A uthentic listening activities

Don Porter and Jon Roberts

1 Authenticlanguage

Intonation

Received pronunciation(RP)

Enunciation

Structural repetition

Complete sentences

Features of authentic language use are beginning to make their wayinto EL T materials, although it continues to be characteristic of listen-ing materials that they are recognizable as not being the 'real thing'.There is still a long way to go in the design of listening materials whichincorporate features of real use, but at least the value of exposinglearners to such features is widely accepted. It is not so widelyaccepted, however, that the authentic listening experience involvesmore than exposure to certain features of language: it also involves agreat variety of listening activities, and these are rarely exploited in EL Tmethodology.

In this article a number of authentic listening experiences areoutlined and discussed. A set of sample classroom activities is then pre-sented, in which authentic texts are exploited. The aim of each activityis to replicate authentic listening experiences and outputs while takingpedagogic constraints into account.

Native speakers or teachers of English as a foreign language are able withlittle hesitation and considerable accuracy to distinguish between listeningtexts which have been specially prepared for ELT and 'the real thing'—instances of spoken language which were not initiated for the purpose ofteaching. We shall call this 'real' language not intended for non-nativelearners authentic.

When asked to pinpoint what it is diat 'gives away' the ELT listening text,listeners mention a very wide range of linguistic features. We might note:

There is a tendency for the intonation used in EFL listening materials toresemble diat which indulgent modiers use to babies. It is marked by un-usually wide and unusually frequent pitch-movement. Although intona-tion of diis sort may be appropriate to young children, it is clearly in-appropriate in most of the situations and uses occurring in ELT. At best, itcauses amusement in learners; at worst, it is a source of irritation, of atendency to reject die materials, and of general demotivation.

With a few recent exceptions, speakers on die majority of British ELT tapesand cassettes have an RP accent, or a very close approximation to it. Whatdie learner listens to is thus quite unlike what he will normally hear inBritain, since only a tiny minority of British speakers have diis accent.2

Speakers tend to enunciate words widi excessive precision; assimilationand elision are minimal.

A particular function or structure recurs widi obtrusive frequency.

Not only do ELT listening materials normally avoid die fragmentation of

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Distinct turn-taking

Pace

Quantity

Attention signals

Formality

Limited vocabulary

Too much information

Mutilation

linguistic structures at various levels which characterizes most informalspeech, but the speakers in such materials also typically express themselvesin neat, simple, rather short, well-formed discrete sentences, rather than inmore natural sequences of loosely connected clauses.3

Where there is a conversation, discussion or other transaction involvingmore than one speaker, listeners in ELT texts wait for the person speakingto finish before themselves beginning; in authentic situations, they often donot.

The typical ELT listening text has a uniform pace—and it is slow. Theuniformity may be inappropriate to the type of speech, and may proveboring; the slowness may irritate. The learner will moreover not have beenfamiliarized with die relative rapidity and variability in pace of authenticdiscourse.

In die typical ELT dialogue, both speakers say an approximately equalamount, and neidier says very much. In real life, it is more often the casemat one speaker dominates the interaction for some time, while die otherplays a subsidiary role, until by tacit agreement or force majeure die rolesare reversed.

ELT conversational exchanges are often radier uncanny because of dieabsence of normal attention signals. These 'uhuh's' and 'mm's' areimportant indicators diat die listener is participating actively.

There is a tendency for materials to be biased towards standardized, quasi-literary language. Thus, syntax and lexis tend to be radier formal. Swear-words never occur, for example, while slang and odier colloquial forms arerare.

Vocabulary in ELT texts has almost always been 'tidied up' and restrictedin a variety of ways. There seems to be a general feeling diat textual contentshould be 'disengaged' from die particularities of everyday life or ofspecific incidents and times. In die audientic listening experience, diesepardcularities constandy intrude. It is die specific references to'WoolworthY or 'die Co-op', to 'parkas' and 'music-centres', to 'mortgageinterest rates' and 'die Ayatollah', which anchor language in reality. It isdie general absence of such references which renders many ELT textsanodyne.

