Olin College of EngineeringDigitalCommons@Olin

2012 AHS Capstone Projects AHS Capstone Projects

4-1-2012

Bethlehem’s Christian CommunityRebecca LeungFranklin W. Olin College of Engineering, rebecca.leung@alumni.olin.edu

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.olin.edu/ahs_capstone_2012Part of the Christianity Commons, and the History of Christianity Commons

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the AHS Capstone Projects at DigitalCommons@Olin. It has been accepted for inclusion in2012 AHS Capstone Projects by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@Olin. For more information, please contactdigitalcommons@olin.edu.

Recommended CitationLeung, Rebecca, "Bethlehem’s Christian Community" (2012). 2012 AHS Capstone Projects. Paper 12.http://digitalcommons.olin.edu/ahs_capstone_2012/12

1

My Motivations

You may be wondering why I chose to focus on a Middle Eastern town the size of Needham for

my AHS Capstone. My interest stems from last spring when I studied abroad in the desert of

southern Israel. As an Asian American Christian at the Arava Institute, I was a minority among

the primarily Jewish and Muslim students. In a place where religion and politics are the opposite

of taboo, I often discussed my beliefs with others as they shared their experiences with me as

well. I visited many Christian pilgrimage sites during my time in Israel, but never made it to

Bethlehem, partly due to the difficulty in reaching the town in the West Bank. The story of the

Christian presence in the area has since fascinated me, especially in the places where Christianity

originated, the places I have read and heard so much about.

Introduction: Why Bethlehem?

Bethlehem is regarded as the traditional birthplace of Jesus and the city of David. The town of

approximately 25,000 people1 houses one of the oldest Christian communities in the world and

attracts Christian pilgrims from near and far, especially during the Christmas season. In

particular, the Church of the Nativity marks the location which has been venerated as the

birthplace of Jesus since the days of the early Church. This church has endured burning,

destruction, and most recently, a modern siege. The complicated history of this church has

reflected both the internal and external troubles of the Christian community around it.

Just 10 kilometers south of Jerusalem, Bethlehem forms a “Christian triangle” with Beit Sahour

and Beit Jala where roughly two-thirds of all Palestinian Christians live. 2 Despite its importance

1 "2007 PCBS Census," Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics 2007: 117. 2 Charles M. Sennott, The Body and the Blood: the Middle East's Vanishing Christians and the Possibility for Peace. (New York: Public Affairs, 2003) 117.

2

as a Christian holy site, Bethlehem’s Christian population has steadily declined in the last

hundred years. Today, more Bethlehem Christians live abroad than in the town itself. Just 50

years ago, Christians made up 70% of Bethlehem’s population. Today this number has dwindled

to 18%.34 These Palestinian Christians consider themselves direct descendants of Jesus’ first

followers.5 Yet why has their presence so dramatically declined in the area where Christianity

began? The fact that the Christian population is quickly diminishing has repercussions on the

region as a whole.6 To be sure, Christian communities in the Holy Land have not suffered the

persecution which many other Christians in the Middle East have endured. However, there are

many other causes and events which have led to the decline of the Christian community in

Bethlehem, some of which I will be discussing in this talk starting from the turn of the century to

the present. Bethlehem has experienced the rule of various authorities in the past hundred years,

from the Ottoman Empire to the Palestinian Authority today. Each one has left its own mark on

the town and its inhabitants.

Bethlehem at the end of the Ottoman Empire

Palestine was ruled by the Turkish Ottoman Empire which lasted from the conquest of

Constantinople in 1453 to the end of World War I.7 Bethlehem was a predominantly Christian

town in the land of Palestine, which was primarily Muslim.8 It was a part of the Jerusalem

sanjak, an autonomous district under the Ottomans. Records from the turn of the century do not 3 Khaled Abu Toameh, “The Beleaguered Christians in Bethlehem.” The Stonegate Institute. 12 May 2009. 4 "Christians of the Holy Land." CBSNews. CBS Interactive, 22 Apr. 2012. Web. 02 May 2012. <http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18560_162-57417408/christians-of-the-holy-land/>. 5 Adnan A. Musallam, “Bethlehem, The Holy Land’s Collective Cultural National Identity: A Palestinian Arab Historical Perspective,” Bethlehem University 2007, 8 Mar. 2012 <http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/bethlehem/beth-hlccni.htm>. 6 Sennott xix. 7 "Ottoman Empire," Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012, 11 Apr. 2012 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434996/Ottoman-Empire>. 8 Edward Hagopian and A.B. Zahlan, “Palestine's Arab Population: The Demography of the Palestinians” Journal of Palestine Studies 1974: 34.

