UNIVERSITY OF TUZLA

FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

AGE IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

(The importance of brain plasticity for SLA)

(Research paper)

1

Hanka Kekic

June 29th 2015

CONTENTS1. INTRODUCTION..................................................31.1 Aim of the Paper.............................................31.2 Research Questions...........................................41.3 Second Language Acquisition Overview.........................41.4 Age and SLA..................................................51.5 Brain plasticity............................................71.6 Learners’ Attention Span in SLA..............................81.7 What is TPR?.................................................81.7 Learning English from first grade............................81.8 What kind of problems in SLA do learners encounter due to their age?......................................................122. METHODOLOGY..................................................133. CONCLUSION...................................................18SOURCES.........................................................19APPENDIX 1......................................................20APPENDIX 2......................................................22

2

1. INTRODUCTION

Acquiring a language is in human nature, and it is what we all

start from a very young age. Children acquire a language easier

than adults since they do not consciously know whether a

language is difficult to learn, since they tend to imitate the

words and how the pronunciation helping them acquire a language

more easily.

However, every child acquires a language i.e. their first

language or mother tongue gradually and how they speak depends

on their environment and the language their parents and people

surrounding them use. It also greatly depends on their age and

gender.

When acquiring a second language, the pattern remains –

3

children acquire a language easier than adults, which has much

to do with brain plasticity and the importance of acquiring a

language at a young age. Various factors also influence the

child’s acquisition of a second language, and among them are age

and gender.

1.1 Aim of the Paper

With the development of society, language is developing side

by side. Today, it's easier to conduct a research to understand

the process of human mind in acquiring language. In this paper, we

are questioning how age and gender can affect SLA (Second Language

Acquisition). This paper will try to elaborate on this topic,

while touching the basics of the SLA.

In this paper, we want to lead the reader from the SLA, to

the crux of the matter, which is the topic of this paper 'Age in

SLA (Second Language Acquisition)’. Age matters and affects

learners in many ways. Reading leads to understanding and

understanding leads to knowledge. This paper will try to elaborate

and show on numerous examples and results from questionnaires how

age affects the learners’ SLA, and how there are differences

between younger and older learners when acquiring a second

language.

We shall see how these factors influence SLA and when it is

best to start learning a second language.

4

1.2 Research Questions

This paper will attempt to answer these following research

questions:

1. How is age crucial in acquiring a second language?

2. What is brain plasticity and why is it important for SLA?

3. What are the advantages of having English from the first

grade?

54. What kind of problems in SLA do learners

encounter due to their age?

Out of these 4 research questions, the first two are completely

inappropriate for your research paper. The third and fourth could

be appropriate under certain conditions. You are again talking

about issues that are too general for a research paper, issues

which you yourself cannot really examine. For example, your second

research question (RQ) asks what brain plasticity is (the first

part of the question) – well, you just take a look at a definition

and there you go, no need to investigate it. The second part of

the question “why is it important to SLA”, the same thing again,

you simply take a look in a book and read why it is important – it

is not something you yourself can really examine.

Third RQ could possibly be used if you actually investigated

teachers’ opinions regarding introduction of English language

classes from the 1st grade. Fourth RQ could possibly be used if you

investigated problems children encountered in their English

language classes in, for example, first five grades (also I would

5

definitely omit SLA from the RQ and put in ‘English language

classes’ instead).

1.3 Second Language Acquisition Overview

According to the Macmillan dictionary, SLA is defined as the

process by which people learn a language that is not their native language. The

process of Second Language Acquisition is crucial in the

attainment of the second, third or fourth language. The human

brain is still the unknown even though many researches have been

made throughout out the years. Even with today's technology one

cannot tell how these processes work, though we have to agree they

have something which makes us prone to attaining language more

quickly and more efficiently.

Whether one is acquiring language through instruction or

naturalistic way, it is becoming more and more vital as the

language is gaining on importance in world of today. We know that

the English language is widespread as the second language in

children and adults. While reading we know how SLA is important

and what exactly is SLA is, but here what interests us the most is

how specific topics such as age and gender affect SLA.

SLA is important, and studies have been made over the years. We

understand what this exactly entails. One cannot go without the

other, understanding of basics of SLA is important before we

embark on a journey that will show us the depths in which age and

gender are important.

