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A  Framework  for  Spectral  Improvisation  

 

Vincent  Giles  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Copyright  ©  2012  

 

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Statement  of  Responsibility:    

This  document  does  not  contain  any  material,  which  has  been  accepted  for  the  

award  of  any  other  degree  from  any  university.  To  the  best  of  my  knowledge,  this  

document  does  not  contain  any  material  previously  published  or  written  by  any  

other  person,  except  where  due  reference  is  given.  

 

 

 

 

 

Candidate:  Vincent  Giles  

Supervisor:  Dr.  Thomas  Reiner  

 

 

Signed:  ______________________  

 

Date:  ________________________  

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Contents  

STATEMENT  OF  RESPONSIBILITY:   II  

CONTENTS   III  

CHAPTER  ONE:  INTRODUCTION   4  

CONCERNING  SPECTRAL  MUSIC   5  CONCERNING  IMPROVISATION   7  METHODOLOGY   10  LITERATURE  REVIEW   11  CHAPTER  SUMMARY   12  

CHAPTER  TWO:  COMPOSITIONAL  APPLICATIONS  OF  SPECTRA   13  

TECHNIQUES  AND  CONCEPTS  OF  SPECTRAL  MUSIC   13  EXAMPLES  FROM  MUSICAL  LITERATURE   19  

CHAPTER  THREE:  COMPOSITIONAL  IMPLEMENTATION  OF  IMPROVISATION   24  

GAME  PIECES:  JOHN  ZORN’S  APPROACH  TO  PERSONALISED  IMPROVISATION   24  JOHN  MCLAUGHLIN  AND  THE  MAHAVISHNU  ORCHESTRA:  A  JAZZ-­‐BASED  APPROACH   25  MICHAEL  HANNAN’S  THREE  IMPROVISATORY  MOBILES:  THE  OPEN  FORM   31  

CHAPTER  FOUR:  SPECTRAL  IMPROVISATION,  METHODS  AND  EXAMPLES   34  

PAULA  MATTHUSEN  AND  REAL-­‐TIME  SPECTRAL  ANALYSIS   34  PETER  KNIGHT’S  FISH  BOAST  OF  FISHING   37  KARLHEINZ  STOCKHAUSEN’S  AUS  DEN  SIEBEN  TAGEN   41  

CHAPTER  FIVE:  A  FRAMEWORK  FOR  SPECTRAL  IMPROVISATION   45  

KEY  OBSERVATIONS   45  HYPOTHESISING  A  FRAMEWORK  FOR  SPECTRAL  IMPROVISATION   46  

BIBLIOGRAPHY   50  

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Chapter  One:  Introduction  

This  dissertation  poses  the  question  can  the  practices  of  spectral  music  composition  

inspire  new  approach  to  improvisation?  And  specifically  examines  the  ways  in  which  

these  practices  may  be  applied  by  composers   for   improvising  musicians  within   the  

Western   Art   Music   tradition.   In   so   doing,   I   will   examine   individually   examples   of  

spectral  music,  composed  improvisation  and  works  that  indicate  a  tendency  toward  

spectral  process  in  improvisation.  

The   Grove  Music   entry   on   Spectral   Music   describes   it   as   a   “[a]   term   referring   to  

music   composed   mainly   in   Europe   since   the   1970s  which   uses   the   acoustic  

properties   of   sound   itself   (or   sound   spectra)   as   the   basis   of   its   compositional  

material”  (Julian).  This  definition  indicates  that  the  primary  concern  of  spectral  music  

is   the   timbres  and  auxiliary   sounds  created   through  acoustics,  and   the  control  and  

manipulation  of  these  sounds  as  musical  materials  in  composition.      

The  aim  of  this  paper  is  to  hypothesise  a  link  between  the  practices  of  spectral  music  

and   their   use   in   improvisation,   and   support   this   hypothesis   through   a   study   of  

existing  music  that  demonstrates  a  link  between  the  two.  

Extensive  background  research  on  the  subject  of  what  will  hereby  be  called  spectral  

improvisation   revealed  that  there  has  not  been  anything  published  that  specifically  

relates  to  using  sound  spectra  in  improvisation,  either  free  improvisation  or  as  part  

of  a  constructed  composition.  There  are   lots  of  publications  dealing  with  analysing  

spectra,  synthesis  and  computer  music  derived  from  spectral  music  and  the  spectral  

music  movement  itself,  but  nothing  relating  spectral  music  to  improvisation.    

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In  this  chapter,  I  will  create  a  terminological  framework  for  both  spectral  music  and  

improvisation,  to  which  the  rest  of  the  paper  can  refer.    

Concerning  Spectral  Music    In   Foundations   of   Contemporary   Composition,   McAdams   and   Saariaho   discuss  

spectral   music   and   what   the   practice   of   composing   spectrally   entails:   specifically,  

they   indicate   that   spectral   composers   are   looking   for   a   form   of   connectivity   of  

materials   through   timbre,   and   the   development   of   the   work   is   done   through  

treatment  (Mahnkopf,  2004).  Murail  describes  this  same  idea  when  he  states  that  a  

definition  of  a  new  kind  of  music  is  “a  ‘differential’  conception  where  the  interest  is  

in   the   relationship   between   objects   rather   than   in   the   objects   themselves,   where  

time  is  organised  by  flux  and  not  by  segment”  (Murail,  1984),  and  it  becomes  clear  

that  spectralism  is  not  about  the  individual  notes  or  even  the  hierarchy  of  notes,  but  

about   timbre,   colour   and   scientific   methods   of   sonic   analysis:   or   spectra   (Gainey,  

2009).    

Christopher   Joseph   Gainey   in   his   doctoral   dissertation   Turning   sound   into   music:  

Attitudes  of  spectralism  points  out  that  an  outright  definition  of  the  term  Spectralism  

is   both   “reductive”   and   “inadequate”,   stating   that   “[a]s   a   descriptive   term,  

[S]pectralism  falls  short  of  a  complete  characterization  of  the  broad  range  of  ideas  in  

the  “spectral”  category”  (Gainey,  2009:  1).  Gainey  –  and  most  spectral  practitioners  

–   prefer   to   outline   their   practice   based   upon   their   raw  materials:   sound   spectra;  

Gainey  also  notes  that  

The   term   Spectralism   implies   the   existence   of   an   artistic   doctrine.  However,   in   its  

relatively   short   history,   it   has   revealed   itself   to  be   rather   flexible.   This   flexibility   is  

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due   to   the   fact   that   Spectralism   is   not   a   unified   artistic   movement,   but   rather   a  

collection  of  similar  attitudes  towards  composition.  (Gainey,  2009:  2)  

These   statements  will  become  particularly  useful   in   the  discussion  on   implemental  

spectral  processes  in  improvisation,  in  chapter  three,  but  for  this  chapter  they  serve  

to  highlight  the  necessity  for  describing  and  defining  a  common  language  and  set  of  

characteristics  that  make  up  spectral  music.    

In   order   to   discuss   spectral  music   in   an   improvisational   context,   the   term   “sound  

spectra”   needs   to   be   described,   as   spectra   form   a   fundamental   element   within  

spectral  music.   “For   the  purposes  of   composition,  a   spectrum  may  be  viewed  as  a  

field   of   possible   relationships   between   groups   of   frequencies”   (Gainey,   2009:   62);  

this   statement   serves   as   a   concise   introduction   to  what   a   sound   spectrum   is,   but  

what   are   spectra?   Very   broadly,   Rossing   describes   some   spectra   as   abstract  

generalisations  based  on  physical  principles  of  sound,  and  others  as  being  based  on  

the  observation  of  the  behaviour  of  the  components  of  a  particular  sound  (Rossing,  

1982:  140).  For  the  purpose  of  this  description,   I  am  going  to  divide  sound  spectra  

into   two   categories:   those   considered  harmonic   and   those   considered   inharmonic.  

Harmonic  spectra  can  be  described  as  pitched  sounds  in  which  partials  fuse  together,  

creating   the   perception   of   a   single   sound;   this   occurs  when   all   of   the   component  

partials   of   the   sound   belong   to   a   single   harmonic   series,   while   the   timbre   of   this  

sound   is   influenced  by   the   relative   amplitude  of   the   constituent  partials,   and  how  

this   amplitude   changes   over   time   (Gainey,   2009:   62-­‐63).     In   contrast,   inharmonic  

spectra  demonstrate  a  weakening  of  a  single  fundamental  to  varying  degrees,  due  to  

a   lack   of   fusion   between   partials.   Similarly,   some   sounds   (such   as   pitched-­‐bells)  

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produce   a   spectrum   in   which   the   harmonic   relationship   to   the   fundamental   is  

stretched  or  compressed,  creating  harmonic  distortion  which  removes  some  or  all  of  

the   fusion   between   partials,   creating   a   more   complex   timbre   than   that   found   in  

harmonic   spectra   (Gainey,   2009:   65-­‐66).   This   description   of   spectra   demonstrates  

only  one  aspect,  albeit  an  important  one,  of  spectral  music,  and  as  the  description  is  

concerned   only   with   the   raw   material   in   a   scientific   sense1,   we   should   consider  

spectra  in  the  greater  context  of  spectral  music  and  the  concerns  of  its  practitioners.    

Concerning  Improvisation  

In  order  to  outline  terminology  to  which  the  rest  of   this  paper  can  refer,   I  need  to  

focus   on   improvisational   processes   and   techniques   rather   than   recycling   the  

language  used   to  describe  what  happens   in  music  of   the   jazz   tradition  –   i.e.  music  

that   follows   a   strict   harmonic   procedure,   even   if   in   practice   this   harmonic   base   is  

discarded  or  expanded.  In  so  doing,  the  terminology  becomes  applicable  beyond  the  

discipline  of  improvisation.    