An intuitive grasp of die fact diat shared knowledge is at a minimumbetween speakers in ELT materials and diose who listen to diem often leadsdie materials writer to include more explicit reference to objects, peopleand experiences dian would normally be diere in die audientic situation.

Listening texts are rarely marred by disturbing extraneous noise such astypewriters in die background, passing cars, odier people talking, etc. Such'mutilation of die message' is, however, a natural and integral part of dieaudiendc listening experience.

One could go on. But one diing diat diis list makes abundandy clear isdiat diere is a massive mismatch between die characterisdcs of die discoursewe normally listen to and diose of die language which die student normally

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hears in the ELT classroom. There is, moreover, an unrealistic matchbetween the characteristics of the language which the student listens to andthat which he is taught to produce. This match between die language forproduction and reception is perhaps a major reason for die classic situa-tion in which students do well in the classroom but are unable to transferdieir skills to die world outside. They have, of course, never been allowedto come to grips widi the language of die world outside. They producedieir neatly constructed sentences in radier formal English, widiin thelimitations of dieir vocabulary, in an approximation to an RP accent. Theyare, of course, understood. Then dieir interlocutors reply widi loosely con-structed strings of phrases and clauses, laced widi colloquialism and refer-ences to what is wrongly assumed to be shared knowledge, die whole in aregional accent which is in any case not very clearly pronounced. Thestudents understand little or nodiing. They expect odiers to speak, die waydiey diemselves have been taught to speak; die sad fact is diat practicallyno-one does.

Why has it come about diat die characteristics of production and recep-tion have been confused in diis way? In our opinion, almost entirelybecause listening, more dian any odier 'skill', has been sold short: it hasbeen made to play die role of handmaiden to all odier aspects of languagework. This role was made explicit in die ordering of language skillsadvocated in die audio-lingual approach: listen—speak—read—write. Thepurpose of listening practice was dius primarily to model structures forlanguage production (Rivers, 1964: 103). Listening was die first step in ateaching strategy for production, and so had nothing to do widi diehandling of new information and unpredicted language widi its diversecharacteristics, which are die essence of authendc listening.

If we are to help learners cope widi die audienuc situation of mismatchbetween die language diey produce and diat which diey hear, we must atleast expose diem to audientic language and, if possible, lead diem to workout strategies for coming to terms widi it. We would stress here diat we arecertainly not advocating exposing die learners solely—or even mainly—torecordings from life; die use of listening to provide models for productionis legitimate and an important part of teaching. But we would also stressdiat we cannot expect learners to handle types of language diey have never,or hardly ever, been exposed to.

2 Authentic listening The need for and usefulness of audienuc materials have been increasinglyactivity acknowledged in recent years. But should we stop diere, widi die linguistic

characteristics of audienucity? It is our belief diat diere is much moreinvolved in audienuc listening, particularly concerning the type of activity,die kind of process to which die listener submits die language he hears, anddie physical results of diese processes. The richness and variety of activities,processes and resultant behaviour has scarcely begun to be exploited inELT materials. It is, of course, possible to exploit audienuc texts in non-audientic ways, but we feel diat to limit ourselves to such exploitation is tomiss a great many opportunities: where it is possible to approach audien-ticity, why not do so? In our experience, die closer die learner comes tonormal language use, die greater is his endiusiasm.

As an illustration, consider die times when you listen during die courseof your normal day. Consider what is going on in your head as you listen(process) and how diis is exhibited in external behaviour (output). Here aresome samples from a normal day:

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Activity Listening to the radio, e.g. weather, news, the 'Today' programme.Process 1 'In one ear and out of the other'. This is very superficial listening with

little awareness of die content of what is being said. Output: zero.2 Evaluative listening and scanning for topics of interest to self or com-panion(s). This involves matching topics against one's own and/or com-panion's interests, and making mental notes. Output: summarize and laterretell to companion.3 Focused listening for specific information, e.g. about the day's weadier.Output: selection of appropriate activities for the day, or of appropriateclothes to wear, etc.