6

1.4 Age and SLAFirstly, it is crucial to know that children are better than

adolescents ion terms of implicit learning. Children are more

curious than adolescents are which helps them learn more, due to

this inner motivation.

There are different stages of SLA. These are:

Stage 1: Pre-production

Children who are surrounded by English language speakers are

more likely to acquire at least certain sounds or words at this

stage. They are not learning the language, but they are parroting.

Stage 2: Early production

At this stage, the vocabulary of students will develop and

they will acquire up to around 1000 words. This does not mean that

everything learned at this stage is correct, hence some phrases or

words may be used in a wrong way. Some form of helping students

not to learn incorrectly or to improve their learning of English

is to:

1. Ask yes/no and either/or questions.

2. Accept one or two word responses.

3. Give students the opportunity to participate in some

of the whole class activities.

4. Use pictures to support questions.

5. Modify content information to the language level of7

ELLs.

6. Build vocabulary using pictures.

7. Provide listening activities.

8. Simplify the content materials to be used. Focus on

key vocabulary and concepts.

9. When teaching elementary age ELLs, use simple books

with predictable text.

10. Support learning with graphic organizers,

charts and graphs. Begin to foster writing in

English through labeling and short sentences. Use a

frame to scaffold writing.1

Stage 3: Speech emergence

At this stage, the vocabulary is much richer, namely students

have acquired up to 3,000 words. They can communicate and also:

1. Sound out stories phonetically.

2. Read short, modified texts in content area subjects.

3. Complete graphic organizers with word banks.

4. Understand and answer questions about charts and graphs.

5. Match vocabulary words to definitions.

6. Study flashcards with content area vocabulary.

7. Participate in duet, pair and choral reading activities.

8. Write and illustrate riddles.

9. Understand teacher explanations and two-step directions.1 Stages of Second Language Acquisition. (n.d.). Retrieved May 17, 2015, from http://www.everythingesl.net/inservices/language_stages.php

8

10. Compose brief stories based on personal experience.

11. Write in dialogue journals.2

Stage 4: Intermediate fluency

At this stage, the students know about 6,000 English words.

These words are used actively.

The sentences they use are more complex, and they express

their opinion and thoughts in English more easily. The grammar and

sentence structure is mastered and students can express

themselves, write and comprehend complex English concepts very

well.

Stage 5: Advance fluency

To achieve this level, it requires a student to learn for

4-5 years. At this stage, the learners also need a lot of

support and help from the teachers, in many different

fields to improve their vocabulary, speaking and writing.

1.5 Brain plasticityWhen we speak of brain plasticity, the word plasticity itself

means how nerve cells change when a new experience is introduced.

This means that cealls may develop and also change during our

lifetime when we go through the so-called experience of learning.

We could say as well that neural plasticity is how the brain

learns and experiences changes throughout a lifetime of an

2 Stages of Second Language Acquisition. (n.d.). Retrieved May 17, 2015, from http://www.everythingesl.net/inservices/language_stages.php

9

individual. The brain therefore can be considered as going through

constant learning, collecting information as we ourselves learn

and develop throughout a lifetime.

The learning process takes place partly by nerve cells

creating new connections in the brain. Our nerve cells are

therefore crucial for how we store new knowledge.3

Now, this is very important when we speak of learning and

acquiring a second language. The brain changes according to a

person’s lifestyle and environment. But here, the process of

learning needs to start at a very young age to learn a second

language.

There are two types of brain plasticity. These are:

1. Functional plasticity

(which refers to the brain's ability to move functions from

a damaged area to undamaged areas)4

2. Structural plasticity

(which refers to the brain’s ability to actually change its

physical structure as a result of learning)5

However, brain plasticity is very important for SLA especially

if the learner starts at a young age, which makes it easier

for the learner to acquire a new language particularly because

3 (n.d.). Retrieved May 19, 2015, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/11/141106131853.htm4 Neuroplasticity Studies Reveal Your Brain's Amazing Malleability. (n.d.). Retrieved May 19, 2015, from http://articles.mercola.comsites/articles/archive/2015/01/15/neuroplasticity-brain-health.aspx5 ibid

10

of this phenomenon, namely neuroplasticity.