Frederic  Rzewski  describes  the  processes  of  composition  and  of  improvisation  in  the  

following  statement:  

The  most   basic   technique   of   composition   is   that   of   transferring   information   from  

short-­‐term  memory  to  long-­‐term:  remembering  an  idea  long  enough  so  that  one  can  

write   it  down.  This  process  of   transference   is  also  one  of   translation:  reforming  an  

impulse  or   feeling   so   that   it   can  be   expressed   in   some   kind  of   symbolic   language.  

The  most  basic  technique  of   improvisation  is  that  of  short-­‐circuiting  this  process  of  

conservation:   forgetting—momentarily   at   least—everything   that   is   not   relevant   to  

                                                                                                               1  This  differentiation  between  spectra  and  timbre  will  become  useful  in  later  chapters;  spectra  refers  to  the  scientific  analysis  of,  or  musical  treatment  of  the  raw  sound  materials  while  timbre  refers  to  the  subjective,  personal  interpretation  of  sound  colour.  

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the  objective  of  expressing  an  idea  immediately  in  sound.  This  process  has  more  to  

do  with  spontaneous  reflexes  than  with  language.  (Cox  and  Warner,  2004:  267)  

Derek  Bailey  states  that  “[h]istorically,   [improvisation]  pre-­‐dates  any  other  music—

mankind’s  first  musical  performance  couldn’t  have  been  anything  other  than  a  free  

improvisation”   (Cox   and   Warner,   2004:   256).   Where   Rzewski   is   saying   that  

improvisation  is  quite  a  separate  process  to  that  of  language  (composition),  Bailey  is  

says  that  (musical)  improvisation  is  a  fundamental  part  of  being  human  and  predates  

language,  and  it  makes  sense  that  improvisation  as  an  act,  not  relating  specifically  to  

music,  is  something  fundamentally  human.    

The   process   of   improvisation,   then,   seems   to   be   one   of   instinct   and   response.  

Returning  briefly  to  Rzewski,  he  concludes  his  earlier  statements  by  saying  that:  

Composition   is   the  result  of  an  editing  process   in  which  one’s   impulses  are  passed  

through  the  critical  filter  of  the  conscious  mind:  only  the  “good”  ideas  are  allowed  to  

pass  through.  Improvisation  is  more  like  free  association,  in  which  ideas  are  allowed  

to   express   themselves   without   having   to   pass   this   test,   somehow   avoiding   the  

barrier  erected  by  consciousness.    (Cox  and  Warner,  2004:  267)  

The  above  idea  indicates  an  intuitive,  non-­‐scientific  way  of  discussing  improvisation,  

which  in  the  context  of  this  paper  is  not  very  useful,  instead,  Jeff  Pressing’s  work  on  

the  subject  provides  more  illuminating  material.  I  include  the  Rzewski  as  a  basis  for  

comparison,  and  also  as  a  way  of   introducing  the  reader  to  improvisation  as  an  act  

related  to  composition.  

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Jeff   Pressing,   indicates   that   there   certainly   is   a   process   of   feedback   during  

improvisation,   and   describes   a   feedback   loop   that   occurs  when   performing   in   this  

way:  

        Feedback  

 

 

Input                   Output  

Figure  1:  Diagram  of  cognitive  feedback  loop  (Pressing,  2000).    

 

In  figure  1  (above),  the  output  is  compared  to  the  input  via  the  feedback  loop  with  

the  output  being  the  sound  being  produced  and  the  input  being  the  act  of  listening  

to  that  sound,  and  any  other  sounds  that  may  be  present.  The  feedback   loop  then  

compares   the   output   to   the   input   continuously   and   provides   ongoing   error  

correction  –  or  filtering  –  of  the  kind  described  by  Rzewski.  (Sloboda,  2000:  134)    

Pressing   further   describes   this   loop   in   two   categories:   closed   and  open   loops.   The  

closed  loop  includes  feedback  and  error  correction,  with  the  output  being  sent  back  

and   compared   against   and   earlier   control   system,   with   the   actual   output   being  

compared  to   the   intended  output  and  thus  corrected.  The  open   loops   traditionally  

possess  no   feedback  and  consequently  do  not   form  an   ideal  basis   for   the   study  of  

improvisation  (Sloboda,  2000:  132).    

When   you   consider   the   perspectives   above,   the   primary   difference   between  

improvisation  and  composition  is  that,  in  composition,  there  is  more  thought  put  in  

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to  longer  time  scales,  form  and  editing  and  refinement  of  ideas.  The  composer  looks  

on  the  work  holistically,  while  the  improviser  exists  within  the  work,  unsure  where  it  

will   move   to   next,   but   ready   to   respond.   In   both   composition   and   improvisation,  

there  exist  feedback  loops,  but  the  application  of  them  is  quite  different.  

Methodology  

The  following  forms  of  investigation  constitute  the  methodology  of  this  research  

1. Hermeneutic   investigation   of   primary   sources   as   texts,   such   as   scores,  

writings   by   practitioners   of   spectral   music   and   improvisation   and  

recordings.   By   interpreting   sources   as   texts,   I   will   be   able   to   find   links  

between   the   functional  use  of   spectra   in   improvisation  and  composition  

that  may  not  be  explicitly  stated  by  the  authors.  

2. Study   of   secondary   sources   such   as   musicological   articles,   books   and  

analyses   that   examine   the   relevant   practitioners   of   spectralism   and  

improvisation,  and  their  music.    

Through   a   study   of   music   and   writing   by   prominent   first   generation   spectral  

composer  Tristan  Murail,  and  subsequent  composers  who  have  been  influenced  by  

spectral  practices   such  as  Kaija   Saariaho,  Christopher  Gainey  and  Paula  Matthusen  

along   with   an   overview   of   the   research   that   has   been   undertaken   into   spectral  

practices  by  composers  and  musicologists  within  the  last  twenty  years  and  a  study  of  

improvisation  practices  by  musicians  like  John  Zorn  and  Peter  Knight,  it  is  anticipated  

that  a  clear  understanding  of  terminology,  concepts  and  techniques  will  emerge  that  

will  support  the  hypothesis.  

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Literature  Review  

There  are  a  number  of  key  texts  that  have  informed  my  research,  on  the  subject  of  

spectral  music,  Gainey’s  dissertation  discusses   techniques  and  concepts  of   spectral  

composers,  and  provided  further  leads  into  spectral  music  by  other  researchers.  Of  

particular  note  is  Gainey’s  discussions  of  sound  spectra  and  how  they  work  (Gainey,  

2009).  Alongside  Gainey’s  text  is  the  work  of  Fineberg  in  defining  spectral  techniques  

and   concepts   (Fineberg,   2000)   and   Smalley’s   work   on   spectromorphology   –   the  

means   of   describing   the   changes   in   spectra   over   time,   particularly   as   it   relates   to  

acousmatic  music  (SMALLEY,  1997).  All  of  these  texts  were  able  to  be  adapted  into  

the  context  of  this  research  and  were  excellent  in  providing  lots  of  material  on  which  

to  draw  conclusions.  The  music  of  Tristan  Murail   (Murail,  1995)  and  Kaija  Saariaho  

(Saariaho,  1996)  provide  an  articulate  set  of  spectral  methodologies  in  composition,  

from  which  discussion  can  be  drawn.  

To   create   a   context   for   improvisation   within   a   spectral   work   requires   an  

understanding  of  improvisational  processes,  such  as  the  feedback  loops  described  by  

Jeff   Pressing   in  Generative   Processes   in  Music.   This   process   of   feedback   describes  

how  output  (sound)  is  compared  to  sensory  input  (listening,  predominantly),  and  the  

input   is   in   turn   compared   against   the   incoming   output,   to   create   a   loop   of   error  

correction  (Sloboda,  2000:  129-­‐178)  and  the  neuropsychology  of  musical  perception  

discussed   by   Berkowitz   (Berkowitz,   2010).   John   Zorn’s  Game   Pieces   (Zorn,   2004),  

John  McLaughlin’s  work  the  Mahavishnu  Orchestra  (McLaughlin,  1976)  and  Michael  

Hannan’s   use   of  mobile   form   all   informed   the   chapter   on   improvisation   (Hannan,  

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1981);   and   these   three  works   provide   a   solid   basis   from  which   to   discuss   spectral  

improvisation.    

Peter  Knight’s  doctoral  exegesis   (Knight,  2011c)  allows   for  detailed   insight   into   the  

compositional  processes  of  his  work  Fish  Boast  of  Fishing  (Knight,  2011b)  provided  a  

great  context  from  which  to  base  my  working  hypothesis  of  spectral   improvisation,  

as   too   did  Matthusen   -­‐   in   her   paper   from   the   Spectral   World  Musics   conference  

(Reigle  and  Whitehead,  2008)  -­‐  and  Stockhausen  (Stockhausen  et  al.,  1993).  

Chapter  Summary  

Chapter   one   provides   an   outline   for   the   topic   being   discussed,   along   with  

terminological   frameworks   for   spectral   music   and   improvisation,   the   traditions   of  

these  disciplines  and  the  methodologies  used  in  this  paper.  

Chapter   two   will   identify   compositional   applications   of   sound   spectra   through  

examination   of   primary   and   secondary   data   sources   including   scores,   sound  

recordings,  articles  and  spectral  analyses,  and  will  included  an  expanded  vocabulary  

set   in   to   understand   spectromorphology   and   key   techniques   exploited   by   spectral  

composers.  

Chapter  three  discusses  ways  in  which  a  composer  may  integrate  improvisation  into  

composition,  using  scores  and  other  texts.  

Chapter   four  demonstrates  examples   that  draw  the   two   former  chapters   together,  

taken  from  existing  literature  

Chapter   five   will   conclude   the   paper   and   provide   a   synthesis   of   the   information  

presented  herein.  

