Alcohol as a Factor in Habit Formation

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Alcohol as a Factor in Habit Formation

Abstract

The formation of habits occurs through repeated practice with some form of reward. This paper aims to discuss the impact of habitutal behaviour on alcohol

consumption and vice versa, looking at habits, their formation and how alcohol can impact this. Issues such as neurochemistry as well as the potential psychological

aspects of habits will help investigate the link and future directions for research will be explored.

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Introduction - Overview of habits Habits are an essential part of our lives, in many cases they offer us the chance

to complete a task whilst still allowing for mental freedom to absorb other information or ensure we remain safe from threats. Habits range from things such as clicking your fingers when thinking, to always turning on the light when you enter a room. Almost anything can become a habit if we do it regularly enough.

Often we hear the term separated into good and bad; smoking is considered a

bad habit, whilst exercising every day is a good one. But in reality habits are neither good or bad, and rarely are they actively

chosen; rather they are simply a learnt behaviour; a result of regular repetition and followed by some form of reward (feeling good, feeling relaxed etc.).

Eventually though habits often become so ingrained in our behaviour that they

no longer offer any noticeable reward, but instead serve to free up our time and mental capacity. If it's a habit to smoke after dinner for example, you needn't use your brain to try and think of what you should do after dinner, you just do it.

Sometimes we evolve our habits to be such an integral part of our lives that we

don't even notice we are doing them. Some people play with their hair when they talk, and whilst this may not appear to save any time or mental capacity, it must serve some sort of purpose, or at least did in the past.

It may have offered an individual a sense of comfort if nervous or gave them

something to do with their hands, and whilst the need for comfort or to keep busy may not exist any more, the habit remains because we have altered our brains to respond that way when we talk.

There is almost always a functional reason for a habit being formed and

developed, even when we may not be able to see this reason. This is especially true considering that in most cases we don't even recognise that our behaviour is a 'habit'.

Driving is a prime example of this; if asked many people would probably say

that they put their foot on the brakes if a car in front does because the have recognised that there is a danger and need to take action, but in reality for such a complex thought to occur and the action to be taken, it would take longer than the split second it takes us to slam on the breaks.


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Initially it may have been the case, a cautious learner driver stays back from cars in front, sees they are breaking and then decides to do so too after some thought, but eventually when you see the red brake lights of the car in front, you do it automatically; which saves time, brain power and probably your life.

So all in all habits aren't bad things to have; but unfortunately some habits

certainly have their own downfalls, and when it comes to drugs and alcohol it can be very easy for a 'harmless' habit to become a very dangerous addiction.

Addictions and habits are very similar beasts, and the line between them can be

very hard to see but easy to cross. This is often more the case with alcohol as it tends to have a less intense impact

on brain structure than some other drugs such as heroin which alter the chemistry of the brain very quickly to breed addiction.

But even so the same principle applies in both cases; an individual uses drugs or

alcohol, they enjoy the sensation it gives them so they keep using it. In heroin though the enjoyment is also countered by a very severe withdrawal period, and the aforementioned changes that occur in the brain occur quite rapidly, thus making it virtually impossible for the individual not to want to use again.

In alcohol however these changes are much more subtle, and thus is more

common for individuals to slowly slide from 'habit' to 'addiction' without even noticing.

One common scenario that many people report is the 'after work drink';

whether it's down the pub or in their home, many individuals will happily admit to regularly consuming a drink after work, to help them relax.

Some individuals limit this to a weekend ritual, but many take it up as a daily

thing, and may not even be fully aware of it after a time; they instinctively reach for a beer/wine/spirit after work because they know it will help them 'relax'.

It is often only when this ritual cannot be carried out for whatever reason, that

an individual recognises that they feel different without it. This is a prime example of a typical alcohol habit, but also demonstrates the

beginning of an addiction, which if not dealt with swiftly will only continue to expand until it becomes almost uncontrollable.


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But whilst observational evidence helps demonstrate how alcohol use on a regular basis leads to habits and addictions, it does little to explain why.

Due to the impact that alcohol use and abuse can have on individuals and

society as a whole, researchers have been working tirelessly for many years to try and understand the mechanisms that drive such behaviour, and hope that having this knowledge will help eventually lead to new and improved treatments and strategies to address alcoholism and other forms of addiction.