3

specify the exact make-up of Bethlehem’s population, but extrapolating from 19th century data,

roughly 5,000 people called Bethlehem their home.9 While the vast majority of the people in

Palestine lived in rural areas as peasants, most Christians settled in cities. At the end of the 19th

century, Christian emigration from the Jerusalem district had already begun to places like the

United States.10 In 1907 the Ottoman rulers began forcing Palestinian Christians to serve as

porters and servants for their army, and many emigrated to Latin America to escape the draft.11

These emigrants left due to economic and political hardship yet many were to return within a

decade or send sums of money back to their relatives in Palestine. These funds were used to

develop residential construction in cities and build up agricultural projects. This allowed urban

Christians to form a key component of the Palestinian middle class. Many were laborers but

others were involved in the local industries, including tourism, which has been a constant source

of commerce to this day.12

Muslims and Christians were generally settled in separate neighborhoods, as the Palestinian

Christian minority stimulated Arab urban development while the Muslim majority lived

primarily in rural areas working the land.13 While there was some religious and political tension

between Muslims and Christians in Bethlehem, conflict among the Christian groups was more

common.14 Christian bodies mainly quarreled about authority over the holy sites, especially the

Church of the Nativity. Under the Ottomans, a “status quo agreement” was established to

delegate responsibilities of the Church of the Nativity to the three major Christian communities –

9 Alexander Scholch, “The Demographic Development of Palestine, 1850-1882” International Journal of Middle East Studies 1985: 485-505. 10 Hagopian 35. 11 Joshua Hammer, A Season in Bethlehem: Unholy War in a Sacred Place (New York: Free, 2003) 63. 12 Hagopian 36. 13 Hagopian 36-37. 14 Joshua A. Fishman and Tope Omoniyi, Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion (Amsterdam: J. Benjamins, 2006) 183.

4

the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Armenian Orthodox. Use of the church by smaller

Christian sects, such as the Copts and Syrian Orthodox, was also determined by this agreement.15

Generally though, Palestinians lived in harmony with the Ottoman rulers and were loyal

subjects.16 This was also the case between Muslims and Christians. In particular, the common

Arab roots of Christians and Muslims (language, history, etc.) would be a key factor in the

advent of Arab nationalism in the 19th century.17 The Arab cultural renaissance of the 19th

century and the weakening Arab‑Turkish relations on the eve of World War I played key roles in

inspiring Arab national consciousness among the Arabs of Bethlehem and more broadly,

Palestine. The Palestinian aspect of Arab nationalism would also begin to increase at the turn of

the century as a result of the increased settlement of European Jews as part of the Zionist

movement in Palestine.18

As a result of both emigration and foreign Christian influence, Palestinian Christians were

particularly exposed to Westernization over other religious groups. This manifested itself in the

school system, in which various Christian foreign mission schools were funded by European

powers seeking to channel their influence in the Ottoman Empire. This development caused

Bethlehem’s population to grow quite rapidly in the first decade of the twentieth century, and by

1913 it was estimated at 12,000, still with a Christian majority and Muslim minority.19

15 Fishman 184. 16 Musallam. 17 Musallam. 18 Rashid Khalidi, Palestinian Identity: the Construction of Modern National Consciousness (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997) 93. 19 Fishman 184.

5

Under the British Mandate

With the fall of the Ottoman Empire in World War I and the occupation of Palestine by the

British in 1917, Bethlehem experienced many changes under this new European leadership.

Despite growth up to 1913, the population was halved by 1921 to 6,100 due to mass emigration,

largely by Christians escaping the hardships of increased Ottoman taxation as well as the general

increased state of poverty and the Turkish draft.20 The effects of emigration were still largely

positive – Bethlehem’s ties to its growing Diaspora were generally close and most emigrants

returned either permanently or temporarily. Men would commonly emigrate alone or with male

relatives, and then return to their families or marry local women, bringing back new experiences,

languages, and perspectives.21

Despite Western promises to help Arabs attain independence after WWI, and despite Arab

military assistance in favor of the Allies in the region, the Levant was divided by the West into

small entities under European authorities rather than local independent rule. Resentment of the

West was felt by many Palestinian Arabs when Palestine was conferred to Britain as a mandatory

trust with a proviso putting the Balfour Declaration into effect (which included the establishment

of a Jewish national home in Palestine). These feelings were to become an integral part of

Palestinian identity and the Palestinian national movement in the early 1920's, which was

spurred on by the desire by many Arab nationalists for a “United Syria” under Arab rule and the

increasing Zionist settlement.22 It was also a time when social differences were enhanced

20 Fishman 185. 21 Fishman 185. 22 Christopher Sykes, Crossroads to Israel 1965 Reprint (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973) 123.