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Chapter  Two:  Compositional  Applications  of  Spectra  

This  chapter  will  expand  on  earlier  discussions  of  spectral  music  with  descriptions  of  

specific  techniques  and  concepts  developed  by  spectral  composers  and;  a  discussion  

of  select  pieces  that  demonstrate  these  processes  of  composition.  In  later  chapters,  

spectromorphology  will  also  provide  discussion  points  for  spectral  improvisation,  as  

too   will   the   techniques   and   concepts   described   in   this   chapter.   This   chapter   will  

provide  a  succinct  overview  of  three  key  techniques  in  spectral  music.      

Techniques  and  Concepts  of  Spectral  Music  

1.  Synthesis  Techniques  

Synthesis   is   one   of   the   core   ideas   and   techniques   of   spectral   composition,   as   it  

provides   the   framework   for   the   creation   of   sounds   from   other   sounds,   timbre  

manipulation   and   the   development   of   new   ways   of   exploring   sounds   with  

instruments.   Composers   of   spectral   music   use   synthesiser   techniques   as   both  

technique  and  concept,  it  is  conceptual  in  the  sense  that  it  applies  more  broadly  to  

elements  of  a  composition,  such  as  form  and  rhythm  than  just  the  creation  of  pitch  

material,   as   would   befit   a   technique.   Conceptually,   additive   synthesis   provides   a  

framework   for   “building   up   complex   sounds   through   the   combination   of   a   large  

number  of  elementary  ones”  (Fineberg,  2000:  84),  and  while  Fineberg  is  referring  to  

sine   waves   when   he   talks   about   elementary   sounds,   the   concept   provides   “the  

clearest,   most   intuitive   way   for   us   to   conceive   of   hearing   and   creating   sounds”  

(Fineberg,   2000:   85).   So   by   listening   to   these   constituent   parts   of   a   sound,   it  

becomes   easy   to   “hear   the   global   sound   color,   or   timbre   emerge   and   evolve”  

(Fineberg,   2000:   85)   over   time.   The   usefulness   of   this   concept   becomes   apparent  

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when  looking  at  the  idea  of  instrumental  or  orchestral  synthesis,  which  is  described  

as  “[t]aking  the  concept  of  additive  synthesis  …  and  using  it  metaphorically  as  a  basis  

for   creating   instrumental   [timbres]”   (Fineberg,   2000:   85).  What   Fineberg  means   is  

that,   with   the   assistance   of   spectral   analysis,   a   composer   may   blend   any   sounds  

together  in  any  way,  to  generate  interesting  spectra.  These  sounds  may  be  acoustic  

or  electronic  in  origin,  but  by  taking  the  principle  of  additive  synthesis  and  applying  it  

to   these  generators  of   sound,  you  get  a   form  of   timbral   synthesis.   Included   in   this  

technique  are  both  frequency  modulation  and  amplitude  modulation,  both  of  which  

are   described   by   Gainey   as   “partials   produced   through   the   interaction   of   two  

different  sounds  (or  more  generally,  signals)  are  added  together  to  produce  different  

timbral  effects.”  (Gainey,  2009:  73)  This  in  itself  is  no  different  to  additive  synthesis  

described   above,   however,  Gainey   goes   on   to   state   that   “the   interaction  between  

two   signals   (a   carrier   signal   and   a   modulator   signal)   produces   sidebands2,   which  

accumulate   into   complex   spectra.”   (Gainey,   2009:   73)   Thus,   through   changing   the  

frequency  of  the  modulation  (lower)  signal  or  sound,  or  the  amplitude  of  the  carrier  

(higher)  signal  or  sound,  sidebands  are  created  and  changes  in  pitch  and  timbre  are  

the  result.  

2.  Derivation  of  pitch  aggregates  from  spectral  models  

Since  the  development  of  technology  that  allows  a  person  to  analyse  a  sound  for  its  

constituent   parts,   composers   have   been   able   to   look   at   and   manipulate   the  

individual   frequencies  within   a   sound,   be   it   produced   electronically   or   through   an  

acoustic  instrument,  effectively  moving  away  from  the  tempered  tuning  systems  and  

                                                                                                               2  Sum  and  difference  tones;  partials  produced  as  a  result  of  the  addition  and  subtraction  of  one  frequency  from  another  (Gainey,  2009:  73)  

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into   timbre,  microtones  and  sound  colour.  This  change   is  described  by  Fineberg  as  

“the  generation  of  harmonic  and  timbral  musical  structures  based  upon  frequencial  

structures”,  which  is:  

Contrary  to  the  linear  structure  of  notes  and  intervals,  where  distances  are  constant  

in  all  registers  (the  semitone  between  middle  C  and  D-­‐flat  is  considered  identical  to  

the  semi-­‐tone  between  C  and  D-­‐flat  three  octaves  higher),  the  distance  between  the  

frequencies  within   the   tempered   scale   and   the   potential   for   pitch   discernment   of  

the  human  perceptual  apparatus  is  neither  linear  nor  constant:   it  changes  in  a  way  

that  is  completely  dependent  upon  register.  (Fineberg,  2000:  81)  

What   Fineberg   is   describing   here   is   the   ability   to   act   on   human   perception   by  

examining   sounds   from   the   inside,   in   doing   so,   a   composer  may   derive   pitches   or  

collections   of   pitches   that   produce   desired   sonic   results.   As   Gainey   puts   it:  

“[t]hrough   the   isolation   of   components   that   have   the   strongest   influence   on  

perception  …   composers   can   extrapolate   guidelines   for   composition   based   on   the  

relationship   between   these   components   and   their   evolution   over   time.”   (Gainey,  

2009:  76)  This  can   include   the  equal-­‐tempered  chromatic   scale,  which   is  described  

by   Fineberg   as   being   “based   on   the   division   of   an   octave   into   [12]   logarithmically  

equal  parts  (not  linearly  equal)”  (Fineberg,  2000:  82);  equal-­‐tempered  quarter-­‐tone  

scale  of  24  pitches  or  any  combination  of  pitches  derived  from  this  process.  Included  

in   this   purview   is   also   the   generation   of   microtones,   which   in   spectral   music   are  

“simply   approximations   of   a   set   of   frequencies   to   the   nearest   available   musical  

pitches”,  meaning  the  closest  approximation  to  a  known  fundamental,  which  allows  

for   “musical   structure   to  be   generated   in   its  most  precise   form   (frequencies)   then  

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approximated   to   the   nearest   available   pitch”   (Fineberg,   2000:   83)   thus   preserving  

the  structure,  but  allowing  for  limitations  of  instrumentation  and  performer  skill.  

3.  Spectra  manipulation  

Gainey   describes   a   number   of   techniques   for   manipulating   spectra   that   includes  

frequency  shifting:  where  “a  shift  value  is  added  to  each  partial  of  a  spectrum”  which  

“causes   the  spectrum  to   increase   in   inharmonicity  and  become  distorted”   (Gainey,  

2009:   78-­‐83);   virtual   fundamentals:   “[n]o   matter   how   complex   the   relationship  

between   the   frequencies   in   a   given   harmony,   the   ear   still   tends   to   place   these  

frequencies   in   the   context   of   a   fundamental”   (Gainey,   2009:   82),   indicating   the  

relative   “measure   of   harmonicity   (lack   of   tension)   or   inharmonicity   (presence   of  

tension)”  (Fineberg,  2000:  98)  of  a  given  sound.    

Another  way  of  examining  spectra  manipulation   is   the  work  of  Denis  Smalley  et.al.  

on   spectromorphology,   described   as   “the   interaction   between   sound   spectra  

(spectro-­‐)  and   the  ways   they  change  and  are  shaped  through  time   (-­‐morphology).”  

(SMALLEY,  1997:  107)  Spectromorphology  provides  a  framework  for  “understanding  

structural  relations  and  behaviours  as  experienced  in  the  temporal  flux  of  the  music”  

(SMALLEY,  1997:  107),  though  Smalley  is  careful  to  indicate  that  “spectromorphology  

is   not   a   compositional   theory   or   method,   but   a   descriptive   tool   based   on   aural  

perception”   (SMALLEY,   1997:   108).   Despite   these   statements,   spectromorphology  

does  provide  a  framework  for  examining  the  manipulation  of  spectra.  According  to  

Smalley,   there  are   three  stages  of  manipulation  of  any  given  sound  object:  onsets,  

continuants   and   terminations.   See   figure   1   below.   These   three   phases,   Smalley  

describes  in  the  following  ways:  

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The  onset  terms  reflect  varying  degrees  of  abruptness.  What  they  have  in  common  

is  that  they  are  moving  out  from  or  away  from  a  starting-­‐point,  creating  expectant  

tensions.   The   continuant   terms   vary.   Some   look   forward,   expressing   betweenness  

(‘transition,   ‘passage’);   others   are   linked   backwards   to   the   onset   function  

(‘prolongation’,   ‘maintenance’),  while   ‘statement’   signals   a  more  definitive,   almost  

independent   status.   The   terminations   vary   in   their   feelings   of   completion.  

‘Disappearance’  is  a  weak  termination  without  much  purpose,  while  ‘resolution’  and  

‘release’  have  strong  relaxant  functions.  ‘Arrival’  and  ‘plane’  express  structural  goals  

achieved.  (SMALLEY,  1997:  115)  

 

Onsets   Continuants   Terminations  

Departure   Passage   Arrival  

Emergence   Transition   Disappearance  

Anacrusis   Prolongation   Closure  

Attack   Maintenance   Release  

Upbeat   Statement   Resolution  

Downbeat     Plane  

Figure  1:  Smalley's  structural  functions  vocabulary.  