Activity Listening in face-to-face conversational interaction.Process 1 Evaluation, mental commentary, and developing a line of thought.

Output: oral response.2 Listening for conversational signals indicating the possibility of startingone's own turn. Output: taking a turn at the appropriate moment.3 Affective listening, i.e. not to what the speaker is saying but to how he orshe is saying it (e.g. is he or she annoyed, pleased, taken aback, etc.).Output: response to affective signals.4 Listening for feedback. In this kind of listening die speaker monitors hisor her own success in getting a message across. Output: appropriatemodification or repetition of utterance content.5 Labelling. Whenever we listen to someone, we immediately begin toform impressions about diem—where diey come from, what sort of back-ground they have, whedier they are lively or quiet, or have a sense ofhumour, etc. Output: varying degrees of modification in behaviour towardsdie speaker, depending on how we see ourselves.

Activity Listening to greetings.Process 1 Confirming acceptance by odier members of one's social group (i.e.

failure to note greetings and to respond to diem could well be resented byodier members of one's social group). Output: respond in kind.

Activity Listening to administrative requirements (face to face) involving requests,suggestions or instructions.

Process Determine necessary action. Output: perform some physical activity, make aconsidered oral response, telephone someone and impart or solicit infor-mation, etc.

Activity Listening on the telephone. This will include die same processes andoutputs as e.g. conversational interaction and listening to administrativerequirements, but die absence of visual reinforcement places particularemphasis on listening for feedback, affective listening and labelling.

Activity Eavesdropping. Some may have moral scruples about listening in to otherpeople's private conversations, but diis activity holds great fascination formany foreign-language learners. The reason is that diey are listening toutterances which have in no way been doctored for dieir consumption—dieessentially private nature of the communication underlines its audienticity.There is also the added attraction of a total absence of pressure on thelearner to participate. Much ELT listening material implicidy casts dielearner in die role of eavesdropper, but not audientically: he or she isexpected to understand everything, whereas in audientic eavesdropping die

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listener catches snatches of conversation and has to piece them together.Thus the authentic eavesdropping situation reflects in miniature thelearner-listener's permanent need to pick up bits and pieces of meaningand put them together in the way that makes best sense.

Process Reconstruction of a meaningful message from fragments. Output: If thelistener is alone, zero, with possible later retelling. If the listener is accom-panied, there may be an exchange of information ("What did she say?').A variant form of eavesdropping is listening to someone making a tele-phone call.

Process Reconstruction of the unheard half of the dialogue in accordance with thestructural, syntactic, semantic and phonological dues supplied in die halfdiat is heard. Output: zero, or die eavesdropper tries to confirm his or herguesses about die unheard half by questioning die person who made thecall.

Activity Watching T.V., seeing a film at the dnema, etc.Process Follow plot-development, logical argument, etc., with reference to visible

speakers), or visual information about die content. Output: 1 laughter atdie right moments; 2 later discussion of plot, motivation,acting; 3 retelling—'I liked it when/My favourite bit was when Bondtore off Jaws' parachute in mid-air!'

Activity Listening to recordings of songs.Process 1 In one ear and out of die odier.

2 Trying to catch the words. A favourite teenage occupation is trying tocatch die words of die latest hit, often writing diem down as part of dieprocess {Output).3 Picking up die chorus and tune. Output: singing along.

The activities, processes and outputs oudined here are not intended toconstitute an exhaustive list: on die contrary, diey represent only a smallselection. A few moments' diought about your own daily life will certainlyproduce further examples. But just as die linguisdc features of audienticlanguage were shown earlier to be rich in variety, diis short list of listeningactivities, processes, and outputs should suggest diat diere is a wealdi ofways of listening. If die learner is to achieve any degree of real proficiency inlanguage use—as opposed to a radier abstract proficiency, which operatesonly under die strictly controlled, laboratory-like conditions of the class-room—dien he or she must be given die chance to listen in authentic ways.