6

between Muslims and Christians, rural and urban, rich and poor which decreased chances for

unity and cohesion, and the Palestinian revolutionary movement reflected these differences.23

These differences notwithstanding, Bethlehem residents acted in solidarity with their fellow

Palestinians throughout the movement – this was apparent in the activities of various sectors of

society. In the 1930's, especially 1936 through 1939, Bethlehem, together with other Palestinian

communities, participated in a six-month general strike to force Britain to stop Jewish

immigration and land sales. During the strike, Palestinian Christians stirred up sympathy for the

national movement through the Arab press, citing acts of vandalism at the Church of the

Nativity.24 Armed resistance against British forces which began in 1936 was spearheaded by

Bethlehem citizens who worked closely with resistance leaders to strike at British military

targets in the Bethlehem district.25

Already in 1923, due to the Arab Christians’ demonstration of solidarity with Muslims, the

government divided representation into Arabs (mostly Muslims with a Christian minority) and

Jews instead of into religious communities as under the Ottomans.26 The religious attachment

which both Muslims and Christians, as well as Jews, felt towards Palestine was particularly

strong.27

The population of Palestine increased steadily during the mandatory period (graph) – Jews due to

immigration and Muslims due to a high birth rate, with a longer life expectancy for all. The

increase in the Christian population was due to a high birth rate as well as immigrants from

23 Hagopian 46. 24 Mustafa Kabha, “The Palestinian Press and the General Strike, April-October 1936 : Filastin as a Case Study,” Middle Eastern Studies Jul. 2003: 180. 25 Musallam. 26 Tsimhoni 180-181. 27 Khalidi 150.

7

Lebanon and Syria seeking greater economic opportunity, yet this growth was still offset by

significant emigration.28

During this time there was a revival of outside Christian interest – an influx of contributions to

churches enabled property, building, and land purchase (both urban and rural) especially around

holy sites.29 As a result of foreign mission schools, Christian communities were often better

acquainted with European languages than were Muslim communities, so they often acted as

liaisons between British officials and local Arabic-speaking population under the Mandate.

These mission schools were also a factor in the increase of education for Christian children –

90% of Christian school-age children attended school while only 25% of Muslim children did.30

The British were generally indifferent towards the education of Palestinian Arabs, yet there was

still an increase in children attending school and a decrease in the illiteracy rate – a testament to

the desire for learning.31 Pilgrimage and tourism increased during this period, so many Arab

Bethlehem residents learned Hebrew to communicate with their new Jewish neighbors.32 While

the Mandate period was marked by friction between the foreign ruling party and the local

Palestinian inhabitants, overall Palestine benefited from a more stable economic and social

situation under the British.

Jordanian Rule

Bethlehem experienced another change in authority with the UN adoption of the Partition Plan of

Palestine in late 1947. This led to British withdrawal and the termination of the Mandate,

28 Hagopian 44. 29 Tsimhoni 174-175. 30 Daphne Tsimhoni, “The Status of the Arab Christians Under the British Mandate in Palestine,” Middle Eastern Studies Oct.1984: 166. 31 Hagopian 49. 32 Fishman 185.

8

causing civil war to break out in mandatory Palestine. The termination of the Mandate also

brought about the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. Bethlehem was caught in the conflict

and did not escape the fighting of the war. As part of the West Bank, Bethlehem fell under the

rule of Jordan after the war. 1948 transformed the Bethlehem area with the establishment of

three refugee camps to handle a portion of the influx of over 700,000 refugees from Israeli-

controlled areas. This influx was a part of an-Nakbeh, or “catastrophe,” to Palestinians.33 These

refugee camps of approximately 20,000 people total – ‘Azza, ‘Aida, and Ad Duhayshah – remain

near Bethlehem today.34 In Jerusalem, the Christian population decreased to a third of its former

number from 1944 to 1961.35 While many of these emigrants from Jerusalem joined relatives in

North and South America, others moved into Bethlehem, where the population rose from 9,300

before the war to 11,600 soon after (see graph).36 The majority of Bethlehem’s residents were

still Christian (75%), and the neighboring villages of Beit Jala and Beit Sahour also remained

predominantly Christian. By 1961, the population of Bethlehem had almost doubled to 22,500