 

Terms   such   as   anacrusis,   upbeat   and   downbeat   are   clear   signifiers   of   musical  

language,  as   is  resolution.  The  quote  above  clarifies  the  more  abstract  terminology  

used  in  the  chart,  but  I  feel  that  some  of  the  descriptions  need  further  clarification  in  

relation   to   specific   spectral   techniques.   I   also   include   an   added   definition   not  

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included  in  the  above  table,  as  it  relates  to  synthesis  techniques  and  will  be  referred  

to  in  later  chapters.  

Attack:   When   considering   electronic   music   and   synthesis,   the   attack   phase   of   a  

sound   is   the   time   it   takes   to   reach   its   peak   amplitude.   For   example,   to   create   a  

simple  sine  wave  pulse  of  A440,  the  sine  wave  amplitude  would  increase  from  -­‐∞db3  

(0)  to  whatever  the  peak  setting  was,  ie.  -­‐7db.  This  time  is  measured  in  milliseconds;  

for  example,  it  may  take  600ms  to  reach  the  peak  amplitude  value.  

Decay:  This  aspect  of  a  sound  is  not  included  in  the  table  above.  The  term  indicates  

the   time   (in   ms)   it   takes   for   the   sound   to   decrease   in   amplitude   from   peak   to  

nominal,   to   follow   on   from   the   attack   example   above,   this   might   be   -­‐10db.   For  

example,  the  sine  wave  may  decrease  from  -­‐7  to  -­‐10db  over  a  period  of  150ms.  

Sustain/Prolongation:   In  electronic  music,  this  phase  is  called  sustain,  but  the  term  

prolongation  used  by  Smalley  describes  the  same  effect.  This  phase  of  the  sound  is  

determined   in  ms  and  describes   the   time   it   takes  where   the  nominal   amplitude   is  

held  before  the  final  phase.    

Release:  Describes  the  time  (in  ms)  it  takes  for  sound  to  reach  -­‐∞,  or  silence,  once  

more.    

Transition:  The  transition  phase  indicates  that  within  one  spectral  object,  the  sound  

may   be   transformed   into   another   sound   object,   such   as   the   effect   described   by  

Fineberg  as  a  “smooth  transformation  from  one  state  to  another”  (Fineberg,  2000:  

108).   He   goes   on   to   describe   the   process   of   interpolation   as   “the   initial   and   final  

                                                                                                               3  In  electronic  music,  silence  or  a  zero  value  is  indicated  as  -­‐∞,  with  values  being  listed  from  -­‐∞  up  to  parity,  at  0db.  

  19  

states   are   placed   at   the   two   end-­‐points   of   lines   or   curves”   (Fineberg,   2000:   108),  

these  lines  and  curves  indicating  transitional  points,  continuously  acted  upon  in  both  

the  frequency  and  time  domain  (Fineberg,  2000:  108).  

Examples  from  Musical  Literature  

Tristan   Murail   has   described   his   beginnings   in   spectral   music   as   an   attempt   to  

“disengage   [him]self   from   the   serial   school   …   [seeking]   strong,   pure   harmonic  

colours,   [as]   serial   composition   very   often   leads   to   a   sort   of   uniform   greyness”  

(Murail,   2005:   182).   With   this   statement,   Murail   is   showing   his   early   interest   in  

sound  and  timbre  that  lead  to  his  stylistic  development  as  a  spectral  composer.    To  

demonstrate   Murail’s   ideas,   his   composition   Unanswered   Questions   Pour   Flûte  

(Figure  2)  utilises  harmonic  manipulation  of  the  flute  to  create  overlapping  timbres  

that  vary  between  simple  and  complex  sounds.  This  effect  is  easily  seen  in  both  the  

notation  and  a  spectrogram  taken  from  the  recording.    

 

Figure  2:  Example  of  score  Unanswered  Questions  Pour  Flûte.  

Figure  2  (above)  shows  Murail’s  approach  to  notation  that  describes  spectral  objects  

and  relationships  within  the  piece.  He  uses  a  combination  of  time-­‐brackets,  such  as  

the  first  statement  lasting  4”,  and  precise  rhythmic  notation,  as  at  crotchet  =  54.  He  

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achieves   the   audible   effect   of  multiple   layers   of   sound   by   notating   different   lines  

extending   from   specific   pitches,   which   should   be   audible   alongside   the   newly  

articulated   sounds.   For  example,   the  Ab  at   the  end  of   the   first   gesture   transforms  

into  two  audible  pitches,  a  low  E  quarter-­‐tone  sharp  as  the  least  audible,  and  a  high  

E  quarter-­‐tone  sharp,  and  these  two  sounds  also  carry  on  below  the  B  quarter-­‐tone  

sharp   that   follows.   Murail   also   includes   fingerings   for   these   sounds   to   allow   the  

flautist  to  achieve  the  results  being  asked  of  them.  

 

Figure  3:  Example  of  sonogram  taken  of  the  same  two  measures  illustrated  above  (see  bibliography).  

Figure  3  (above)  shows  the  same  section  of  Murail’s  composition  as  the  notation.  It  

is  possible  to  see  the  overlaying  of  sounds  produced  by  the   flautist   (the  E  quarter-­‐

sharp  and  B  quarter-­‐sharp)  due  to  the  decay  stage  of  the  sound  producing  multiple,  

audible   pitches.   The   sonogram   also   demonstrates   Murail’s   use   of   contrast   in   the  

piece,  moving   from  a   single  harmonic  pitch   to   the  overlapping   sounds,   and   thus  a  

degree  of  inharmonicity  in  the  spectra.  

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Figure  4  (below)  shows  a  selection  of  the  score  to  Lonh  by  Kaija  Saariaho.  Unlike  the  

example  from  Murail  above,  the  spectral  element  is  not  as  apparent  from  the  score.  

Saariaho   has   been   heavily   influenced   by   spectral   music,   and   is   “interested   in   the  

nature   of   sound”,   her   work   often   uses   “musical   technology   to   aid   her   control   of  

timbre   in   a   growing   series   of   pieces  which   involve   live   instruments   in   conjunction  

with  electronically  altered  versions  of  themselves.”  (Ford,  1993:  46)  The  score  does,  

however,  demonstrate  the  following  in  the  voice  part:  singing  voice  with  as  much  air  

as  possible  (second  measure  in  figure  4),  very  gradual  change  from  one  phoneme  to  

another   (fourth  measure,   figure   4)  and  other  methods  of  controlling   the  timbre  of  

the   singing   voice.  Unfortunately   in   the   score,   the  electronic  part   is   not  notated   to  

indicate  anything  other   than   the   fact   that   it   is  happening,  however   the  affect   that  

the  electronics  have  on  the  vocal  timbre  is  noticeable,  as  described  below  in  relation  

to  figure  5.  

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Figure  4:  Selection  of  score  to  Lonh,  by  Kaaija  Saariaho.  

Figure  5  (below)  shows  a  sonogram  of  the  same  section  as  the  notation  in  figure  4,  

and  allows  for  an  examination  into  the  subtle   instrumental  synthesis  that  occurs   in  

the  piece.  “This  technique  of   ‘instrumental  synthesis’  –  treating  each   instrument   in  

an  ensemble  as  if  it  were  a  sine-­‐tone  in  an  additive  synthesis  computer  programme  –  

forms   an   important   element   in   all   Saariaho’s   subsequent4  music”   (Anderson   and  

Saariaho,   1992:   617).   The   sonogram   shows   the   tail   end   of   the   opening   electronic  

texture   and   the   first   sung   melody,   the   electronics   which   underlie   the   voice   part  

create   an   element   of   constant   inharmonicity   that   is   accentuated   periodically   (the  

bursts   of   spectral   energy   throughout   the   frequency   range);   these   accents   become  

more  frequent  toward  the  end  of  the  sample  as  the  combination  of  electronics  and  

voice  slowly  create  more  intricate  sound  spectra.  It  is  also  possible  to  see  the  effect  

                                                                                                               4  Subsequent  to  the  time  Saariaho  spent  at  IRCAM.  

  23  

the  electronics  have  on  the  upper  frequencies  of  the  voice,  as  a  “blurring”  effect  that  

obscures  the  definition  of  those  upper  partials.    

 

Figure  5:  Sonogram  of  1'16"  to  1'57"  of  a  performance  of  Lonh  from  the  record  Private  Gardens,  performed  by  

Dawn  Upshaw  (see  bibliography  for  full  details)  

.  

This   chapter   has   detailed   a   set   of   terminology   relating   to   spectral   music   and  

provided   two  examples   of   spectral   composition   form   the   available   repertoire.   The  

two  pieces  chosen  were  done  so  because  they  provide  an  elegant  and  clear  example  

of   spectral   process   within   a   composition,   and   for   this   reason,   complex,   large  

ensemble  pieces  were  avoided.  

 

 

  24  

Chapter  Three:  Compositional  Implementation  of  

Improvisation  

This  chapter  will  examine  approaches  to  composing  improvisation  used  by  John  Zorn,  

John   McLaughlin   and   Michael   Hannan.   Zorn’s   approach   to   creating   systems   for  

improvisation   based   on   the   rules   of   a   game,   in   his   Game   Pieces,   McLaughlin’s  

modified-­‐jazz  methods  from  his  work  with  the  Mahavishnu  Orchestra  and  Hannan’s  

open-­‐work  method  of  providing  a  series  of  gestures  that  can  be  improvised  upon  by  

the  performer.  These  pieces  have  been  selected  as  being   representative  of  a  wide  

range  of  improvisational  practices,  and  provide  a  discussion  point  on  ways  in  which  a  

method  of  spectral  improvisation  might  be  integrated  into  a  composition.  