Of course, a certain amount of weighting and selecting must be done.Individual teachers and materials-constructors will feel diat it is inappro-priate in one case, or uneconomic in anodier, to introduce some of dieseactivities into die classroom, while odier activities should be given varyingdegrees of emphasis. Thus for example it might be felt diat eavesdroppingshould not be encouraged, diat listening and reacting appropriately togreetings should probably take up very little time in any course, but thatlistening for spedfic informadon dirough different degrees of mutilation,or following die logical development of an argument widi televisualsupport, might be given considerable attention. Whatever die dedsion is,some opportunity to listen in a variety of audientic ways will always bedesirable.

It is our argument diat at least some provision should be made in ELTfor die student to become involved in die listening processes demanded in

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3 Authentic listeningactivities in the

classroomActive guessing

authentic listening situations. The second part of this article will discussspecific listening activities, and provide examples.

Multiple choice questions and 'wh' questions are still widely used in theexploitation of listening materials, even when they consist of authenticspeech. However, we suggest that the kind of processing of the text thatthese questions require might encourage learners to adopt counter-productive attitudes to their own experience of the target language.Teachers frequently note that learners seem to believe: 'unless I under-stand everything, I won't understand anything', and expect 'total com-prehension' of all texts as a prerequisite to interpreting worthwhilemeaning. However, there are signs that good language learners havedifferent attitudes. In the 'Good Language Learner' study (Naiman et al,1978) it is suggested that the learner at beginner level needs to be a 'willingand active guesser' who makes full use of his own direct linguisticexperiences. This implies that it is desirable to encourage learners to makethe most of their 'incomplete' comprehension and use every clue availableto them as the basis for active guessing.

It seems to us thaj: multiple choice exercises and many forms ofquestioning are liable to inhibit such desirable attitudes to text. They mayinduce teacher dependency and a fear of'incomplete' comprehension, thatis, not being able to understand and recall large chunks of the text. Theseexercises, we feel, may lead to the assumption that the learner's com-prehension goals are represented only in terms of the knowledge of the textthat exists in the teacher's head, a knowledge which is 'complete' and richin fine discriminations, and so is only approachable with the teacher'smediation between text and learner. The learner will only be able to showthat his 'knowledge' of the text is approximating to that of the teacherthrough tests, re-production, and answers to 'higher inference' questions.Where the text does contain target knowledge, then such an approach isprobably appropriate. However, we listen for many different reasons, andthis 'complete comprehension' represents only one. Through alternativeexercises the learner can see that texts may be experienced other than asmodels of language.

A broader approach to comprehension recognizes that we understand atarget language at different levels according to our ability to use linguisticclues and situational and paralinguistic information. Even native speakersdo not impose a standard of total comprehension on themselves, andtolerate vagueness. For example, on the BBC weather forecasts forshipping, millions of listeners may hear that a wind is 'backing south-easterly'. To a layman, 'backing' will mean 'moving' and he is quite contentwith that, though aware that there is probably a finer distinction con-tained in the term.4 His comprehension is partial, but sufficient for hisneeds, and in proportion to his knowledge. This single example points to ageneral truth: we can, indeed must, tolerate degrees of vagueness in ourcomprehension of text. However, the language learner is trained todemand of him or herself complete comprehension in every experience ofevery kind of text. We would advocate a broader range of textual experi-ences, so that at certain stages learners would be encouraged to ignore theparts of a message which they do not need, and also to make 'best guesses'about a text, in the recognition that such guesses entail partial com-prehension. Learners can always get something from an English text. Beloware examples of how 'partial comprehension' may be realized, where text is

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used for message value, not as a model or source of knowledge.

