one point Noro were being used to

secure the throne, and then later with the appointment of three

126 Bollinger, “The Unity of Government and Religion,” 20-21127 Glacken, The Great Loochoo, 287128 Glacken, The Great Loochoo, 290-292

51

“Great Mother Priestesses” to be in charge of the religious life

in three districts, bringing the country together as a religious

unit129. This indicates a much heavier influence of the ancient

shamanistic methods in which females were dominant, on the Ryūkyū

religion130. This however also explains why the shamanesses in the

Ainu religion and the Mikos in Shintō, despite existing in a

patriarchal society, still possessed so much power.

Similar to both Shintō and the Ainu religion, the Ryūkyū

focused heavily on veneration of their ancestors, and were a very

nature focused religion. Not only that but there was a prime

goddess who was related and identified with fire. Some of this

may be from the Shimzau invasion of the islands in 1609,131 and

then their replacement of the old Ryūkyū government after their

takeover132. There has historically been a resistance to

government enforced changes to religion due to the fact that it

holds a deeper meaning to the people133. With this knowledge it is

possible to understand some of the religious idea of the Jōmon

129 Bollinger, “The Unity of Government and Religion,” 33-34130 Bollinger, “The Unity of Government and Religion,” 51131 Kerr, Okinawa,58132 Kerr, Okinawa 159133 Bollinger, “The Unity of Government and Religion,” 40

52

people who came before all three of the modern Japanese ethnic

groups.

Conclusion

While each one of these religions has unique features due to

the differences in their cultures, they share common features

that allow for an understanding of their predecessors religion,

despite a lack of written records to state it for historians. In

this case the Jōmon culture, which was a ceramic culture that

used tools and lasted through three distinct periods classified

as Early, Middle, and Late Jōmon, because of the sheer amount of

time crossed. The descendents of this culture were the Ainu to

the north, the Ryūkyū to the south, and the Yayoi who emigrated

from mainland Asia and assimilated what remained of the Jōmon.

All three religions feature socially powerful shamanessess

of priestess who trace their roots back to shamanistic practices.

For the Ryūkyū it is the Noro and for the Shintō it is the Miko

and all of their variations. All three exhibit a focus on one

primary goddess who is associated with fire in some way. The Ainu

have Fuchi, Shintō has Amaterasu, and the Ryūkyū have the

combination of Amamikyu and the fire god. Finally all have a

53

focus on ancestor worship and the idea that everything in nature

has a soul and exhibits power. Due to this it is safe to say that

the Jōmon people believed in a Fire or Sun Goddess, had a cast of

powerful female priestesses/shamans, and had a belief in the idea

that everything in nature had a soul.

In time with further archaeological study and translation of

more sources on the three religions is it will be possible to

flush out the Jōmon religion even further. Right now all that is

possible is stating what beliefs and cultural systems were in

place, it still is not possible to identify rituals or detail

specific beliefs. Some details were never be known due to a lack

of a Jōmon writing system and a lack of records as historians go

further and further back into time. From this study however, it

is clear that it is possible to discover more about the ancient

Jōmon people through comparative study of the three ethnic groups

that descended from them to form modern day Japan.

54

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