Game  Pieces:  John  Zorn’s  approach  to  personalised  improvisation  

Composer  and  improviser  John  Zorn  has  spent  a  lot  of  his  working  life  working  with  

specific  musicians,  developing  ways   to   compose   improvisation  and   to  best  express  

the  unique  languages  developed  by  improvising  musicians.  He  states  that  “choosing  

players   has   always   been   a   crucial   part   of   the   performance   process   and   the   art   of  

choosing  a  band  and  being  a  good  band  leader  is  not  something  you  can  impart  in  a  

written   preface   to   the   score”   (Zorn,   2004:   196-­‐197).   Indeed,   the   importance   of  

working  with  people   is   central   to  Zorn’s  practice,  he   says  of   the  Game  Pieces   that  

they  were  “originally  created  to  harness  the  personal   languages  of  a  new  school  of  

improvisers   …   that   I   worked   with   closely   and   often.”   (Zorn,   2004:   197).     Zorn   is  

careful   to  explain  the  difference  between  the  way  he  writes   improvisation  and  the  

way   someone   like   Duke   Ellington   wrote   for   specific   players   from   his   line   up   of  

musicians.   He   says   he   is  writing   for   “specific   kinds   of  musicians   that   have   specific  

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kinds  of  skills”  (Zorn,  2004).  Due  to  Zorn  wishing  to  keep  the  game  pieces  as  part  of  

an  orally  transmitted  tradition,  scores  for  the  pieces  don’t  exist,  but  Zorn  describes  

the  pieces  as  “deal[ing]  with   form,  not  content,  with  relationships,  not  with  sound.  

They   have  musicians   on   the   stage   relating   to   each   other.   The   improvisers   on   the  

stage   were   themselves   the   sound”   (Zorn,   2004).   This   allows   for   the   freedom   of  

unique   expression   that   the   improvisers   contribute,   and   for   that   to   be   harnessed  

within  a  formal  design.  Zorn  has,  with  the  game  pieces,  placed  a  set  of  conditions  in  

which   independent   agents   working   together   within   a   set   of   rules.   As   part   of   the  

design  of  the  pieces,  Zorn  leaves  the  traversing  of  the  rules  largely  up  to  the  players,  

sometimes  with  what  he   calls   a  prompter,  who   functions   similarly   to  a   conductor,  

but  acts  on  filtering  the  requests  of  the  band  so  that  a  sense  of  continuity  and  order  

may  be  expressed.    

Zorn’s  work  with   the  game  pieces  demonstrate  an  open  approach   to  composition,  

with  the  composed  elements  being  the  players  themselves  placed  in  space,  but  not  

time.   It   is   very  much   akin   to   developing   a   generative   system  on   computers,   using  

software  such  as  Max/MSP5,  Pure  Data6  or  Nodal7,  all  of  which  force  the  composer  

to   think   about   sound   in   a   non-­‐linear   way,   and   to   consider   the   interactions   and  

relationships  between  objects  from  topographic,  system-­‐design  point  of  view.    

John  McLaughlin  and  the  Mahavishnu  Orchestra:  A  jazz-­‐based  approach  

John   McLaughlin’s   approach   to   composing   works   with   improvisation   in   them   is  

based   on   his   experience   and   background   in   jazz   music,   and   he   places   high  

                                                                                                               5  http://cycling74.com/products/max  :  Object-­‐based  programming  environment.  6  http://puredata.info  :  Object-­‐based  programming  environment  similar  to  Max,  but  open-­‐source.  7  http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~cema/nodal  :  Generative  music  software  developed  by  Monash  University.  

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importance  on  improvisation  as  part  of  the  musical  texture  that  he  creates  when  he  

composes,  the  following  statement  from  a  collection  of  scores  elucidates  this:  

Those   who   are   familiar   with  my  music   surely   will   be   aware   of   the   importance   of  

improvisation.   The  music,  when   played   and   improvised   upon,   forms   as   a  whole   a  

kind  of  tapestry.  The  composition  forms  the  vertical  threads  and  the   improvisation  

the   horizontal.   In   fact   the   tapestry   cannot   exist  without   both   forms.   (McLaughlin,  

1976:  6)  

It  would  be  tempting  say  that  McLaughlin  is  referring  to  harmony  when  he  mentions  

the  vertical  threads,  and  melody  creating  the  horizontal,  however  the  scores  indicate  

that  there   is  much  more  thought  and  detail  put   into  the  work  than  simply  a  set  of  

chord  changes  and  scales  that  are  improvised  upon;  each  improvisational  section  is  

composed  into  the  work  within  the  context  of  the  larger  compositional  structure,  as  

the  following  examples  will  demonstrate.  

McLaughlin  takes  care  to  provide  musicians  who  may  be  studying  his  scores  with  the  

information  they  need  to  satisfactorily  improvise  within  the  composed  textures.  He  

provides  the  following  chart  of  synthetic  scales  to  be  used  where   indicates   in  each  

composition.  

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Figure  6:  Pitch  collections  used  by  Mahavishnu  Orchestra  

Figure   6   illustrates   a   number   of   common   pitch   collections   that   are   used   by  

McLaughlin  to  suggest  melodic  material  to  be  improvised  upon  within  a  composition.  

A  number  of  these  scales,  such  as  the  Neapolitan  Minor  and  Major  are  derived  from  

chords  commonly  associated  with  common  practice  period  Western  Art  Music,   the  

Neapolitan  chords.  The  Symmetrical  scale  has  the  unique  quality  of  containing  both  

major   and  minor   triads   as   the   I   chord,   and   of   being   transposable   only   four   times  

before   redundant   repetition  of  pitch  occurs,   it   is   this  quality   that  Olivier  Messiaen  

observed  when  he  developed  his  Modes  of  Limited  Transposition  (Messiaen,  1956:  

50-­‐53).    

Figures  7-­‐9  are  examples  of  the  symmetrical  scale  being  used  as  both  compositional  

and  improvisational  devices  by  the  composer.  The  approach  McLaughlin  then  takes  

to   integrating   these   improvisatory  passages   in  both  pieces   is   to   leave   space   in   the  

arrangement,   accompanied   by   a   harmonic   instrument   or   two   and   a   rhythm  

instrument.  These  instruments  provide  a  rhythmic  and  harmonic  bed  over  which  the  

soloist  improvises  based  on  the  pitch  collection  prescribed  by  the  composer.  While  I  

am  stating  that  McLaughlin’s  use  of   improvisation  in  these  works  is  taken  from  the  

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jazz  tradition,   it  differs  due  to  not  having  a  series  of  harmonic  changes  that  dictate  

the   macro   structure   of   the   work.   In   Vital   Transformation,   there   is   a   note   at   the  

beginning   of   the   score   that   says   “Ad-­‐lib   solos:   F#   symmetrical   or   F#   Dorian”  

(McLaughlin,  1976:  38),  and  while  the  harmonies  created  by  the  composed  elements  

reflect  harmonic  progression,  the  soloist  is  not  required  by  the  score  to  follow  these  

changes,  just  to  use  the  specified  pitch  collection  as  the  basis  for  the  improvisation.    

 

Figure  7:  Note  at  the  beginning  of  The  Dance  of  Maya  indicating  that  the  composition  is  based  on  E  

Symmetrical  and  E  Super  Locrian  scales,  and  that  the  ad  lib  solos  should  be  in  those  scales  or  E  Dorian.  

 

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Figure  8:  Solo  section  from  The  Dance  of  Maya,  showing  repetition  of  ideas  on  a  bed  of  pre-­‐composed  material.  

 

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Figure  9:  solo  improvised  sections  of  Vital  Transformation  

 

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McLaughlin’s   approach   to   improvisation   within   a   composition   shows   careful  

consideration   to   improvisation   within   a   formal   design,   and   demonstrates   fluidity  

between  improvised  and  composed  material.  He  achieves  this  through  uniform  use  

of  related  pitch  collections.  

Michael  Hannan’s  Three  Improvisatory  Mobiles:  the  open  form  

The  final  piece  under  examination  in  this  chapter  is  Three  Improvisatory  Mobiles  by  

Michael   Hannan   (Hannan,   1981),   exemplifying   a   form   that   has   become   known   as  

mobile   form  –  a   type  of  open  work  –  where  the  structure   is   left   to   the  performer.  

Eco  describes  this  freedom  of  structure  as  the  individual  performer  having    

[C]onsiderable  autonomy  …  in  the  way  he  chooses  to  play  the  work.  Thus  he  is  not  

merely   free   to   interpret   the   composer’s   instructions   following   his   own   discretion  

(which   in  fact  happens   in  traditional  music),  but  he  must   impose  his   judgement  on  

the  form  of  the  piece.  (Eco,  1989:  1).  

In  the  case  of  Hannan’s  piece,  the  composer  provides  a  series  of  gestures  which  the  

composer  calls  fragments.  These  fragments  (figure  11),  he  states  can  be  “played  in  

any   order,   any   number   of   times”   and   “extended   by   improvisation”;   and   these  

fragments  can  be  “simultaneously  stated  or  developed”  (Hannan,  1981).    Figure  10  

shows  these  instructions  as  they  are  written  in  the  score.  

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Figure  10:  Performance  instructions  for  Hannan's  Three  Improvisatory  Mobiles.  

This  composition   is   interesting  as   it  combines  very  detailed   instructions,  as  seen   in  

figure  10,  it  is  in  this  sense  the  opposite  of  Zorn’s  piece,  above,  as  Hannan  provides  

melodies,   gestures,   tempos,   time   signatures   and   even   dynamics.   The   element   of  

improvisation   therefor   becomes   a   series   of   variations   on   each   theme,   which   the  

player   invents   spontaneously.   These   details   instructions   seem   to   provide   more  

fodder  for  variation  than  no  instruction  would  provide,  and  so  there  is  an  element  of  

restraint  placed  upon  the  performer,  and  an  adherence  to  form,  form  that  is  decided  

upon  at   the  moment  of  performance.  The  piece   is   relatively   self-­‐describing,  but  as  

will  be  shown  in  chapter  five,  demonstrates  a  very  interesting  presentation  of  ideas  

that  may  be  adapted  to  spectral  improvisation.  