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Alcohol, habits, addiction and the brain In recent years there have been several discoveries that have helped to develop

a more clear understanding of how alcohol affects the brain and how these changes lead to further alcohol use.

The primary driver behind any kind of habit formation appears to be dopamine,

which is a chemical neurotransmitter which controls the 'reward' part of the brain; essentially telling you when you enjoy something, and thus motivating you to do it more (Science Daily, 2012). It has various other functions as well, but when it comes to habit forming, scientists believe that dopamine is the key ingredient.

Research using rats has found that when they are given additional doses of

dopamine during a lever pulling task (push the lever when a light shines to get food), they continue to push the lever when the light shines, which is contradictory to the natural behaviour of rats in the control group (i.e. without additional dopamine) who eventually stop pushing the lever when they no longer require food (Faure et al., 2005).

What this shows is that when high levels of dopamine are present in the brain,

actions that would usually be goal orientated (e.g. getting food because you are hungry and the hunger would then go away) suddenly become more of a habit (e.g reaching for the biscuit tin when you get home from work, even if you ate a big lunch).

Such findings help demonstrate how important a role dopamine plays in habit

formation, essentially it seems that the more dopamine that is released during an activity, the quicker a habit will develop (Gedeman et al., 2003). But even if dopamine is only released in fairly small bursts at a time, if it happens on a regular enough basis, it will still lead to habits forming.


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Alcohol and dopamine Unfortunately things like drugs and alcohol have quite a powerful dopamine

releasing effect, and this is why they are such addictive substances. Research has shown that regular alcohol consumption promotes dopamine release in the areas of the brain responsible for habits and instinctive behaviours (Boileau et al. 2003).

Other studies have also shown that alongside dopamine, alcohol also promotes

serotonin release, which is another neurotransmitter linked to pleasure, and thus encouraging alcohol habits and addictions (Yoshimoto et al., 1991).

The link between alcohol consumption and dopamine is also demonstrated in a

study where rats who lack specific dopamine receptors were compared with standard rats, and found that in those who lacked the receptors, the rates of voluntary alcohol consumption was significantly lower (Hungand et al. 2003).

Furthermore those who lacked these specific receptors also released less

dopamine in response to alcohol. Such results suggest a complex interaction between certain receptors, dopamine and alcohol and imply that when these receptors are active, they are influenced by alcohol to release dopamine which then enables the reward system to activate. However without these receptors, alcohol does not promote dopamine release and thus habitual alcohol consumption is less likely to occur.

This influence of alcohol on dopamine release creates a vicious circle and is

what ultimately contributes to the development of addiction. Because dopamine is released when alcohol is consumed this leads to alcohol having a rewarding effect, thus making people want to drink again in the future.

This is not necessarily a problem as long as the consumption remains moderate

and infrequent, however when individuals begin to consume alcohol in a more excessive manner, whether with regards to volume or frequency, this then leads to a more permanent change in the brain. Research has shown that when this change occurs, dopamine is no longer required to promote a habit (Wickens et al., 2007) and this is generally the point at which addiction occurs.

Furthermore it also begins to take greater amounts of alcohol to even promote

any type of response, and this is when individuals begin to build up a tolerance to alcohol and is one of the key components of addiction compared to habit.


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However, as mentioned before, this is not a quick process, and researchers are now suggesting that the change from habit formation to addiction may be a result of not only changes in dopamine release, but in fact a change in the areas of the brain involved.

One study suggests that when individuals initially use drugs or alcohol, they are

further compelled to do so by the area of the brain that modulates means/end types of behaviours (i.e. drugs offer a pleasant experience so must be used again in order to feel it again).

However as the behaviour is repeated, a shift occurs towards utilising a

different area of the brain, the one that regulates learned behaviours (i.e. habits) and it is once this area is stimulated that dopamine plays an even bigger role and goes on to promote addictive behaviours whereby individuals no longer have any real choice in their actions and desires.

Thus it seems that at a very basic level the cycle of addiction works something

like this: individual tries drug and likes the sensations – one area of the brain promotes the idea of using drugs again because it will make them feel good – individual continues to use drug by choice – eventually another area of the brain takes over and encourages drug use by cues rather than active desire or choice – individual continues to use drug out of habit – habitual drug use causes further changes in the brain – these changes mean that individual no longer has choice in drug use, cravings and brain chemistry demand regular drug use.