(see graph). This growth occurred mainly due to the inhabitants of the refugee camps in close

proximity to Bethlehem, who were largely Muslim. This caused the Muslim population size to

become roughly equal with the Christian population size in Bethlehem. By 1967, Bethlehem’s

population had a Muslim majority.37

Emigration from Bethlehem continued during the Jordanian period as political and military

troubles pushed many to leave. A significant number migrated to other areas of the West Bank,

especially Christians to Jerusalem, as rural Muslims moved into Bethlehem. Throughout the

33 Fishman 187. 34 “Total Registered Camp Population – Summary,” Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics 2007. 35 Helena Lindholm Schulz, The Palestinian Diaspora: Formation of ldentities and Politics of Homeland, (London: Routledge, 2003) 43. 36 Fishman 187. 37 Fishman 187.

9

West Bank, many moved to the East Bank of Jordan for the promise of citizenship and economic

gain. In fact, emigration from the smaller towns of Beit Sahour and Beit Jala has kept the

population of the towns at essentially the same level from 1948 to today.38 However, the

majority of refugees remained in the camps, under increased conditions of poverty, hardship and

disappointment.39 Urbanization in the West Bank caused cities to grow although the overall

population remained stagnant due to emigration. Despite the closed border with West Jerusalem

during this period, tourism and pilgrimage increased under the Jordanians.40 The tourism

industry remained a major source of income and livelihood.

The demographic decline of the Christian population in Palestine reflected the changes in

political power. The Europeans were no longer the ruling parties in the region and many of the

Churches sought to preserve control of their holy places and institutions rather than pursue

expansion of their influence.41

Israeli Occupation

Bethlehem experienced significant changes again in 1967 during the Six-Day War, when Israel

launched surprise attacks on Arab forces after a period of heightened military tension. The war

resulted in a decisive Israeli victory in which Israel took control of the West Bank, including

Bethlehem. While Bethlehem did not transform overnight due to Israeli occupation, its effects

were far-reaching. The Six-Day War prompted another wave of mass emigration from the West

Bank, with most emigrants relocating to Jordan. This offset the natural Palestinian increase.

Bethlehem experienced this same emigration but the city’s population actually increased greatly

38 Sennott 119. 39 Hagopian 55. 40 Fishman 188. 41 Bernard Wasserstein, Divided Jerusalem 3rd ed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008) 267.

10

during the Israeli occupation due to high natural increase and internal immigration from the West

Bank. While the effects of emigration had been largely positive in the past due to financial

support and the return of many emigrants, emigrants were no longer returning to Bethlehem in

large numbers as before. There was still regular contact between the Bethlehem Diaspora and

those remaining in the town, but entire well-established families began to depart.42

During the Israeli occupation Bethlehem was less dependent on Israel for employment than were

other urban centers in the West Bank due to the enduring tourism industry.43 However, the

occupation also caused economic hardship for Palestinians. Additionally, Jewish settlement soon

began to appear in the occupied territories. Many Palestinians steadily shifted their reaction

from non-cooperation to active resistance. The mayors and municipal councils of Bethlehem and

Beit Sahour resigned in 1976 in protest against the Israeli expropriation of Arab-owned lands.44

Eventually, Palestinian resistance to the occupation culminated in the First Intifada in 1987

which lasted until 1993. After the First Intifada, a marked rise in what Bernard Wasserstein

describes as “Islamic fervor” within Palestinian society worried some Christian Arabs, who were

becoming a decreasing minority in the region. Despite this, Christians played a large role in the

Palestinian resistance during Israeli occupation, becoming prominent spokespeople and leaders

of the movement.45 An increase in the Arab presence in the Churches also continued, except for

the Greek Orthodox. The first Arab Anglican bishop was appointed in 1976. This Arabization

further strained Israeli relations with Christian communities.46

42 Fishman 189. 43 United Nations, “The Changing Face of Bethlehem,” Dec. 2004. 44 MERIP, “Palestinian Resistance Threatens Israeli Occupation,” MERIP Reports Apr. 1976: 18-19. 45 Wasserstein 268. 46 Wasserstein 272.