4 Authentic text. Authentic texts for listening comprehension commit us to trying toauthentic use replicate in class the roles the native speaker plays in the authentic

situation. This is because authentic texts are structured according to theirpurpose. For instance, a radio commercial is brief and striking, designed tobe heard many times, and relays a small quantity of information verydramatically. It is designed to attract attention and drive home a verylimited message (a jingle, brand name), and is often supported by othermedia. The listener's role indicates how this text type might be exploitedappropriately in class: recognition of brand names; noting down infor-mation (prices, phone numbers and addresses); voluntary recall. It wouldhardly conform with the nature of the text to attempt detailed question-ing, or to require the sort of semantic discrimination commonly found inmultiple choice items. It is clear that we should be wary of a form ofexploitation that is not appropriate to the sample. It would be reasonableto use 'information transfer' activities with a spoken itinerary, but not witha song. It would be suitable for learners to attempt highly selective 'scan'listening with a weather forecast or a station announcement, but not withan expository monologue where there is great interdependence of the com-ponent parts of the text. This rather obvious point is in fact often over-looked in the exploitation of authentic texts.

We conclude that the use of text as a language model, presupposed insuch exercise types as multiple choice, questioning, and language focus,does not allow the range of listening experiences encountered in die realworld. The learner should experience this range in the classroom. There isalso a stronger, if more speculative claim, namely that diese conventionalexercises may actually inhibit productive and desirable language learningstrategies. We therefore mink it worthwhile to parallel in classroomactivities processes and outputs of the types specified above, while takinginto account the conditions of learning of a given group. Ultimately, weare arguing for a kind of'listening role play'.

/ Station announcements(The material we used was recordedon Reading Station. There is back-ground noise, and distortion causedby the public address system.)Aims ProcedureTo provide experience of the a. Pre-listening phase: die teacher may encourage thefeatures of a 'mutilated message'; to learners to pool dieir 'background knowledge' and expecta-encourage listening for a purpose, tions of die announcement, and expose diem to some keyin which the learner develops vocabulary before it occurs in die audientic text. The teacherexpectancies which are later con- may ask questions such as: 'You are at die station. You arefirmed or rejected. going to hear an announcement. Is die announcer going to be

a man or a woman? What is he/she going to talk about? Whatis he/she going to tell us about die train diat is arriving?'(Possible responses: die time, a delay, which train it is.) 'Whatelse will he/she tell us ?' (Possible response: die platform.)Each learner's contribution is built on and developed. Theteacher can dien elicit suggestions about what die stationannouncer will actually say. For example, if die learnerssuggest diere will be information about die arrival time, die

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2 Weather forecasts(preferably very recent)AimsTo practise focused listening forspecific information without visualsupport; to promote a sense ofinvolvement in the native speaker'senvironment; use of shared know-ledge to predict form and contentof the message; familiarization withregional accents; and exposure to atext of moderate length with a repe-titious structure.

teacher can ask what the announcer will say: 'Will he/she say"A train is coming at 11.02" ?' (A visual aid of a station mighthelp, as this phase might well reveal cultural differences andunfamiliarity with what a British station is like.) The length oftime devoted to the pre-listening phase will vary according todie lengdi of the announcement.b. Listening phase: students listen to die message andcomment on what was actually contained in it. This could befollowed by further listening while reading a transcription.Alternatively, die teacher could give each learner a role card(Fig. I).

You are going to Torquay from Paddington.You are on the 11.12 to Cardiffand it stops at Reading.

Smrau Mnvpcrt Piftwiy Swindon

PiddjnQtonWrton-suptf-Mira Bratd

Tmplt Mvtdt

Tiumon

Listen to the announcement. Must you change?If so, where? If you are not sure, ask someone.Ftg.l

The output of listening may be no more than a response to thequestions or a development of the role play in which learnerscheck if they are on the right train. The teacher may act as atraveller or a railway employee.