1.6 Learners’ Attention Span in SLA

As we know, children attention span is short, which is

why one teachers must make their lessons interesting and

colorful. If kids are to learn L2, they must do so in the

environment where they are constantly engaged in fun learning.

The struggle of today's pre-school L2 learning is that they

have to invent new ways to engage child children in order for

them to acquire language properly. As much as they are like

sponges which can absorb large amounts of information, they

still lack in the terms of paying attention while they are in

class.

This potential problem can be solved by various visual and

auditory stimuli through songs, flash cards as well as through

method called Total physical Response(TPR).

1.7 What is TPR?

Total Physical Response is a memory enhanced through a

physical movement.6 Knowing this definition we can engage

children in activity that will make them learn English more

efficiently and in more fun way than usual, not only that but

we are also exercising their bodies whist learning English in6 Bowen, T. (n.d.). Teaching approaches: Total physical response. Retrieved May 20, 2015, from http://www.onestopenglish.com/support/methodology/teaching-approaches/teaching-approaches-total-physical-response/146503.article

11

more relaxed way.

Children who have fun learning will relax and lose any

fear of learning or whether they make mistakes.

1.7 Learning English from first gradeAt a very young age, children have an innate ability to learn

and acquire a second language.

This is known as LAD or Language Acquisition Device. Research

shows how the LAD significantly drops with age, which means as the

child gets older it is more resistant to learning easily a second

language.

Here, it is important to mention the Critical Period

Hypothesis. According to this theory, there is a certain period in

an individual’s life when he or she can learn a language. These

are the very early ages in the life of a person. This is very

important for a child to start learning at a young age, not only

to learn different words and enrich his or her vocabulary, but to

acquire and learn the difficult grammatical structures.

Here, the environment also plays also an important role. For

instance, if a child is surrounded by bilingual persons, or

persons speaking the English language, it is easier for the child

to acquire the language, especially during early childhood.

Parents also play a vital role in this. Parents can provide

linguistic inputs if they properly speak and pronounce English. By

doing so, the child will attempt to speak speaking the English

language.

With the current English syllabus taught in school where the

12

emphasis is more on learning English as in communication skills

rather than proper English grammar, a student could only acquire

proper English grammar through regular reading of English books.

Regarding the changes made to the English Syllabus that is

taught in school, it is even more significant that children should

be exposed to the language at an early age with the hope that they

would able to acquire sufficient skill to carry them through in

their studies especially at overseas stint.

At the very young age, it is vital for the child to know how

to form basic English sentences, and it is not important for the

child to know the grammatical and syntactic rules of the English

language, but to know how to practically form sentences in

English.

This is why it is important for the child to start learning

English at school from first grade, or if not as early as

possible. In Bosnia and Herzegowina, children start learning

English in the 4th grade which is also an acceptable age for the

child to start learning a second language.

Studies suggest that at a cognitive and academic level,

children learning an additional language are more creative, better

at solving complex problems and usually score higher on

standardized tests. Once children know a second language, it is

easier for them to understand further languages structures, which

is why experts say that every new language learnt is easier than

the one before. At a personal level, the more languages a person

speaks, the better access he or she will have to different people

and resources from other countries and cultures. Additionally, it

13

helps children to better understand other cultures, expressions

and styles of communication.

This can encourage children to appreciate how big the world is

and will open their mind greatly – which is always a good thing.7

It is very important to learn a second language at a young

age, also for better pronunciation. Studies show that children

also have a sort of innate ability to acquire certain rules easier

than adults do, since this ability gradually disappears with age.

Accordingly, the earlier a person starts learning a language the

better, since he or she will spend more years and time learning a

language than an adult.

There are numerous reasons why children should learn a second

language at a young age. For instance, not only because it is a

rewarding experience, but also starting early the child has a lot

more benefits from learning and later knowing a second language.

Some of the most important advantages are:

Better and more advanced reading skills: A study undertaken by

York University in Canada suggests that bilingual children's

knowledge of a second language gives them an advantage in learning

to read. Their ability to apply the insights and experiences of

one language to the other as well as their wider experience of

language gives them a big leg up. As they grow older, this

7 Is learning a foreign language good for kids at a young age? (n.d.). RetrievedMay 20, 2015, from http://www.kumon.co.uk/blog/is-learning-a-foreign-language-good-for-kids-at-a-young-age/

14

advantage continues and grows. Plus, being able to read two

languages is pretty impressive all by itself.