 

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Figure  11:  Selection  of  gestures  from  the  first  movement  of  Three  Improvisatory  Mobiles  

To  conclude,  this  chapter  has  examined  three  works  for  improvisers,  each  of  which  

has   very   different   approaches   to   incorporating   improvisation   within   a   formal  

structure   (of   sorts).   Zorn’s   improvisational   systems,   McLaughlin’s   jazz-­‐based  

improvisations   and   the   open-­‐form   work   of   Hannan.   In   chapter   five,   these  

approaches  will  be  revisited.  

 

 

 

 

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Chapter  Four:  Spectral  Improvisation,  Methods  and  Examples  

In  order  to  inspire  a  model  of  spectral  improvisation  for  use  in  composition,  a  study  

of  existing  methods  needs  to  be  completed.  There  are  a  lot  of  improvisatory  works  

that  are  based  on  timbre  as  the  defining  musical  parameter,  but  what  this  chapter  

aims  to  explore  are  means  of  creating  spectral  music  spontaneously  with  or  without  

access  to  analytical  methods  that  greatly  assist  spectral  composition.  Included  in  this  

chapter   are   a   series  of   compositions   that  demonstrate   spectral   improvisation,   and  

discussions   on   these   techniques.     There   are   already   a   number   of  ways   in  which   a  

composer  may  indicate  improvisation  in  a  score,  as  detailed  in  the  previous  chapter,  

but  fewer  ways  of  indicating  spectral  improvisation.    I  have  chosen  a  work  by  Paula  

Matthusen  as  a  literal  interpretation  of  spectral  composition;  a  work  by  Peter  Knight  

for  improvising  sextet  that  demonstrates  harmonic  and  inharmonic  spectra  and  the  

manipulation  of  these  sounds  through  improvisation  and;  one  part  of  Stockhausen’s  

Aus  Den  Sieben  Tagen   -­‐  which  demonstrates  more   clearly   than   the  other  works   in  

the   series   -­‐   in   both   the   text-­‐based   score   and   the   audible   output,  

spectromorphological   qualities,   instrumental   synthesis   and   similar  manipulation   of  

harmonic  and  inharmonic  spectra  as  shown  in  the  work  by  Knight.  

Paula  Matthusen  and  real-­‐time  spectral  analysis  

Paula  Matthusen  describes  the  model  she  uses  in  her  composition  …  of  one  sinuous  

spreading…  as  being  “much  more  of  a  game-­‐like  duet  between  a  pianist  and  laptop  

performer   in   which   both   navigate   different   musical   “routes””   (Matthusen,   2003),  

meaning  that  the  two  performers  traverse  a  set  of  options  for  performance  working  

toward   an  end   result   –   one  of  many.   In   this  way   it   is   akin   to   a   “choose   your  own  

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adventure”  book,  or,  as  is  the  composer’s  intent,  it  borrows  from  Jorge  Luis  Borges’  

work  The  Garden  of  Forking  Paths.   The  score  provides   for   the  pianist  a   shape   that  

“can   be   interpreted   in   terms   of   pitch,   dynamic   level,   and/or   rhythm”   (Matthusen,  

2003),   while   the   laptop   performer,   using   a   Max/MSP8  patch   (provided   by   the  

composer),   takes  a  “tiny  segment  of  the  sonorities  produced  and  analyses  the  first  

seven  partials”  (Matthusen,  2003).  This  process  is  described  as  follows:    

If  a  large  number  of  the  ratios9  contain  fractions,  pitched  tones  form  the  basis  of  the  

samples  played  back.   If   the  majority  of   the  ratios  are  whole  numbers,   the  samples  

processed   are   percussive   and   unpitched.   The   performance   of   either   pitched   or  

percussive   tones   then  acts  as  a  cue   for   the  pianist   such   that   she  goes   to  a   section  

denoted  as  “P”  in  her  score,  if  the  tones  are  pitched  or  “O”  if  they  are  unpitched  or  

percussive.   If   she   goes   to   the   “P”   section   of   the   score,   she   then   performs   a  

transformation   of   the   shape   by   playing   it   in   reverse   and   using   preparations   or  

extended  techniques  that  alter  the  general  timbre  of  the  piano.  If  she  goes  to  the  “O”  

section,   she   plays   the   inverse   of   the   shape   and   avoids   preparations   that   alter   the  

general   timbre   of   the   piano.   The   letters   “P”   and   “O”   stand   for   prepared   and  

ordinaire.  (Matthusen,  2003)  

What   the   composer   is   highlighting   is   the   interaction   between   the   two   performers  

and  how  the  choices  made  by  each  affect  further  choices,  and  direct  the  navigation  

of  the  piece.  The  laptop  performer  receives  a  technical  readout  in  Max/MSP  of  the  

sonic   analysis,   which   is   converted   into   decimals   or   integers 10 ,   with   integers  

instructing  the  performer  to  playback  unpitched  or  percussive  sounds  while  decimal  

                                                                                                               8  Graphical  programming  environment  developed  by  Cycling  ’74.  9  Ratios  of  numbers  indicating  how  harmonic  or  inharmonic  the  sampled  spectra  is.  10  Non-­‐decimal  numbers.  

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values  dictate  the  playback  of  pitched  samples.  These  samples  have  been  recorded  

live   from   the   pianist’s   improvisation.   The   sounds   played   back   by   the   laptop  

performer   upon   spectral   analysis   of   the   pianist’s   improvised   interpretation   of   the  

shape   (figure   12)   cue   the   pianist   to  move   on   in   the  material,   or   to   interpret   the  

material   in   a   different   way,   as   indicated   in   the   quote   above.   The   above   quote  

describes  something  that  may  at  first  seem  contradictory,  that  is  “if  a  large  number  

of   ratios   contain   fractions,   pitched   tones   form   the   basis   of   samples   played   back”  

(Matthusen,  2003).  In  order  to  create  contrast,  Matthusen  has  designed  the  work  so  

that  the  laptop  performer  plays  back  samples  that  may  be  contradictory  to  what  the  

pianist   is  performing.  There   is  also  a   chance   that   this  may  not  be   the  case,  but  by  

acting   in   opposition   to  what   the   spectral   readout  may   indicate,   there   is   constant,  

ongoing   change.    

 

Figure  12:  Paula  Matthusen,  shape  to  be  interpreted  by  pianist  in  an  improvisatory  way  

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.  

The  most   fascinating   thing   about   this   composition   compared   to   the   two   below   is  

that   it   is   a   composition   based   on   improvisational   processes,   a   system   of   call   and  

response,  which  uses  spectral  analysis  of  the  work  in  real  time  to  inform  and  modify  

decisions  made  by  the  performers.  In  this  sense  it  is  truly  spectral  improvisation.  

Peter  Knight’s  Fish  Boast  of  Fishing  

Peter  Knight’s  Fish  Boast  of  Fishing   is  an  album  that   is  both  composed  and  heavily  

improvised,   comprised   of   two   completely   free   improvisations   and   four   composed  

works,  this  section  will  focus  on  the  composed  works.  This  collection  formed  part  of  

Peter’s  research  for  his  Doctor  of  Musical  Arts  degree.  These  compositions  focus  on  

timbre  and   the   relationships  between   timbral  blocks  of   sound  while  maintaining  a  

high   level   of   improvisation.   The   composition   process,   Knight   explains,   engage  

techniques   including  “rhythm,  dynamics,   timbre,  extended   techniques,  density  and  

combinations  of  these”  (Knight,  2011c:  73).  While  the  composer  was  not  consciously  

attempting   to   create   something   within   the   spectral   tradition,   nor   any   particular  

tradition,  as  noted  in  the  following  statement:  

My  broad  aims  for  this  work  were  to  develop  and  employ  a  mode  of  expression  that  

draws   on   genre   and   idiom   without   being   defined   by   either,   and   compositional  

structures  that  create  possibilities  for   improvised  content  within   larger  pre-­‐defined  

fields.  (Knight,  2011c:  72)  

It   is   clear   upon   listening   to   the   work(s),   reading   the   literature   on   the   works   and  

studying  the  score(s)  that  while  Knight  was  not  attempting  to  be  spectral,  the  ideas,  

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processes   and   sonic   results   are   certainly   spectral,   and   due   to   the   way   these  

compositions  have  been  set  up,  results  with  clear  examples  of  spectral  improvisation.  

The  composition  Fish  boast  of  Fishing  uses  a  number  of  devices  to  articulate  timbre  

as  being  of  greater  importance  than  other  musical  elements,  the  two  most  apparent  

of   these   devices   are   the   use   of   electronics   and   the   use   of   prepared   piano11  to  

drastically  alter  the  range  of  timbres  available  to  be  composed  and  improvised  upon.  