ProcedureThe teacher elicits learners' knowledge of forecast structureand content. Learners adopt a location on a map, either fromfree choice, or according to a role card. They then listen andnote relevant weadier details. Then learners may:a. report regional weather details to die teacher;b. exchange information widi odiers in small groups;c. select appropriate dodiing;d. discuss and choose alternative activities for the day.

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3 Two radio broadcasts(preferably very recent andseparated by a very short space oftime, e.g. one hour)AimsEvaluative listening and scanning,without visual support; use of back-ground knowledge to predictcontent; exposure to texts ofmoderate length with repetitiousstructure and delivered at amoderate pace.

4 Tape recording of a songAims'In one ear and out of the other';assimilation of some knowledge ofdie language and culture. Listen-ing for precise words and phrases;use of context, cultural knowledge,etc., to predict form and content.Exposure to texts delivered at amoderate-to-slow pace widi stronginternal structure.

5 Radio advertisementsAimsTo encourage 'minimal' com-prehension; exposure to a textincorporating features of mutila-tion and variation.As for (a), but widi some limitedtransfer of information.

ProcedureThe teacher elicits students' knowledge of news content andorganization.a. Learners listen to die first broadcast for items of interest todiem, and compare items diey noted with diose noted byothers. They then listen to die second broadcast for new infor-mation or other differences.b. Learners predict die content of die first broadcast. Theydien listen, check predictions, and predict changes in thepriority of Items in the second broadcast. Finally they listen todiis and check predictions.c. Learners scan newspapers of die same date, or pages fromthem, for die main topics, and listen to the broadcast to seewhich do/do not occur, and widi what developments.5

Procedurea. Learners hear die song in die background.b. Learners read an incomplete text, representing an inter-mediate stage in a learner's attempt to write down the words,and diey dien predict die content and form of the incompletesections. They guess die meaning of unknown words, andlisten to die song repeatedly until die text is complete,checking dieir predictions. Finally diey can play the record-ing and 'sing along'.

Procedurea. Show packages of four brands of a popular product (e.g.cereal). Learners dien listen to several adverts., one of whichpromotes one of die four brands seen. Students identify thebrand (and, optionally, indicate if diey would buy it).b. Learners are given role cards, e.g.It is November. You do not have a warm winter overcoat. You want tobuy one. orYou are going to the anema tonight withfnends. You like westerns andhorrorfilms, orYou are a housewife. You want some new recipes for your children'smeals. They like vegetables, fish, chicken, and eggs.Learners hear a series of advertisements, including ones for awinter coat sale, a horror film, and eggs. In the latter, listenersare told to write for a free egg recipe. Learners note down thenames, phone numbers, addresses or tides mentioned whichare relevant to diem.c. The teacher records a set of advertisements for entertain-ments, and also constructs a complementary 'What's On'guide from newspaper clippings. Learners first consult theguide and selea what diey want to do. They dien hear the tape

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Labelling of speakers

6 Extracts from conversationsAimsTo encourage guessing: the listenermust hold clues in his memory inorder to form and then check'hypotheses'.

Notes on exploitationof material

and extract any further information needed, e.g. days ofshowing, times, cost, etc.6

d. Learners listen to advertisements with strong 'personality'voices, and try to match the voices with a set of pictures ofpeople. They then attempt to explain their choices.

ProcedureIn the role of a guest at a party, the learner is asked to 'eaves-drop' on a series of short overheard conversations. The levelwill determine the degree of detail required in comprehen-sion: guessing the general topic will often be sufficient. A'starter' is given on a worksheet to help the learners tune in tonew speech styles. The sample has features of pace andregional variation, and may be mutilated. Worksheet:

EavesdroppingYou are at a party given by the Director of Studies at yourschool. A lot of teachers and students are there. As you goaround, you can hear pieces of conversation. Try to guess whatthe people are talking about. You hear four different con-versations. Would you like to join any of them?You can write notes if you want:

Topic Are you interested?

A transcript of the first few words of each is given.