Greater confidence: Children are always discovering new

things, but learning a new language is a uniquely rewarding

experience at any age. For children, the feeling of accomplishment

that comes with their first steps toward a second language can

spur them on to a deeper and broader passion for learning in

general. And because children are at a special “window of

opportunity” in which language learning is intuitive and natural,

the ease and pleasure of the experience may boost their confidence

and their desire for new discoveries.

Natural-sounding, native-like accent: Children are always

mimicking what they hear and are surprisingly good at it! They are

uniquely attuned to slight differences in tone and sound. Their

sensitive ears help them pick up on and duplicate the tricky

sounds adults and even adolescents often stumble over. For adults

just beginning a new language, this difficulty can be discouraging

-- trying to speak Spanish like Antonio Banderas from Evita only

to end up sounding like Jack Black in Nacho Libre isn't exactly

the best language experience. A study conducted by researchers

from UCLA and the University of Hong Kong, however, shows that

even adults with significant exposure to a language in childhood

can end up speaking like a native. By starting early, your

children can speak smoothly and confidently from the first.8

8 Advantages of learning a foreign language at an early age. (n.d.). Retrieved May 20, 2015, from http://www.todayszaman.com/op-ed_advantages-of-learning-a-foreign-language-at-an-early-age_263877.html

15

Among all the other benefits are also the child’s richer

vocabulary, and also later in life easier understanding of complex

contexts and also opening the child’s mind to new ways of seeing

and thinking.

In some cases the learning of a second language can give a

better understanding of the first language or the mother tongue.

However, the child will benefit from knowing a second language

in many cases.

It is important to point out that it is only possible to learn

a second language at young age, and that adults cannot learn a

second language due to their age. It is simply easier to learn a

second language at a young age due to the above mentioned brain

plasticity and children easily accept the fact that knowing two or

three different languages is normal in the world we live in.

There is a vast number of cognitive benefits the child has

from knowing a second language, i.e. being bilingual. As already

mentioned, the pronunciation sounds very or more natural and less

foreign if the child starts acquiring the language at a young age.

It has already been established that children who learn a

language when they are very young have a much better chance of not

having a “foreign” accent when speaking another language. Research

from a team at the University of Washington, which focuses

specifically on childhood speech perception, has noted that as we

get older, it is harder to pick up additional languages with

native-like pronunciation. Thus, one very compelling reason to

start children off with another language at a young age is to give

16

them the gift of a native accent!9

So, the question is: How are children supposed to be taught

English? One answer would be that it is easier for a child to

broaden their vocabulary through visualization. Colors are said to

be the first thing that a child notices when picking up words. So

coloring in can create enjoyment for children in the learning

process. This is a time when a child learns to hold a pencil in

the basic triangular grip. At first, a child scribbles an abstract

object when using a pencil. Nevertheless, scribble is what the

child needs to do in preparation for tracing letters later on.

Shapes and numbers follow next.10

1.8 What kind of problems in SLA do learners encounter due to their age?

As we already mentioned, age is an important factor in SLA.

The younger the learner, the better and the faster the second

language is acquired.

It is advisable to encourage language learning at an early

age. The younger the child is, the more they can take advantage of

neuromuscular mechanisms that promote language learning and thus

reach a native-like level with less effort and time. Other

advantages, such as increased communication abilities, better9 English Language Learners / Dual Language Learners / Multicultural Education Support – Language Lizard Blog. (n.d.). Retrieved May 21, 2015, from http://blog.languagelizard.com/2011/09/27/6-reasons-why-children-should-learn-languages-as-early-as-possible/

10 Learning English at an early age - The Writerpreneur®. (2012, February 8). Retrieved May 21, 2015, from http://thewriterpreneur.com/learning-english-at-an-early-age/

17

articulation, tolerance to foreign cultures and personal cognitive

development, are among the benefits of early language learning.

Yet this does not exclude effective language learning in adults.11

This all shows how important it is to start learning a second

language at an early age, rather than when being an adult. Of

course, adults can acquire a second language, but it is advised to

start early, and the earlier the better.