11

Since the Israeli occupation, the economic impact of tourism in Bethlehem has also been

impaired. While one million tourists visited Bethlehem in 1995, visitors only stayed an average

of 45 minutes during brief tours.47 Under the occupation, new hotels in Bethlehem could not be

built without permits while Israeli hotels proliferated. Arab-owned tourist agencies decreased in

number while by 2000, Israeli-owned agencies had increased twelve-fold.48 Tour buses bring

visitors into Bethlehem from Israel, and this tourism was dependent on the Israeli Tourist

Authority until 1995. Bethlehem tourism is closely linked to the Christian community as most

tourists visit Bethlehem to see the Christian holy sites.

Palestinian Autonomy

In late 1995, Israel withdrew from Bethlehem and handed over power to the Palestinian

Authority. Autonomy was the result of multiple major agreements including the Madrid Peace

Conference, Oslo I, and Oslo II. As a result of the Oslo II agreement, Bethlehem became a part

of Area A, under full Palestinian authority, while the neighboring towns of Beit Jala and Beit

Sahour became a part of Area B, under joint Israeli and Palestinian control.49 While this division

of territory was intended as a first phase in the extension of Palestinian autonomy, the areas have

remained as defined since 1995. This has created the issue of “safe passage” between the cities

of the West Bank. In addition, Bethlehem has been separated from Jerusalem by an Israeli

military checkpoint since the Israeli occupation in 1967.50 Since the peace process of the early

1990s, Palestinians have been required to obtain special permits to work and travel in Israel.51

Closures at the border further hamper economic activity – in 2000, the World Bank estimates the

47 Mitri Raheb, Frederick M. Strickert, and Garo Nalbandian, Bethlehem 2000 (Heidelberg: Palmyra, 1998) 119. 48 Raheb et al. 119. 49 Raheb et al. 127. 50 Raheb et al. 130. 51 Sennott 116.

12

cost of such a closure at $13.6 million per day.52 In 2002, the construction of a separation wall

began, separating Israeli-controlled Jerusalem from the West Bank, including Bethlehem.

Bethlehem and Jerusalem have always been economically interdependent, as many Bethlehem

residents work in the Jerusalem area and goods from Bethlehem are sold in Jerusalem. The

restrictions on work permits and movement between the cities has caused up to 50%

unemployment in Bethlehem.53 Both Christian and Muslim Bethlehem residents visit Jerusalem

as a central site for spiritual and religious life. The restriction of the checkpoint at the wall has

been a barrier to this long-standing connection between the two cities.

In addition to the separation wall, Israeli settlements have continued to expand in the

environment of Bethlehem, most significantly, Har Homa. Just across the wall, Har Homa was

constructed starting in 1997 on a Palestinian-owned hillside. The growth of settlements in the

Bethlehem area has brought violence on both sides.54

While the prospect of Palestinian autonomy raised many hopes for the revival of Bethlehem, the

city has suffered from continued economic and political woes. The Second Intifada broke out in

2000 as the second Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation, more violent than the first.

This intensified violence between Palestinians and Israelis affected many aspects of society,

especially the economy. Tourism was expected to skyrocket in 2000 for the Christmas of the

new millennium, yet the actual visitor turnout was much lower than anticipated. The continued

Israeli domination of the tourism industry has compounded the negative effects of the political

situation. During the Second Intifada, the Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem’s most prominent

tourist site, was put under siege for over a month in 2002. Palestinian militants sought refuge 52 Raheb et al. 132. 53 Michael Finkel, "Bethlehem 2007 A.D.," National Geographic Magazine Online, Dec. 2007, 29 Mar. 2012 <http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/12/bethlehem/finkel-text.html>. 54 Finkel.

13

from the Israeli Defense Forces in the church, and became trapped in the church along with

Palestinian civilians and Christian monks. About 200 people remained within the church

complex during the five-week siege, while Israeli troops surrounded the area in tanks.

Conditions in the besieged church were harrowing and grim due to the lack of basic resources.

Eventually negotiations were made to end the siege and hand over 39 militants to be exiled to the

Gaza strip and Europe. Israeli gunfire killed eight and wounded one Palestinian by the end of the

siege.55

Church of the Nativity

The recent siege is only one example of the adversity which the Church of the Nativity has

experienced. Our understanding of the Bethlehem Christian community would not be complete

without some mention of the church which remains the Christian focal point of the town. Since

the construction of its first permanent structure in the 4th century, the church has endured

destruction, disrepair, and theft. In 326, Emperor Constantine’s mother Helena visited the site

considered by the early Christian community as the place of Jesus’ birth. This cave, or grotto,

outside the city of Bethlehem became the focal point of a basilica which was completed by