1 These types of activities work least well when offered as an isolated listen-ing comprehension activity, unrelated to die rest of a course. After all,audientic listening never happens in isolation. We feel that the listeningshould be integrated, for example by topic, or dirough its inclusion in aseries of related experiences.

2 Students will find listening to authentic texts more difficult than listeningto the usual idealized and standardized material. The degree to which theycan perform the activities suggested will depend on what linguistic andparalinguistic clues are available and how able die learners are to make useof diem. This sort of consideration will determine which texts are chosen.There is nevertheless a danger of rejecting many authentic texts in theinterest of ensuring learner success; die teacher should guard againstselecting texts which are so easy diat no guessing or selective listening willgo on, aJdiough it would have been an appropriate activity.

It is preferable in these activities not to use a transcript or frequentreplays except where this is appropriate to die listener's normal role vis-d-vis a text. The decision not to use a transcript or rely on multiple replaysdoes, however, imply using texts diat are either very short in diemselves, or

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have a clear, predictable and repetitive inner structure (such as news broad-casts), as a step towards experience of longer texts. Using short texts, orsequences of short episodes, avoids die risk of overload, of incomprehen-sion of one element which may lead to incomprehension of die whole text.

3 Many learners find it extremely helpful in dealing widi audientic speechsimply to listen and to use a transcription. They may listen, dien simul-taneously listen and read, then listen again. This is very helpful in aidingsegmentation of the stream of sound and recognition of weak forms orother features of reduction. We see this exploitation of audientic materialsas a useful strand in developing listening competencies which are com-plementary to die activities we suggest.

4 A source of difficulty in die use of authentic samples is diat in die real lifesetting, the listener is assisted in his interpretation of die oral language byfeatures of the situation (the setting, die appearance and body language ofspeakers, etc.), and also by general knowledge of die world. Clearly die'guessability' of an audientic text is gready reduced if eidier situationalinformation or culturally acquired knowledge is no't available. If you knowhow news broadcasts are structured and what is likely to appear in diem,your ability to extract meaning is greater. If, on the odier hand, you haveno experience of news broadcasts and do not know what is likely to bereported, your ability to understand is vasdy reduced, and transcripts,replays, or even simultaneous translation may be of little help. Hence, thedegree to which the student knows die text format or prerequisite infor-mation will suggest which texts to select, how to exploit diem, and dienature of possible preparatory work. It is clear diat acquiring knowledge offormat and probable content is part of die cultural boundary-crossingentailed in target language learning.

S Conclusion We hope we have suggested not a replacement of conventional listeningactivities, but a valuable addition to diem, one which will contribute tobetter preparation of learners for die experience of audientic listening. CHReceived October 1980

Notma Rivers, W. M. 1964. The Psychologist and the Foreign1 This article is based on a presentation made by the Language Teacher. Chicago: Chicago University

audiors at International House, London, in Press.November 1979.

2 Hughes and Trudgill (1979) estimate that 3% of thepopulation of Britain speak RP.

3 See Crystal and Davy, 1969, p. 110. Th« authors4 'Backing' means 'moving counter-sunwise'. Don Porter and Jon Roberts are lecturers at the Centre5 Suggested by Brian Abbs. for Applied Language Studies, University of Reading6 Suggested by Brian Abbs. (part of the University's Department of Linguistic

Science).Reftencvs Don Porter has taught English and AppliedCrystal, D. and D. Davy. 1969. Investigating English Linguistics both in Britain and in a number of coun-

Style. London: Longman. tries overseas since 1963. He is particularly interestedHughes, A. and P. Trudgill. 1979. English Accents and in language testing and English phonology.

Dialects. London: Arnold. Jon Roberts has postgraduate qualifications inNaimann, N., M. Frohlich, H. Stern and A. Todesco. Education and Applied Linguisucs and has worked as

1978. The Good Language Learner. Research in Educa- a TEFL teacher and teacher-trainer since 1969. He istion Series No. 7, Ontario Institute for Studies in interested in communication activities in the class andEducation. in problems related to teacher education.

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