We shall see further through the answers of the teachers in

the questionnnaires provided at the end of this paper, how the

teachers view from their experience the importance of age for SLA

and whether they believe or came to know that children at a young

age learn faster and acquire easier a second language.

2. METHODOLOGY

11 The age factor in second language acquisition - TermCoord Terminology Coordination Unit. (2014, February 11). Retrieved May 20, 2015, from http://termcoord.eu/2014/02/age-factor-second-language-acquisition/

18

The research has been conducted at Osnovna Skola 'Mehurici'. The

questions for children were answered by children i.e. students of

the same school attending the 4th grade. We shall se now how the

teachers responded to certain questions.

Question 1: Brain plasticity plays an important role in SLA.

85%

10%

5%

We can see in the above pie chart that 85% of teachers strongly

agree that brain plasticity plays an important role in SLA. Few

agree, i.e. 10% and 5 % neither agree nor disagree. This is a

clear indicator how teacher find it crucial for children while

their brain is at the stage of brain plasticity to acquire and

learn a second language.

Question 2: Younger children learn new words faster

A great majority agreed that the younger the child the faster it

learns new words. This again confirms how important it is to start

learning at a young age and how easier it is for teachers to teach

19

new material since children will memorize it faster due to brain

plasticity.

Question 3: Children who learned a second language at a young

age have better pronunciation

Here are the answers:

78%

13%

9%

Here we can see that 78% strongly agree that when a child

learns a second language at a young age, the child's pronunciation

is better, according to the teachers. Only 9% neither agree nor

disagree. However, this again proves that learning a second

language at a young age has many benefits.

20

Question 4: Younger children acquire grammatical rules faster

This question is also very important and here are the answers:

60%20%

20%

Here, 60% of teachers strongly agreed that children at a young

age acquire grammatical rules faster, whereas 20% answered they

agreed and 20% disagreed. Again, it is important to point out that

Age is not crucial for SLA but in most cases plays a vital role

and should not be neglected as an important factor for SLA.

Question 5: A second language should be taught in schools from

first grade.

21

55%28%

17%

In this case, as seen above 55% answered they agreed, whereas

28% disagreed and 17% strongly disagreed. This shows how the

opinions differ when it comes to whether a second language should

be taught in school from fisrt grade.

However, age is not the key factor or the most important

element in second language acquisition, but there is a certain

reason why children start going to school from a young age and not

as adolescents, and that is the brain plasticity which is crucial

for learning basic material and gaining the basic knowledge.

Question 6: Older learners take longer to acquire new words

22

and grammatical rules.

45%

35%

20%

As can be seen above, 45% of teachers strongly agreed that it

takes older learners to learn and acquire new words and

grammatical rules, whereas 35% agreed and 20% disagreed. This

shows again how the opinions and experiences differ. Here we can

see that again age is not the key factor and SLA also depends on

an individual's capacity. But speaking in general terms and based

on ressearch, learning a second language at a young age has many

benefits.

There was no paper Questionnaire for children, more direct

approach should be taken and have entire class participate so as

to see how they respond, whether if they are bored, or eager to

tell how much fun they had.

The teacher stood at the back of the class. And here is how

23

the children responded to the questions. The 4th graders of

Osnovna SkolaPrimary School 'Mehurici' were asked in Bosnian and

the questions were yes/no questions. Here are the questions and

translations of the questions as well as the answers of the

children.

1. Da li vam je zabavno na času engleskog jezika? (Do you

have fun during English language class?)

The percentage of the positive response was that of 90%.

Children in this class were eager to tell how much fun they had,

which is a great indicator of how good the teacher is in making

classroom place where it is fun to learn English. It also shows

the importance of having fun while learning.

2. Možete li reći koji vam je najzabavniji dio časa? (What is

the most fun part of the class?)

All of the students were eager to reply. Noting it down, 89%

answered that they were having fun when they were coloring in

the animals, and other shapes, like letters.

3. Da li vam je lako zapamtiti pjesmicu? (Is it easy to

remember a song?)

85 % of the children find that memorizing songs is not easy,

however, they enjoy learning new songs. Especially when they are

performing them with other children.

4. Koje ste pjesmice učili na engleskom? (What songs did you

learn in English?)