Constantine in 339. An octagonal structure surrounded the grotto with a large basilica to its west

and an atrium lined with columns toward the direction of Bethlehem.56 Pilgrims of that period

praised the magnificence of the basilica and its lavish decoration with gold, precious stone, and

silk.57 Constantine’s church lasted for almost two centuries before it was destroyed in 529

during the Samarian revolt. Some attribute the church’s destruction to the Samaritans while

others attribute the demolition to Emperor Justinian, who demolished the church to rebuild a 55 "Timeline: Bethlehem Siege," BBC News, BBC, 05 Oct. 2002, 17 Apr. 2012 <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1950331.stm>. 56 Raheb et al. 28. 57 Maria Teresa Petrozzi, Bethlehem (Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing, 1971) 38.

14

larger and more splendid church in 540.58 Some of his renovations included a much larger

basilica and three additional apses to replace the octagonal structure.59 Staircases were built

down to the grotto so that pilgrims could descend there more easily. Justinian’s church was

elaborately decorated in the Byzantine style, with gold embellishments and intricate, multi-

colored mosaics.60 This principal structure has been maintained to this day, and has been in

continuous use since Justinian’s time. The church has not survived unscathed, however. Its

decorations and roof have been replaced due to decay over the years. In the 16th century the

brilliant gold mosaics of the 12th century Crusaders had already deteriorated. The poor condition

of the roof combined with the smoke of candles and oil lamps damaged the mosaics beyond

repair.61 Some of the marble slabs forming the floor and walls were stolen in the 15th and 16th

centuries by the Ottomans for their own construction projects.62 The church has been seized by

armies of the Persians, Mamluks, Ottomans, and Crusaders over the years. In 1834, the church

suffered an earthquake and subsequently a fire in 1869.63

Despite these trials, today the basilica’s massive walls and imposing façade greet thousands of

pilgrims every year, welcoming visitors to the now immense compound of 12,000 square meters.

Through the years many renovations and additions have taken place at the compound, reflecting

the various authorities which have overseen the church. A major archaeological survey took

place in 1934 which brought to light the origin of many of the church’s constructions.64 The

doorway itself is testament to multiple time periods in the church’s history. The Justinian

58 Petrozzi 39. 59 Raheb et al. 28. 60 Petrozzi 40. 61 Petrozzi 85. 62 Petrozzi 43. 63 "Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem," Church of the Nativity, Sacred Destinations, 26 Oct. 2009, 4 Apr. 2012 <http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-church-of-the-nativity>. 64 Petrozzi 45.

15

entrance consisted of three doors, only two of which are visible today – the horizontal post of the

large three-meter-wide central door, and the north door behind later buttressing.65 The Crusader

entrance filled in much of the large central door to strengthen the wall, forming a pointed

archway instead. Lastly, the Ottomans filled in the opening even more into the present short and

narrow door. This was initially built to prevent travelers’ animals from entering the church, but

is now known as the Door of Humility, as visitors must bend low to enter.66

Stepping into the atrium, visitors may be dismayed by the dark and dilapidated state of the

church. Fortunately, renovations of the church, and particularly the roof, are set to begin this

year.67 However, many fascinating features of the church remain. 44 pink limestone columns

stand boldly along the sides of the 1200 square-meter nave. Most of these pillars are painted

with Crusader images of saints and the Virgin Mary with Jesus. Gold Crusader mosaics line the

walls, although many are now just fragments. Floor mosaics from the original Constantine

church can be seen through openings in the floor. Elaborate gold lamps hang from the ceiling

casting a warm glow.68

At the end of the atrium, the main high altar stands intricately adorned with an iconostasis,

property of the Greek Orthodox Church. Other Armenian altars in the apses surround the high

altar. From the altar, two sets of staircases lead down into the Nativity grotto, a rectangular cave

underneath the church. The Altar of the Nativity frames a 14-pointed silver star placed on the

marble floor, marking the exact location considered to be the place of Jesus’ birth. Lamps of the

various Christian groups line this altar above the star. Several grottos have been carved out

65 Raheb et al. 33. 66 Raheb et al. 33. 67 Matti Friedman, "Bethlehem's Church of the Nativity to Be Restored," New Zealand Herald, 29 Nov. 2011, 12 Apr. 2012 <http://www.nzherald.co.nz/travel/news/article.cfm?c_id=7&objectid=10769587>. 68 Raheb et al. 32-33.

16

adjacent to the Nativity grotto, such as St. Jerome’s grottos from the 5th century and the grotto of

the bathing basin adapted in Justinian’s time.