It is at this point that individuals would often be required to seek professional

help for their alcohol or drug use as unfortunately the no longer have a real choice in whether they use a substance or not.


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Other factors in habit formation and addictions However it is important to remember that while dopamine release and

chemical reactions in the brain play a huge role in habits and addictions, they do not happen without some form of external stimulus which promotes their release. It is thus important to consider the role of cues in habit formation, as many studies have found that habits are less likely to develop without some form of cue to promote that behaviour (Nelson & Killcross, 2006).

The example about having a drink after work demonstrates this principle; if an

individual has a drink every night after they come straight home from work they will form a habit, and will likely reach for a drink without thinking about it.

However at the habit stage at least, if an individual alters their after work

routine once in while (e.g. go out for dinner straight after work) they may not instinctively desire a drink as their usual habit cue (getting home) isn't present.

This example also helps highlight the choice element of habit which is not

present in addiction; the individual may still choose to have a drink when out at dinner, but wouldn't necessarily feel the need for one, but once a habit develops in to addiction this is no longer the case, and whilst certain cues may further enhance the need for alcohol, the lack of cues will not dampen it.

This also raises the issue of psychological elements of habits and potential

addiction formation as many habits also offer some form of security as mentioned above.

While it may no longer be a chosen action, many habitual behaviours develop

not only due to the fact they make us feel good, but also because doing the same thing in a predictable manner allows us a feeling of security and safety and reduces feelings of stress (Wood et al, 2002).


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Conclusions As with all aspects of human behaviour, the development of habits is complex

and still not fully understood. While we now recognise that dopamine plays an important role, and that there seems to be a drastic shift in how to the brain responds to alcohol after a time, even these aspects are not fully understood, and questions about why some individuals seem to be more susceptible to addictions developing compared to others.

Other research has also looked in to other habits that typically form alongside

alcohol use and have found that when alcohol and nicotine are combined, the dopamine release is more intense and thus helps explain why alcohol and smoking are such agreeable bed fellows for many people (Tizabi, et al. 2006).

But in addition to this, it was also found that when nicotine antagonists are

administered, this can have a dampening effect on the reward response from alcohol, thus suggesting a potential treatment option for alcohol abuse in the future.

Thus whilst understanding the mechanisms behind addiction are extremely

interesting and offer further directions for futures studies, the real importance of such research is in what potential treatments it may offer to those with alcohol problems in the future. Utilising the new information to enable those with addictions to overcome their demons could save many lives, and help prevent future generations of addicts.


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References Boileau et al. (2003). Alcohol Promotes Dopamine Release in the Human Nucleus Accumbens. SYNAPSE 49:226 –231 Gedeman et al. (2003). It could be habit forming: drugs of abuse and striatal synaptic plasticity. Trends in Neuroscience. Hungand et al. (2003). Cannabinoid CB1 receptor knockout mice exhibit

markedly reduced voluntary alcohol consumption and lack alcohol-induced dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens . Journal of Neurochemistry

Volume 84, Issue 4, pages 698–704, Faure et al. (2005). Lesion to the Nigrostriatal Dopamine System Disrupts Stimulus–Response Habit Formation. The Journal of Neuroscience, March 16,

2005 • 25(11):2771–2780 Nelson and Killcross. (2006). Amphetamine Exposure Enhances Habit

Formation. The Journal of Neuroscience, April 5, 2006 • 26(14):3805–3812 Science Daily. (2012). Habit formation is enabled by gateway to brain cells Tizabi et al. (2006). Effects of Combined Systemic Alcohol and Central Nicotine

Administration into Ventral Tegmental Area on Dopamine Release in the Nucleus Accumbens. Alcoholism: clinical and experimental research, 6, 394-399.

Wood et al. (2002). Habits in Everyday Life: Thought, Emotion, and Action.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1281-1297. Wickens et al. (2007). Dopaminergic Mechanisms in Actions and Habits. The

Journal of Neuroscience, 1 August 2007, 27(31): 8181-8183; doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1671-07.2007

Yoshimoto et al. (1991). Alcohol stimulates the release of dopamine and

serotonin in the nucleus accumbens. Alcohol, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0741-8329(92)90004-T


Alcohol as a Factor in Habit Formation

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