Figure  13  below  shows  the  first  sound  object  of  the  piece,  beginning  with  a  gesture  

from   the   prepared   piano   with   sustain   pedal.   This   alone   demonstrates   spectral  

process   due   to   the   slow   transformation   of   sound   due   to   different   frequencies  

becoming  more  or  less  prominent  in  the  sound,  thus  slowly  transforming  the  sound  

over  time  without  any  alteration  of  pitch  content.  When  the  trumpet  (top  line)  and  

contrabass  clarinet  (second  from  top)  enter,  an  audible  change  in  timbre  occurs  and  

the   spectral   treatment   of   that   sound   object   becomes   apparent.   Having   heard   the  

attack   phase   of   the   sound,   this   process   of   instrumental   synthesis   forms   the  

transition  phase  of   the  spectromorphology  and   leads   the   listener   to   the   release  of  

the  sound,  which  is  then  left  to  decay,  transformed  yet  again  by  the  electronic  sound  

(bottom   line)   that   emerges   out   of   the   sound   object.   This   observation   shows   the  

beginning   of   one   sound   object   being   spectrally   transformed   through   instrumental  

synthesis  into  another  sound  object  and  it  also  demonstrates  the  structural  idea  that  

a  sound  object  (or  series  of  sound  objects)  transition  from  inharmonic  to  harmonic  

spectral   content.   This   example   provides   an   introduction   to   Knight’s   compositional  

                                                                                                               11  Prepared  piano:  meaning  to  make  (usually  temporary)  modifications  to  a  piano,  such  as  objects  placed  on  the  soundboard  or  strings,  that  alter  the  sounds  created  by  the  instrument.  

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process  in  this  piece,  and  shows  the  materials  with  which  the  spectral  improvisation  

occurs  later  in  the  work.  

 

Figure  13:  Peter  Knight,  Fish  Boast  of  Fishing  (Score,  page  2)  

The  major  problem  with  examining  this  work  as  a  basis  for  spectral  improvisation  is  

that   it’s   improvised,   so   the   source   of   analysis   cannot   be   the   score   but   rather   a  

sonogram,  a  way  of  visualising  what  we  hear.  These  sonograms  will  provide  the  basis  

for  a  spectromorphological  analysis  of  the  improvised  sections  of  the  work.  

The   improvisations   begin   at   the   4’00”   mark   in   the   recording,   with   the   composed  

percussion  part  consisting  of  various  household  goods,  which  play  an  important  part  

in  the  spectral  nature  of  the  composition  and  improvisation.  Knight  describes  these  

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percussion  instruments  and  ‘found’  instruments,  and  the  percussionist’s  use  of  them  

as   “focusing   on   texture   and   density   over   rhythm”   (Knight,   2011c:   76),   it   is   these  

percussion  sounds  that  provide  the  structural  and  spectral  basis  for  the  improvised  

material.    

 

Figure  14:  Sonogram  representing  part  of  the  improvisation  contained  in  Fish  Boast  of  Fishing  (see  

bibliography).  

Figure   14   shows   the   period   of   time   from   8’41”   to   11’12”,   and   illustrates   spectral  

improvisation,   and   spectral   constructions   within   the   work.   The   beginning   of   the  

sonogram  on  the  far  left  shows  the  last  part  of  the  improvisation  featuring  prepared  

trumpet,   prepared   piano   and   percussion,   with   the   piano   playing   an   improvised  

“tolling  motive”   (Knight,  2011b:  9).  There   is  one  small  block  of  sound  between  the  

two  large  timbre  blocks;  this  is  the  first  part  of  the  percussion  solo  and  the  point  of  

the  most  interest  in  the  context  of  this  analysis.  Looking  at  the  sonogram,  what  we  

see   is   a   transition   from   left   to   right,   from   a  mixture   of   harmonic   and   inharmonic  

spectra12,  blended  to  create  a  degree  of  harmonicity.  This  harmonicity  is  then  broken  

by   the   percussion   solo,   which   is   made   up   entirely   of   inharmonic   sounds.   The  

                                                                                                               12  The  inharmonic  spectra  can  be  in  figure  2  by  the  wide  and  unordered  spacing  of  high  amplitude  frequencies,  compared  to  the  harmonic  spectra,  which  demonstrate  a  large  degree  of  order.  

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harmonicity  then   increases  to  the  point,   just  after  half  way  along  the  spectrogram,  

which   is  as  harmonic  as   the  prepared  piano  will  allow.  This  also  coincides  with  the  

beginning  of  the  final  part  of  the  composition,  and  the  introduction  of  the  recurring  

melodic   idea   that   runs   through   the   entire,   multi-­‐work   album.   Indeed,   it   is   this  

contrast  between  harmonic  and  inharmonic  spectra,  and  the  manipulations  of  these  

sounds  over  time  that  makes  Fish  Boast  of  Fishing  not  only  a  spectral  work,  but  also  

a  work  that  includes  spectral  improvisation  as  part  of  its  construction.  

Karlheinz  Stockhausen’s  Aus  Den  Sieben  Tagen  

Karlheinz   Stockhausen’s  Aus  Den  Sieben  Tagen   is   a   set  of   text   scores   for  what   the  

composer   calls   “intuitive   music”,   and   as   a   piece   demonstrates   composed  

improvisation13,  or   the  creation  of  an  environment   in  which  creative  music-­‐making  

can  occur.  The  15  pieces  were  composed  in  1968,  around  the  same  time  as  the  very  

earliest  works  of  the  spectral  composers  Grisey  and  Murail.  This  particular  work  was  

selected   for   the  spectromorphological   suggestions  within   the  text  score,  which  the  

other   pieces   comparatively   lack,   and   the   sonogram   is   only   of   one   particular  

performance   –   it   is   probable   that   a   different   performance   would   yield   different  

results  to  those  shown  in  figure  15,  but  I  believe  that  it  would  be  no  less  spectral  in  

nature.  

SET  SAIL  FOR  THE  SUN  

play  a  tone  for  so  long  

until  you  hear  its  individual  vibrations  

                                                                                                               13  Stockhausen  preferred  to  use  the  term  “intuitive  music”  as  improvisation  implies  a  set  of  rules,  guidelines  and  tradition  that  he  wished  to  avoid:  “In  intuitive  music,  I  try  to  get  away  from  anything  that  is  musically  established  as  style.  In  music  that  is  improvised,  there  is  always  some  basic  element,  a  rhythm  or,  as  has  been  the  case  in  history,  a  harmony  on  which  you  base  the  improvisation.”  (Stockhausen/Maconie,  2000)  However,  it  is  clear  that  the  process  of  creating  the  music  based  on  Stockhausen’s  score  is  improvisatory.  

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hold  the  tone  

and  listen  to  the  tones  of  the  others  

-­‐  to  all  of  them  together,  not  to  individual  ones  -­‐  

and  slowly  move  your  tone  

until  you  arrive  at  complete  harmony  

and  the  whole  sound  turns  to  gold  

to  pure,  gently  shimmering  fire  (Stockhausen  et  al.,  1970:  21)  

In   the   above   example,   Stockhausen’s   text   instructions   can   be   interpreted   with  

relation   to   Smalley’s   spectromorphology,   both   at   the   individual   player   and   the  

ensemble.   “play   a   tone   for   so   long”   indicates   all   three   of   the   structural   functions  

outlined   by   Smalley,   the   onset,   continuant   and   termination.   In   this   case   we   are  

specifically   seeing   reference   to   attack,   prolongation   and   release   (SMALLEY,   1997)  

which  also  have  reference  to  ADSR14  envelopes  in  electronic  music  with  the  only  one  

missing   being   the   decay   stage.   “Hold   the   tone   …   until   you   arrive   at   complete  

harmony”   also   shows   spectromorphological   action,   here   Stockhausen   is   describing  

the   overarching   shape   of   the   ensemble   sound   instead   of   the   individual   players,  

particularly   the   prolongation   and   release,   operating   within   criteria   to   be   judged  

aurally  by  the  musicians.  

                                                                                                               14  Attack,  Decay,  Sustain,  Release:  describing  the  amplitude  envelope  of  a  sound.  

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Figure  15:  Sonogram  a  short  sample  from  Set  Sail  for  the  Sun,  showing  from  12’14”  to  18’16”  of  the  

performance  (see  bibliography).  

Figure  15  shows  these  spectral  shapes  visually.  On  the  far  left  of  the  image  (around  

the   12’14”+   point   of   the   recording)   it’s   possible   to   identify   the   use   of   inharmonic  

spectra  interjecting  the  relatively  harmonic  spectra  shown  in  the  lower  left.  Moving  

across  the  image  to  the  right,  there  are  multiple  interjections  of  inharmonic  spectra,  

followed   by   an   elongated   fusion   between   harmonic   and   inharmonic   spectra  

approximately  1/3  from  the  left.  What  follows  is  a  short  return  to  harmonicity,  brief  

section  of  inharmonicity  and,  at  about  half  way  from  the  right  (around  15”06”  in  the  

recording)   an   elongated   ADSR   sequence   that   moves   from   harmonicity   to   relative  

inharmonicity   and   back.   The   spectromorphology   can   therefore   be   described   as  

having   the   following   stages:   emergence,   where   the   clearly   articulated   blend   of  

sounds   emerges   from   the   previous   timbral   block;   transition:   as   the   inharmonic  

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spectra   cause   the   fusion   of   the   sound   to   disintegrate   and;   resolution,   as   the  

harmonicity  is  restored  and  the  sound  decays  by  about  2/3  of  the  image  from  left.  

The  final  large  block  of  sound  in  figure  15  (far  right)  shows  the  effect  of  instrumental  

synthesis   as   instrumentalists   employing   extended   techniques   meld   their   sounds  

together,   creating   fusion,   the   effect   of   which   is   an   audible   change   in   the   drone  

frequencies   due   to   the   addition   of   other   sounds,   this   also   again   demonstrates   a  

spectromorphology  as  in  the  above  example.    

This   chapter   has   examined   examples   of   spectral   improvisation   taken   from   already  

existing  musical   literature,   including   recent   compositions   by   Paula  Matthusen   and  

Peter  Knight,  and  a  composition  from  the  late  1960s  by  Karlheinz  Stockhausen.  It  has  

demonstrated  a  spectromophological  approach  to  studying  these  improvisations  and  

illustrated  how,  through  an  examination  of  the  spectral  qualities  of  the  sounds,  it  can  

be  deduced  that  the  improvisations  are  of  a  spectral  nature  even  if  they  may  not  be  

originally  intended  that  way.    