The recent history of the Church of the Nativity is a stark example of the hardships which

Bethlehem has endured in recent years. The siege of 2002 left $77,000 worth of damage to the

church complex from smoke, fire, and bullets.69 The Church of the Nativity is the pride of both

the Bethlehem and international Christian community, but has not been immune to outside

influences. A combination of the economic depression and political pressures on the city, largely

from the Second Intifada, has prompted the continued emigration of Bethlehem Christians in

recent years. In the first seven years of the millennium, more than 3000 Christians left the town

due to the conflict. The numbers are grave. Many of the people leaving are the educated and

wealthy, the youth and politically moderate.70 Bernard Sabella, a Christian sociologist in the

Palestinian Parliament, says, “Those who are best able to change the situation are leaving.”

Unfortunately, this disheartening situation is occurring in many other cities throughout the

Middle East. Jerusalem, Ramallah, Istanbul, Alexandria, and Beirut are just a few of the many

cities where local Christian communities are shrinking.71 Throughout the Middle East,

Christianity is surviving as a smaller and smaller minority. This decline, particularly in Israel

and Palestine, has broader implications on the region. Christianity is tied to the places of its

origin, and the decrease in the Christian presence leaves a void in the continuing history and

diversity of the Middle East.

69 "Destruction in the West Bank, April 2002," ICOMOS, Retrieved 5 Apr 2012. 70 Finkel. 71 Betty Jane Bailey and J. Martin Bailey, Who Are the Christians in the Middle East? (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 2003).

17

Reflection

For a Western Christian like myself, this situation is discouraging but not completely without

hope. While small, a Christian presence will remain in the Middle East due to the centrality of

certain sites such as Jerusalem. Faith should not be tied to the “holiness” of a physical location,

as I can practice my faith here in the U.S. as well. My sincere hope is that the pressures of the

region will be alleviated so that no peoples will feel compelled to leave their homeland. Whether

this will occur in the near future remains uncertain, but Christians around the world must

continue to support their fellow believers and work for peace among all peoples.

18

Bibliography

"2007 PCBS Census" (PDF). Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics. 2007. Print.

Abu Toameh, Khaled. The Beleaguered Christians in Bethlehem. The Stonegate Institute, 12

May 2009. Web. 8 Mar. 2012.

Bailey, Betty Jane., and J. Martin Bailey. Who Are the Christians in the Middle East? Grand

Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 2003. Print.

"Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem." Church of the Nativity. Sacred Destinations, 26 Oct. 2009.

Web. 4 Apr. 2012. <http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-church-of-the-

nativity>.

Finkel, Michael. Bethlehem 2007 A.D. National Geographic Magazine Online, Dec. 2007. Web.

29 Mar. 2012. <http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/12/bethlehem/finkel-text.html>.

Fishman, Joshua A. and Tope Omoniyi. Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion.

Amsterdam: J. Benjamins, 2006. Print.

Friedman, Matti. "Bethlehem's Church of the Nativity to Be Restored." New Zealand Herald, 29

Nov. 2011. Web. 12 Apr. 2012.

<http://www.nzherald.co.nz/travel/news/article.cfm?c_id=7&objectid=10769587>.

Hagopian, Edward and A.B Zahlan. “Palestine's Arab Population: The Demography of the

Palestinians.” Journal of Palestine Studies Summer 1974: 32-73. Print.

19

Hammer, Joshua. A Season in Bethlehem: Unholy War in a Sacred Place. New York: Free, 2003.

Print.

Kabha, Mustafa. “The Palestinian Press and the General Strike , April-October 1936 : Filastin as

a Case Study.” Middle Eastern Studies Jul. 2003: 169-189. Print.

Khalidi, Rashid. Palestinian identity: the construction of modern national consciousness. New

York: Columbia University Press, 1997. Print.

MERIP. “Palestinian Resistance Threatens Israeli Occupation.” MERIP Reports Apr. 1976: 18-

19. Print.

Musallam, Adnan A. Bethlehem, The Holy Land’s Collective Cultural National Identity: A

Palestinian Arab Historical Perspective. Bethlehem University, 2007. Web. 8 Mar. 2012.

<http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/bethlehem/beth-hlccni.htm>.

"Ottoman Empire." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic

Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 11 Apr. 2012.

<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434996/Ottoman-Empire>.

Petrozzi, Maria Teresa. Bethlehem. Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing, 1971. Print.