These are the songs that children mentioned;

-Alphabet song,

-Ten little aeroplanes24

-Numbers song

These songs help kids memorize words faster, than listing

them. Songs are a super easy way for children to exercise their

memory. The children also said the Alphabet song was their

favourite.

5. Koji vam je najzabavniji dio casa?(What is he most fun part during class?)

The majority of the children said the most fun part was

listening to songs and singing them in English.

3. CONCLUSION

To conclude, we have seen how age is an important factor

for SLA. Brain plasticity is vital, since it provides a very

good start for children to easier memorize and learn new25

words and concepts in English.

However, when speaking of young children, this can only

be done through fun games and songs, since children need this

method of learning because it is very useful for them at that

age.

It is important to point out that SLA does not solely

depend on the learners' age, and there are numerous other

factors that influence SLA. Nonetheless, age is crucial

because of the simple fact that if the child starts learning

a second language earlier it will become used to bilingualism

and it will know different words and concepts which can help

them in their further cognitive and educational advancement.

Hanko,

Your paper is completely inappropriate: the topic, the

structure, the content, etc; basically, nothing is as it should

be. I advise you to first learn about how to conduct research and

how to write a research paper (all the sections) and then to sit

down and think which topic you would like explore and write a

research paper on. This will require a lot of time and effort on

your part but until you do so it seems that you will be unable to

come up with a paper that satisfies the passing criteria.

26

SOURCES

Advantages of learning a foreign language at an early age.

(n.d.). Retrieved May 20, 2015, from

http://www.todayszaman.com/op-ed_advantages-of-learning-a-foreign-

language-at-an-early-age_263877.html

Bowen, T. (n.d.). Teaching approaches: Total physical

response. Retrieved May 20, 2015, from

http://www.onestopenglish.com/support/methodology/teaching-

approaches/teaching-approaches-total-physical-response/

146503.article

English Language Learners / Dual Language Learners /

Multicultural Education Support – Language Lizard Blog. (n.d.).

Retrieved May 21, 2015, from

http://blog.languagelizard.com/2011/09/27/6-reasons-why-children-

should-learn-languages-as-early-as-possible/

Is learning a foreign language good for kids at a young age?

(n.d.). Retrieved May 20, 2015, from

http://www.kumon.co.uk/blog/is-learning-a-foreign-language-good-27

for-kids-at-a-young-age/

Learning English at an early age - The Writerpreneur®. (2012,

February 8). Retrieved May 21, 2015, from

http://thewriterpreneur.com/learning-english-at-an-early-age/

Neuroplasticity Studies Reveal Your Brain's Amazing

Malleability. (n.d.). Retrieved May 19, 2015, from

http://articles.mercola.com

Stages of Second Language Acquisition. (n.d.). Retrieved May

17, 2015, from

http://www.everythingesl.net/inservices/language_stages.php

The age factor in second language acquisition - TermCoord

Terminology Coordination Unit. (2014, February 11). Retrieved May

20, 2015, from http://termcoord.eu/2014/02/age-factor-second-

language-acquisition/

APPENDIX 1

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS

28

1. Please fill in the details:Name: Date: 2. How would you rate your experience with SLAs? Excellent Good Satisfactory

Strongly agree

Agree Neither agree nordisagree

Disagree Strongly disagree

Brain plasticityplays an important role in SLAYounger children learn new words fasterChildren who learned a second language at a youngage have better pronunciationYounger children acquire grammatical rules faster

29

A second language should be taught in schools from firstgradeOlder learners take longer to acquire new words and grammatical rules

30

APPENDIX 2

QUESTIONS FOR CHILDREN

1. Da li vam je zabavno na času? (Do you have fun during

class?)

2. Da li volite bojiti slova i brojeve? (Do you like

coloring letters and numbers?)

3. Da li vam je zabavno uciti imena zivotinja? (Is it fun

to learn the names of animals?)

4. Da li vam je lako zapamtiti pjesmicu? (Is it easy to

remember a song?)

5. Koje ste pjesmice naucili na engleskom? (What songs

did you learnin English?)

6. Koju pjesmicu najvise volite? (What song do you like

most?)

7. Koji vam je najzabavniji dio casa?(What is he most fun

part during class?)

31