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Chapter  Five:  A  Framework  for  Spectral  Improvisation  

This  final  chapter  will  provide  an  overview  of  the  key  observations  from  all  previous  

chapters   and   attempt   to   formulate   a   framework   for   composing   with   spectral  

improvisation  by  drawing  on  the  key  observations  presented  throughout,  in  so  doing  

I  will  present  a  synthesis  of  the  concepts  and  methodologies  described  herein.  

Key  Observations  

 

This  dissertation  has  identified  a  number  of  key  points  in  the  search  for  a  model  of  

spectral   improvisation   that  may   be   exploited   by   both   composers   and   improvisers.  

There  were  two  major  observations  made,  the  first  and  I  feel  most  significant  is  the  

discovery   of  music   that   already   incorporates   elements   of   spectral  music  within   an  

improvisational  context,  and  that  the  composers  of  these  pieces  of  music  may  have  

been  acting  without  conscious  thought   toward  spectral  music,  which   is  particularly  

pertinent   in   relation   to   Peter   Knight’s   music   as   described   in   chapter   four.   This  

indicates   that   spectral   composition   as   described   in   chapter   two  has  moved  out   of  

the   world   of   experimentation   and   research   and   now   has   enough   impact   on   the  

world  of  music,  in-­‐  and  out-­‐side  of  academic  studies,  to  be  used  intuitively  by  music  

practitioners  of  all  kinds.  The  second  most  significant  discovery  in  this  dissertation  is  

that  of  Smalley’s  work  in  spectromorphology,  and  the  surprising  realisation  that  –  as  

far  as   I   could   find  –   there  were  no  publications   relating   this  method  of  analysis   to  

improvisation,   or   to   improvisation  within   a   composition.   The   closest   thing   I   could  

find   was   the   use   of   spectromorphology   as   a   compositional   resource   (Blackburn,  

2011),  and  while  this  is  potentially  useful  to  people  in  understanding  spectral  shapes  

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as  they  may  be  employed  in  composition,  it  does  not  give  us  a  firm  understanding  in  

how   those   shapes   are   formed   or   indeed,   how   a   composer   might   approach   a  

sequence  of  spectral   improvisation.  The  more  obvious  and  therefor   less   impressive  

observations   include   the  differences   in   concepts  of   improvisation  demonstrated   in  

chapter   three,   which   comes   as   no   surprise,   but   it   was   interesting   nonetheless   to  

observe  the  different  methodologies  used  by  composers  to  achieve  their  results.  

Hypothesising  a  Framework  for  Spectral  Improvisation  

While   there   are   any   number   of   approaches   to   spectral   improvisation   that  may   be  

engaged   by   composers   and   improvisers   alike,   based   on   the   research   presented  

herein,   spectromorphology   provides   the   clearest   and   most   concise   system   for  

communicating   spectral   shapes.   Keeping   in   mind   that   this   project   has   been  

concerned  with  spectral  improvisation  and  how  to  incorporate  it  into  a  composition  

so  that  the  musicians  who  are  playing  it  know  how  to  approach  the  improvisation,  it  

is   clear   that   some   kind   of   notation   needs   to   be   established.  Whether   or   not   this  

notation   convention   should   become   standardised   is   not   within   the   scope   of   this  

project,  all   I  will  do   is  present  a  synthesis  of   the   information  given   in   the   first   four  

chapters  and  attempt  to  turn  that  into  something  that  may  be  universally  useful  to  

any   composer   wishing   to   incorporate   an   element   of   spectral   improvisation   into   a  

composition.   It   is   important  to  note  that  the  type  of   improvisation  being  discussed  

does   not   simply   use   timbre   as   the   main   sound   source,   but   rather   improvisation  

based  on  audible  cognition  of  spectral  processes  that  may  or  may  not  include  timbral  

manipulations.  

  47  

For   a   model   of   spectral   improvisation   to   be   successful,   the   composer   must  

understand  the  language  and  techniques  used  by  spectral  composers,  and  must  be  

able  to  provide  this   information  on  to  the  performers  of  the  music  so  that,  even   if  

the   performers   are   not   familiar   with   the   specific   terminology   or   techniques,   the  

notation   or   instruction   is   clear   and   precise   without   room   for   misinterpretation.  

Murail’s  notation  of   the   flute  part,  while  clear,   lacks   in-­‐score   instruction   to  explain  

what  each  of  the  lines  means,  so  while  there  is  a  legend  at  the  beginning  of  the  score,  

in  a  larger  work  (non-­‐solo)  there  needs  to  be  in-­‐part  identification  of  special  notation.  

Peter  Knight  achieves  this  using  a  synthesised  a  combination  of  graphic  notation  to  

indicate  different   timbres   and   text   instruction   to   the  players.  He   also  notes   in   the  

score  the  part  the  laptop  electronics  play  in  producing  the  desired  sounds.    

Based  on  Pressing’s   research   (chapter  one)   it   seems   that   the  most  obvious  way  of  

performing  a  spectral  improvisation  is  to  use  the  feedback  loops  (ears  and  brain)  in  

conjunction  with   a  written   instruction.   As   an   example,   if  we  were   to   examine   the  

open-­‐form  of  Zorn’s  Game  Pieces  (Zorn,  2004)  as  a  structural  example  for  a  spectral  

improvisation,  a  composer  may  set  up  a  number  of  connected  systems  (as  described  

in  chapter  four)  that  specify  spectral  improvisation,  with  details  on  what  to  listen  for  

in  another  musician’s  playing  and  how  to  respond  to  it.  “Look  at  another  player  and,  

improvising,   play   a   duet   with   them,   focusing   entirely   upon   the   shape   (ADSR  

envelope)  of  the  sounds  they  produce  and  responding   in  kind,  try  to  modulate  the  

sound   they   produce   using   the   technique   of   FM   synthesis”;   an   instruction   like   this  

may   indeed  yield   the   result   of   a   spectral   improvisation,   and  with  enough  of   those  

systems  in  play  at  any  time,  the  composer  can  still  maintain  a  sense  of  structure  to  

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the  work.  Stockhausen’s  Set  Sail  for  the  Sun  (Stockhausen  et  al.,  1993)  demonstrates  

text  as  instruction  for  spectral  shapes  very  clearly,  as  described  in  chapter  four.  

Conversely,   if   a   composer   wished   to   add   an   improvisation   to   a   pre-­‐composed  

structure,   as   in   the   jazz-­‐based   example   of   John  McLaughlin   (chapter   three),   then  

perhaps  an  in-­‐score  notation  system  similar  to  that  employed  by  Knight,  Saariaho  or  

Murail  to  indicate  sounds  to  be  employed  by  the  improviser,  and  in  what  time-­‐frame.  

A   set   of   pitches   such   as  what  McLaughlin   provides  may  be   enough   to   portray   the  

spectral  element  of  the  work,  but  as  illustrated  in  chapter  two,  the  pitches  may  not  

be   from  within  equal   temperament  and   the  notation  of   such  must  be   clear   to   the  

performer,  along  with  the  reason  why.  The  feedback  loops  will  assist  the  performer  

in   achieving   the   sounds   intended   by   the   composer,   and   of   the   course   the   bed   of  

sound  on  which  the  composer  adds  the   improvisation,  as   they  can  minutely  adjust  

their   tone   and   pitch   to   better   reflect   the   desires   of   the   composer,   even   while  

improvising.    

Paula  Matthusen  provides  an   interesting  approach  to  spectral  process   in  real   time,  

with  the  aid  of  computer-­‐based  analysis  of  sounds  and  a  series  of  instructions  within  

a  score  on  how  to  proceed  through  the  piece.   It   is  possible,   I   think,   to  conceive  of  

these   changes  without   the   aid   of   a   computer,   and   to   rely   on   the   intuition   of   the  

performer   or   instructions,   such   as   those   given   in   Three   Improvisatory  Mobiles   by  

Michael  Hannan  (chapter  three);  if  this  composition  style  were  to  be  done  spectrally,  

then   the   gestures   themselves   being   pre-­‐composed   may   need   to   have   computer  

assistance,  depending  on   the  desired  outcome.  However,   the  composer   could  also  

include   instructions  on  how  to   think  about   the  gestures   spectrally  and  suggestions  

  49  

on   how   to   act   on   the   sounds   to   reflect   the   spectral   nature   of   the   composition.  

Combining  that  with  a  set  of  criteria  such  as   in  the  Matthusen  piece  and  it  may  be  

that  an  open-­‐form,  spectral  improvisation  can  occur.  

This  dissertation  has  shown  that  yes,  spectral  music  can   inspire  a  new  approach  to  

inspiration,   and   indeed   it   already  has!   It   is  hoped   that  as  a   result  of   this   research,  

some   elements   of   spectral   improvisation   can   become   formalised   and   that  

improvisers,   composers   and   classical   performers   can   all   assimilate   the   knowledge,  

inspiring  the  creation  of  yet  more  works  that  demonstrate  spectral  improvisation.  

I   believe   that   if   the   performer   of   a   spectral   improvisation   can   be   educated   in  

spectromorphology   and   spectral   practices,   then   they   will   have   a   much   greater  

chance   of   succeeding   with   such   a   performance,   as   such,   I   think   it   important   that  

composers   write   for   specific   musicians   who   either   already   have   this   basis   of  

knowledge,   or   are   willing   to   obtain   it.   For   this   reason,   John   Zorn’s   reasoning   for  

writing   for   specific   performers   should   be   adhered   to   as   often   as   possible   when  

dealing  with  music  of  a  spectral  nature,  and  the  flow-­‐on  effect  of  doing  that  will  be  

that  subsequent  generations  of  performers  will  be  much  more  fluently  versed  in  this  

music,  aesthetically  and  technically.  

 

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