Raheb, Mitri, Frederick M. Strickert, and Garo Nalbandian. Bethlehem 2000. Heidelberg:

Palmyra, 1998. Print.

Scholch, Alexander. “The Demographic Development of Palestine, 1850-1882.” International

Journal of Middle East Studies Nov. 1985: 485-505. Print.

20

Sennott, Charles M. The Body and the Blood: The Middle East's Vanishing Christians and the

Possibility for Peace. New York: Public Affairs, 2003. Print.

Sykes, Christopher. Crossroads to Israel. 1965. Reprint. Bloomington: Indiana University Press,

1973. Print.

"Timeline: Bethlehem Siege." BBC News. BBC, 05 Oct. 2002. Web. 17 Apr. 2012.

<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1950331.stm>.

Tsimhoni, Daphne. “The Status of the Arab Christians Under the British Mandate in Palestine.”

Middle Eastern Studies Oct. 1984: 166-192. Print.

United Nations. “The Changing Face of Bethlehem.” December 2004. Print.

Wasserstein, Bernard. Divided Jerusalem. 3rd ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.

Print.

Bethlehem’s Christian Community

Rebecca Leung

Mentor: Barbara Geller

Overview • Why Bethlehem? • History

o Ottoman Empire o British Mandate o Jordanian rule o Israeli occupation o Palestinian autonomy

• Church of the Nativity • Reflection

Bethlehem in spring

Church of the Nativity

Christian triangle of Bethlehem, Bayt Sahur, and Bayt Jala

Christian pilgrims, 1890

Bethlehem Christian women, 1911

Christmas in the early 1900s

Church of the Nativity during Ottoman period

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

1900 1907 1914 1921 1928 1935 1942 1949 1956 1963 1970 1977 1984 1991 1998 2005

Population of Bethlehem 1900 - present

Modern-day bagpipe parade, of British mandate origin

Palestinian nationalist resistance, 1938

Military stationed at the Church of the Nativity, 1939

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

1900 1907 1914 1921 1928 1935 1942 1949 1956 1963 1970 1977 1984 1991 1998 2005

Population of Bethlehem 1900 - present

Christmas in the Church of the Nativity, 1934-39

UN Partition Plan

Arab-Israeli War, 1948

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

1900 1907 1914 1921 1928 1935 1942 1949 1956 1963 1970 1977 1984 1991 1998 2005

Population of Bethlehem 1900 - present

Armenian convent refugees

1967 craftsman

Six-Day War Territories, 1967

Israeli soldiers in Bethlehem, 1978

First Intifada in Bethlehem, 1987

Bethlehem souvenir shop

Oslo Accords, 1993

Separation wall, 2011

Separation wall and checkpoint, 2010

Separation wall, 2010

Har Homa from Bethlehem, 2009

Siege of the Church of the Nativity, 2002

Siege of the Church of the Nativity, 2002

Church of the Nativity interior

Bethlehem churches and mosques

Sources Raheb, Mitri, Frederick M. Strickert, and Garo Nalbandian. Bethlehem 2000. Heidelberg: Palmyra, 1998. Print. http://www.atlastours.net/holyland/church_of_the_nativity.html http://2eyeswatching.wordpress.com/2012/02/10/the-garden-of-gethsemane-bethlehem/ Maps.google.com http://www.palestineremembered.com/GeoPoints/Bethlehem_536/Picture_12334.html http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0003_0_02860.html http://www.sjsapush.com/ch23.php http://www.flickr.com/photos/johnthefinn/4201714607/ Matson (G. Eric and Edith) Photograph Collection: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/matpc/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Arab-Israeli_War http://www.radiolajee.com/?p=304 http://www.magnumphotos.com/image/NYC22003.html http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/1998/1948/unirva.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-Day_War http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3611488,00.html http://occupiedpalestine.wordpress.com/2011/12/08/the-first-intifada-%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B6%D8%A9-in-pictures-intifada1/ http://www.seetheholyland.net/bethlehem/ http://www.alternativenews.org/english/index.php/topics/jerusalem/2704-israel-restricts-internationals-movement http://www.btselem.org/sites/default/files2/20110612_btselem_map_of_wb_eng.pdf http://taggingpeace.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/052.jpg http://rcerrotti.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/dsc_0178.jpg http://www.latimes.com/news/local/photography/la-ph-pulitzer-nativity-html,0,5157251.htmlstory Carolyn Cole/Los Angeles Times: http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/bethlehem-church-of-nativity-photos/

Thanks for listening! Questions?